JOHN B. LACSON COLLEGES FOUNDATION (BACOLOD), INC.

BASIC EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

DepEd ID No. 403019

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

LEARNING MODULE
GENERAL PHYSICS 1

Name: ______________________________________

Strand, Year & Section: ______________________________________

Contact Number: ______________________________________

Email: ______________________________________

Teacher: ______________________________________

Semester, School Year: ______________________________________

Prepared by:
BRANDO P. MONTERO, LPT, MAEd
 Welcome to the course of General Physics 1!

This module is an introductory course which will lead you to General Physics 2. This covers
introductory lessons from Kinematics to Thermodynamics. General Physics 1 is a specialized subject for
Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics and for Pre- Baccalaureate Maritime Specialization
(PBMS) strands. For the latter, it is deemed necessary that the topics and learning competencies in this subject
should prepare you to the need of the maritime course in the college either Bachelor of Marine Transportation
or Bachelor of Science Marine Engineering. And thus, series of brainstorming among the Mathematics and
Science faculty and the Deck and Engine professional instructors of the John B. Lacson Colleges Foundation-
Bacolod (JBLCF-B) resulted to the identification of these essential topics or the Most Essential Learning
Competencies (MELCs) as the Department of Education (DepEd) calls it. According to DepEd, MELCs shall
serve as primary reference of all schools, Schools Divisions, and Regional Offices in determining and
implementing learning delivery approaches that are suited to the local context and diversity of learners while
adapting to the challenges caused by COVID-19 (http://guroako.com/2020/05/15/most-essential-learning-
competencies-melcs-direct-download/).

From over a hundred competencies in the Curriculum Guide (CG) of DepEd, topics have been
streamlined, sieved out or sifted, and lumped together. They are then classified under the six historical
compartments of Physics such as the following:

To be taken in General Physics 1

1. Mechanics is the oldest and the most basic branch of physics deals with such ideas as inertia, motion,
force, and energy includes the properties and laws of both solids and fluids, of point masses, and of
continuous matter
2. Sound (acoustics) is concerned with vibrations and waves and with their recording, transmission, and
perception, as in music and speech

3. Heat includes the principles of temperature measurement, that is, the effects of temperature on the
properties of materials, heat flow, and thermodynamics- the study of transformations involving heat
and work

To be taken in General Physics 2

4. Light (optics) is concerned with the nature and propagation of light, including refraction that occurs
when light passes through prisms and lenses; of importance also are discussions of the separation of
white light into its constituent colors, the nature of spectra, and the wave aspects of light such as
interference, diffraction, and polarization
5. Electricity and Magnetism deal with still other aspects of matter and space in which the key concepts
are electric charge and current
6. Modern Physics is the fascinating portion of physics which deals with the interpretation and
extension of physics in light of key events which happened about 1900; the discovery of x-rays,
radioactivity, and the electron, and the formulation of quantum theory and the theory of relativity

If interested you can check on the complete list of Learning Competencies (LC) prescribed in the
Curriculum Guide (CG) of the DepEd in Appendix A, pp. 74-78 of this module. Essential topics/terms in
Science identified by the faculty of the Basic Education Department and the College of Maritime Education
of JBLCF-B in the First Semester of S.Y. 2019-2020 are also provided in Appendix B, p. 79 of this module.

The topics and learning competencies prescribed in the Curriculum Guide of the Department of Education
were compared vis-à-vis the essential topics identified by the instructors of the College of Maritime Education
and the teachers of the Basic Education Department of JBLCF-Bacolod. As results, this learning module
includes the following topics that are deemed essential for students in Pre-Baccalaureate Maritime
Specialization Strand leading to the maritime program in the college.

QUARTER 1
Module 1: Mechanics
Lesson 1 - Units, Physical Quantities, Measurements
1.1 Systems of measurement
1.2 Conversion of units

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 1.3 Measurement (steel rule, Vernier caliper, micrometer caliper)
1.4 Transformation of formulas
Learning Competency
1. discuss and solve problems involving units, physical quantities, and measurements.

Lesson 2 – Vectors
2.1 Vectors and vector addition
2.2 Components of vectors
Learning Competencies
1. discuss and solve problems involving vectors.
2. solve for the components of a vector.
3. determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant vector.

