Chapter 1

Research Methods: An Introduction

2
1. Definition of Research

Try the Following:

What is science?
What is Scientific method?
What is research?
What is scientific research?
What is business research?

3
What is Science?
 Several definitions:
 “The use of evidence to construct testable
explanations and predictions of natural
phenomena, as well as the knowledge generated
through this process.”
 “Science is not an encyclopedic body of
knowledge about the universe. Instead, it
represents a process for proposing and refining
theoretical explanations about the world that
are subject to further testing and refinement.
4
Cont’d
 Science is a methodical approach to studying the
natural world.
 Science asks basic questions, such as how does
the world work, How did the world come to be,
What was the world like in the past, what is it
like now, & what will it be like in the future?
 These questions are answered using observation,
testing, & interpretation through logic.

5
What is Scientific Method?
 The distinctive characteristic of science is its
methodology.
 Science is not just a body of knowledge, but
knowledge assembled by the application of the
scientific methodology.
 This methodology comprises a system of rules &
procedures on which research is based.
 The “scientific method” attempts to minimize the
influence of the researchers' bias on the outcome
of an experiment.
6
Cont’d
 Scientific method is the pursuit of truth as
determined by logical considerations.
 The ideal of science is to achieve a systematic
interrelation of facts.
 Scientific method attempts to achieve “this
ideal by experimentation, observation, logical
arguments from accepted postulates and a
combination of these three in varying
proportions.

7
What is Research?
 Research is a logical and systematic search for
new and useful information on a particular
topic.
 It is a scientific method of finding solutions
for different problems through objective and
systematic analysis.
 It is a search for knowledge, that is, a
discovery of hidden truths.

8
What is Scientific Research?
 Scientific research may be defined as a
systematic, controlled, empirical & critical
investigation of hypothetical propositions
about the presumed relations among observed
phenomena.
 It focuses on solving problems and pursues a
step by step logical, organized and rigorous
method to identify the problems, gather data,
analyze them and draw valid conclusions
there from.
9
Cont’d
 Goal of scientific inquiry is inference using
observations from the world to learn about
other unobserved facts
 Procedures should be public
 Conclusions are uncertain

10
What is Business Research?
 Business research is defined as the systematic
and objective process of generating information
for aid in making business decisions.
 Business research refers to systematic collection
and analysis of data with the purpose of finding
answers to problems facing management.
 It provides the needed information that guides
managers to make informed decisions to
successfully deal with problems.
11
2. Objectives of Research
 The purpose of research is to discover answers
to questions through the application of
scientific procedures.
 The main aim of research is to find out the
truth which is hidden and which has not been
discovered yet.
 Though each research study has its own
specific purpose, we may think of research
objectives as falling into a number of
following broad groupings:
12
Cont’d
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to
achieve new insights into it (studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or
formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a
particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as
descriptive research studies);

13
Cont’d
3. To determine the frequency with which
something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (studies with
this object in view are known as diagnostic
research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship
between variables (such studies are known
as hypothesis-testing research studies).

14
3. Types of Research
The basic types of research include:
1. Descriptive Vs Analytical
2. Applied Vs Fundamental
3. Quantitative Vs Qualitative
4. Conceptual Vs Empirical

15
Cont’d
1. Descriptive Vs Analytical Research
 Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-
finding enquiries of different kinds.
 The major purpose of descriptive research is
description of the state of affairs as it exists
at present.
 In analytical research, on the other hand, the
researcher has to use facts or information
already available & analyze these to make a
critical evaluation of the material.
16
Cont’d
2. Applied Vs Fundamental Research
 Research can either be applied (or action)
research or fundamental (to basic or pure)
research.
 Applied research aims at finding a solution
for an immediate problem facing a society or
an industrial/business organisation, whereas
fundamental research is mainly concerned
with generalizations and with the formulation
of a theory.
17
Cont’d
 Gathering knowledge for knowledge‟s sake is termed
„pure‟ or „basic‟ research.
 Research concerning some natural phenomenon or
relating to pure mathematics are examples of
fundamental research.
 Similarly, research studies, concerning human
behaviour carried on with a view to make
generalizations about human behaviour, are also
examples of fundamental research, but research
aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a
concrete social or business problem is an example of
applied research.
18
Cont’d
3. Quantitative Vs Qualitative Research

 Quantitative research is based on the

measurement of quantity or amount.
 It is applicable to phenomena that can be
expressed in terms of quantity.
 Qualitative research, on the other hand, is
concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
phenomena relating to or involving quality or
kind.
19
Cont’d
4. Conceptual Vs Empirical Research
 Conceptual research is that related to some
abstract idea(s) or theory.
 It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers
to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing
ones.
 On the other hand, empirical research relies on
experience or observation alone, often without
due regard for system and theory.

