METRIC SPACE AND IT’S GENERALIZATION

A project report submitted to Christ College (Autonomous) in partial fulfillment of

requirement for the award of the B.Sc. Degree Programme in Mathematics

ANET JOHNY
Reg. No. CCASSMT046

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

CHRIST COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS)

Irinjalakuda

2021

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled “METRIC SPACE AND IT’S GENERALIZATION”
submitted to the Department of Mathematics in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award
of the B.Sc. Degree programme in Mathematics, is a bonafide record of original research work done
by Ms. ANET JOHNY (CCASSMT046) during the period of her study in the Department of
Mathematics, Christ College (Autonomous), Irinjalakuda under my supervision and guidance during
the year 2020-2021.

Dr, Seena V
Fr. Dr Vincent N.S HOD in charge
Department of Mathematics Department of Mathematics
Christ College(Autonomous) Christ College(Autonomous)
Irinjalakuda Irinjalakuda

External Examiner:

Irinjalakuda

10/05/2021

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 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the project work entitled “METRIC SPACE AND IT’S
GENERALIZATION” submitted to the Christ College (Autonomous) in partial
fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the B.Sc. Degree programme in
Mathematics is a record of original project work done by me during the period of my
study in the Department of Mathematics, Christ College (Autonomous), Irinjalakuda.

ANET JOHNY
Irinjalakuda

10/05/2021

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is my proud privilege to release the feelings of my gratitude to several persons who

helped me directly or indirectly to conduct this project work. Working on this project
on “METRIC SPACE AND IT’S GENERALIZATION” was a source of immense
knowledge to me. I express my heartfelt indebtedness and owe and a deep sense of
gratitude to my project guide Fr. Dr. Vincent N. S, Assistant professor, Christ
College(Autonomous),Irinjalakuda for his sincere guidance and inspiration in
completing this project. I also take this opportunity to express my sincere thanks to our
beloved Principal Fr. Dr. Jolly Andrews , who gave me a chance to do this project.

I take my word of gratitude to Dr, Seena .V (HOD in charge) and

all other teachers of the department for providing me the necessary help to complete

my project on time. I also thank all faculty of library for their valuable support and

enrichment. I would also like to thank my dear parents for their love and support to

complete my project. I also thank all my friends for their contribution.

The study has indeed helped me to explore more knowledgeable avenues related to my
topic and I am sure it will help in my future.

ANET JOHNY

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 CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………….6

CHAPTER 1 METRIC SPACES : DEFINITION AND EXAMPLES

1.1 Metric spaces……………………………………………...8

1.2 Convergence and completedness……………………… .11
1.3 Examples of metric spaces……………………………….13
1.4 Product on metric spaces…………………………………18

CHAPTER 2 BOUNDED SETS AND EQUIVALENT METRICS

2.1 Bounded sets in Metric spaces…………………………20

2.2 Totally bounded sets…………………………………….22
2.3 Equivalent metrics………………………………………23

CHAPTER 3 D-METRIC SPACES

3.1 Definition………………………………………………..28
3.2 Examples of D-metric spaces……………………………28
3.3 Notes……………………………………………………..29
3.4 Some theorems of D-metric spaces……………………...29

CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………….34

BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………………………….35

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 INTRODUCTION

In 1906 Maurice Frechet introduced metric spaces in his work sur quelques points
ducalcul fonctionnel.However the name is due to Felix Hausdorff.Let X be an arbitrary
set,which could consist of vectors in ℝ𝑛 , functions, sequences,matrices,etc.We want to
endow this set with a metric;i.e a way to measure distances between elements of X.A
distance or metric is a function d: X × X→ ℝ such that if we take two elements x,y ∈
X the number d(x.y) gives us the distance between them.However, not just any function
may be considered a metric: as we will see in the formal definition ,a distance needs to
satisfy certain properties.

The real numbers with the distance function d(x,y) = |y-x| given by the absolute
difference ,and ,more generally, Euclidean n-space with the Euclidean distance , are
complete metric spaces.The rational numbers with the same distance function also form
a metric space ,but not a complete one.

The positive real numbers with distance function d(x,y) = | log (y/x)| is a complete
metric space.Any normal vector space is a metric space by defining d(x,y) = ||y-x||, see
also metrics on vector spaces .(If such a space is complete ,we call it a Banach space).

Examples:

• The Manhattan norm gives rise to the Manhattan distance, where the distance
between any two points , or vectors, is the sum of the differences between
corresponding coordinates.
• The cyclic Mannheim metric or Mannheim distance is a modulo variant the
Manhattan metric.

The maximum norm gives rise to the Chebyshev distance or chessboard distance, the
minimal number of moves a chess king would take to travel from x to y.

In 1992 B.C . Dhage proposed the notion of a D- metric space in an attempt to

obtain analogous results to those for metric spaces ,but in a more general setting . In

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a subsequent series of papers Dhage presented topological structures in such spaces
together with several fixed point results . These works have been the basis for a
substantial number of results by other authors.Unfortunately, as we will show, most
of the claims concerning the fundamental topological properties of D-metric spaces
are incorrect , nullifying the validity of many results obtained in these spaces.

We begin by recalling the axioms of a D- metric space.

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 CHAPTER 1
METRIC SPACE : DEFINITION & EXAMPLES

1.1 METRIC SPACE

In mathematics, a metric space is a set together with a metric on the set. The matric space is a function
that defines a concept of distance between any two members of the set, which are usually called points

1.1.1 Definition

A metric space is a pair (X, d) where X is a set and d is a mapping from X×X into R which
satisfies the following conditions

D1) d(x, y) ≥ 0, x, y ε X (non-negativity property)

D2) d(x, y) = 0, iff x=y (zero property)

D3) d(x, y) = d(y, x) , x, y ε X ( Symmetric property)

D4) d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y) , x, y, z ε X ( Triangle property)

❖ The property D1 just states that a distance is always a non-negative numbers.

