MODULE 1

CHAPTER

1
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
GENERAL CONCEPTS OF PSYCHOLOGY

After studying this chapter, you should be able to…

1. Define and discuss what psychology is
2. Explain the goals of psychology
3. Identify the branches, methods and importance of psychology

Psychology is a part of everyday life. In a practical, sense, it involves a body of information

that concerns behavior, experience and thoughts, as one perceives or observes others.
There are many concepts in the study of psychology by different well-known psychologists
depending on their points of view. Ethymologically, Psychology comes from the Greek words
“psyche” meaning mind and “logos” meaning study. Psychology then is a study of the mind or
cognitive process that underline human behavior.
Wundt, James, and Watson as cited by Davidoff (‘87) shared their ideas on the definition
of psychology.
According to Wilhelm Wundt, psychology is the study of conscious experience. This
concept keeps psychology focused in the mind but it requires that the method used is scientific.
William James attests that psychology pertains to finding out how psychological nature
helps people adapt themselves to a complex and changing world.
John Watson asserts that psychology is focused on the study of covert (unobservable) and
overt (observable) behavior that one can see and can be measured scientifically.
Regardless of the areas of specialization, there is a common link in the general idea on the
study of behavior and mental process. However, when one looks at the study of “behavior and mental
process”, it must be understood to mean more things than those discussed and thought of.
Psychology pertains not just on what people do but includes their thoughts, feeling,
perceptions, reasoning, and memories. Even their biological activities that keep the body functioning.
Psychology tries to explain, predict, modify, and ultimately improves the lives of people and
the world where they live.
Behavior which pertains to a number of human activities can be explained in a practical way
by this illustration:

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 internal
stimulus external
Human behavior physical
response mental simple complex
glandular

The human behavior relates to stimulus and response. One says that stimulus is a physical
condition which is internal (covert) unobservable behavior or external (overt) observable behavior.
Internal stimulus comes from within the body as felt headache, stomach pain, abdominal crump,
hunger, feelings, or thought. External stimulus originates from the environment like noise, prick or
pinch.
Response is a behavior that result from the stimuli. Response can be physical like turning
the head; mental like making a decision and glandular like salivation upon smelling a delicious food.
These physical, mental and glandular responses may be simple like smiling to an acquaintance or
complex like winking an eye to a bright light or quick movement in playing badminton and other sport
activities.

Psychology: Its Historical Beginning

Psychology is a new science. Its development involves the following concepts.
The earliest view of psychology was speculative and metaphysical and related to animism.
Animism is the belief that everything in the surrounding is inhabited by supernatural being. That, even
gravity is attributed in an animistic term: things fall to ground because the spirit within the object
wanted it to be reconciled with Mother Nature.
Psychology started as a component of philosophy, an idea attributed to Rene Descartes, the
Father of Modern Philosophy (Carlson,’87).
Plato, who believed that human awareness was a continuation of pre-existing consciousness,
attested that the soul governs behavior, and referred this this three functions: the rational situated
in the head , the emotional found in the heart and the irrational located in the abdomen.
Aristotle, a philosopher, based his study on the mental life of man through observation,
experience and memory. He attributed the process of memory to primacy, frequency, contiguity,
recency, vividness and similarity.
During the middle ages, deductive reasoning was emphasized, Francis Bacon used objective
facts in this kind of observation.
The word psychology made its first appearance in the English language in 1693.
Although it can be said that psychology, as mentioned earlier, originated not only in many
discipline but also in many countries, it can be said that in Germany four men were considered to be
first to apply experiment method on the subject matter of psychology.
Wilhelm Wundt founded the first formal psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany.
This event marked the formal birth of psychology as a science, thus Wilhelm Wundt became the
“Father of Modern Psychology.”
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 Gustav Theodore Fechner in his experiment showed the relationship between the physical
qualities of a sensory stimulus and the result of the sensation which requires the understanding of
human characteristics that make sensation possible.
Herman Von Helmholtz has a peculiar interest in the speed of neural impulses, audition
and vision that contribute to the knowledge of sensation.
Gustav Theodore Fechner and Herman Von Helmholtz were both interested in the study
of behavioral impulses not for itself but because it was related to the problem in physics. They were
considered “Grandfathers of Psychology.”
Ernst Weber, an anatomist and physiologist began his work that results in the development
of the method of measuring the magnitude of sensation particularly the sense of touch.
William James, an American Philosopher transplanted psychology to the United States.
This made him the first American Psychologist.
Sir Francis Galton’s influence in psychology has fathered mental test and the study of
individual differences.
Sigmund Freud, an Austrian expounded the theory of personality and the interpretations of
dreams.
Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist pioneered the study of learning.
Jean Piaget, a Swiss biologist was concerned with the observation of children.

Goals of Psychology
Psychology as a science aims to contribute to the storage of knowledge so that man many
improve the conditions under which he lives. Specifically, aims of psychological as a science are:
 To describe behavior. This helps one to know what is the nature of behavior? For instance
what happens to a person who slid on the flight of stairs and fell on the floor with head on?
Will there be brain injury? Surely one can describe that the person who met the accident may
show some unusual behavior.
 To understand behavior. This tries to explain and interpret facts about behavior. The
person who met an accident was observed to be dragging one foot slowly while walking.
One may ask why does this behavior occur? Here, one will know that there might be
damage in the brain.
 To predict behavior. This will make one observe how the person who met the accident
behaves in the future. If he does not seek medical help the damage part of his brain may
continue to deteriorate.
 To control behavior. This is achieved after describing, understanding and predicting
behavior. For instance, fast medical assistance to the person after the accident may prevent
serious damage to his brain or to any part of his body.
Schools of Psychology
The early beginning of the psychology as a science was characterized by the appearance of
“school” of psychology. School is made up of a group of psychologists who are associated with the
leaders of the movement. They have the same ideas about psychology and how it should be studied.

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The different school of Psychology are:
 Structuralism – was expounded by Edward Bradford Titchener, an outstanding pupil of
Wilhelm Wundt.
Structuralism is based on the idea that the concern of psychology is to analyze consciousness
into basic unit of experiences. This conscious experience was divided into three basic components:
 Physical sensations;
 Affections or feelings; and
 Images.
Structuralism used introspection or observation of conscious experiences. Introspection is
the procedure employed in the study of the mind. Here the subjects are required to describe in detail
their experiences while exposed to the stimuli.
Functionalism – Functionalism was established by William James, the first American
recognized psychologist. This school is concerned with the utility of how conscious processes
function in the adjustment of man to his environment. James believed that psychology should focus
on true-to-life everyday experiences.
Gestalt Psychology – This is an approach in psychology that focuses on the organization of
perception and thinking in a “whole” sense rather than on the individual elements of perception. The
“credo” is that the whole is greater than the sum of all the parts because the whole has a meaning
derived from the relationship of the part to its other. Gestalt is a German word that is simply translated
into “unified form” or “overall shape (configuration), it is a school of psychology that is attributed
mainly to Max Wertheimer, who is a German.
Behaviorism – John Watson who fathered behaviorism stressed the use of objective facts
gathered through actual observation of what an individual does not on what he thinks about something.
According to Watson psychology should study observable and measurable behaviors. Behaviorism
stressed the importance of learning the environment and events that shaped behavior. He further
pointed out that behavior can be understood in terms of the stimulus-response formula.
Psychoanalysis - This school of psychology was founded by Sigmund Freud an Austrian. This school
was based on his theory of unconscious motivation and its effect on human behavior. Freud’s theory
states that much of our behavior is governed by hidden motives and unconscious desires. According
to him, (Hurlock ’82) personality maladjustment in adult life is traced from childhood experiences
which may have been represseBranches of Psychology

Psychology covers a wide area such that psychologists have directed their studies to different
fields or specific branches. The American Psychological Association (APA) classified psychology
into different branches.
General Psychology studies the underlying principles of human behavior. It tries to interpret
how and why people behave the way they do in specific situation.
Experimental Psychology borders on pure research. It points to the methodology by which
behavioral processes are studied and experimented. It studies the process of sensation, perception,
learning and thinking.