20
Some Other Types of Research

 All other types of research are variations of

one or more of the above stated approaches,
based on either the purpose of research, or
the time required to accomplish research, on
the environment in which research is done, or
on the basis of some other similar factor.

21
 Cont‟d (Other Types)

 Cross-sectional Research or Time Series Research

 Field-setting Research or Laboratory Research or
Simulation Research
 Exploratory Research
 Historical Research, etc

22
4. Why Peoples Do Research?
 Research methods provide you with the
knowledge and skills you need to solve
different problems and acquire a new findings
that you aimed at.
The major reasons why people go for
research are:
• Desire to earn a research degree along with
its consequential benefits;

23
Cont’d
• To get prestige and recognition;
• To solve the unsolved and challenging
problems;
• To gain intellectual joy from doing creative
work;
• To serve the society by solving social
problems.

24
5. The Systematic Process of Research
The central aim of research is to know
„something more‟ about „something‟, or to
discover answers to meaningful questions
through the application of the following
systematical procedures or processes:
1. Identification and formulation of research
problem
2. Review of literature
3. Formulation of hypothesis

25
Cont’d
4. Research design
5. Sampling design
6. Measurement and scaling technique
7. Pilot survey
8. Data collection
9. Processing and analysis of data
10. Hypothesis testing
11. Interpretation and generalization
12. Research report writing, presentation &
dissemination of research result
26
6. The Characteristics of a Good Research
One expects scientific research to satisfy the
following criteria:
 The purpose of the research should be clearly
defined & common concepts should be used.
 The research procedure used should be
described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further
advancement.

27
Cont’d

 The procedural design of the research should

be carefully planned to yield results that are
as objective as possible.
 The researcher should report with complete
frankness, identify flaws in procedural design
& estimate their effects upon the findings.

28
Cont’d
 The analysis of data should be sufficiently
adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be
appropriate (Validity & Reliability of the
research).
 Conclusions should be confined to those
justified by the data of the research and
limited to those for which the data provide an
adequate basis.

29
Cont’d
 Greater confidence in research is warranted if
the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of
integrity.

30
7. Variable

 Variable is or an attribute that can assume

different values.
 Based on the values that variables assume,
variables can be classified as:
• Qualitative variables
• Quantitative variables

31
Cont’d
Qualitative Variables:
 Do not assume numeric values.
Example: Gender, Religion, Color of
automobile, etc.
Quantitative variables:
 Assume numeric values.
 These variables are numeric in nature.
Example: Height, Family size, Weight, etc.

32
Cont’d
Quantitative variable can be further
classified as:

 Discrete Variable
 Continuous Variable

33
Cont’d
 Discrete Variable:
 Takes whole number values and consists of
distinct recognizable individual elements that
can be counted.
 It is a variable that assumes a finite or
countable number of possible values.
 These values are obtained by counting (0, 1,
2, …).
 Example: Family size, Number of children in a
family, Number of employees in an orgn, etc
34
Cont’d
Continuous Variable:
 Takes any value including decimals.
 Such a variable can theoretically assume an
infinite number of possible values.
 These values are obtained by measuring.

 Example: Height, Weight, Time &

Temperature, etc.

35
8. Scales of Measurement

There about four common scales of

measurement:

1. Nominal Scale
2. Ordinal Scale
3. Interval Scale
4. Ratio Scale

36
Cont’d
Nominal Scales:
 These are those qualitative variables which
show category of individuals.
 They reflect classification in to categories
(name of groups) where there is no particular
order or qualitative difference to the labels.
 The only mathematical operation permissible
on these variables is counting.
 Ex: Gender, Religion, ID No, Ethnicity, Color,
etc.
37
Cont’d
Ordinal Scales:
 These are also qualitative variables whose
values can be ordered and ranked.
 Ranking and counting are the only
mathematical operations to be applied on the
values of the variables.
 But there is no precise difference between the
values (categories) of the variable.

