PEE 322: PETROLEUM

GEOLOGY
Course Outline
 Introduction to Petroleum Geology
 Sedimentology
 Depositional Environments
 Petroleum Play – Introduction to the Petroleum System
 Surface and Subsurface Geological Exploration methods
 Facies Analysis, Log Shape Analysis and Stratigraphic Correlation
Techniques
 Geophysical Exploration Methods
 Introduction to Map Interpretation
 Introduction to Geology of Nigeria
 Petrel Training
Introduction to Petroleum
Geology
Introduction to Petroleum Geology
 Petroleum geology comprises those geological disciplines which are of
greatest significance for the finding and recovery of oil and gas

 It is the study of origin, occurrence, movement, accumulation, and

exploration of hydrocarbon fuels. It refers to the specific set of geological
disciplines that are applied to the search for hydrocarbons (oil exploration).

 It is important to understand the geological processes which determine the

distribution of different sedimentary rocks and their physical properties.

 It is difficult to know where to start when teaching petroleum geology

because nearly all the different disciplines build on each other.

 Since practically all petroleum occurs in sedimentary rocks, sedimentary

geology forms one of the main foundations of petroleum geology.
Sedimentological models are used to predict the location of different facies
in the sedimentary basins, and from that the likely presence of source rocks
with a high content of organic matter, reservoir rocks and cap rocks
Introduction to Petroleum Geology
 The sedimentary environments (sedimentary facies) determine the
distribution of reservoir rocks and their primary composition. Sediments do,
however, alter their properties with increasing overburden due to diagenesis
during burial

 Geophysical measurements may include gravimetry and magnetometry;

electromagnetic methods that were used mostly in ore exploration have
also been applied to oil exploration. Electromagnetic methods have been
used to detect sediments with low resistivity due to the presence of oil
instead of saline water. This method requires a few 100 m of water and
relatively shallow accumulation.

 Seismic methods have become the main tool for mapping sedimentary
facies, stratigraphy, sequence stratigraphy and tectonic development.

 Geophysical well-logging methods have developed equally rapidly, from

simple electric and radioactive logs to highly advanced logging tools which
provide detailed information about the sequence penetrated by the well
Origin of Petroleum
The origin of petroleum still has uncertainties despite the tremendous
researches and studies devoted to it compared to any other natural substance

There are two different theories for the origin of petroleum;

 Organic and
 Inorganic origin.

Inorganic or Abiogenic origin

States that hydrogen and carbon came together under great temperature and
pressure, far below the earth‟s surface and formed oil and gas where chemical
reactions have occurred. There are some different theories that describe the
inorganic origin of petroleum which include:

Metal carbide theory

Metal carbides deep in Earth reacted with water at high pressure and
temperature to form acetylene which condenses to heavier hydrocarbons.
CaC2+H2O= C2H2+Ca(OH)2

Volcanic theory, Earthquake theory, Serpentinization theory

Evidences for Inorganic Origin of Petroleum
 Geographical location: most of hydrocarbon producing regions are
located close to belts of tectonic activities.

 Stability with depth: Corresponding to what organic theory's supporters

have admitted themselves; petroleum is a fossil fuel, and there has never
been a real fossil found below 16000 feet. Nowadays, there is drilling for oil
reservoirs at 28000 feet or 30000 feet where there is no a fossil remains

Organic or Biogenic origin

It is the most widely accepted. The oil and gas are formed from remains of
prehistoric plants and animals. Remains of plants have been transformed to
coal and animals to oil and gas. These remains were settled into seas and
accumulated at the ocean floor and buried under several kilometers of
sediments. Over a few milion years, the layers of the organic material were
compressed under the weight of the sediments above them. The increase in
pressure and temperature with the absence of oxygen changed the mud, sand,
slit or sediments into rock and organic matter into Kerogen.
Evidences for Organic Origin of Petroleum
Evidence for the organic origin of petroleum seem to be overwhelming, they
include:
(1) Petroleum oil is mostly found in sedimentary rocks rather than igneous
rocks, such as granite and basalt

(2) Petroleum has ability to rotate the polarization of light, which is typical for
organic matter and is attributed to the presence of cholesterol

(3) Many crude oils contain porphyrins, which may come either from
chlorophyll in plants or from red cells in blood

(4) Most crude oils contain nitrogen, which is an essential element in amino
acids