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 Developmental Psychology focuses on the various stages of development from pre-natal to
old age, specifically how people grow and change throughout the course of their lives.
Comparative Psychology investigates the behavioral differences of various organisms and
species to discover similarities and differences between animals and humans.
Education Psychology deals with psychological problems in the field of education and how
the educational process affects the students.
Social Psychology is the study that centers on all aspects of people’s interpersonal behavior
– social thoughts, feelings, attraction, aggression and social influence.
Industrial-Organizational Psychology (Feldman,’93) is the study that deals with the
psychology of the workplace, the employees’ motivation and productivity, job satisfaction and
leadership.
Environmental Psychology is concerned with the relationship of people to the physical
environment.
Personality Psychology (Bacon ’93) is founded on sound individual differences,
characteristics or traits, a person displays across a vast range of situations.
Clinical Psychology involves the application of clinical method of diagnosis and treatments
to persons who are severely disturbed and those suffering from emotional and adjustment problems.
Mental illness, delinquency, during addiction are the concerns of clinical psychology.
Cognitive Psychology focuses directly on the study of higher mental processes like
thinking, learning, reasoning, decision making, problem solving, language and memory.
Cognitive psychology which is a new development in the field of psychology includes computer
science which provides the cognitive psychologists tools for information processing model and
“artificial intelligence” (AI).
Forensic Psychology is a division of applied psychology that studies legal issues like
knowing what criteria determine whether an accused person is mentally competent to stand trial. It is,
likewise concerned with the collections, examinations and presentations of psychological evidences
for judicial purposes.
Community Psychology is a field of specialization that focuses on mental health of the
community, not on individuals. It is concerned with the problems of the aged, drug problems and
rehabilitation, and the treatment of prisoners.
Health Psychology is a branch of psychology that examines the relationship of
psychological factors and physical illnesses or diseases. It also deals with the prevention of diseases
and promotions of good health.
Counselling Psychology is concerned with normal problems of everyday living and guides
individuals in their normal development.
Engineering Psychology is a developing specialized area in psychology. It is concerned
with the development of man – machine system. It is fitting man and machine together, such that both
function well. This branch of psychology is referred to as “human engineering” (Bustos, etc. al.,’99).

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 Consumer Psychology is a specialized branch of Psychology which is concerned with the
buying habits of consumers and the effects of advertisements on people.
Legal Psychology is another new developing field in psychology which involves the
application of psychology in legal proceedings.
Sport Psychology studies psychological factors in sports and other exercises.
School Psychology. The branch of psychology devoted to assessing children in the
elementary and secondary schools who have academic or emotional problems and developing
solutions to their problems.

Methods Used in Psychology

Introspection. Introspection or self-observation is a procedure employed to study the
component of the mind, here the respondent is asked to relate in detail what he is experiencing when
exposed to a specific situation. For instance, a psychologist, who wants to use introspection in his
study of love, makes himself actually fall in love. While in this state of emotion, he records his own
behavior, his thinking, daydreaming and other mental processes. Then he reports his analysis about
what love is. Because introspection is based on personal experience, there is a tendency for bias on
the psychologist himself.
Observation. This is most widely employed method in psychology. In fact psychology is
referred to as observation of behavior. Observation can be a field of observation, free observation,
and direct observation.
Field Observation is the simplest form of observation which does not attempt to control
conditions or get the subject to cooperate. Field study is usually successful if the subject is not aware
that he is being observed.
Free observation is indirect. Being such, free observation is unlimited.
Direct observation is specific. It has rules and requirements to be followed. Observation has
one criticism; the observer here tends to be bias.
Biographical Method. This method traces the development of the individual in order to
understand his behavior at different stages of life. The study of the person’s development has three
forms namely:
 Day book method which is used in child study and development. This resembles the ‘baby
book’ wherein the mother records the first smile, first teething, first word and others.
 Case history method is usually used in abnormal cases. This traces the development of the
individual’s behavior from birth to find out the background of the observed and underlying
causes of such behavior.
 The biography study method studies the lives of person either living or dead. Catherine
Cox Miles employed this method in studying the famous persons born between 1450-1850.
(Amparo, Tuason, ’92)
Experimental method. This is the most scientific and modern method used in trying to
understand behavior. This method uses mechanical aid and other accurate measuring devices to make

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the finding reliable. Experimental method started in Leipzig, Germany when the first psychological
laboratory was opened by Wilhelm Wundt. The experimental method uses chronological steps:
formulation of the problem, experimentation and conclusion.
Importance of Psychology
A knowledge of psychology is important in understanding individual differences like
physical traits, emotional stability, mental capacity, beliefs and interest. Floyd L. Rich as cited by
Amparo , Tuason ,’92 pointed out the following :
 Psychology makes a person fully aware that no two individuals are exactly alike. Knowledge
of individual’s physical attributes, mental capabilities, emotional soundness and social
competencies help in the understanding of a person’s behavior.
 Psychology makes a person understand that the way to interpret the environment depends
on a number of things. The physiological and psychological structures of the person make
him react differently in different situations. For instance, a person who is hungry may eat
any available food to satisfy his hunger while another one may look for a decent eatery where
there is a variety of food to choose from. A student finds satisfaction in just passing the
subject he is enrolled in while his classmates strive to be honor students.
 Psychology helps one gain deep insights into the significance of many aspects of human
desires. Because individuals have different human desires, psychologists should assist them
reach higher efficiency in their everyday activities and in their relationship with others.
 Psychology helps a person develop himself into a well-integrated and happy individual.

Psychology in the Philippines

Psychology in the Philippines started 1910. Two years after the founding of the University
of the Philippines, Psychology was taught at the department of Philosophy and Psychology in the
College of Liberal Arts. The following are some of the important persons who gave birth to
psychology in the Philippines as a very important subject:
 Dr. Henry S. Townsed, an American who headed the Department of Philosophy and
Psychology, also taught General Psychology, Genetic Psychology, Educational Psychology
and Test & Measurement in the University of the Philippines.
 Psychology, separated from the Department of Philosophy, became a part of the College of
Education when this college was created in 1918. The Department was headed again by Dr.
Townsend who continued to take charge of the Department of Philosophy at the College of
Liberal Arts.
 Dean Francisco Benitez, under his able leadership, the University of the Philippines
modeled in the entire country the curricular utilization of psychology in Education.
 The Department of Psychology was established in the University of Sto. Tomas in 1930.
 Sinforoso Padilla organized the Psychological Clinic at the University of the Philippines
in 1932.
 Jesus Perpinan started the Psychological Clinic at the Far Eastern University in 1933.
 Angel de Blas OP, put up the Experimental Psychological Laboratory in the University of
Sto. Tomas in 1938.
 Estefania Aldaba-Lim started Institute of Human Relations at the Philippine Woman’s
University in 1948.