38
Cont’d
Examples (Ordinal Scales):
 Academic qualifications (BSc, MSc, PhD),
 Grade Scores (A, B, C, D, F),
 Strength (very weak, week, strong, very
strong),
 Health status (very sick, sick, cured),
 Economic status (lower class, middle class,
higher class group).

39
Cont’d
Interval Scales:
 These are those quantitative variables when
there is a precise & equal difference between
each objects.
 There is no true zero.
 Zero indicates low than empty.
 All mathematical operations other than
division can be applied.
Ex: Temperature
40
Cont’d
Ratio Scales:
 These are those quantitative variables & when
the values of the variables are zero it shows
absence of the characteristics.
 Zero indicates absence of the characteristics.
 All mathematical operations are allowed to be
operated on the values of the variables.
Ex: Height, Weight, Income, Amount of yield,
Expenditure, Consumption, etc.
41
Types of Variables & Scales of Measurement
 Nominal Scales
Qualitative
 Ordinal Scales
Variables

 Interval Scales Quantitative

 Ratio Scales Variables

42
9. Code of Ethics in Research

 Research workers have a duty to ensure that

their work enhances the good names of their
institutions and the profession to which they
belong.

 In general terms, the major ethical areas that

should be considered in conducting research
are the following:

43
Cont’d

1. Professional Standards & Ethical Conducts

2. The Researcher- respondent Relationship
3. The Researcher- researcher Relationship

44
Cont’d
1. Professional Standards & Ethical Conducts

• Maintain objectivity in the conduct of inquiry

• Uphold professional integrity
• Demonstrate responsibility, competence and
propriety
• Make use of relevant research methodology
• Choose appropriate interpretation of the data

45
Cont’d

 Report the data accurately

 Avoid fabrication of data
 Avoid falsification of data
 Plagiarism

46
Cont’d
2. The Researcher - Respondent Relationship

 Avoiding Harm to Respondents

 Deception

47
Cont’d
3. The Researcher - Researcher Relationship

 Misleading ascription of authorship

 Misuse of authority or role
 Plagiarism

48
 Chapter Two
Defining Research Problem

49
1. What is a Research Problem?
 The pursuit of research begins with a
problem.
 A research problem may be viewed as a
general statement of why the research is to be
undertaken.
 The condition of the research problem is
suggested by our lack of knowledge or
understanding of a phenomenon under
investigation.

50
Cont’d
 A research problem thus starts from
insufficiency of the established body of
knowledge (& possibly contradicting results
from different researchers).
 A good research problem is one that is worthy
spending time investigating (and this includes
issues on “solvability” of the problem), and
one whose report is worth spending time
reading.

51
Cont’d
 A well-defined research problem leads
naturally to the statement of the research
objectives, research hypotheses, the key
variables & a selection of methodology for
measuring the variables.

 A poorly defined research problem leads to

confusion.

52
Cont’d
 Identification and formulation of research
problem is not an easy task.

 In most scientific works, the difficulty lies in

framing problems rather than in finding their
solutions.

53
2. Selection of a Research Problem
 Identification (selection) and formulation
needs a careful accomplishment so that it will
be considered as „half journey‟ to the aimed
result.
 For an accomplishment of successful problem
selection, there are criteria through which a
certain research problem must pass to be
selected as a sound problem.

54
Cont’d

These criteria can be seen in two directions as

follows:
Internal External
Researcher‟s interest Importance & urgency
Researcher‟s competence Feasibility
Researcher‟s own Cooperation of organizations
resources & individuals

55
3. Techniques in Defining a Research Problem
Whenever defining a research problem, it
would be better to follow the following major
procedural techniques:
1. Stating problem in a general way
2. Understating the nature of the problem
3. Surveying available literatures
4. Developing ideas (special interest)
5. Rephrasing the problem

56
 Chapter 3
Developing Research Proposal

57
1. What is Research Proposal?
 The research proposal is a work plan and
prospectus outline that a researcher offers to
produce a research result to a potential buyer
or sponsor.
 The purpose of research proposal is to help
the researcher to focus and define his/her
research plans.

58
Cont’d
 These plans in the proposal are not binding, in that
they may be changed substantially as you progress
in the research.
 However, they are an indication to the researchers‟
faculty of direction and discipline as a research is in
its final position to be started.
 Generally speaking, research proposal is essentially
a road map, showing clearly the location from which
a journey begins, the destination to be reached, and
the method of getting there.