❖ The property D2 tells us that the distance identifies the points ie, if the distance between x
and y is zero, it is because we are considering the same point.
❖ The property D3 states that a metric must measure distance symmetrically. i.e, it does not
matter where we start measuring it.
❖ Finally the property D4, the triangular inequality is the generalization of the famous result
that holds for the Euclidean distance in a plane.

A function satisfying the above four conditions is called a metric, and the structure (x, d) is called a
metric space.

The function d is a non-negative real-valued function on X. the function d is also called distance
function or simply distance.

1.1.2 Open ball

Let (X, d) be a metric space. If a∈X and r > 0, then the set

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{x : x∈X, d(x,a) < r },

Denoted by Br(a), is called the open ball with centre a and radius r.

The open ball Br(a) on R is the bounded open interval (a – r, a + r) with mid-point a and total length
2r. The open ball Br(a) on C is the set

{x ϵ C : |𝑧 − 𝑎| < 𝑟 },

The open ball on C is also called the open disc.

1.1.3 Open Sets

Let (X, d) be a metric space. A set G ⊂ X is open if for each x∈G there is an r > 0 such that Br(x) ⊂
G.

Examples :

(a) The set G = { z ϵ C : a < Re z < b }is open.

(b) The set S = { z ϵ C : Re z < 0} ∪ {0} is not open.

Note that the empty set ∅ and the full space X are open sets. Observe that in any metric space (X, d),
each open ball is an open set.

1.1.4 Closed Sets

Let (X, d) be a metric space. The set G ⊂ X is said to be closed if the complement X – G is open.

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1.1.5 Interior Points

Let (X, d) be a metric space and S a subset X. A point x∈S is called an interior point of S if there
exist an open ball Br(x) such that Br(x) ⊂ S. The interior of S, denoted by S0, is the set of all its interior
points.

1.1.6 Closure points

Let (X, d) be a metric space and S a subset of X. A point x∈X is called a closure point of S if every
open ball centred on x contains at least one point of S. In other words, a point x∈X is a closure point
of S if

Br(x)∩S ≠ ∅ for all r > 0.

The closure of S, denoted by 𝑆̅, is the set of all its closure points

1.1.7 Closed Ball

Let (X, d) be a metric space. Let a∈X and let r > 0. Then the set {x∈X : d(x, a) ≤ r } is called the
closed ball with center a and radius r.

Here is an example. Let (X, d) be a discrete metric space (i.e. d(x, y) =1 if x ≠ y, d(x, x) = 0). Then

B1(a) = {xϵ X : d(x, a) < 1} = {a};

{x ϵ X : d(x, a) ≤ 1} = X;

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐵 1 (𝑎) = {a}.

1.1.8 Limit points

(X, d) be a metric space and S a subset of X. A point x∈X is called a limit point (an accumulation
point) of S if each open ball Br(x) contains atleast one point of S different form x. In other words, a
point x∈X is a limit of S if

Br(x)∩(S – {x}) ≠ ∅ for each r > 0.

It is clear that every limit point of a set must be a closure point of that set.

The set of all limit points of S is called the derived set of S, and is denoted by S'.

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Note that 𝑆̅=S ⋃ 𝑆′. Also, note that S is closed if and only if it contains all its limit points.

1 1
Example : Let X = R and S = {1, , , … }.
2 3

0 is the limit of S.

1.1.9 Boundary

Let (X, d) be a metric space and S a subset of X. A point x∈X is called a boundary points of S
if every open ball Br(x) intersects both S and Sc. In other words, a point x∈X is a boundary point of
S if

Br(x)∩S ≠ ∅ and Br(x)∩Sc ≠ ∅ for all r > 0.

The boundary of S, denoted by δS, is the set of all its boundary points.

Note that δS = δSc.

1.2 Convergence, Completeness

Just as a convergent sequence in real number can be thought of as a sequence of better and better
approximations to a limit, so a sequence of “points” in a metric space can approximate a limit here.
In a metric space X, every convergent sequence is a Cauchy sequence.

A metric space is said to be complete if every Cauchy sequence converges

1.2.1 Definition of convergence

Let (X, d) be a metric space. Let {xn} be a sequence in X. The sequence {xn} is said to be convergent
to x in X if for every ϵ > 0 there is an integer n0 such that

𝑑(𝑥𝑛 , 𝑥) < 𝜖 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≥ 𝑛0 .

In symbols, we write

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑥 .

Note that a sequence in a metric space can have at most one limit.

1.2.2 Definition of complete metric space

A metric space (X, d) is complete if any of the following equivalent conditions are satisfied.

➢ Every Cauchy sequence of points in X has a limit that is also in X.

➢ Every Cauchy sequence in X converges in X (ie, to some point of X)
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 ➢ The expansion constant of (X, d) is ≤ 2
➢ Every decreasing sequence of non-empty closed subsets of X, with diameters tending to 0,
has a non-empty intersection.

1.2.3 Continuous Function

Let (X1, d1) and (X2, d2) be metric spaces. The function f : X1→ X2 is said to be continuous at 𝑎 ∈ 𝑋1
if for each ϵ > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that,

𝑑2 (𝑓(𝑥), 𝑓(𝑎)) < 𝜖 whenever 𝑑1 (𝑥, 𝑎) < 𝛿.

Note that δ depends on ϵ as well as on a.

The function f : X1→ X2 is said to be continuous if it is continuous at each point of X1.