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 Joseph Goertz established the Psychology Department at the San Carlos University in
1954.
 Fr. Jaime Bulatao opened the Department of Psychology and the Central Guidance Bureau
at the Ateneo de Manila University and other subject & services in Psychology.
 Virgilio Enriquez founded the Pambansang Samahan ng Sikolohiyang Pilipino in 1975.
Other universities in the Visayas and Mindanao likewise established Psychology
Department in 1975 and onward.
From then on, came many personages who made outstanding names in the field of Psychology.

Exercise 1
A. True or False. Write T if the statement is correct. If it is incorrect change the underlined
word/words with the right terms to make the statement correct. Put your answers on the
spaces provided for.
1. The earliest concept of psychology is related to animism.
2. Psychology is the study of human behavior.
3. Wundt was the first American who introduced psychology in America.
4. Legal psychology is comparative psychology.
5. According to the Gestalt psychology the whole is more than the sum of all its parts.
6. Buying habits and the effects of advertisements to consumers are studied in Social
Psychology.
7. According to Sigmund Freud a person’s behavior is governed by hidden motives.
8. Psychology deals with observable and unobservable behaviors.
9. Aristotle attests in his study that mental life of the person is through observations
and memory.
10. Had it not been for Wilhelm Wundt, psychology would not have been considered a
science today.

B. Multiple Choices. Encircle the letters of the correct answers.

1. The School of psychology that emphasizes the basic unit of experiences is referred to
as:
a. Behaviorism c. Functionalism
b. Structuralism d. Psychoanalysis

2. The branch of psychology that presents the underlying principle of human behavior is:
a. Experimental Psychology c. General Psychology
b. Comparative Psychology d. Personality Psychology

3. According to Sigmund Freud much of a person’s behavior is governed by:

a. Hidden unconscious desire c. Reflexes
b. Desire to hide insecurity d. Emotions

4. He opened the first experimental psychological laboratory which earned him the title of
“Father of Modern Psychology”.

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 a. Wilhelm Wundt c. William James
b. Edward Titchener d. John Watson

5. The year when psychology started in the Philippines was on:

a. 1901 c. 1910
b. 1908 d. 1904

6. One method used in psychology that traces the development of the individual in the
different stages of life in order to understand his behavior is:
a. Experimental c. Biographical
b. Observation d. Introspection

7. The method in psychology which uses chronological step is:

a. Experimental c. Field Study
b. Biographical d. Observation

8. Psychology in its early beginning was a component of

a. Science c. Philosophy
b. Physics d. Psychology itself

9. The person who believed that psychology should focused on true to life everyday
experiences was:
a. Edward B. Titchener c. Max Wertheimer
b. Sigmund Freud d. William James

10. This is a branch of psychology that is concerned with the behavior of buyers:
a. Consumer psychology c. Engineering psychology
b. General psychology d. Legal psychology

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 CHAPTER

2
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

After studying Chapter 2, you should be able to…

1. Explain the nature of “human development”.
2. Explain and enumerate the factors of development
3. Be familiar in the development stage.

The Growing Fetus

Factors of Development
Genetic pertains to the study of Heredity which refers to the inborn factors inherited from
both parents and which determine one’s development. The development of the individual is caused
by two interacting forces, heredity and environment.
Heredity or Nature is the transmission of traits or characteristics from parents to offspring.
It provides the raw materials from which the individual is made up. It carries the hereditary potentials
like physical (height, weight, shape of the face or complexion), Mental (intelligence, manner of
thinking, decision making) Social (friendliness, shyness, or aloofness) Emotion (maturity, stability of
feelings, acceptance of comments, strength of characters) and Moral (attitude, beliefs, values of right
or wrong, good or bad).
Environment or nature is the sum total of forces or experiences that a person receives from
conception to old age. This includes the family, friends, schools, nutrition and other agencies which
one is in contact with. These forces that determine one’s behavior and experiences are influenced by
the inborn traits.
The power of heredity is great but it also related to the power of environment. Although traits
are subject to variation yet it depends on the limit set by environment. For instance, body size is
hereditary. Let us say that one is born thin or slender but it can be altered by what a person does
probably through exercise, nutrition and health habits which are governed by environment.
Environment constantly interact with heredity to shape a person to what he will be or what he will do.
(Feist, et. al., 2010)

The Beginning of Life

Female at birth has about 400,000 immature ova in her two ovaries, right and left. One ovum
is the size of a period and the largest cell of the female human body. Generally, every menstrual cycle
the ovary expels one mature ovum to the fallopian tube during ovulation.

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 The sperm is an elongated cell that is shaped like a tadpole. It is the smallest cell of human
body. It is only 1/100 inch from the head to the tail. The male gonad or testes produces several
millions of sperm a day (Papalia, 1993) and are ejaculated in the semen during sexual activity.
Life start from the moment of fertilization where conception begins. Fertilization is the
meeting of the ripe female sex cell, called ovum from the ovary, and the male sex cell, called
spermatozoa from the testes, in the fallopian tube. The fallopian is the passages of the ovum from
the ovary to the uterus. The fertilized egg cell now known as zygote contains all the hereditary
potentials from the parents. This zygote goes to the uterus and continues to grow for a period of about
280 days or 9 calendar months or 10 lunar months gestation.
The spermatozoa contains 23 pairs of chromosomes 22 of which are pairs of x chromosome
and one unpaired a Y chromosomes. The ovum also contains 23 pairs of chromosomes which are all
X. Both male and female chromosomes contains several thousands of genes. Genes are small particles
in string-like formation which are the true carrier of hereditary characteristics of the parents.
Within the genes is a substance could deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA which is the code of heredity.
DNA contains information and instruction about the newly created organism. It programs the changes
and the traits that should take place due to maturation and the period for their appearance.
Maturation is the unfolding of the inherent traits. During the fertilization when an X paired
chromosome that comes from the father meets the X chromosome from the mother the resulting
combination is an XX which is female offspring. However, when the Y chromosome from the father
meets the X chromosomes from the mother, the resulting combination is an XY which is a male
offspring.

How Twins Come About

Generally, humans are singleton (one birth) but at times humans can give multiple birth (two
or more birth).
Every menstrual cycle a female ovary expels one ripe ovum to the fallopian tube. By luck of
nature, two sperms happen to meet and fertilize this single ovum. When this happens the ovum splits
into two separate fertilize zygotes. This becomes an identical twins or monozygotic twins. Identical
or monozygotic twins are usually alike and of the same sex.
However, there is another happening. When the ovary either from the right or left expel two
ripe ova and these two are penetrated and fertilized by two sperms and the resulting offspring is also
a twin called fraternal or dizygotic. Usually fraternal twins are not alike and of different sex.