59
2. Elements of Research Proposal
The major sections/components of research
proposal are:
1. Cover Page
2. Abstract/Executive Summary
3. Glossary of Terms (if any)
4. Table of Contents
5. List of Figures
6. Introduction
• Background
• Statement of the Problem 60
Cont’d
• Objectives of the Study
• Significance of the Study
• Scope of the Study
7. Literature Review
8. Research Methodology
9. Expected Results
10. Work Plan (Cost & Time Plan)

61
Cont’d
11. Appendices
12. References

62
3. What Makes a Good Research Proposal?
 Relevance, either to the work of the funding
body or to the student‟s course.
 The research is unique, or offers new insight
or development.
 The title, aims and objectives are all clear and
concise.
 Comprehensive and methodical background
research and literature review has been
undertaken.
63
Cont’d
 There is a good match between the issues to
be addressed and the approach being
adopted.
 The researcher demonstrates relevant
background knowledge &/or experience.
 Time table, resources and budget have all
been worked out thoroughly, with most
eventualities covered.
 Useful policy and practice implications.

64
4. Major Reasons Why Research Proposal Fail
 Aims and objectives are unclear or vague.
 There is a mismatch between the approach being
adopted and the issue to be addressed.
 The overall plan is too ambitious and difficult to
be achieved in the timescale.
 The research does not seem to have conducted
enough in-depth background research.
 The very problem is of insufficient importance.

65
Cont’d
 Information about the data collection method
is insufficiently detailed.
 Information about the data analysis method is
insufficiently detailed.
 Timescale is inappropriate or unrealistic.
 Resources and budget have not been carefully
thought out.

66
 Chapter 4
Research Design

67
1. Definition of Research Design
 The formidable problem that follows the task
of defining the research problem is the
preparation of the design of the research
project, popularly known as the “research
design”.
 Decisions regarding what, where, when, how
much, by what means concerning an inquiry
or a research study constitute a research
design.

68
Cont’d
More explicitly, the design decisions
happen to be in respect of:

• What is the study about?

• Why is the study being made?
• Where will the study be carried out?
• What type of data is required?
• Where can the required data be found?

69
Cont’d

• What periods of time will the study include?

• What will be the sample design?
• What techniques of data collection will be
used?
• How will the data be analyzed?
• In what style will the report be prepared?

70
Cont’d
 In brief, research design must, at least,
contain a clear statement of the research
problem, procedures & techniques to be used
for gathering information, the population to
be studied and methods to be used in
processing & analyzing data.

71
2. Need for Research Design

 Research design is needed because it

facilitates the smooth sailing of the various
research operations, thereby making research
as efficient as possible yielding maximal
information with minimal expenditure of
effort, time and money.

72
Cont’d
 Just as for better, economical and attractive
construction of a house, we need a blueprint
(or what is commonly called the map of the
house) well thought out and prepared by an
expert architect, similarly we need a research
design or a plan in advance of data collection
and analysis for our research project.

73
Cont’d
 Research design stands for advance planning
of the methods to be adopted for collecting
the relevant data and the techniques to be
used in their analysis, keeping in view the
objective of the research and the availability
of staff, time and money.
 So, preparation of the research design should
be done with great care as any error in it may
upset the entire project.

74
3. Features of a Good Design
 A good design is often characterized by adjectives
like flexible, appropriate, efficient, economical &
so on.
 Generally, the design which minimizes bias and
maximizes the reliability of the data collected
and analyzed is considered a good design.
 The design which gives the smallest experimental
error is supposed to be the best design in many
investigations.

75
Cont’d
 Similarly, a design which yields maximal
information and provides an opportunity for
considering many different aspects of a
problem is considered most appropriate and
efficient design in respect of many research
problems.
 Thus, the question of good design is related to
the purpose or objective of the research
problem and also with the nature of the
problem to be studied.
76
Cont’d
 A design may be quite suitable in one case,
but may be found wanting in one respect or
the other in the context of some other
research problem.

 One single design cannot serve the purpose of

all types of research problems.