1.2.4 Uniform continuity

Let (X1, d1) and (X2, d2) be metric spaces and let 𝑓 ∶ 𝑋1 → 𝑋2 be a function. We say that 𝑓 is
uniformly continuous if for every ϵ > 0 there exists δ > 0 (depending only on ϵ) such that

𝑑2 (𝑓(𝑥1 ), 𝑓(𝑥2 )) < 𝜖 whenever 𝑑1 (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) < 𝛿.

Note that every uniformly continuous function is continuous but the converse is not true. As an
1
example, let 𝑋1 = (0,1] and 𝑋2 = 𝑅 both with (𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥 − 𝑦| . Then 𝑓(𝑥) = is continuous but
𝑥

not uniformly continuous.

1.2.5 Notes
➢ If one defines d: X x X → R* U{0}, then the non-negativity property is redundant.
➢ The non-negativity property of a metric is a consequence of its other properties as for any x,
yεX
0 = d(x, x) ≤d(x, y)+ d(y, x) = 2d(x, y)
➢ Once we are convinced about the underlying metric, we express (X, d) by mere X with the
metric structure implied.In a metric space (X, d), d(X1, Xn) ≤ ∑𝑛−1
𝑖=1 𝑑(Xi, Xi+1) for any

x1,x2,x3, .....xn ε X. It is an extension of triangle inequality and known as polygonal

inequality

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 ➢ The conditions which d satisfies just mimic the properties of the distance we are
accustomed for real numbers, and hence these properties bear same names as their real
line counter part.

➢ Ignoring mathematical details, for any system of roads and terrains, the distance between two
locations can be defined as the length of the shortest route connecting those locations. To be
a metric there should not be any one way roads. The triangle inequality expresses the fact that
detours are not shortcuts. If the distance between two points is zero, then the points are
indistinguishable from one another.

1.3 EXAMPLES OF METRIC SPACES

1.3.1 Let X=R2and d is defined as d: X x X →R such that d((x1, x2), (y1, y2))=
[(x1-y1)2 + (x2 – y2)2] ½show that d is a metric space on R2?

Solution.

x = (x1, x2)

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y = (y1, y2)

z = (z1, z2)

D1) To show d(x, y) ≥ 0

D(x, y) = [(x1 – y1)2 + (x2 – y2)2] ½ ≥ 0

D2) To show d(x, y)=0 iff x=y

d(x, y)=0 ⇛[(x1 – y1)2 +(x2 – y2)2] ½ =0

=>(x1 – y1)2 + (x2 – y2)2 =0

=>(x1 – y1)2 =0 & (x2 –y2 )2 =0

=>x1 – y1 =0 & x2 – y2 =0

=>x1 =y1 & x2 = y2

=> x = y

D3) To show d(x, y) = d(y, x)

d(x, y) = [(x1 – y1)2 + (x2 – y2)2] ½

=[(y1 –x1)2 + (y2 –x2)2] ½

= d(y, x)

D4) To show d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y)

Let a1= x1-z1

a2= x2-z2

b1 = z1-y1

b2 = z2-y2

d(x, y) = [(a1 +b1)2 + (a2 + b2)2] ½

d(x, y) =[ ∑2𝑘=1(ak +bk)2] ½

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 d(x, z) = [a12 + a22] ½

=[∑2𝑘=1 𝑎k2] ½

D(z, y)= [b12 + b22] ½

=[∑2𝑘=1 𝑏12] ½

To show

[∑2𝑘=1 𝑎k2+bk2] ½ ≤ [∑2𝑘=1 𝑎k2] ½ + [∑2𝑘=1 𝑏k2] ½

Squaring on both sides,

∑2𝑘=1 𝑎k2+bk2 ≤ ∑2𝑘=1 𝑎k2 + ∑2𝑘=1 𝑏k2

∑2𝑘=1 𝑎kbk ≤ (∑2𝑘=1 𝑎k2) ½ (∑2𝑘=1 𝑏k2) ½

( which is Cauchy-schwartz inequality)

All 4 conditions are satisfied .

Therefore d is a metric on R2

This is known as Euclidean metric on R2.

1.3.2 Let X be a non-empty set and define a mapping d: XxX→R as

follows: d(x, y) =(01 , , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥=𝑦

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥≠𝑦 ,∀ 𝑥,𝑦∈𝑋
)

Show that d is a metric on X.

Solution.

D1) d(x, y) ≥0 , by definition of d

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 D2) d(x, y) =0 iff x=y

D3) if x=y , then d(x, y)=0 =d(y, x) and

if x≠y, then d(x, y) =1= d(y, x).

Hence d(x, y)=d(y, x) for every x, y ϵ X

D4) Let x, y, z be any 3 elements in X.

If x=y, then d(x, y)=0, also d(x, z) ≥ 0 and d(z, y)=0.

Hence d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y).
If x≠y, then either x≠y≠z or x≠y=z . ie, either d(x, y) = d(x, z) = d(z, y)=1 or d(x,
y) = d(x, z)=1 and d(z, y) =0.
Hence in both situations, d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y) Thus,

d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) +d(z, y) for every x, y, z ϵ X

Hence, d is a metric on X and (X, d) is a metric space.

The metric space (X, d) so defined is known as Discrete (Trivial) metric space.

|𝑥−𝑦|
1.3.3 Let a mapping d: RxR →R be defined by d(x, y) = x, y ϵ R. Show
1+|𝑥=𝑦|

that d is a metric on R.

Solution.

D1) d(x, y) ≥0, by definition of d.