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Development Stages
An individual undergoes definite stage of development. In each stage the child has to
experience certain developmental characteristics to prepare him for the next stage.
Prenatal Stage. This stage start from conception to birth which lasts for a period of 280 days
or 9 months or 10 lunar months gestation. Prenatal stage is divided into 3 periods.
 Period of the zygote. This is from fertilization to the end of the second week. The size of
the zygote is as big as a pinhead. It has no source of nourishment but it is kept alive by the
yolk in the ovum.
 Period of embryo. This is from the second week to the end of the second lunar month. In
this period all the important structures and features start to function. It is now possible to tell
the sex of the child. The embryo forms into three germ layer which also form different organs

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 and tissues. The mesoderm forms the skeletal system, muscles and, skin. The endoderm
becomes the lining of the respiratory tract, the tempanic membrane, eustachian tube,
and the glands. The ectoderm forms the central nervous system and the peripheral
nervous system.
During the prenatal period the accessory apparatus develops.
Accessory Apparatus:
a. The placenta - source of nourishment. The placenta absorbs the nourishments from the
mother.
b. Umbilical Cord - only real connection between the unborn child and mother which
carries the nourishment and oxygen from the mother to child.
c. Amniotic sac - thin membrane that houses the fetus and protects it from injury.
 Period of the fetus. This start from the end of the second month to birth. During this period,
the important structures that were formed during the embryonic period continue to grow and
develop. There are fetal activities like kicking, and twisting. At this period the fetus is already
viable which means that it can live outside the mother’s uterus even if born prematurely, say
7 months (Bustos, et. Al.,’99). By the eight month, the fetal body is completely formed.
Infancy. This covers the period from birth to the second week. Infancy is the shortest and
most dangerous period. The infant displays different reflexes such as pupiliary, grasping, gurgling,
rooting, babinsky, etc. Infancy subdivided periods:
 Period of Partunate. From 15-30 minutes after birth which begins when the fetus has
emerged from the mother’s body and lasts until the umbilical cord is cut and tied.
 Period of the Neonate. From the cutting and tying 0f the umbilical cord to the end of the
second week.
Babyhood. At this period from 2 weeks of life to 2 years the baby has already attained some
amount of independence. Babyhood is the true foundation age because the patterns of behavior,
attitudes and habits laid at this stage will determine the individual’s development and adjustment in
later years.
Childhood. This period covers the 2 nd year of life to 10 or 12 years. Childhood is the
formative years in values, habits attitudes and behavior. This is likewise development of skill and
mastering these skills are very important.
Puberty. Short period that covers the later part of childhood and early part of adolescence.
This is a time of rapid growth and change. Puberty is called Age of Manhood.
Adolescence. Teen years 13-19. At this period the individual is now considered a young
adult. Adolescence is a period of search of identity.
Adulthood. Stage where the individual is considered a responsible person. This is the longest
stage covering the 19-40 years. Adulthood is a settling down and a reproductive age.
Middle Age. This period start from 40-60.It is a period of transition from healthy adults to a
change of patterns of life.

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 Old Age. Covers 60 years of age to senescence of end of life. This is the time of decline,
physically, emotionally, mentally and socially.

Principles of Heredity
There are some principles that govern heredity:
 Principle of reproduction. This asserts that “like beget like” meaning human produces
human, animal produces animal. Children resemble their parents in some traits or their
grandparents in some characteristics. Heredity produces similarities among those who
belong to the same family.
 Principle of variation. If heredity produces similarities, it also produces dissimilarities or
variations. In a family even if there are many similarities yet there are some differences like
complexion, shape of face of body built. Variation also is seen in the color of the skin of say
the Americans, the Asians, Europeans and Africans.
 Principle of chance. Usually one egg ripens at ovulation period. Ovulation is the process of
escape of spermatozoa that enter the fallopian tube. As to which sperm fertilize the ovum
and produces combination of genes is a matter of chance.
 Principle of dominance and recessiveness. It is said that characteristic traits are sure to
appear in the children whenever they are present. These are the dominant traits. There are
other characteristic traits that do not appear in children whenever the opposite traits are
present. They show themselves only in the absence of the dominant traits. These are the
recessive traits.
 Principle of sex-linked characteristics. There are traits that are carried by chromosomes
which determine sex or genosomes and are only found in certain sex. Examples of sex-linked
characteristics are hemophilia and baldness sex characteristics are inherited only by male.

Motor Development
Generally motor development depends on maturation, training and exercise. Some abilities
develop at almost the same age while some at early or later years.

Stage of Motor Development

The moment the child walk steadily alone, he is ready for advance activities like running,
jumping, hopping.

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Speech Development
The child has to learn to speak as a form of communication and for gaining independence.
At the early stage, cooing, crying, babbling and gesturing are the means of the child’s communicating
to adults. Language begins when the child produces bubbling sound a pre-speech of communication.
Bubbling produces vowels and consonant which encourages parents to interact verbally with their
children.
Later the child produces syllables, words or word sentences. The progress of the child’s
development depends on maturation and the significant people in the home. A child who is often
talked to, early in life learns also to talk early.

Emotional Development
There are common emotions that children manifest at an early age. These are anger, fear,
love, and joy. Anger arises when the movement of young children is hampered. Fear is elicited when
there is loud noise, stranger, dark room, high place or animals. Love is stimulated when the child is
kissed, hugged, played or cared for.
There are stages of love that a young child shows such as the following:
 Auto-erotic stage. At the very life, infant finds interest in his body and body processes.
 Narcissistic stage. At this stage the child’s love-object is the self. This is the “I, Me, and
Mine” stage. It is an egocentric stage.
 Parental stage. At this stage the child has strong attachment to his parents. Since the mother
is most concerned with the child’s necessities and comfort, she becomes the first object of
attachment.
 Sexual latency stage. There is no prominent during this stage, in fact, boys and girls are
hostile to each other.
 Homosexual stage. During pre-adolescence, boys and girls show affection for their own sex
and feel happy when they are with their own sex. Strong friendship with the same sex
develops at this point.

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  Heterosexual stage. It is at this stage when affection for opposite sex develops. Boys and
girls show interest and prefer the company of each other.
Emotion in babies are simple but as the child grows a little older there are emotional reactions
manifested.

Moral Development
The home is the strongest influence in the moral development of the child. The correct
patterns of behavior, attitude and habit displayed by parents and other significant people, will be
acquired by the young child. Training the child in knowing what is good and bad should be consistent.
Parents should make the child understand that good behavior is rewarded and bad action is
reprimanded or punished.
Some possible effect on the development of the embryo and fetus during pregnancy
(Rathus, 1990) as cited by arenas (2004)
 Alcohol – mental retardation, addiction, hyperactivity and undersized body;
 Aspirin – (large doses) respiratory bleeding;
 Caffeine – (coffee, soft drinks, chocolate) stimulates the fetus & other affect;
 Cigarette – undersize, premature delivery & fetal death;
 Cocaine – spontaneous abortion and neurological problems.
 Heavy metal - (lead, mercury) hyperactivity, mental retardation and still birth;
 Heavy sedation during labor – brain damage, asphyxiation;
 Marijuana – birth defect;
 Paint fumes – (substantial exposure) mental retardation;
 Rubella – (German measles)mental retardation, damage nerves, impair vision and hearing;
 Vitamin A – ( large doses) cleft palate, and eye damage;
 Vitamin D – ( large doses) mental retardation; and
 X-ray – malformation of organs.

16
 Exercises 2
A. Matching Type: Match the different definitions in Group A with the correct concepts in
Group B. Write the letters on the blanks provided for.