77
Cont’d
A research design appropriate for a particular
research problem, usually involves the
consideration of the following factors:
 The means of obtaining information;
 The availability and skills of the researcher and his
staff, if any;
 The objective of the problem to be studied;
 The nature of the problem to be studied &
 The availability of time and money for the research
work.
78
4. Important Concepts Relating to Research
Design

 Dependent and independent variables

 Extraneous variable
 Control
 Confounded relationship
 Research hypothesis

79
Cont’d
 Experimental and non-experimental
hypothesis-testing research
 Experimental and control groups
 Treatments
 Experiment
 Experimental unit(s)

80
5. Different Research Designs
Different research designs can be
conveniently categorized as follows:

1. Research design in case of exploratory

research studies
2. Research design in case of descriptive &
diagnostic research studies
3. Research design in case of hypothesis-testing
research studies
81
Cont’d
1. Research Design in Case of Exploratory
Research Studies
 The main purpose of such studies is that of
formulating a problem for more precise
investigation or of developing the working
hypotheses from an operational point of view.
 The major emphasis in such studies is on the
discovery of ideas and insights.

82
Cont’d
 As such the research design appropriate for
such studies must be flexible enough to
provide opportunity for considering different
aspects of a problem under study.
 Non-probability sampling design (purposive
or judgment sampling) should be used for this
research type.

83
Cont’d
Generally, the following three methods in
the context of research design for such
studies are talked about:

1. The survey of concerning literature

2. The experience survey &
3. The analysis of „insight-stimulating‟
examples.

84
Cont’d
2. Research Design in Case of Descriptive &
Diagnostic Research Studies

 Descriptive research studies are those studies

which are concerned with describing the
characteristics of a particular individual, or of
a group, whereas diagnostic research studies
determine the frequency with which something
occurs or its association with something else.

85
Cont’d
The design in such studies must be rigid and
not flexible and must focus attention on the
following:
 Formulating the objective of the study (what
the study is about and why is it being made?)
 Designing the methods of data collection
(what techniques of gathering data will be
adopted?)

86
Cont’d

 Selecting the sample (how much material will

be needed?)
 Collecting the data (where can the required
data be found and with what time period
should the data be related?)
 Processing and analyzing the data.
 Reporting the findings.

87
Cont’d
 Thus, the research design in case of
descriptive/diagnostic studies is a survey
design throwing light on all points narrated
above and must be prepared keeping in view
the objective(s) of the study and the resources
available.
 In this case, the design must ensure the
minimization of bias & maximization of
reliability of the evidence collected.

88
Cont’d
 Unlike exploratory research, rigid design
(design that must make enough provision for
protection against bias and must maximize
reliability) should be used for these research
types (descriptive & diagnostic research).

 In this case, probability sampling design

(random sampling) is appropriate to use.

89
Cont’d
3. Research Design in Case of Hypothesis-
testing Research Studies

 Hypothesis-testing research studies (generally

known as experimental studies) are those
where the researcher tests the hypotheses of
causal relationships between variables.

90
Cont’d
 Such studies require procedures that will not
only reduce bias and increase reliability, but
will permit drawing inferences about
causality.
 Usually experiments meet this requirement.
 Hence, when we talk of research design in
such studies, we often mean the experimental
design.

91
 Chapter 5

Data Sources
&
Methods of Data Collection

92
1. Data Sources
Data can be gathered from two major
sources:

1. Primary Source
2. Secondary Source

93
2. Primary Data Collection

 An information can be collected from certain

individuals directly or indirectly.
 The commonly used method of primary data
collection is survey method.

94
Cont’d
The survey method includes:
 Observation method
 Interview method (Personal interview &
Telephone interview)
 Questionnaire (Interview questionnaire , Mail
questionnaire & Questionnaire through
internet)

95
Cont’d
Observation Method: this is a primary method
of data collection that is used to gather data
by employing vision as the only technique of
collection.
Personal Interview: this is a method that
requires the interviewer asking questions in
face-to-face contact with respondent.
 Personal interview can be of two types:
Structured interviews & Unstructured
interview.
96
Cont’d
Telephone Interview: a method that uses to
collect information by contacting respondents
through telephone.
In general, interviewers should follow the
following basic principles while conducting
interview:
• Ask only one question at a time
• Repeat the question if necessary

97
Cont’d

• Listen carefully to the subject‟s answer

• Observe the interviewee‟s physical expression
• Give sufficient time to answer the question

98
Cont’d
Questionnaire: the most common method of
data collection for survey is self-administered
questionnaire.
 Questionnaire is a form containing a cover
letter that explains about the person
conducting the survey and the objectives of
the survey, and a set of related questions
which will be answered by the respondents.

99
Cont’d
 One of the most important points in preparing
questionnaire is that all questions in it must
have relevance to the objectives of the survey.