Lesson 3 - Forces, Work, Energy, Power

3.1 Forces
3.2 Newton’s laws of motion
3.3 Kinematics (motion along a straight line)
3.4 Energy
3.5 Kinetic energy
3.6 Potential energy
3.7 Power
3.8 Work
Learning Competencies
1. state and discuss the concepts and laws involving forces, work, energy, and power.
2. solve problems involving the concepts of force, work, energy, and power.

Lesson 4 - Fluid Mechanics

4.1 Pressure
4.2 Pascal’s principle
4.3 Archimedes’ Principle
4.4 Bernoulli’s equation
4.5 Flow rate
4.6 Transfer of fluids
Learning Competencies
1. discuss and solve problems involving concepts of fluid mechanics.

Lesson 5 - Momentum, Impulse, and Collisions

5.1 Momentum
5.2 Impulse
5.3 Impulse-momentum relation
5.4 Law of conservation of momentum
5.5 Collisions
Learning Competency
1. discuss and solve problems involving impulse and momentum and their relationships, law
of conservation of momentum, and collisions.

Lesson 6 - Center of Mass, Equilibrium, Elasticity, Simple Machines

6.1 Center of gravity
6.2 Conditions of equilibrium
6.3 Moment (torque)
6.4 Modulus of elasticity
6.5 Strain
6.6 Stress
6.7 Simple machines
Learning Competency
1. discuss and solve problems involving center of mass, conditions for equilibrium,
elasticity of materials, concepts of stress and strain, and simple machines.

QUARTER 2
Module 2/Lesson 7 - Sound (Acoustics)
7.1 Sound

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 7.2 Wave Intensity
7.3 Interference and beats
7.4 Standing waves
7.5 Doppler effect
Learning Competencies
1. discuss and solve problems involving the nature and characteristics of sound.
Learning Competencies
1. discuss and solve problems involving the nature and characteristics of sound.

Module 3/Lesson 8 – Heat

8.1 Gas laws
8.2 Heat exchange
8.3 Heat transfer
8.4 Specific heat
8.5 Temperature
Learning Competency
1. discuss and solve problems involving the concepts of heat and thermodynamics.

MODULE 1
Mechanics
Quarter: First Quarter
No. of Hours: 40 Hours

Lesson I: Units, Physical Quantities, Measurements

Learning Competency
At the end of the lesson, you shall be able to:
1. solve measurement problems involving conversion of units, expression of
measurements in scientific notation using some measuring devices and other measurement
scales

Key Terms/Ideas:

 In science, a measurement is a collection of quantitative or numerical data that describes a property of

an object or event. A measurement is made by comparing a quantity with a standard unit.

 Measurements are calibrated, which is to say they are compared against a set of standards in a system
so that the measuring device can deliver a value that matches what another person would obtain if the
measurement were repeated. There are a few common standard systems you may encounter:

 International System of Units (SI): SI comes from the French name Système International
d'Unités. It is the most commonly used metric system.

 Metric System: SI is a specific metric system, which is a decimal system of measurement.

Examples of two common forms of the metric system are the MKS system (meter, kilogram,
second as base units) and CGS system (centimeter, gram, and second as base units). There are
many units in SI and other forms of the metric system that are built upon combinations of
base units. These are called derived units.

 English System: The British or Imperial system of measurements was common before SI
units were adopted internationally. Although Britain has largely adopted the SI system, the
United States and some Caribbean countries still use the English system for non-scientific
purposes. This system is based on the foot-pound-second units, for units of length, mass, and
time.

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Performance Standards: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. solve, using experimental and theoretical approaches, multi concept, rich-context problems involving
measurement, vectors, motions in 1D, 2D, and 3D, Newton’s Laws, work, energy, center of mass,
momentum, impulse, and collisions
2. solve multi-concept, rich context problems using concepts from rotational motion, fluids, oscillations,
gravity, and thermodynamics

Eliciting Your Prior Knowledge

Try on this! Write your answer on the space provided.
1. What are the two systems of measurements?
___________________________
___________________________

2. What is a scalar quantity? a vector quantity?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

3. What are the three laws of motion?

__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
4. State the following principles or conditions:
a. Archimedes’ principle - ____________________________________________________________
b. Pascal’s principle - _______________________________________________________________
c. Bernoulli’s principle - _____________________________________________________________
d. Conservation of momentum - _______________________________________________________
e. Conditions of equilibrium - _________________________________________________________

Subject Matter Content

If I want to improve something I need to measure. If I want to study an object, I first must learn things
like how big it is, how heavy it is, and how long it is. In order to learn these things, I have to make some
measurements. The rest of this module explains how scientists measure things and what those measurements
mean. If you do fully understand the metric system and the English system, you can probably skip ahead to
the section labeled “Converting Between Units”.