A B

1. Transmission of characteristics traits from parents a. Puberty

to offsprings. b. Amniotic sac
2. Code of heredity. c. Placenta
3. Source of nourishment. d. 46
4. Stage of love when the infant finds interest in his e. Genes
body processes. f. Narcissistic stage
5. The shortest life span. g. Heredity
6. Unfolding of inherent traits. h. Auto-erotic
7. Number of chromosomes that children have. i. Neonate
8. Meeting of ripe ovum and spermatozoa. j. Babbling
9. Hereditary carrier. k. Maturation
10. Thin membrane that houses the fetus. l. Deoxyribonucleic acid
11. Age of manhood m. Environment
12. The factor that molds the individuals to what they n. Umbilical cord
will be. o. Childhood
13. Term for a newborn baby. p. 23
14. The “I, Me, & Mine” stage of love q. Fertilization
15. Pre-speech of babies. r. infancy

B. Explain the following:

1. Children do not exactly resemble the parents, why?
2. Childhood is the formative years. What does this mean?
3. Why is adolescence a time of searching for identity?

17
CHAPTER

3 MECHANISM OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to…
1. Describe the nature of a human behavior.
2. Explain the functions of financial system.
3. Explain the relationship between household income and spending at various stages
4. Define the kinds of financial intermediation
a. Denomination intermediation
b. Default risk intermediation
c. Maturity intermediation
d. Information intermediation

5. Explain the regulation of the financial system

To understand the nature of behavior, it is important to know the physiological mechanism

of the human body. There are three mechanisms of human behavior that help the individual to respond
and interact with the environment. These are the receiving mechanisms or receptors, the connecting
mechanisms or connectors and reacting mechanisms or reactors.

The Receiving Mechanism

The different sense organs (eyes, ears, nose, mouth and skin) of the body receive the stimuli
from the environment. They are called mechanism of receptors. There are three kinds of receptors of
the human body that receive the outside stimuli.
Exteroceptors. A person becomes aware of the color, shape, smell, taste, sound, heat,
softness or roughness and cold of his environment through the receptors which are located in the eyes,
ears, nose, mouth and skin.
Proprioceptors. The proprioceptors are situated in the linings of the tendons, muscles and
joints. The nerve linings which are connected with the nerve pathways to the brain make the muscles
feel the sensations.
Interoceptors. Interoceptors are found in the linings of the respiratory, digestive and
genital – urinary tracts. These nerves when stimulated produce organic sensation associated with
hunger, thirst, sex and excretion.

18
The Eyes and Visual Sensation
The eyes give the sense if vision which allows one to see the world. In this regards, one has
to consider the stimulus that produces vision which is light. The eyes reacts the light which causes
visual sensation.
The eye are ball has-shaped so that they move in different directions. It is found within a bony cavity
called eye socket. The eyeball has three coats. These are:
 Sclerotic coat is a bulging tough white membrane that forms the cornea. The cornea is a
transparent protective window into the eyeball.
 Choroid coat. The front part of the choroid is the iris. The iris is the colored part of the eye.
The color of the iris depends on the human race whether, brown, blue, green, gray or even
violet.
At the middle of the iris is a dark hole called pupil; it is where the light enters. The size of
the pupils’ opening depends on the amount of light in the environment. Dark light in the surrounding
makes the pupils open wider to allow more lights to enter.
Once light passes through the pupil, it enters the lens which is located behind the pupil. The
lens act to bend rays of light to focus them on the retina.
 Retina. The retina which is the innermost coat and the photosensitive area of the eyes is the
true receptor cells. There are the rods and cones in here. The rods are long and cylindrical
while the cones are short, thick and tapered. The rods and cons are distributed unevenly
throughout the retina.
The center of the retina is the fovea centralis which is the point of the clearest vision in the
daylight. The fovea centralis is a very sensitive region of the retina. There is a great concentration of
cones in the fovea centralis. The cones become fewer and the rods become numerous towards the
periphery or edge. At the center of the periphery there are more rods and fewer cones. Farther away
from the fovea are fewer cones but more rods.
Cones and rods differ not only in structures but also in functions. The rods are responsible
for twilight vision or light of low intensity while the cones are responsible for daylight vision and
colors. Nocturnal animals like the owls or bats have only rods. That is the reason why they come out
only at night. Chicken on the other hand have only cones so they have to roast at twilight. (Amparo
Tuason,’92)
When light energy strikes the rods and cones, it starts a chain of events which transform light
into neural impulses that communicate to the brain through the optic nerve. The optic nerve is a
bundle of ganglion axons at the back of the eyeball. It carries visual information to the brain.
As the optic nerve leaves the retina, there are neither rods nor cones. This part is called the
blind spot. During the daylight an object is seen more effectively by looking at it so that it becomes
focused on the fovea centralis. At twilight, an object maybe seen more clearly by turning the head and
looking through the corner of the eyes.

19
These illustrations show how images are seen by the eye.
The optic nerves coming from each eye splits at the
optic chasm. Optic chasm is a point between and behind
the eyes wherein the more impulses from the optic nerve
are reserved in the brain. This means the image to a
person’s right is sent to the left side of the brain, and the
image to the person’s left is transmitted to the right of the
brain.
Night Blindness. There are people who have
limited perception of light and colors. People who find
difficulty in seeing light or object at night are called
night-blind because they have defective rods. Night
blindness results from deficiency in the pigmentation
layer in the retina which supplies rhrodopsin or reddish
purple substance that changes when energized by light
causing a chemical reaction. Deficiency in vitamin A causes the rhodopsin in the retina to lose its
regenerative power. Night blindness can be corrected by taking large doses of vitamin A. vitamin A
is richly found in green, leafy and yellow fruits and vegetables.
Common Eye Deviation from Normal Vision. There are individuals who suffer defects
from normal visions such as:
 Myopia or Nearsightedness. This is caused by abnormal long eyeball so that the image is
focused in front of the retina. Myopia or nearsightedness persons can see near objects. They
cannot see objects at a far distance. They have to use eyeglasses with concave lenses.
 Hyperopia or farsightedness. This happens when the eyeball is so short that the image is
focused behind the retina. Persons with this defect can see clearly at a far distance. They find
difficulty in seeing near objects. Hyperopic persons have to use eyeglasses with convex
lenses to correct the condition.

20
  Presbyopia. This is farsightedness of old age which is caused by the slow hardening of the
lens. Since the eyes cannot see near object one has to put the object a little away from him
in order to visualize it. A presbyopia person has to use corrective eyeglasses.
 Astigmatism. This is caused by the uneven curvature of the cornea. This generally is
congenital (from birth) but it may be caused by injury or inflammation. Too much eyestrain
may contribute to astigmatism. Astigmatism can be remedied by corrective eye glasses.
 Cross-eye. General cross- eye is congenital farsightedness or defect in the eye muscle. Cross-
eyed persons have unequal vision in the two eyes. The cross-eye squint maybe internal or
external. Cross-eyed persons have no eyed either turned outward or inward. Some have both
eyes turned outward and some both turned inward. Cross-eye can be remedied if done early.
The treatment may be through exercise or operation. There is a big chance of success if the
treatment is done before the child turns six years old. (Amparo, Tuason,’92)
 Turnel Vision. This is condition caused by a concentric narrowing of the field of vision so
that a person seems to be looking through a tunnel of pipe. To bring the different part of the
environment within the field of vision, a person is forced to make abnormally large
movement of the head and eye.
 Diplopia or Double Vision. This is the condition caused by the muscular imbalance which
permits light to be reflected from one point to fall on non-responding receptors in the two
retinas so that two different images are transmitted to the brain. It is the defect caused not
just by inherent weakness of the muscles involved but likewise by the disease caused by
different poisons or temporarily by alcohol.
 Scoma. This is a condition resulting from excessive use of tobacco or alcohol, or from over
exposure to light producing temporary or permanent blind spot, interfering with vision. This
is can also be accompanying some disease like migraine. (Arenas, 2006)

Other Visual Defects

 albinism – is a rapid, involuntary side movement of the eyeball or optic nystagmus;
 cataract – the lens of the eyes changes from clear transparent structure to a cloudy or apaque
eyes; and
 Diabetic retinopathy – is a leading cause of new cases of blindness characterized by
hemorrhaging of the tiny vessels of the retina, as a result vision is blurred or distorted. (Vega
and Prieto, 2009)

The Ears and the Auditory Sensation

The eras are the sense organs for hearing and the stimulus; it is made sensitive by the sound
waves which is caused by the vibration of objects. Sound has tree features: loudness (magnitude of
the sound), pitch (high or low) and timbre (the quality of sound). The ears consist of three parts: the
outer ears, middle ears and inner ear.