(5) The chemical composition of the petroleum is similar to the composition of

the organic material, although there is more carbon and hydrogen and less
oxygen and nitrogen in the oil compared to the organic material

The organic theory implies a finite source of petroleum whereas the

inorganic theory suggests an almost unlimited one
Sedimentology
Introduction
 The great majority of hydrocarbon reserves worldwide occur in sedimentary rocks.
In order to exploit this resource, we need to discover the distribution of the reservoir
unit, and also how the oil is contained within the rock - or the petrophysical
properties of the rock

 The distribution of sedimentary rock types depends on the environment of

deposition, clues to which can be found in the structures and textures in the rocks
themselves

 The petrophysical properties of potential reservoir rocks (porosity and permeability)

are determined by the texture and structure of the sediment, which is determined by
depositional processes and ultimately also by the environment of deposition.

 Two main groups of sedimentary rocks are of major importance as reservoirs,

namely clastic sedimentary rocks (siltstones and sandstones) and carbonate
sedimentary rocks (limestones and dolomites).

 Sedimentology is the study of sedimentary rocks, concerned with their

composition, structure and texture, and the origin of these properties - that is
the depositional processes that create sediments and the diagenetic
processes that create sedimentary rocks
Introduction
 In clastic sedimentary rocks the properties relevant to the petroleum
engineer, namely the porosity and permeability, are heavily reliant on the
texture of the rock, which is determined mostly by the depositional
processes, and partly by the diagenetic processes which the rock has
undergone.

 In carbonate sedimentary rocks these same properties are governed mostly

by the diagenetic history of the rock, and only partly by the original texture.

 In order for petroleum geoscientists to identify appropriate petroleum plays,

it is necessary that they identify the subsurface distribution of the different
lithologies.

 Each lithology has specific porosity and permeability, and the distribution of
these different facies (or lithologies) in space and time is controlled by the
depositional environment.
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
 Sedimentary rocks are formed by physical, chemical and biological
processes and can be classified on the basis of the dominant process or
processes responsible for their formation.

 Classification of sedimentary rocks. Rocks marked 1 may form reservoirs,

those marked 2 may act as source rocks, and those marked 3 may form
seals
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
 Sedimentary rocks tend to be classified in two different ways: by their
texture and by their. For example for clastic sedimentary rocks 'sandstone„
is a textural name - meaning a clastic sedimentary rock made up of sand
sized particles

 Organic rocks that are not carbonates tend to be simply named after their
composition, as do chemical and volcaniclastic rocks.

 In the full description or naming of sedimentary rocks, both kinds of

information (textural and compositional) are important.

 The textural name yields information about the likely porosity and
permeability of the sedimentary rock, while the compositional name can
give information about the chemical reactions that may take place within
the rock - while also providing information about the source of the sediment
and therefore the history of the basin

 For example lots of things with quite different properties can be

'sandstones' but very few fit the name "Green cross-bedded poorly
sorted friable glauconitic subfeldsarenite"
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
Key Features for Sedimentary Rocks Description
 Color

 Composition

 Texture (Sediment Textures)

 Sedimentary structures

 Fossil content
Sediment Textures
 Texture is the general term used to describe the size, shape and
arrangement of grains, matrix and cement in a sedimentary rock. It is of
importance to us because sedimentary texture is the single most important
control on reservoir properties (i.e. porosity and permeability)

 The texture of a sediment reflects both the available sediment and its mode
of transport and deposition. The majority of clastic sediments contain
laminae on a scale of mm to cm, each of which will have subtly different
textures

 Texture in Granular Sediments

The main textural components of granular rocks include:
• Grain size
• Grain sorting
• Packing
• Grain shape
• Grain morphology and surface texture
Grain Size
 Grain size of clasts or crystals are characterized by maximum grain
diameters. Grain size is usually measured in millimetres, or in phi (f) units
(f = -log2(d), where d = maximum grain diameter in millimetres).