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 Units of Measurement

Since we use units in all of our measurements, it is convenient to define a standard set of units that
will be used by everyone. This system of standard units is called the metric system. There are many other unit
systems in use today besides the metric system. In fact, the metric system is probably not the system with
which you are most familiar. You are probably most familiar with the English system. The unit of pounds
comes from the English system. However, pounds are not a measure of mass; they are a measure of weight.
The metric unit for weight is called the Newton. The English unit for mass is (believe it or not) called the
slug. Although we will not use the slug often, it is important to understand what it means, especially when
you study physics.

There is more to measurement than just grams, however. We might also want to measure how big an
object is. For this, we must use the metric system is unit for distance, which is the meter. You are probably
familiar with a yardstick. Well, a meter is just slightly longer than a yardstick. The English unit for distance is
the foot. What about inches, yards, and miles?

We also need to be able to measure how much space an object occupies. This measurement is
commonly called “volume” and is measured in the metric system with the unit called the liter. The main unit
for measuring volume in the English system is the gallon. To give you an idea of the size of a liter, it takes
just under four liters to make a gallon.

We also have to be able to measure the passage of time. When studying matter, we will see that it has
the ability to change. The shape, size, and chemical properties of certain substances change over time, so it is
important to be able to measure time so that we can determine how quickly the changes take place. In both the
English and metric systems, time is measured in seconds.

Manipulating Units

Now, let’s suppose I asked you to measure the width of your home is kitchen using the English
system. What unit would you use? Most likely, you would express your measurement in feet. However,
suppose instead I asked you to measure the length of a sewing needle. Would you still use the foot as your
measurement unit? Probably not. Since you know the English system already, you would probably recognize
that inches are also a unit for distance and, since a sewing needle is relatively small, you would use inches
instead of feet. In the same way, if you were asked to measure the distance between two cities, you would
probably express your measurement in terms of miles, not feet. This is why I used the term “Base English
Unit”. Even though the English system is normal unit for distance is the foot, there are alternative units for
length if you are trying to measure very short or very long distances. The same holds true for all English units.
Volume, for example, can be measured in cups, pints, and ounces.

This concept exists in the metric system as well. There are alternative units for measuring small
things as well as alternative units for measuring big things. These alternative units are called “prefix units”
and, as you will soon see, prefix units are much easier to use and understand than the alternative English
units! The reason that prefix units are easy to use and understand is that they always have the same

5
relationship to the base unit, regardless of what physical quantity you are interested in measuring. You will
see how this works in a minute.

In order to use a prefix unit in the metric system, you simply add a prefix to the base unit. For
example, in the metric system, the prefix “centi” means one hundredth, or 0.01. So, if I wanted to measure the
length of a sewing needle in the metric system, I would probably express my measurement with the
centimeter unit. Since a centimeter is one hundredth of a meter, it can be used to measure relatively small
things. On the other hand, the prefix “kilo” means 1,000. So, if I want to measure the distance between two
states, I would probably use the kilometer. Since each kilometer is 1,000 times longer than the meter, it can be
used to measure long things.

Now, the beauty of the metric system is that these prefixes mean the same thing regardless of the
physical quantity that you want to measure! So, if I were measuring something with a very large mass (such
as a car), I would probably use the kilogram unit. One kilogram is the same as 1,000 grams. In the same way,
if I were measuring something that had a large volume, I might use the kiloliter, which would be 1,000 liters.

Compare this incredibly logical system of units to the chaotic English system. If you want to measure
something short, you use the inch unit, which is equal to one twelfth of a foot. On the other hand, if you want
to measure something with small volume, you might use the quart unit, which is equal to one fourth of a
gallon. In the English system, every alternative unit has a different relationship to the base unit, and you must
remember all of those crazy numbers. You have to remember that there are 12 inches in a foot, 3 feet in a
yard, and 5,280 feet in a mile, while at the same time remembering that for volume there are 8 ounces in a
cup, 2 cups in a pint, 2 pints in a quart, and 4 quarts in a gallon.