21
 PARTS OF THE EAR
The outer ear or auricle known as pinna is the visible part of the ear that catches the sound
and brings this sound into the auditory canal down to the middle ear. The auditory canal is a tube-
like passage in the ear though which sound moves to the eardrum. The eardrum is a miniature (small)
drum that vibrates when sound waves hit it. The louder the sound, the more it vibrates.
The middle ear is a small chamber (room) which has tiny bones called malleus or hammer,
the incus or anvil and steps or stirrup. The malleus or hammer transfer vibration to the anvil or
incus. The anvil or incus transfer the vibration to the stirrup or stapes, and the stirrup brings the
vibration to the oval window. The oval window is a thin membrane between the middle ear and the
inner ear.
The inner ear is the component of the ear that actually changes the sound vibration into a
form that can be transmitted to the brain. When sound enters the inner ear though the oval window it
moves to the organ of corti within the cochlea. The cochlea is a coiled tube filled with fluid that
looks like a snail. Inside the cochlea is a basilar membrane. The basilar membrane is a structure that
runs through the cortex of the cochlea dividing it into the lower and upper chambers (rooms). The
basilar membrane is covered with hair cells. The hair cells are bent by the vibration entering the
cochlea through a neural message or sound and are transmitted to the brain.
It is said that not all sounds can be heard by the human ears. Generally, sound vibration with
a frequency of 20-20,000 vibration per second can be heard by the human ears. Most animals can be
sounds beyond this range. (Amparo, Tuason,’92)
Hearing defects. There are some persons who suffer hearing defects which are organic in nature.
 Conductive Deafness is the result of disturbance in the conduction of air waves from the
outer ears to the inner ears. Defects of the small bones, (the oval window and basilar
membrane) which amplify sounds prevent the flow of vibration. This defect can be remedied
by the use of a hearing aid.

22
  Nerve Deafness is caused by the loss of sensitivity of the receptors. Injury or infection to
the nerve cells or auditory nerves may lead to partial or total deafness. When there is loss of
sensitivity to some sound frequency partial deafness may result. Total deafness cannot be
helped by a hearing aid.

The Sense of Smell and Olfactory Receptors

It is said that smell is a distance sign and a sensitivity that informs a person about the presence
of the object even before one has an actual contact with it. The sense of smell or olfactory receptor
is located in the upper part of the nasal cavities in a small space called olfactory region. There are
large members of sensitive nerve endings known as olfactory bulbs. These receptors are very
sensitive to gaseous elements. Here are some classifications or qualities that describe odor or smell:
 flowery scent – comes from blooming flowers such as sampaguita, rose, ilang-ilang, and
other fragrant flowers;
 ethereal smell – refers to perfume or cologne;
 fruity smell – is found in fruits like orange, mango and pineapple;
 pepperminty – emits from garlic, pepper, onions, and mustard;
 resinous – is detected in turpentine , paint, varnish and lacquer;
 Smoky or scorched- comes from burn paper, feather, leaves; and
 Putrid stink - results from salted fish like bagoong, buro, patis, decaying fish or meat.
There are some substances however that are combinations of two or more odors and they are
quite difficult to specify the common odor of alcohol, gasoline and methane.
Sensitivity to smell varies among people working in paint factory, garbage site and other
places where the smell is quite strong and unpleasant, become used to it after a long exposure. The
unpleasant odor does not bother them anymore like it did before.
Some persons at times suffer loss or impairment of the sense of smell called anosmia. Severe
cold may result in partial anosmia. Some people have anosmia for certain odor but not for others.
Smelling certain odor may make the receptors insensitive to one door but not to all odors. For example,
after smelling paint for quite sometime a person may not be able to smell gasoline but can still smell
betadine.

Taste Receptors and Gustatory Sensations

The receptor cells for taste are located in the taste buds which are distributed across the
tongue. However, the distribution is uneven and certain areas of the tongue are more sensitive to a
particular fundamental taste than others. There are tiny hair cells within the taste buds. These hair
cells are connected to a nerve that reacts when taste stimuli cut in the taste pores. The taste receptors
are sensitive to liquid. This means that solid food maybe tasted only when it has been dissolved whole
or partly by saliva.

23
 Parts of the tongue where the different tastes are
specifically locate.
There are four taste qualities: sweet, sour, bitter and
salty. Generally sweet is perceived at the tip of the,
sour taste is found on the sides, bitter taste is at the
back and salty is perceived in the entire area of the
tongue. Oftentimes, two or more primary tastes form
a different one. Example, lemonade is a combination
of sweet and sour taste.
Of course, the sense of taste does not operate
simply though the tongue as anyone with stuffy nose can tell. Smell, temperature, texture and
appearance of food and drink all effect a person’s sense of taste. One can say that there is a difference
in taste between hot coffee, lukewarm coffee and cold coffee or even iced coffee. Coffee without its
peculiar smell that comes from hot coffee does not taste like coffee at all. The smoothness or
roughness of the food alters the taste of the food to the tongue. Powdered sugar and granulated sugar
taste somewhat differently to some degree although both are sweet.
Some people have gustatory abnormalities, either they are insensitive to taste or have loss
sensitivity to it. Loss of taste or hypogeuia is generally accompanied by loss of smell or anosmia.
Hypogeuia and anosmia are oftentimes caused by serious respiratory infections within the nasal
passages which have been extremely congested and obstructed. This condition may cause much
suffering to the hypogensics. Most of these people hate food because they are tasteless so that they
lose much weight.

Skin Receptors and Continuous Sensations

The sense organ involved in the sense of touch is the skin. The skin cutaneous sensations
respond to touch, pressure, warmth, cold and pain. Psychologists say that pressure and touch are
the same but they actually differ. If the skin feels an object on it, the sensation aroused is touch. Pain
and pressure are referred to us sensation aroused pressure. Pain and pressure are referred to us tactual
or tactile experiences. Warmth and cold are called thermal experiences. (Bustos, et. al., ’80)
The different parts of the body differ in their degree of sensibility to the various stimuli.
Some parts are more sensitive to touch while others are more sensitive to cold, pain, heat or pressure.
This is because the skin is composed of different layers namely:
• The epidemic or outer layer;
• The dermis or intermediate layer; and
• The adipose tissue or the deep layer.
Sensitively of the skin to the various stimulation is not equally distributed. Lips and fingertips
are very sensitive to touch and pressure. Skin tissue is sensitive to pain when pinched or pricked. The
calf of the leg is sensitive to cold so women wear nylon stockings to keep them warm.