 Particle size is the primary basis for classifying clastic sediments and
sedimentary rocks, regardless of the mineralogy of the clasts.
Sorting
 This is the distribution of grain size. The sorting of a sediment quantifies
how well a depositional process has concentrated (sorted) grains of a given
size. The degree of sorting is often a function of the mode of transport of the
materials

 Grain size and sorting depend on the physical conditions of the depositional
environment where the grains were deposited, and can be shown to have
various relationships to the proximity to the sediment source (or the distance
transported), the nature of the sediment source (igneous, sedimentary,
metamporphic, this is known as the provenance of the sediment), the
energy of the environment of deposition (current strength) and any
fluctuations in current strength over time
Grain Shape
 Grain shape is described in terms of:
 Aspect ratio or grain sphericity - approximation to a sphere
 Grain roundness - curvature of the corners

 Aspect ratio is the ratio of the diameter of the grain measured in different directions.
The three dimensional shape of the grain can be classified in terms of the ratios of
their long, intermediate and short diameters, or verbally described.
Grain Shape
 Roundness is the extent to which the corners of a grain have been smoothed off, not
the approximation to a spherical shape; well-rounded grains can have shapes which
are far from spherical. Grain shape depends both on the mineralogy of the grains
(e.g. feldspars tend to be prolate in shape, while quartz tends towards equant
shapes) and the degree and energy of transportation (e.g. desert and beach
sediment is generally well sorted and rounded).
Fabric
The term fabric, when applied to granular sediments, refers to the orientation and
packing of grains and the nature of their contacts.

Packing
Packing is the term used to describe the three-dimensional arrangement of grains in a
sediment. In naturally-occurring sediments, the grains are somewhat randomly
arranged, but their packing can be compared to idealised packing arrangements, such
as cubic close packing (in which the grains are arranged in a rectilinear grid) and
hexagonal or rhombohedral close packing (in which grains are arranged at angles
of 60° and 120°). Of these two packing arrangements, the rhombohedral packing is
more efficient, leading to a lower porosity
Fabric
Matrix and clast support
Many sediments contain, between their grains or clasts, a matrix of finer grained
material. In sands and sandstones, this matrix is likely to be of silt or clay grade,
whereas in pebbly or bouldery sediments and conglomerates, the matrix will be of
sand grade. In sediments with a high proportion of matrix, the larger clasts may not
be in contact with each other, in which case they are described as matrix-supported
Fabric
Grain contacts
 Immediately after deposition, most grains in a clast-supported sediment will have
point contacts with other grains.

 During compaction of a sediment, deformation and dissolution of grains will lead to

the grain contacts becoming longer and as compaction continues, concavo-convex
and sutured contacts may result.
Grain Morphology and Surface Texture
 The morphology and surface texture of grains will reflect both the mineralogy and
the transport of the sediment. Grains derived from the weathering of crystalline
(igneous and metamorphic) rocks commonly consist of single crystals, and their
shape will reflect the mineralogy.

 During transport, the grains will undergo a certain amount of rounding, which will
be influenced both by the mineralogy and the energy and duration of
transportation.

 Grains which have undergone significant transport, particularly in high-energy

environments, will tend to have smooth surfaces, which will have an influence on
the flow of fluids through the pore system
Porosity and Permeability
 Total porosity (f) is defined as the volume of void (pore) space within a rock,
expressed as a fraction or percentage of the total rock volume. It is a
measure of a rock's fluid storage capacity.

 The effective porosity of a rock is defined as the ratio of the interconnected

pore volume to the bulk volume

 The permeability (k) of a rock is a measure of its capacity to transmit a fluid

under a potential gradient (pressure drop). The unit of permeability is the
Darcy, which is defined by Darcy's Law.

 Primary porosity consists of pore space that results from primary

depositional texture (e.g. spaces between grains, or within fossils).

 Secondary porosity is pore space generated by post-depositional processes

(e.g. dissolution of grains or cement, fracturing etc.)
Controls on Porosity and Permeability
 The porosity and permeability of the sedimentary rock depends on both the
original texture of a sediment and its diagenetic history.

 In many cases, despite a complex diagenetic history, clastic sediments still

retain a strong fingerprint from their original facies-controlled texture.The
original texture of a sediment controls the depositional porosity and
permeability (i.e. the porosity and permeability immediately after
deposition of the sediment) but will also influence the final primary porosity
and permeability.

 In most sedimentary rocks, permeability is anisotropic, that is that it has

different values in different directions. Generally permeability is lower
vertically than horizontally (that is kv < kh). The anisotropy is commonly
expressed as kv/kh, and this ratio can vary from practically 0 to almost 1 in
real rocks.
Controls on Porosity and Permeability

Porosity and permeability as a function of depositional environment within a

fluvio-aeolian system
Controls on Porosity and Permeability
Grain Size
 In theory, porosity is independent of grain size, as it is merely a measure of
the proportion of pore space in the rock, not the size of the pores.