In the metric system, all you have to remember is what the prefix means. Since the ‘centi’ prefix
means one hundredth, then you know that 1 centimeter is one hundredth of a meter, 1 centiliter is one
hundredth of a liter, and 1 centigram is one hundredth a gram. Since the ‘kilo’ prefix means 1,000, you know
that there are 1,000 meters in a kilometer, 1,000 grams in a kilogram, and 1,000 liters in a kiloliter. Doesn’t
that make a lot more sense?

Another advantage to the metric system is that there are many, many more prefix units than there are
alternative units in the English system. The table below summarizes the most commonly used prefixes and
their numerical meanings. The prefixes in boldface type are the ones that we will use over and over again.
You will be expected to have those three prefixes and their meanings memorized before you take the test for
this module. Once again, the commonly used abbreviations for these prefixes are listed in parentheses.

Remember that each of these prefixes, when added to a base unit, makes an alternative unit for
measurement. So, if you wanted to measure the length of something small, the only unit you could use in the
English system would be the inch. However, if you used the metric system, you would have all sorts of
options for which unit to use. If you wanted to measure the length of someone ís foot, you could use the
decimeter. Since the decimeter is one tenth of a meter, it measures things that are only slightly smaller than a
meter. On the other hand, if you wanted to measure the length of a sewing needle, you could use the
centimeter, because a sewing needle is significantly smaller than a meter. Or, if you want to measure the
thickness of a piece of paper, you might use the millimeter, since it is one thousandth of a meter, which is a
really small unit.
So you see that the metric system is more logical and versatile than the English system. That is, in
part, why scientists use it as their main system of units. The other reason that scientists use the metric system
is that most countries in the world use it. With the exception of the United States, almost every other country

6
in the world uses the metric system as its standard system of units. Since scientists in the United States
frequently work with scientists from other countries around the world, it is necessary that American scientists
use and understand the metric system. Throughout all of the modules of this chemistry course, the English
system of measurement will only be presented for illustration purposes. Since scientists must thoroughly
understand the metric system, it will be the main system of units that we will use.

Converting Between Units

Now that we understand what prefix units are and how they are used in the metric system, we must
become familiar with converting between units within the metric system. In other words, if you measure the
length of an object in centimeters, you should also be able to convert your answer to any
other distance unit. For example, if I measure the length of a sewing needle in centimeters, I should be able to
convert that length to millimeters, decimeters, meters, etc. Accomplishing this task is relatively simple as long
as we remember a trick we can use when multiplying fractions. Suppose I asked you to complete the
following problem:

There are two ways to figure out the answer. The first way would be to multiply the numerators and
the denominators together and, once you had accomplished that, simplify the fraction. If you did it that way, it
would look something like this:

You could get the answer much more quickly, however, if you remember that when multiplying
fractions, common factors in the numerator and the denominator cancel each other out. Thus, the 64 in the
numerator cancels with the 64 in the denominator, and the only factors left are the 7 in the numerator and the
13 in the denominator. In this way, you reach the final answer in one less step:

We will use the same idea in converting between units. Suppose I measure the length of a pencil to be
15.1 centimeters, but suppose the person who wants to know the length of the pencil would like me to tell him
the answer in meters. How would I convert between centimeters and meters? First, I would need to know the
relationship between centimeters and meters. According to Table 1.2, “centi” means 0.01. So, 1 centimeter is
the same thing as 0.01 meters. In mathematical form, we would say:
1 centimeter = 0.01 meter

Now that we know how centimeters and meters relate to one another, we can convert from one to
another. First, we write down the measurement that we know:

15.1 centimeters

We then realize that any number can be expressed as a fraction by putting it over the number one. So
we can rewrite our measurement as:

Now we can take that measurement and convert it into meters by multiplying it with the relationship
we determined above. We have to do it the right way, however, so that the units work out properly. Here ís
how we do it:

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 So, 15.1 centimeters is the same as 0.151 meters. There are two reasons this conversion method,
called the factor-label method, works. First, since 0.01 meters is the same as 1 centimeter, multiplying our
measurement by 0.01 meters over 1 centimeter is the same as multiplying by one. Since nothing changes
when we multiply by one, we haven’t altered the value of our measurement at all. Second, by putting the 1
centimeters in the denominator of the second fraction, we allow the centimeters unit to cancel (just like the 64
canceled in the previous discussion). Once the centimeters unit has canceled, the only thing left is meters, so
we know that our measurement is now in meters.