D2) If d(x, y) =0

|𝑥−𝑦|
=> 1+|𝑥−𝑦| = 0,

=>|x-y| =0 => x-y =0 => x=y ie, d(x, y) =0 iff x=y

|𝑥−𝑦| |𝑦−𝑥|
D3) d(x, y) = 1+|𝑥−𝑦|=1+|𝑦−𝑥| = d(y, x) x, y ϵ R

|𝑥−𝑦| 1−1+|𝑥−𝑦|
D4) d(x, y) = =
1+|𝑥−𝑦| 1+|𝑥−𝑦|

1+|𝑥−𝑦| 1
=1+|𝑥−𝑦| - 1+|𝑥−𝑦|

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 1
=1- 1+|𝑥−2+2−𝑦|

1 |𝑥−2|+|2−𝑦|
d(x, y) ≤ 1- = 1+|𝑥−2|+|2−𝑦|
1+|𝑥−2|+|2−𝑦|

|𝑥−2| |2−𝑦|
⇛d(x, y) ≤ 1+|𝑥−2|+|2−𝑦|+ 1+|𝑥−2|+|2−𝑦|

|𝑥−2| |2−𝑦|
⇛d(x, y) ≤ + 1+|2−𝑦| = d(x,z)+d(z,y)
1+|𝑥−2|

ie,d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) +d(z, y)

So d satisfies all the conditions. Therefore d is a metric on R.

1.3.4 Let R be the set of real numbers. Show that the function d:RxR→R defined by d(x, y)
= |x-y| for every x, y ϵ R is a metric on R.

Solution.

Here,

D1) |x-y| ≥0, for every x, y ϵ R ⇛d(x, y) ≥0, x, y ϵ R

D2) |x-y| = 0 iff x-y=0 so that d(x, y)=0 iff x=y.

D3) |x-y| =|y-x|, for every x, y ϵ R⇛d(x, y) =d(y, x), x, y ϵ R

D4) |x-y|= |(x-z)+(z-y)|

≤ |x-z| + |z-y|, for every x, y, z ϵ R => d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y), x, y, z ϵ R.

Since d satisfies all conditions, d is a metric on R.

The above metric d is known as usual metric on R and the metric

space (R, d) is known as the Real line.

1.3.5 Let R be the set of real numbers. Show that the function d:RxR→R defined by d(x, y)
+ |x2-y2|, for every x, yϵR is a pseudometric on R which is not a metric on R.

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 Solution.

Here,

D1) |x2-y2|≥0, for every x, yϵR => d(x, y)≥o, ∀ x, yϵR.

D2) d(x, x)=|x2-x2|=0 ∀ xϵR

D3) d(x, y)=|x2-y2| =|y2-x2| =d(y, x), ∀x, yϵR

D4) d(x, y) = |x2-y2|=|(x2-z2)+(z2-y2)| ≤ |x2-z2|+|z2-y2|

⇛d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z)+d(z, y), ∀ x, y, zϵR

Hence d is a psedometric on R. We now show that d is not a metric on R.

Here, d(x, y) = |x2-y2| =0 ↔x2-y2=0

↔x2=y2

↔x=±y

Showing that d(x, y)=0 does not always be x=y.

For example, we see that d(1,-1) = |12-(-1)2|=0, where 1≠-1. Hence the function d
is not a metric on R.

1.4 PRODUCT OF METRIC SPACES

1.4.1 Definition

Let (X1, d1) and (X2, d2) be two metric spaces. Then for any pair of points x=(x1, x2) and

y=(y1, y2) in X1xX2, consider the function d:X1xX2→R defined by:

d(x, y)=max{d1(x1, y1), d2(x2, y2)} using the facts that d1 and d2 are metrics on X1 and X2
respectively. We shall prove that d is a metric on X1xX2.

D1) d(x, y) = max{d1(x1, y1), d2(x2, y2)}≥0

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 D2) d(x, y) =0↔max{d1(x1, y1), d2(x2, y2)}=0

↔d1(x1, y1)=0 and d2(x2, y2)=0

↔x1=y1 and x2=y2

↔(x1, x2) = (y1, y2)

↔x=y

D3) d(x, y)=max{d1(x1, y1), d2(x2, y2)}

= max{d1(y1, x1), d2(y2, x2)}

= d(y, x) iv) For all x=(x1, x2), y=(y1, y2),

z=(z1, z2) in X1xX2, we have:

d(x, z)+d(z, y)= max{d1(x1, z1), d2(x2, z2)}+max{d1(z1, y1),

d2(z2, y2)} ≥max{d1(x1, y1), d2(x2, y2)}=d(x, y)

Thus d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z)+ d(z, y) for every x, y, zϵX1xX2. Hence d is a metric on X1xX2 and
the metric space (X1xX2, d) is called the product of metric spaces (X1, d1) and (X2, d2).

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 CHAPTER 2

BOUNDED SETS AND EQUIVALENT METRICS

2.1 Bounded Sets in Metric Spaces

2.1.1 Definition

A subset S of a metric space (X,d) is bounded if there exist x0 ϵ X and k ϵ R such that d(x, x0)
≤ k for all x ϵ S.

If S satisfies the definition for some x0 ϵ X and k ϵ R, then it also satisfies the definition
with x0 replaced by any other point x1 ϵX and k replaced by k+d(x0, x1).

For if d(x, x0) ≤ k then, d(x, x1) ≤ d(x, x0) + d(x0, x1)≤k+ d(x0, x1).

If S satisfies the definition then,

d(x, y) ≤ d(x, x0) + d(x0 ,y) ≤ 2k for all x, y ϵ S.

2.1.2 Definition

If S is a non-empty bounded subset of a metric space with metric d then the diameter of
S is sup{d(x, y): x, y ϵS}. The diameter of the empty set is 0.

If A is not bounded, then we take the diameter as infinity.

d(A)=∞

From the above definition, a set has diameter zero if and only if the set is a singleton
set and a nonempty set A is bounded if and only if it has a finite diameter.