 In practice, however, porosity tends to increase with decreasing grain size

for two reasons. Finer grains, especially clays, tend to have less regular
shapes than coarser grains, and so are often less efficiently packed. Also,
fine sediments are commonly better sorted than coarser sediments. Both of
these factors result in higher porosities.

 For example, clays can have primary porosities of 50%-85% and fine sand
can have 48% porosity whereas the primary porosity of coarse sand rarely
exceeds 40%.

 Permeability, however, decreases with decreasing grain size because the

size of pores and pore throats will also be smaller, leading to increased grain
surface drag effects
Sorting
For a given grain shape, porosity and permeability decrease with decreasing sorting.
This is due to the fact that, in poorly sorted sediments, smaller grains can
accommodate themselves between the larger ones, leading to a reduction both in the
percentage of pore space and the size of pores

Grain Shape
As permeability is a vector, rather than scalar property, grain shape will affect the
anisotropy of the permeability. The more unequidimensional the grains, the more
anisotropic the permeability tensor

Packing
The closer the packing, the lower the porosity and permeability. This means that
increased compaction reduces porosity and permeability

Grain Morphology and Surface Texture

The smoother the grain surface, the higher the permeability, due to there being less
drag effect on the flow
Sedimentary structures
Various sedimentary structures in hand sample and outcrop yield clues to the
origin of the rock and its depositional environment.

Bedding and stratification are the hallmark of sedimentary rock

Fossil content
Fossils are record of ancient life that becomes incorporated into the rock
record. We separate:
 Body fossils: Physical remains of the organism, typically hard or robust
substances including shells, bones, wood, or their replacements.

 Trace fossils : Records of organisms„ behavior, including:

 Ichno fossils: tracks, trails, and burrows

Classification of Siliciclastic Rocks based on Grain Size
A simple classification of terrigenous clastic rocks and sediment is based on
the predominant grain size of the material:
Rudites
 A rudite is a sedimentary rock whose particle size is greater than 2mm.
Cobble and Pebble are the sedimentary particles of rudites.

 Rudite is a general name used for sedimentary rocks that are composed of
round or angular detrital grains

 Rudites are classified on the basis of particle shape, packing and

composition. They include:

 Conglomerate
 Breccia
 Diamictite
Rudites
Rudites
Rudites
Rudites
Rudites
Rudites
Rudites
Rudites
Breccia
Breccia
 The rock names given for rudites consisting of rounded clasts (
conglomerates) also applies to breccia by replacing the “ conglomerate”
with “ breccia” if the clasts comprising the rock are angular. Types of breccia
include:

 Orthobreccia
 Parabreccia
 Polymictic breccia etc.
Diamictite
Lutites
Lutites are terrigenous clastic rocks whose grain size are less than 0.0625 mm.
they are fine grained sedimentary rocks which are composed of both silt size
and clay size sediments
Lutites
Lutites
Terminology Related to Stratification
Classification of Siliciclastic Rocks based on Composition
Classification of Siliciclastic Rocks based on Composition
Classification of Siliciclastic Rocks based on Composition
Classification of Siliciclastic Rocks based on Composition
Classification of Siliciclastic Rocks based on Composition
Classification of Siliciclastic Rocks based on Composition
Classification of Siliciclastic Rocks based on Composition
Classification of Siliciclastic Rocks based on Composition
Classification of Siliciclastic Rocks based on Composition
Classification of Siliciclastic Rocks based on Composition
Classification of Siliciclastic Rocks based on Composition
Classification of Siliciclastic Rocks based on Composition
Maturity of a Sandstone
Maturity of a Sandstone
Maturity of a Sandstone
Maturity of a Sandstone
Maturity of a Sandstone
Maturity of a Sandstone
Genetic Classification of Siliciclastic Rocks
Genetic Classification of Siliciclastic Rocks
Genetic Classification of Siliciclastic Rocks
Genetic Classification of Siliciclastic Rocks
Genetic Classification of Siliciclastic Rocks
Which classification should you use?
Carbonate Rocks
Carbonate Rocks
Carbonate Rocks
Carbonate Rocks
Carbonate Rocks
Carbonate Rocks
Carbonate Rocks
Carbonate Rocks