This is how we will do all of our unit conversions. We will first write the measurement we know in
fraction form by putting it over one. We will then find the relationship between the unit we have and the unit
to which we want to convert. We will then use that relationship to make a fraction that, when multiplied by
our first fraction, cancels out the unit we have and replaces it with the unit we want to have. We will see many
examples of this method, so don’t worry if you are a little confused right now.

It may seem odd to you that words can be treated exactly the same as numbers. Measuring units,
however, have just that property. Whenever a measurement is used in any mathematical equation, the units for
that measurement must be included in the equation. Those units are then treated the same way numbers are
treated. I will come back to this point in an upcoming section of this module.

We will be using the factor-label method for many other types of problems throughout this course, so
it is very, very important for you to learn it. Also, since we will be using it so often, we should start
abbreviating things so that they will be easier to write down. We will use the abbreviations for the base units
that have been listed in the table above along with the prefix abbreviations listed in Table 1.2. Thus,
kilograms will be abbreviated as “kg” while milliliters will be abbreviated as “mL.”
Since the factor-label method is used above, let’s see how it works in another example:

Example 1:

Converting Between Unit Systems

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 As you may have guessed, the factor-label method can also be used to convert between systems of
units as well as within systems of units. Thus, if a measurement is done in the English system, the factor-label
method can be used to convert that measurement to the metric system, or vice-versa. In order to be able to do
this, however, we must learn the relationships between metric and English units. Although these relationships
are important, we will not use them very often, so you need not memorize them.

Example 2:

More Complex Unit Conversions

Now that we have seen some simple applications of the factor-label method, letís look at more
complex problems. For example, suppose I measure the volume of a liquid to be 4,523 centiliters but would
like to convert this measurement into kiloliters. This is a more complicated problem because we do not have a
direct relationship between cL and kL. In all of the previous examples, we knew a relationship between the
unit we had and the unit to which we wanted to convert. In this problem, however, no such relationship exists.

We do, however, have an indirect relationship between the two units. Although we donít know how
many cL are in a kL, we do know how many cL are in a L and how many L are in a kL. We can use these two
relationships in a two-step conversion. First, we can convert centiliters into liters:

Then we can convert liters into kiloliters:

We are forced to do this two-step process because we do not have a direct relationship between two
prefix units in the metric system. However, we can always convert between two prefix units if we first
convert to the base unit. In order to speed up this kind of conversion, we can take these two steps and
combine them into one line:

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 You will be seeing mathematical equations like this one as we move through the subject of chemistry,
so it is important for you to be able to understand what is going on in it. The first fraction in the equation
above represents the measurement that we were given. Since we have no relationship between the unit we
were given and the unit to which we will convert, we first convert the given unit to the base unit. This is
accomplished with the second fraction in the equation. When the first fraction is multiplied by the second
fraction, the “cL” unit cancels and is replaced by the “L” unit. The third fraction then cancels the “ unit and
replaces it with the “kL” unit, which is the unit we wanted. This, then, gives us our final answer. Try to follow
this reasoning in Example 3.

Example 3:

Once again, the factor-label method is one of the most important tools you can learn for the study of
chemistry (and physics, for that matter). Thus, you must become a veritable expert at it. Try your hand at a
few more on your own problems so that you can get some more practice.

Derived Units

I mentioned previously that units can be used in mathematical expressions in the same way that
numbers can be used. Just as there are rules for adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing numbers, there
are also rules governing those operations when using units. You will have to become very adept at using units
in mathematical expressions, so I want to discuss those rules now.

Adding and Subtracting Units: When adding and subtracting units, the most important thing to
remember is that the units you are adding or subtracting must be identical: You cannot add grams and liters.
The result would not make sense physically. Since gram is a mass unit and liter is a volume unit, there is no
way you can add or subtract the two. You also cannot add or subtract kilograms and grams. Even though both
units measure mass, you are not allowed to add or subtract them unless they are identical. Thus, if I did want
to add or subtract them, I would have to convert the kilograms into grams. Alternatively, I could convert the
grams into kilograms. It doesnít matter which way I go, as long as the units I add or subtract are identical.