 In short, the following points should be kept

in mind while designing a questionnaire:

100
Cont’d
 A Question should be simple, short and easy
to understand and it should convey one and
only one idea.
 Technical terms should be avoided.
 Sensitive questions should be avoided.
 Leading questions should be completely
avoided.

101
Cont’d

 Answers to the questions should not require

any calculation.
 Questions should be capable of objective
answers.

102
Cont’d
Interview Questionnaires: are list of questions
(questionnaires) that are either delivered by
hand to be answered by respondents or read
by the trained interviewer to respondents and
record the answer given.
 Having questionnaires administered by the
interviewer have many advantages than
questionnaires filled by the respondents.
Some of the advantages are:

103
Cont’d
• Higher response rate.
• Decreased number of “I don‟t know” and “no
answer”.
• Probing for an answer.
• Providing a guard against confusing
questions.

104
Cont’d
Mail Questionnaires: are questionnaires sent by
post to the person concerned (respondent) with a
request to answer the questions and return them
back by a certain post address.
 Mail questionnaires have low response rate.
 But, this response rate can be improved by
following up mailing and other techniques like
good ethical considerations in the questionnaire,
making items (questions) clear, etc.

105
Cont’d
Questionnaires Through Internet: are
questionnaires sent through internet (email)
to be furnished with the appropriate answers
by the intended respondent and returned back
after filled, through the same media (internet)
of a particular email address.

106
3. General Guidelines for Questionnaire
Preparation

 Keep the language simple.

 Keep questions short but effective.
 Avoid double barreled questions.
 Avoid questions in negative manner.
 Ask questions only where respondents are
likely to have the knowledge needed to answer.

107
Cont’d

 Try to ensure that the questions mean the

same thing to all the respondents.
 Avoid prestige bias.
 Avoid direct questions on sensitive topics.
 Avoid creating options.

108
4. Collection of Secondary Data
 It is a method of data collection through which
the researcher does not obtain the data
directly, rather he or she gathers them from
published and/or unpublished materials
(sources).
 Secondary data should be used with utmost
care.
 The investigator, before using these data,
must observe that they possess the following
characteristics:
109
Cont’d

 Reliability of Data
 Suitability of Data
 Adequacy of Data

110
 Chapter 6
Sampling Techniques, Data Processing,
Analysis & Interpretation

111
1. Definition of Sampling
 The general aim of sampling methods is to
obtain a sample that is representative of the
target population.

 So, sampling is selecting a number of units

from a defined population.

112
Cont’d

113
2. Basic Concepts Related to Sampling
 Population
 Census
 Sample
 Parameter
 Statistic
 Sampling Frame
 Sampling Unit
 Sampling Scheme
 Sampling
114
Cont’d
Census and Sample Survey

 Census is a complete coverage of all the

elements of the target population.

 Sample survey is a partial coverage of the

elements of the target population.

115
3. Reasons for Sampling
Some of the major reasons why sampling is
necessary are:
 The destructive nature of certain tests.
 The physical impossibility of checking all items in
the population.
 The cost of studying all the items in a population is
often prohibitive.
 The adequacy of sample results.
 To contact the whole population would often be
time consuming. 116
4. Types Sampling Techniques
 There several sampling methods which can be
broadly classified into two categories;
probability & non-probability sampling
methods.
 In probability sampling, each unit in the
population has an equal chance of being
included in the sample.
 In the non-probability sampling, the units are
drawn using certain amount of judgment.

117
Cont’d
Probability Sampling
1. Simple Random Sampling (Lottery Method &
Random Number Table Method)
2. Systematic Sampling
3. Stratified Sampling
4. Cluster Sampling
5. Multistage Sampling

118
Cont’d
Non-probability Sampling

1. Quota Sampling
2. Judgment Sampling
3. Convenience Sampling
4. Snowball Sampling

119
Probability vs Non-probability Sampling
Advantages Disadvantages
Probability Sampling
Minimal bias Expensive
Allow for estimation of sampling errors Inconvenient
More authentic Time consuming
Problematic with large population
Technically skilled operator required

Non-probability Sampling
Convenient Results can be generalized
Economical Maximum bias
Less time consuming Authenticity very debatable
Less skilled operator required Weaker type of sampling
120
5. Sampling Error & Non-Sampling Error
 Sampling Error refers to the random variations
in the sample estimates around the true
population parameters and they tend to decrease
with increase in the size of the sample & when
the population is homogenous.
 Non-sampling Error are errors that arise from
sampling procedures i.e., they can be occurred
out of one or more of the following factors:

121
Cont’d
 Inappropriate sampling frame
 Defective measuring device
 Enumerators mistake in measuring what is
supposed to be measured, and in analysis and
reporting the data.

