11e Database Systems

Design, Implementation, and Management

Coronel | Morris

Chapter 3
The Relational Database
Model
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 Learning Objectives
 In this chapter, one will learn:
 That the relational database model offers a logical view
of data
 About the relational model’s basic component:
relations
 That relations are logical constructs composed of rows
(tuples) and columns (attributes)
 That relations are implemented as tables in a relational
DBMS

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 Learning Objectives
 In this chapter, one will learn:
 About relational database operators, the data dictionary,
and the system catalog
 How data redundancy is handled in the relational
database model
 Why indexing is important

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 A Logical View of Data
 Relational database model enables logical
representation of the data and its relationships
 Logical simplicity yields simple and effective
database design methodologies
 Facilitated by the creation of data relationships
based on a logical construct called a relation

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Table 3.1 - Characteristics of a Relational
Table

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 Keys
 Consist of one or more attributes that determine other
attributes
 Used to:
 Ensure that each row in a table is uniquely identifiable
 Establish relationships among tables and to ensure the
integrity of the data
 Primary key (PK): Attribute or combination of
attributes that uniquely identifies any given row

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 Determination
 State in which knowing the value of one attribute
makes it possible to determine the value of another
 Is the basis for establishing the role of a key
 Based on the relationships among the attributes

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 Dependencies
 Functional dependence: Value of one or more
attributes determines the value of one or more other
attributes
 Determinant: Attribute whose value determines
another
 Dependent: Attribute whose value is determined by the
other attribute
 Full functional dependence: Entire collection of
attributes in the determinant is necessary for the
relationship

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 Types of Keys
 Composite key: Key that is composed of more than
one attribute
 Key attribute: Attribute that is a part of a key
 Entity integrity: Condition in which each row in the
table has its own unique identity
 All of the values in the primary key must be unique
 No key attribute in the primary key can contain a null

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 Types of Keys
 Null: Absence of any data value that could represent:
 An unknown attribute value
 A known, but missing, attribute value
 A inapplicable condition
 Referential integrity: Every reference to an entity
instance by another entity instance is valid

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Table 3.3 - Relational Database Keys

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 Figure 3.2 - An Example of a Simple
Relational Database

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 Integrity Rules

Entity Integrity Description

Requirement All primary key entries are unique, and
no part of a primary key may be null

Purpose Each row will have a unique identity, and

foreign key values can properly
reference primary key values

Example No invoice can have a duplicate number,

nor it can be null

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 Integrity Rules
Entity Integrity Description
Requirement A foreign key may have either a null
entry or a entry that matches a primary
key value in a table to which it is related

Purpose It is possible for an attribute not to have a

corresponding value but it is impossible
to have an invalid entry

It is impossible to delete row in a table

whose primary keys has mandatory
matching foreign key values in another
table
Example It is impossible to have invalid sales
representative number

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Figure 3.3 - An Illustration of Integrity
Rules

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 Ways to Handle Nulls
 Flags: Special codes used to indicate the absence of
some value
 NOT NULL constraint - Placed on a column to
ensure that every row in the table has a value for that
column
 UNIQUE constraint - Restriction placed on a column
to ensure that no duplicate values exist for that
column

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 Relational Algebra
 Theoretical way of manipulating table contents using
relational operators
 Relvar: Variable that holds a relation
 Heading contains the names of the attributes and the
body contains the relation
 Relational operators have the property of closure
 Closure: Use of relational algebra operators on existing
relations produces new relations

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 Relational Set Operators
Select (Restrict)
• Unary operator that yields a horizontal subset of a table

Project
• Unary operator that yields a vertical subset of a table

Union
• Combines all rows from two tables, excluding duplicate rows
• Union-compatible: Tables share the same number of columns, and their
corresponding columns share compatible domains

Intersect
• Yields only the rows that appear in both tables
• Tables must be union-compatible to yield valid results

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 Figure 3.4 - Select

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 Figure 3.5 - Project

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 Figure 3.6 - Union

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 Figure 3.7 - Intersect

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 Relational Set Operators
 Difference
 Yields all rows in one table that are not found in the
other table
 Tables must be union-compatible to yield valid results
 Product
 Yields all possible pairs of rows from two tables

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 Relational Set Operators
 Join
 Allows information to be intelligently combined from
two or more tables
 Divide
 Uses one 2-column table as the dividend and one
single-column table as the divisor
 Output is a single column that contains all values from
the second column of the dividend that are associated
with every row in the divisor

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 Types of Joins
 Natural join: Links tables by selecting only the rows
with common values in their common attributes
 Join columns: Common columns
 Equijoin: Links tables on the basis of an equality
condition that compares specified columns of each
table
 Theta join: Extension of natural join, denoted by
adding a theta subscript after the JOIN symbol

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 Types of Joins
 Inner join: Only returns matched records from the
tables that are being joined
 Outer join: Matched pairs are retained and
unmatched values in the other table are left null
 Left outer join: Yields all of the rows in the first table,
including those that do not have a matching value in
the second table
 Right outer join: Yields all of the rows in the second
table, including those that do not have matching values
in the first table

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 Figure 3.8 - Difference

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 Figure 3.9 - Product

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Figure 3.10 - Two Tables That Will Be
Used in JOIN Illustrations

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 Figure 3.16 - Divide

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 Data Dictionary and the System Catalog
 Data dictionary: Description of all tables in the
database created by the user and designer
 System catalog: System data dictionary that
describes all objects within the database
 Homonyms and synonyms must be avoided to lessen
confusion
 Homonym: Same name is used to label different
attributes
 Synonym: Different names are used to describe the same
attribute

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 Relationships within the Relational
Database
 1:M relationship - Norm for relational databases
 1:1 relationship - One entity can be related to only
one other entity and vice versa
 Many-to-many (M:N) relationship - Implemented by
creating a new entity in 1:M relationships with the
original entities
 Composite entity (Bridge or associative entity):
Helps avoid problems inherent to M:N relationships,
includes the primary keys of tables to be linked

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Figure 3.21 - The 1:1 Relationship between
PROFESSOR and DEPARTMENT

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 Figure 3.26 - Changing the M:N
Relationship to Two 1:M Relationships

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Figure 3.27 - The Expanded ER Model

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 Data Redundancy
 Relational database facilitates control of data
redundancies through use of foreign keys
 To be controlled except the following circumstances
 Data redundancy must be increased to make the
database serve crucial information purposes
 Exists to preserve the historical accuracy of the data

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Figure 3.30 - The Relational Diagram for
the Invoicing System

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 Index
 Orderly arrangement to logically access rows in a
table
 Index key: Index’s reference point that leads to data
location identified by the key
 Unique index: Index key can have only one pointer
value associated with it
 Each index is associated with only one table

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