Once I have identical units, I can add and subtract them using the rules of algebra. Since 2x + 3x =
5x, we know that 2 cm + 3 cm = 5 cm. In the same way, 3.1 g - 2.7 g = 0.4 g. So, when adding or subtracting
units, you add or subtract the numbers they are associated with and then simply carry the unit along in the
answer.

Multiplying and Dividing Units: When multiplying and dividing units, it doesnít matter whether or
not the units are identical. Unlike addition and subtraction, you are allowed to multiply or divide any unit by
any other unit. In algebra,

10
 So, when multiplying or dividing units, you multiply or divide the numbers and then do exactly the
same thing to the units.

Let’s use the rules we’ve just learned to explore a few other things about units. First, letís see what
happens when we multiply measurements that have the same units. Suppose I wanted to measure the surface
area of a rectangular table. From geometry, we know that the area of a rectangle is the length times the width.
So, let’s suppose we measure the length of a table to be 1.1 meters and the width to be 2.0 meters. Its area
would be

Thus, cm3 (usually called “cubic centimeters” or “cc’s”) is a unit for volume. If you’ve ever listened
to doctors or nurses talking about how much liquid to put in a hypodermic needle when administering a shot,
they usually use “cc’s” as the unit. When a doctor tells a nurse, “Give the patient 4 cc’s of penicillin,” he or
she is telling the nurse to inject a 4 cm3 volume of penicillin into the patient.

Wait a minute. Wasn’t the metric unit for volume the liter? Well, yes, but another metric unit for
volume is the cm3 . Additionally, m3 (cubic meters) and km3 (cubic kilometers) are also possible units for
volume. This is a very important point. Often, several different units exist for the same measurement. The
units you use will depend, to a large extent, on what information you are given in the first place. We’ll see
more about this fact later.

Units like cm3 are called derived units because they are derived from the basic units that make up the
metric system. It turns out that many of the units you will use in chemistry are derived units. I’ll talk about
one very important physical quantity with derived units in an upcoming section of this module, but first I
want to make sure that you understand exactly how to use derived units in mathematical equations.
Let’s suppose I would like to take the volume that we previously determined for the box and convert
it from cubic centimeters to cubic meters. You might think the conversion would look something like this:

11
 Unfortunately, even though this conversion might look correct, there is a major problem with it.
Remember what the factor-label method is designed to accomplish. In the end, the old units are supposed to
cancel out, leaving the new units in their place. The way this conversion is set up, however, the old units do
not cancel! When I take these two fractions and multiply them together, the cm in the denominator does not
cancel out the cm3 in the numerator. When multiplying fractions, the numerator and denominator must be
identical in order for them both to cancel. Thus, the cm in the denominator above must be replaced with a
cm3 .
How is this done? Actually itís quite simple. Just take the second fraction and raise it to the third
power:

Now, since both the numerator and denominator have a unit of cm3 , that unit cancels and is replaced
with the m3 . So, a volume of 5.208 cm3 is equivalent to a volume of 0.000005208 m3 .

Since cubic meters, cubic centimeters and the like are measurements of volume, you might have
already guessed that there must be a relationship between these units and the other volume units we discussed
earlier. In fact, 1 cm3 is the same thing as 1 mL. This is a very important relationship, and it is something you
will have to know before you can finish this module. So, commit it to memory now:

1 cubic centimeter is the same as 1 milliliter.

Let’s combine this fact with the mathematics we just learned and perform a very complicated unit
conversion. I am hoping you can understand this next example.

Example 4:

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 Scientific Notation

Since reporting the precision of a measurement is so important, we need to be able to develop a

notation system that allows us to do this no matter what number is involved. As numbers get very large, it
becomes more difficult to report their precision properly. For example, suppose you measured the distance
between two cities as 100.0 km. According to our rules of precision, reporting 100.0 km as the distance means
that your measuring device was marked off in units of 1 km, and you estimated between the marks to come up
with 100.0 km. However, suppose your measurement wasn’t that precise. Suppose the instrument you used
could only determine the distance to within 10 km? How could you write down a distance of 100 km and
indicate that the precision was only to within 10 km?