2.1.3 Properties of bounded sets

(i) Any subset of a bounded set is bounded.

Let B be a bounded set with d(x, y) ≤ k for any x, y ϵ B. In particular this holds
for x, y in any subset A C B. So A is bounded.

(ii) The union of a finite number of bounded sets is bounded.

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Given a finite number of bounded sets B1, B2,……,Bn with diameter k1, k2,……kN
respectively.

Let k = maxn kn

Pick a representative point from each set an ϵ Bn and take the maximum distance between
any two, ǩ = maxm,n d(am, an), it certainly exists as there are only a finite number of such
pairs.

Now for any two points x, y ϵ U Bn, that is x ϵ Bi, y ϵ Bj and using the triangle inequality
twice,

d(x, y) ≤ d(x, ai) + d(ai, aj) + d(aj, y)

≤ ki + ǩ + kj

≤2k + ǩ

An upper bound for the distances between points is ⋃𝑁

𝑛=1 𝐵 n is found.

2.1.4 Examples

(i) In any metric space, finite subsets are basis. In N, only the finite subsets are bounded
(since d (a0, an) ≤ N for all n implies n ≤ N). Consequently, N, Q, R and C are all
unbounded.

(ii) In a discrete metric space, every subset is bounded. A metric space may be
“large” (non - separable) yet be bounded.

(iii) A set B is bounded ⇔it is a subset of a ball, There exists r > 0, a x, B C Br(a)
Proof

Balls (and their subsets) are obviously bounded.

For every x, y ϵ Br(a),

d(x, y) ≤ d(x, a) + d(y, a) < 2r

Conversely if a non - empty set is bounded by R > 0, pick any points

a ϵ X and bϵB to conclude x ϵ Br (a):

21
 For every x ϵ B, d(x, a) ≤ d(x, b) + d(b, a)

< R + 1 + d(b, a) = r

(iii) The set [0, 1] U [2, 3] ⊆R is bounded because it is the union of two bounded sets.

2.1.5 Theorem

Every Cauchy sequence in a metric space (X, d) is bounded. That is, the different terms of a
Cauchy sequence form a bounded set.

Proof

If (xn) is a Cauchy sequence in (X, d) taking ε = 1, there exists n0 such that

d(xn, x0) ≤ 1 for all n ≥ n0

For other values of n from 1 to n0, let us take

M = max d(xn, x0) < ∞, 1 ≤ n ≤ n0

Hence, we have d(xn, x0) ≤ M + 1 for all n.

So for all m, n we have d(xn, xm) ≤ d(xn, xn0) + d(xm, xn0)

≤ 2(M + 1)

Hence, d(xn, xm) ≤ 2(M + 1) < ∞.

Therefore, every Cauchy sequence in a metric space is bounded.

2.2 Totally Bounded Set

2.2.1 Definition

A subset B C X is totally bounded when it can be covered by a finite number of

ε-balls, however small their radii ε,

For every ε > 0, there exists N ⋲ N, there exists a1, a2,….,aN ⋲ X

B ⋲ ⋃𝑁
𝑛=1 𝐵 є(ao)

22
2.2.2 Easy consequences

(i) Any subset of a totally bounded set is totally bounded (the same ε-cover of the
parent covers the subset).

(ii) A finite union of totally bounded sets is totally bounded (the finite collection of

ε-covers remains finite).

(iii) A totally bounded set is bounded (it is a subset of a finite number of bounded balls).

2.2.3 Examples

(i) The interval [0, 1] is totally bounded in R because it can be covered by the
1 1
balls. Bε (nε) for n = 0, 1,…,N where - 1 <N≤w
є є

(ii) Not all bounded sets are totally bounded. For example, in a discrete metric space,
any subset is bounded but only finite subsets are totally bounded (take ε < 1).

2.3 Equivalent Metrics

2.3.1 Definition

Let X be a set and let d and d` be two metrics on X. We say that d and d` are equivalent if
for every subset U C X,

U is open in (X, d) ⇔ U is open in (X, d`)

In otherwise, two metrics are equivalent if they define the same collections of open
subsets on X. It is denoted as d ~ d`.

2.3.2 Examples

1. Let (X, d) be a metric space and ρ be a function on X × X defined by,

ρ (x, y) = min {1, d(x, y)} for every x, y ϵ X then,

(a) (x, ρ) is a bounded metric space

(b) ρ is equivalent to d

23
Solution

(a) Given that ρ (x, y) = min {1, d(x, y)} -------------(1)

(i) d(x, y) ≥ 0 ➔ min {1, d(x, y)} ≥ 0 ➔ ρ (x, y) ≥ 0

(ii) ρ(x, y) = 0 ➔ min {1, d(x, y)} = 0 ➔ d(x. y) = 0 ➔ x = y

(iii)ρ(x, y) = min {1, d(x, y)} = min {1, d(y, x)} = ρ(y, x), for every x, y ϵX.

(iv) Let x, y, z be any 3 points of X. If atleast one of d(x, y) and d(y, z) is ≥ 1 also d(x,
z) ≥ 1

Then min {1, d(x, y)} = 1 so that ρ(x, y) = 1 ,by (1)

Therefore, ρ(x, y) + ρ(y, z) ≥ 1 ≥ ρ(x, z).

Also in case when d(x, y) < 1 and d(y, z) < 1,

we have ρ(x, y) = min {d(x, y), 1} = d(x, y) and

ρ(y, z) = min {d(y, z), 1} = d(y, z)

Therefore ρ(x, y) + ρ(y, z) = d(x, y) + d(y, z)

≥ d(x, z), by triangle inequality

≥ ρ(x, z), since ρ(x, z) ≤ d(x, z),by (1)

Thus ρ(x, y) + ρ(y, z) ≥ ρ(x, z) , for every x, y ϵ X.