24
 Usually cold receptors respond to cold stimuli and warm receptors to hot stimuli. But there
are is an exception to this reaction. The application of intense heat will stimulate the cold receptor and
the application of intense cold will stimulate the warmth receptor. (Amparo, Tuason, ’92)

Vestibular Sensation
This is the sense of balance that gives information about one’s body as a whole and its
position relation to the pull of gravity and balance. The vestibular apparatus is located in the inner
ears which are composed of the vestibular sacs and semicircular canals. These thin tubes are filled
with fluid that moves and presses on hair-like receptors whenever the head rotates. Messages that pass
through these canals are converted to neural impulses that are carried to the brain. Example: dizziness
or nausea during space flight is caused by the overloading of the vestibular sense. Normally vestibular
and kinaesthetic senses work together to give one a sense of his own physical reality, something that
one takes utterly for granted.

Kinesthetic Reaction
The proprioceptors are the kinesthetic receptors. These are found in the muscles, tendons,
and joints, and are related to the posture of the body and the movement of its part. When any part of
the body moves, the contractions and extensions of the muscles and tendons excite these nerve endings
which send the impulse to the brain. Proprioceptors in the joints are chiefly responsible for the posture
and movement while those in the tendons are the causes of aches and pains resulting to extreme
exertions.

Connecting Mechanism
The connecting mechanism is made up of the nervous system. The nervous system is made
up of two main parts, the central nervous system (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).

Central Nervous System

A schematic diagram of the relationship of the parts of
the Nerve System.
The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain
and spinal cord.
The brain is encased in the skull which is a very tough set
of bones. It is responsible for the interpretation of sensory
impulses, coordination and control of the body activities
and expressions of emotions and thoughts. The brain is
divided into three main parts:
• Forebrain. The forebrain is located at the front of
the brain. This consist of the cerebrum, cerebral cortex,
thalamus and hypothalamus. The cerebrum is the largest
of the brain mass. Its principal part of the cerebral cortex
which is the seat of higher mental process, abstract reasoning, planning and higher order
of thinking. The thalamus a forebrain structure receive information’s to the cerebral cortex

25
 for processing. The thalamus is also responsible for wakefulness and sleep. The
hypothalamus serves as the integrating center of many kinds of physiological activities such
as eating, drinking, maintaining body temperature and sex. It also involves emotional
responses and homeostasis.
• Mid-Brain. This part of the brain serves as the connecting link between the hindbrain and
the forebrain. It connects the sensory and motor pathways between the lower and upper
portions of the nervous system. Parts of the mid brain have important role in the visual and
auditory activities.
• The hindbrain. The hindbrain is closed to the spinal cord. It is composed of the medulla
oblongata, the pons and the cerebellum. The medulla oblongata is the connecting link
between the spinal cord and the brain proper. It plays important functions in the essential
physiological processes like respiration, heartbeat, breathing, and blood circulation. The
pons lies in the brain stem just a little above the medulla oblongata. It serves as a connection
center is involved in the motor coordination and equilibrium too. The cerebellum is located
under the back of the cerebrum. Its function is to maintain posture and smooth out complex
muscular coordination like walking, writing and even dancing.

The spinal Cord. The spinal cord is a large rope-like segments of nerve tissues running along the
spine carrying message between the brain and the peripheral nervous system. In the spinal cord are
spinal nerves which divide into two roots - the dorsal and ventral. The dorsal root carries sensory
nerve filers. The ventral root carries motor nerve fibers. If any of the spinal nerves be cut, the parts
of the body connected to them would be paralyzed.
• Amydala – a small almond structure located directly in front of the hypocampus which is
vital in processing emotional information’s particularly that which is related to fear
• Hypocampus – is a structure that wraps itself around the thalamus which plays an important
role in learning and mastery.
one would ask: How can one know how the brain works without opening the brain? Before,
it was difficult to study the parts of the brain unless the person is dead and the skull is opened.
Today, however, studying the brain is made possible without causing injuries by using brain
scan. The following are the different techniques:
 Brain Scan. Brain scan is a method of “photographing” the internal workings of
the brain without opening the skull.
 Electroencephalogram or (ECG) is a procedure that records the electrical signals
being transmitted inside the brain.
 Computerized Axial Tomography or (CAT) scan is a computerized scanner that
makes an image of the brain by putting together thousands of separate x-rays taken
at slightly different angles.
 Magnetic Resonance Imaging or (MRI) scan. A scanner that creates a powerful
magnetic field to provide a detailed computer-generated image of brain structures.
 Position Emissions Tomography or (PET) scan. A procedure to determined
activity within the brain at a given moment in time.

26
 The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS). The peripheral nervous system branches out from
the spinal cord and the brain, and extended to the extremities of the body. It carries information to and
from the central nervous system. This composed of two major divisions, the somatic divisions and
the autonomic divisions.
 Somatic Division- specializes in the control of voluntary movement of the skeletal muscles,
and the communication of information to and from sense organs.
• Automatic Divisions- is concerned with the parts of the body that makes it alive-the heart,
blood vessels, glands, lungs and other organs that function involuntarily without one’s
awareness. The automatic division has two subdivisions; the sympathetic and
parasympathetic.
The sympathetic subdivision is the part that prepares the body to respond to stressful
emergency situations. It increases heartbeat, raises the blood to the peripheral muscles.
The parasympathetic subdivision acts to calm and relax the body after the emergency
situations is resolved. Its action is generally dedicated to conserving the body’s energy. The
sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions work together to regulate many functions of the body. For
instance, during emergency the sympathetic division move into action and the parasympathetic
division controls the sympathetic division and restores the body into physiological equilibrium or
homeostasis.
Neurons. The specialized cells that are basic structural unit of the nervous system that
transmit messages are basic structural unit of the nervous system that message are neurons. Neurons
have principal parts: Cell body, dendrite, axon and synapse.
 Cell body. The cell body is found in the protoplasm which is the living part of the neuron.
• Dendrites. The dendrites are clusters of nerve fibers which carry messages towards the cell
body. The nerve fibers look like twisted branches of a tree.
• Axon. The axon is a long, slim, tube-like extensions which carries messages away from the
cell body.
• Synapses are point of connection between the dendrites of some neurons and the axons of
others.
Neurons are classified into three based on their functions. These are:
• Sensory of afferent neurons carry messages from the receptors to the spinal cord and send
them to the motor organs like the muscles and glands to secrete.
• Motor or efferent neurons carry messages from the brain and spinal cord and send them to
the motor organs like the muscles and glands to secrete.
• Connector neurons provide connection between the sensory and motor neurons. These are
found in the brain and spinal cord.
In the process of connection between neurons, synapses are formed. Synapses are junctions
between the dendrites of some neuron and the axon of others. These are gaps between the axon and
dendrite wherein chemical messages called neurotransmitters are communicated. Synaptic

27
connections differ in complexity. There are three levels of synaptic connections. These are the reflex
level, the instinctive level and the cortex level.
• Reflexes are simple inborn, automatic response of some parts of the body. They have
significant roles in the everyday behavior whether learned or unlearned inherent in the man’s
activities. The pupillary reflex or narrowing of the pupils of the eyes is in response to too
much light stimulation; the gagging reflex happens when an object is placed on the back of
the tongue, this is protective reflex. Coughing and sneezing can expel harmful foreign
matters from the wind pipe.
• The Instinctive level is common to all members of the species. Instinctive reactions are
related to natural and reproductive behaviours.
• The cortex level is most complex. Any activity that involves the thinking, reasoning,
memory, and imagination belongs to the cortex level.