122
Cont’d
Unlike sampling errors, non-sampling errors
will not decreased by increasing the sample
size, however, they can be reduce by:

 Designing an accurate (valid) measuring

instruments
 Giving enough training to the enumerators on the
way to collect an accurate data
 Checking the adequacy of the sampling frame
123
6. Data Processing & Analysis
Data Processing Operations

• Editing
• Coding
• Classification
• Tabulation

124
Cont’d
Analysis of Data

 Analysis can be categorized in to two:

1. Descriptive analysis &

2. Inferential analysis

125
Cont’d
Descriptive Analysis: this includes:
 Data organizing (classification, tabulation,
frequency distributions)
 Data presentation (graphical & diagrammatic
presentation)
 Calculations of certain indicators of data like
measures of central tendency and measures of
dispersion (variation)

126
Cont’d
Inferential Analysis: this includes:
 Determining relationships between variables
 Regression analysis
 Performing hypothesis testing
 Making predictions
 Chi-square tests
 Analysis of variance (ANOVA) etc.

127
7. Results Interpretation
 Interpretation refers to the task of drawing
inferences from the collected facts after an
analytical and/or experimental study.
 In fact, it is a search for broader meaning of
research findings.
 The task of interpretation has two major aspects;
(i) the effort to establish continuity in research
through linking the results of a given study with
those of another & (ii) the establishment of some
explanatory concepts.

128
Cont’d

 Thus, interpretation is the device through

which the factors that seem to explain what
has been observed by researcher in the course
of the study can be better understood and it
also provides a theoretical conception which
can serve as a guide for further researches.

129
 Chapter 7
Research Report Writing & Presentation

130
1. Definition of Research Report
 As a logical conclusion, at the end of a given
scientific activity/research comes writing of a
report.
 Such a report is called a research
report/paper.
 A research paper is a report of original
research finding organized into several
sections according to a format that reflects the
logic of a scientific argument.

131
2. Contents of Research Report
The major contents of a research report are:
 A title page  Materials & Methods
 List of tables (if any)  Results
 List of figures (if any)  Discussion
 Acknowledgement  Conclusion
 Table of contents  References
 Abstract/Summary  Appendix (if any)
 Introduction

132
Cont’d
Title:
 The choice of a title depends on the question
that the author wants to address.
 A good title attracts potential readers.
 Generally, a title should be coined in less than
ten words and must be appropriate for
indexing systems.

133
Cont’d
Hence, a title:

 Should be clear and informative

 Should be indicative of the content
 Should be comprehensive and brief
 Should be easy for accurate indexing
 Should be concise and descriptive

134
Cont’d
Abstract/Summary:
 The abstract is a self-contained synopsis of the report.
 The emphasis of the abstract is on the results and
conclusion.
 It takes the objectives from the introduction, makes a
brief reference to the materials and methods and
directly goes to summarizing the results and closes
with the conclusion.
 It is an extremely shortened summary of the paper
usually capsule into 100 - 250 words.
135
Cont’d
The abstract must be informative, telling in
a condensed form about:
 What was done during the research process
 How it was done (materials, methods, procedures)
 What the results mean (implications and insights)
 It should summarizes the major points of the paper
 It should be specific and concise
 It should be given in a single paragraph
 It should be able to stand by itself and make sense.
136
Cont’d
Introduction:
 In one or two paragraphs the author(s) must be able to
explain why the study was undertaken.
 The introduction sets the stage for the scientific
argument that is going to be provided later in the
paper.
 It places the work into a broad theoretical context.
 It should include a brief background of the area of
study and the problem, summary of the pertinent
literature to orient readers and indicate the gaps in
knowledge.
137
Cont’d
Materials and Methods:
 The materials and methods section provides
enough information on the materials used and
the methods followed so that others could
repeat the study.
 It elaborates on the methods by telling where
and when the study was conducted.
 The results of a study will be considered valid
when the materials are of the right type and
the methodology is correct.
138
Cont’d
Results
 This is where the findings of the research are
directly reported.
 The author should summarizes the data and
illustrate the findings using different presentation
tools.
 The results have to be presented by directly
reporting the outcome from each research activity.
 The researcher should provide the statistical details
and analysis to support the generalizations and
explanations. 139
Cont’d
 The results of most scientific findings convey sound
information when they are given in quantitative
manner and in graphic form.
 Tables and figures must be prepared with care and
used with skill.
 Tables are used for presenting numerical values, to
summarize and emphasize verbal material.
 Figures are used to illustrate patterns, trends,
relationships (graphs), and positions in space and
structures (internal and external).
140
Cont’d
Discussion
 The discussion of a scientific paper is
essentially an argument forwarded about the
hypothesis based on the results.
 It is an important section of the paper in
which the author examines the results
thoroughly and device techniques of
summarizing the results.