Hence ρ is a metric on X and (X, ρ) is a metric space.

From (1), ρ(x, y) ≤ 1 , for every x, y ϵX

Hence d(X, ρ) is a bounded metric space.

(b) To show that ρ is equivalent to d.

For this purpose we must show that every open set is (X, ρ) is open in (X, d) and
vice versa.

Let G be any open subset of X in (X, ρ) and let x be any point of G.

Then there exist an open set

{y ϵ X : ρ(x, y) < r} C G ------- (2)

24
 From (1), ρ(x, y) ≤ d(x, y) for every x, y ϵ X

Hence using (2) we get

{y ϵ X : d(x, y) < r} C G C {y ϵ X : ρ(x, y) < r} C G

showing that each point of G is the center of an open sphere in (X, d) contained in
G. Hence G is also open in (X, d) and therefore, every open set in (X, ρ) is open in
(X, d).

Next, let H be an open set in (X, d).

Then for each x ϵ H, there exists an open sphere

{y ϵ X :d(x, y) , r} C H

r` = min {1, r} so that r` ≤ r Then

we have

{y ϵ X : ρ(x, y) < r`} C {y ϵ X : d(x, y) < r} C H

showing that each point of H is the center of an open sphere in (X, ρ)

contained in H.

Hence H is also open in (X, ρ).

Therefore, every open set in (X, d) is open in (X, ρ).

Hence d and ρ are equivalent metrics.

2. Let (X, d) be a metric space and let

d(x,y)
d*(x, y) = , for all x, y ϵ X
1 + d(x,y)

prove that d* is a bounded metric on X, which is equivalent to d.

Solution:

d(x,y)
Given d*(x, y) = , for all x, y ϵ X ---------(1)
1 + d(x,y)

(i) Since d(x, y) ≥ 0 , (1) show that d*(x, y) ≥ 0

(ii) d*(x, y) ≥ 0 ⇔d(x, y) = 0, by (1)

25
 ⇔ x = y , since d is metric on X.

d(x,y) d(y,z)
(iii) d*(x, y) = = 1 + d(y,z) = d*(y, x)
1 + d(x,y)

since d is a metric on X ➔ d(x, y) = d(y, x).

(iv) For all x, y, z in X, we have

d(x,y) d(y,z)
d*(x, y) + d*(y, z) =1 + d(x,y) + 1 + d(y,z)

d(x,y) d(y,z)
≥ 1 + d(x,y) + d(y,z) + 1 + d(x,y) + d(y,z)

since d is metric ➔ d(x, y) ≥ 0 and d(y, z)≥0

Lemma

Let d1, d2 and d∞ be the following metrics on R2:

• d1((x1, y1), (x2, y2)) = │x1–x2│ + │y1–y2│

• d2((x1, y1), (x2, y2)) = √((x1–x2)2 + (y1-y2)2)

• d∞((x1, y1), (x2, y2)) = max {│x1–x2│, │y1–y2│}

Then for each (x1, y1), (x2, y2) ϵ R2,

1 1
[d1((x1, y1), (x2, y2)) ] ≤ [d2((x1, y1), (x2, y2))]
2 √2

≤ d∞((x1, y1), (x1, y1))

Proof

By definition of the metric d2,

d2((x1, y1), (x2, y2)) = √((x1–x2)2 + (y1 -y2)2)

≤ √( max {│x1–x2│2, │y1–y2│2} + max {│x1–x2│2, │y1–y2│2}

= √ (2 max {│x1–x2│2, │y1–y2│2})

= √2 d∞((x1, y1), (x2, y2))

That proves the inequality between d2 and d∞.

26
Now we compare d1 and d2.

Since everything is positive, proving the inequality between d1 and d2 in the statement is
equivalent to proving the resulting inequality after squaring both sides. In other words, we
have to prove

1 1
[ |x1 – x2| + |y1 –y2|]2 ≤ [(x1 – x2)2 + (y1 –y2)2]
4 2

Let a =│x1–x2│and b = │y1–y2│

Then above inequality is same as

(a + b)2 ≤ 2 (a2 + b2) which is equivalent to a2 + b2 ≤ a2 + b2 + (a – b)2and this last

inequality is obviously true.

Therefore, the inequality between d1 and d2 in the statement is true.

27
 CHAPTER 3

D-METRIC SPACES

3.1 Definition

A real function D on X × X × X is said to be a D-metric on X if

D(1) D(x, y, z) ≥0 for all x, y, z ∈ X(non-negativity)

D(2) D(x, y, z)=0 if and only if x=y=z (coincidence)

D(3) D(x, y, z)=D(p(x, y, z)) for every x, y, z ∈ X and for any permutation p(x, y, z) of x,
y, z (symmetry)

D(4) D(x, y, z) ≤ D(x, y, u )+ D(x, u, z)+D(u, y, z) for every x, y, z, u ∈ X (tetrahedral

inequality)

A D-metric space is a pair (X, D) ,where D is a D-metric on X.

3.2 Examples of D metric spaces

3. 2.1 Example

For x, y, z ∈ R define

D1(x, y, z)= |x-y| + |y-z| + |z-x|

D∞(x, y, z)=max{|x-y| , |y-z| , |z-x| }

Then (R,D1) and (R,D∞) are D-metric spaces.