The Reacting Mechanism

The reacting mechanism is composed of the muscle and glands. Muscles. There are
three kinds of muscles:
• Voluntary muscle. There are muscles that can be moved at the person’s will. Voluntary
muscles are sometimes called striped muscle because when seen under the microscope
they appear to have stripes. They are also called skeletal muscles because they attached to
have some bone muscles. These muscles have three names: voluntary, striped, skeletal and
they include the greater bulk of the muscular system
• Involuntary muscles. These are the muscle that cannot be moved at will. These muscle have
their own movement which are rhythmical. One good example of this movement is the
peristaltic movement of the intestine. The voluntary muscle are generally found in the
internal organs of the body that is why they are sometimes called visceral muscles. They are
also known as smooth muscles because they look smooth and no stripes are seen under the
Microscope.
• Cardiac muscle. Cardiac muscles are found in the heart that is why they are called heart
muscle. These muscles act like involuntary muscles, but their tough appearance and special
structure are like the voluntary muscles. Cardiac muscles are striped, yet they cannot be
moved or controlled at the person’s will.
Characteristics of Muscles. Muscles have interesting characteristics.
• Contractility is the characteristics of the muscles to change from a long narrow shape while
at rest and a shorter and thicker form while in action.
• Extensibility is the capacity of the muscles to be stretched or made longer.
• Elasticity is the power or the muscles to go back to its original size and shape after
contracting or stretching.
• Tonicity is the ability of the muscles to be in the conditions of healthy tension or partial
contraction at rest.
Functions of the Muscles. Muscle have very important functions:
28
 • Muscles give shape to the body. The firmer the muscles, the better shape the body has.
• Muscles secure the internal organs of the body and make these internal organs function
well.
• Muscles are made for motion. One cannot imagine how the body moves without those
muscles.
• Muscles are utilized for locomotion. Locomotion is a movement from one place to another.
The muscles make this possible.
• Muscle are used to produce heat in the body.
Glands. Glands are special secreting organs which pour the secretion either directly into the
blood streams or pass it through the ducts or canals. Glands that have no canals are the ductless gland
or endocrine glands, and those which have canals are the duct glands like the salivary glands,
sebaceous gland and others.
Endocrine Glands. Endocrine glands determined certain behavioural condition. These
secrete hormones, affect body growth and functioning. Hormones are chemicals that circulate
throughout the blood and affect the functioning and the growth of parts of the body. They also
influence many aspects of a person’s life from growth to reproduction, from metabolism to keeping
everything in balance while responding to stress and excretion. Over or under secretion of the
hormones cause certain abnormalities.
Pituitary Gland. The most influential gland which is the pituitary gland, is found at the base
of the brain. It is called the “master gland” because of its influence on the other endocrine glands. The
pituitary gland has two distinguishing parts: the anterior and posterior lobes
• The anterior lobes secrete growth hormone. Lack of supply of growth hormone in childhood
may result in some form of dwarfism-an individual who look like a small adult. Over
secretion of growth hormone in early life may cause gigantism, and over secretion of this
hormone in adulthood may cause acromegaly. Acromegaly is a condition marked by uneven
growth in some portions of the body, making it difficult for a person to be recognized as his
former self.
• The posterior lobes secrete two important types of hormones, the vasopresin which controls
the secretion of water through the kidneys and oxytocins which stimulate the breast to
produce milk.
Thyroid gland. The thyroid gland is located at the base of the throat. It is a flat-gland-like-
butterfly and secretes two known hormones thyroxine and indothyroxine. If there are under section
of these hormones in infants cretinism may result. Cretinism is a thyroid deficiency, then adult
myxedema results. Myxedema is thyroid characterized by the low basal metabolism. The less serious
result of the insufficient secretion of thyroxin is simple goiter. Goiter is the enlargement of the thyroid
gland. Goiter can be prevented by eating a good amount of sea foods.
Parathyroid glands. Parathyroid glands are found behind the thyroid gland. They produce
substance called Parathormone. Parathormone controls the balance of different minerals in the blood
stream specially calcium. Lack of supply of this hormone results in tetany. Tetany is stiffening of the
hand and finger, muscles cramps and irritability.

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 Adrenal gland. The adrenal glands are located on top of each kidney. Each gland is made
up of two parts; the adrenal cortex, and the adrenal medulla. Adrenal cortex secretes cortin. An
excess of cortin hastens the onset of puberty and develops male characteristics in female. The adrenal
medulla secretes adrenalin hormone which serves to give extra energy needed during emergency,
this is why his hormone is called emergency gland. It is said that the increased strength of the person
during times of stress can save one’s life.
Island of Langerhans. The island of Langerhans are very small bodies floating in the
pancreas. These secrete hormone insulin which are directly responsible in controlling the amount of
sugar or glucose in the blood. Underactivity of these small glands would cause a disease called
diabetes. Diabetic persons if given regular doses of insulin may still lead normal lives. It is believed
that diabetics has strong heredity factors.
Gonads. Gonads are sex glands. The gonads differ for male and female. The male gonads is
called testes that secrete the hormone called testosterone. Testosterone promotes male sex secondary
characteristics that make the male look masculine. The female gonads are the ovaries. The ovaries
secrete hormone called estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen is responsible for the secondary sex
characteristic. Progesterone stimulates the thickening of the uterine lining.

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 Exercise 3
A. Fill the blanks with the correct word/words to complete the sentence.
1. The person becomes aware of his environment through the ___________ which are in
the sense organ.
2. Cross-eyed can be corrected before the child turns. __________
3. __________ is a point between and behind the eye that reverses the image when it
reaches the brain.
4. The eyes are found within the __________ called eye socket.
5. This is the part of the eyes where light enters. __________
6. The __________ is the secreting organs which pour excretion either directly into the
blood stream or pour it through the duct.
7. This _________ determines certain behavior condition of the body.
8. When the muscles are in healthy condition, it is said that they maintain her __________.
9. __________ are muscles that act like voluntary muscles but actually they cannot be
moved at will.
10. When a person easily reacts to emergency situation, it is said that his __________
activates immediately.

B. Identification. Write the word referred on the blank before each number.
1. These are the parts of the ears that catch sound.
2. It is the kind of deafness caused by loss of sensitivity of receptors.
3. Is the miniature drum that vibrates when sound waves hit it?
4. What is that thin membrane located between the middle ear and the inner ear?
5. Is that tube-like passage from the outer ear?
6. When the eye reacts to the light it causes?
7. What do you call the large number of sensitive nerve ending?
8. What result when loss his/her sense of smell?
9. Why do people collecting garbage not show their annoyance anymore to the dirt and
smell?
10. Where is the sense of smell located?
11. These area are sensitive to touch or pressure.
12. Which receptors are found in the muscles, tendons and joints?
13. This is sensitive to pain when pricked.
14. It is the proprioceptors responsible for posture and movement.
15. The part of the legs that are sensitive to cold.
16. It serves as the relay station for sensory impulses to the cerebral cortex.
17. It is a large rope – like segment of nerve tissue.
18. The largest of the brain mass is?
19. Somatic and automatic division are found in the?
20. At times this is called stripe muscles?

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