141
Cont’d
It interprets the results by:
 Supporting conclusions with evidence.
 Giving the main scientific principles indicated by
the results.
 Consolidating generalizations reached.
 Pointing out the similarities and differences.
 Comparing the results with the other similar
findings, speculating causes and significance and
showing how conclusive the results are.

142
Cont’d
 Identifying sources of error (if any)
 Emphasizing implications and stimulation
aspects
 Recognizing the goodness of negative results
such as no significance, no relationship, no
direct relation, inverse relation, etc.
 Conveying confidence and authority in the
results.

143
Cont’d
Conclusion
 Emphasize the main finding.
 Relate the main findings to future directions
in research and application or change in
behavior.
 Give recommendations if the study has
practical relevance.

144
Cont’d
References

 Under this section all literatures cited should

be listed following one of the many
referencing styles.

145
3. Ten Reasons Why Reports Fail

 There is no logical structure.

 Ideas are not well thought out.
 Work is disorganized.
 Assumptions are made which cannot be
justified by evidence.
 There are too many grammatical and spelling
mistakes.

146
Cont’d (Reasons)
 Sentences and/or paragraphs are too long or
too obscure.
 It is obvious that ideas and sentences have
been taken from other sources.
 There is too much repetition.
 There is too much irrelevant information.
 Summary and conclusions are weak.

147
4. Oral Presentation
 Another method of presenting your research
findings is through an oral presentation.
 This may be at a university or college to other
students or tutors, at a conference to other
researchers or work colleagues, or in a work
place to colleagues, employers or funding bodies.
 Power point is a useful presentation graphics
program which enables you to create slides that
can be shared live or on-line.

148
5. DO‟S While Making Oral Presentation
 Arrive early and make sure the room is set out in
the way that you want.
 Make sure that all the equipment is available and
that you know how to work it.
 Try to relax and breathe deeply.
 Acknowledge that this is your first presentation
and people will tend to help you along.
 Produce aide memoirs, either on cards, paper,
transparencies or presentation software such as
PowerPoint.
149
Cont’d
 Make it clear from the outset whether you are
happy to be interrupted or whether questions
should be left for the end.
 If you have invited questions, make sure you
make every effort to answer them.
 Look around the room while you are speaking
if it‟s a small group, make eye-contact with as
many people as possible.

150
Cont’d
 Present interesting visual information such as
graphs, charts and tables in a format which
can be viewed by everyone. This could be
transparencies, slides, PowerPoint or
handouts.
 Alter the tone and pitch of your voice, length
of sentence and facial/hand gestures to
maintain audience interest.
 Show that you are interested in your subject.

151
Cont’d
 Produce a paper or handout which people can
take away with them.
 Talk to people after your presentation and ask
them how it went, whether there are any
improvements they might suggest for future
presentations.

152
6. DON‟TS While Making Oral Presentation
 Rush in late, find that the overhead projector
doesn‟t work and that you have no pen for the
white board.
 Worry about showing your nerves. Everybody gets
nervous when they first start giving presentations
and your audience should know this.
 Read straight from a paper you have written.

153
Cont’d
 Get cross if you are interrupted and have not
mentioned that you don‟t want this to happen.
 Invite questions and then do not answer them
or patronize the inquirer.
 Look at your notes, never raising your head.
 Produce visual information which people can‟t
see, either due to its size or print quality.

154
Cont’d
 Present in a monotone voice with no
facial/hand gestures.
 Make it clear that your subject bores the pants
off you.
 Let the audience go home without any record
of what you have said.
 Run away never to be seen again.

155
THE END OF THE COURSE!!

ANY QUESTION?

156