3 .2.2 Example

Define a function D on X × X × X by

0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑦 = 𝑧
D(x, y, z) ={
1 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

then D is a D- metric on X and is called the discrete D-metric on X

3.3 Notes

3.3.1 Remark
28
The D-metrics given in examples1.2,1.3 satisfy the following properties:

For every x, y, z, u, v in X

D(5) D(x, y, z)≤ D(x, z, z)+ D(z, y, y)

D(6) D(x, x, y)= D(x, y, y)

D(7) D(x, y, y) ≤ D(x, y, z)

D(8) D(x, y, z)≤ D(x, u, v) +D(u, y, v)+D(u, v, z)

3.3.2 Remark

Clearly D(7)⇛D(6).The following example shows that D(6) does not necessarily imply D(7)

Suppose X has atleast three elements. Define D on X × X × X by

0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑦 = 𝑧
1
D(x, y, z)={ 𝑖𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑡
2
1 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

Then (X, D) is a D=metric space in which D(6) holds but D(7) fails to hold

3.4 Some theorems of D-metric spaces

3.4.1 Theorem

If in a D-metric space (X, D), D(5) holds then each of the function d: X×X→R+ defined by

(1) for 1≤p<∞ d(x, y)={Dp (x, y, y)+ Dp(x, x, y)}1/p is a metric on X.

(2) d(x,y) =max{D(x, y, y),D(x, x, y)} for all x, y є X is a metric on X.

Proof

we prove (1) ,The proof of (2) is similar.

Clearly d(x, y) ≥ 0 for all x, y ∈ X and d (x, y)= 0 if and only if x =y

Let x, y, z ∈ X.

For 1 ≤ p < ∞ d (x, y ) ={DP(x, y, y )+ Dp(x, x, y)}1/p

={DP(y, y, x )+ DP(y, x, x)}1/p

29
 = {DP(y, x, x) + Dp(y, y, x)}1/p

=d(y, x)

d(x,y)= {DP(x, y, y)+ DP(x, x, y)}1/p

≤{(D(x, z, z)+D(z, y, y))p + (D(x, x, z)+(D(z, z, y))p}1/p (by D(5))

≤{DP(x, z, z) +Dp(x, x, z)}1/p + {D(z, y, y)+Dp(z, z, y)}1/p

=d(x, z) + d(z, y)

Hence d is a metric on X.

3.4.2 Theorem

Let D be a real function on X × X × X satisfying D(1),D(2),D(3),D(7) and D(8) then D is a D-

metric on .

Proof : It is enough to prove D($).Let x, y, z ∈ X

D(x, y, z) ≤ D(x, u, u) + D(u, y, u) + D(u, u, z) (using D(8) )

≤ D(x, y, u) + D(x, u, z) + D(u, y, z) for every u ∈ X ( by D(7) )

Thus D(4) holds and hence D is a D-metric on X.

3.4.3 Theorem

Let (𝑋, 𝑑) be a metric space. Define real functions D1,D∞,D3,D4 on X × X × X by

D1(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑧) + 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑥), 𝐷∞ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑚𝑎𝑥{𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑧), 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑥)},

D3(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = {𝐷1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑖𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑡 𝐷∞ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

D4(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) ={𝐷∞ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑖𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑡 𝐷1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 ,

Then D1, D∞ ,D3 ,D4 are D-metrics on X.

proof

That D1 , D∞ are D-metrics can be proved 𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑦. 𝐴𝑠 the proofs for D3 , D4 are similar, we verify

that D4 is D-metric.

For 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠, 𝑖𝑡 is enough to verify the tetrahedral inequality.

30
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑢 ∈ X .

Case(𝑖): 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 are distinct.

Without loss of generality , we assume that 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑧) ≤ 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑥).

Subcase(𝑖):

if u ∉ {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧} 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐷4 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑧) ≤ 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑢) + 𝑑(𝑢, 𝑧) ≤ 𝐷4 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑢) + 𝐷4 (𝑥, 𝑢, 𝑧) +

𝐷4 (𝑢, 𝑦, 𝑧)

Subcase(ii):

if u = x then 𝐷4 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝐷4 (𝑢, 𝑦, 𝑧) ≤ 𝐷4 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑢) + 𝐷4 (𝑥, 𝑢, 𝑧) + 𝐷4 (𝑢, 𝑦, 𝑧)

the proof is similar if u = =y or u = z.

Case(ii):Assume x = y ≠ z.

Subcase(𝑖):

if u ∉ {𝑦, 𝑧} then 𝐷4 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑧) + 𝑑(𝑧, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑑(𝑦, 𝑢) + 𝑑(𝑢, 𝑧) + 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑢) =

𝑑(𝑢, 𝑦) ≤ 𝐷4 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑢) + 𝐷4 (𝑥, 𝑢, 𝑧) + 𝐷4 (𝑢, 𝑦, 𝑧)

Subcase(ii):

if u = y then 𝐷4 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝐷4 (𝑥, 𝑢, 𝑧) ≤ 𝐷4 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑢) + 𝐷4 (𝑥, 𝑢, 𝑧) + 𝐷4 (𝑢, 𝑦, 𝑧)

Subcase(ii):

if u = z ≠ y 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐷4 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝐷4 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑢) ≤ 𝐷4 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑢) + 𝐷4 (𝑥, 𝑢, 𝑧) + 𝐷4 (𝑢, 𝑦, 𝑧). Hence D4

is a D-metric on X.

In this section we discuss various types of convergence associated with a D-metric.

3.5 Definitions

3 .5. 1 Definition

A sequence { xn } in a D-metric space (X, D) is said to be D-convergent (or convergent) if there

exists an element x in X such that for given ε > 0, there exists a positive integer m0 such that D(xn,
xm, x) < ε for all m ≥ m0, n ≥ m0

In such a case, we say that {xn} converges to x and x is a limit of {xn}.

31
3. 5 .2 Definition

A sequence {xn} in a D-metric space (X, D) is said to be D-Cauchy (or Cauchy) if for given ε > 0,
there exists a positive integer m0 such that D(xn, xm, xp ) < ε for all m ≥ m0, n ≥ m0, p ≥ m0.

3.5.3 Definition

Let (X, D) be a D-metric space and {xn} be a sequence in X, we say that {xn} converges strongly to
an element x in X if

(i) D(xn, xm, x) → 0 as m,n → ∞

(ii) {D(y, y, xn )} converges to D (y, y, x) for all y ∈ X .

3.5.4 Definition

Let (X,D) be a D-metric space and {xn} be a sequence in X , we say that {xn} converges very
strongly to an element x in X if

(i)D(xn,xm,x) → 0 as m,n → ∞

(ii) {D(y,z, xn)} converges to D(y,z, x) for all y,z → X .

3.5.5 Remark

It is clear that very strong convergence implies convergence, but converse is not true. It is also clear
that in a D-metric space, every strongly convergent sequence has a unique strong limit where as
limits are not unique under convergence. We now prove that convergence and strong convergence
are equivalent in certain cases.

3.6 Theorem.

Let (X,D) be a D-metric space satisfying D(5). Then {xn} converges to x in (X,D) strongly if and
only if {xn} converges to x in (X,D) and 𝐷(𝑥, 𝑥, 𝑥𝑛 ) = 0.

Proof. Let {xn} be a D-convergent sequence in X with limit x , 𝐷(𝑥, 𝑥, 𝑥𝑛 ) =0 and ε > 0. Then
there exists a positive integer m0 such that D(x,x,xn) < ε for all n ≥ m0. Let y∈ X .

For n ≥m0 D(y,y,xn) ≤ D(xn,x,x) + D(x,y,y,) (By D(5))

this implies that |D( y,y,xn) - D( y,y,x)| ≤ D(x,x,xn) < ε for all n ≥ m0 .

3.7 Theorem

32
Let (X,D) be a D-metric space satisfying D(7),D(8) then the real function d on X × X defined by
d(x, y)=D(x, y, y) is a metric on X and the following are equivalent.

(1) lim 𝑥 n = x in (X, d)

𝑛→∞

(2) lim 𝑥 n = x in (X, D)

𝑛→∞

(3) lim 𝑥 n = x strongly in (X, D)

𝑛→∞

Proof: From proposition it is clear that d is a metric on X.

Assume (1) lim 𝑥 n = x in (X, d)

𝑛→∞

Let ɛ >0 .Then there exists a positive integer m0 such that d(x, xn) < ɛ/2 for all n ≥m0.

For n, m ≥ m0 , D(x, xn, xm) ≤ D(x, x, xm) + D(x, x, xn)

= d(x, xm) + d(x, xn) < ɛ (using D(8)).Thus (1) ⇛(2).

Assume (2) lim 𝑥 n = x in (X, D)

𝑛→∞

Let ɛ >0 .Then there exists a positive integer m0 such that D(xn, xm, x) < ɛ for all m ≥m0, n ≥m0.

For y ∈ X and n ≥m0, D(y, y, xn) ≤ D(x, y, xn) (by D(7) )

≤ D(x, x, xn) + D(y, x, x) (by D(8) )

= D(x, xn, xn) + D(y, y, x)

( by D(6),since D(7) implies D(6) )

This implies that | D(y, y, xn) - D(y, y, x) | ≤ D(x, xn, xn) <ɛ/2 for all n ≥m0.

Hence {D(y, y, xn)} converges to D(y, y, x) for all y in X.

Thus (2)⇛(3) , (3)⇛(2) is trival ,

Assume (2) lim 𝑥 n = x in (X, D)

𝑛→∞

Let ɛ >0 .Then there exists a positive integer m0 such that D(xn, xm, x) < ɛ for all m ≥m0, n ≥m0

For , n ≥m0 , d(x, xn) = D(x, x, xn) ≤ D(x, xm, xn) <ɛ . (by D(7) )

Hence lim 𝑥n = x in (X, d). Thus (2) ⇛ (1).

𝑛→∞

33
 CONCLUSION

In this project I tried to study the distance between points in a set. In everyday
life, the question “ what is the distance between A and B ?” is ambiguous. The
standard definition of distance is the length of the straight line segment with one end
at A and the other end at B . It generalizes the idea of distance between two points on
the real line.

The idea of distance between two points on real line plays a vital role in
formulating the basic thing like limit, continuity, differentiability, convergence in
Real Analysis.By doing this project, I studied about different metric spaces such as
discrete, dilation, usual, Euclidean etc. I heard that metric space is very interesting
topic. So I decided to take it as my project topic.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

❖ Walter Rudin , ‘Principles of Mathematical Analysis’ ,India,MC

GrawHill Education , 3rd Edition 2017.
❖ Wilson A Sutherland , ‘Introduction to Metric and Topological
Space’, OUP UK, 2nd Edition 2009.
❖ Joseph Muscat, ‘Functional Analysis : An introduction to
Metric Spaces’, Springes Nature , 2014.
❖ S Kumaresan , ‘Topology of Metric Spaces’, Alpha Science
International,2005.
Journal:
❖ Ramabhadrasarma and S.Sambasivarao, ‘On D-Metric spaces’
,ISSN 2320-5822,2013.

Website:

❖ Wikipedia

URL

1. Metricspace
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metric_space#:~:text=
From%20Wikipedia%2C%20the%20free%20encyclo
pedia,satisfies%20a%20few%20simple%20properties
2. https://www.tau.ac.il/~tsirel/dump/Static/knowino.org/
wiki/Complete_metric_space.html#:~:text=In%20math
ematics%2C%20a%20complete%20metric,an%20ele
ment%20of%20that%20space
3. Completemetricspace
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_metric_spac
e

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