The answer to this question lies in the technique of scientific notation. In scientific notation, we write
numbers so that no matter how large or how small they are, they always have a decimal point in them. The
way we do this is to remember that a number can be represented in many, many different ways. The number
4, for example, could be written as “2 x 2” or “4 x 1”or simply “4.” Each one of these are appropriate
representations of the number “4.” In scientific notation, we always represent a number as a something times
a power of 10. For example, ì50î could be written in scientific notation as “5 x 10.” The number “150” could
be written as “1.5 x 100.”

Do you see why this helps us in writing down the precision of our original measurement? Instead of
writing the distance as 100 km, I could write it as 1.0 x 100. How does this help? Well, according to our rules
of significant figures, the zero in 1.0 is significant, because it is at the end of the number and to the right of
the decimal. Thus, by writing down our measurement this way, we indicate that the zero was actually
measured and that the measurement is precise to within 10 km. There is no way to do that with normal,
decimal notation, because neither of the zeros in 100 are significant. Scientific notation, then, gives us a way
to make zeros significant if they need to be. If our measurement of 100 km was precise to within 1 km, we
could indicate that by reporting the measurement as 1.00 x 100 km. Since both zeros in 1.00 are significant,
this tells us that both zeros were measured, so our precision is within 1 km.

Now, since numbers that we deal with in chemistry can be very big or very small, we use one piece of
mathematical shorthand in scientific notation. Recall from algebra that “100” is the same as “102 .” We will
use this shorthand to make the numbers easier to write down. In the end, then, scientific notation always has a
number with a decimal point right after the first digit times a 10 raised to some power.

One other advantage of using scientific notation is that you can use it to simplify the job of recording
very large or very small numbers. For example, there are roughly 20,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 particles
in each breath of air that you take. Numbers like that are very common in chemistry. In scientific notation, the
number would look like 2 x 1022. That’s much easier to write down!
How did I know that I needed to raise the 10 to the 22nd power? I saw that in order to get the decimal
point right after the two, I would have to move it to the left 22 digits. Moving the decimal 22 digits is
equivalent to multiplying by 1022. So, when putting a large number into scientific notation, all you need to do
is count the number of spaces the decimal point needs to move, and raise the 10 to that power.

Physics also deals with very small numbers. For example, one of the things we will discuss in great
detail in several upcoming modules is a particle called a proton. The proton has a mass of about
0.00000000000000000000000000167 kg. Once again, this number is a real pain to write down. We will use
scientific notation to make our job a little easier. In scientific notation, the proton’s mass is 1.67 x 10-27 kg.
Why raise the 10 to the -27th power? When numbers are raised to the negative power, they are also inverted.
So, when you multiply a number by 10 raised to a negative power, you end up shifting the decimal place the
other way! In order to get the decimal point to be right after the ì1,î I had to move it 27 places. Since I moved
it to the right 27 places, I multiply it by 10-27. See how this works by following the two examples below, and
then make sure you understand this technique.

13
 Example 6:

How to Read a Metric Vernier Caliper

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vkPlzmalvN4&t=338s)

Evaluation
 “On Your Own”. Write your answer on the space provided.

1.A student measures the mass of a book as 12, 321 g. What is the book’s mass in kg?

2. If a glass contains 0. 121 L of milk, what is the volume of milk in mL?

14
 3. On a professional basketball court, the distance from the three-point line to the basket is 640. 08
cm. What is this distance in meters?

4. How many slugs are there in 123.5 kg?

5. If an object occupies 3.2 gallons of space, how many liters of space does it occupy?

6. A balloon is blown up so that its volume is 1,500 mL. What is its volume in kL?

7. If the length of a race car track is 2.0 km, how many cm is that?

8. How many Mg are there in 10,000,000 mg?

Assessment Tasks. Convert one system of measurement to another system of measurement.

Write your answer on the space provided.

1. A braggart tells you that he walks 100,000 cm each day. He expects you to be impressed with such
a big number. Should you be impressed? Convert the distance measurement to miles in order to
determine whether or not to be impressed.
(HINT: Earlier in this module, you were told how many inches are in a foot and how many feet are in
a mile. You must use those numbers to solve this problem.)

2. How many cm3 are in 0.0045 kL?

3. The area of a room is 16 m2 . What is the area of the room in mm2?

15
 4. Convert the following numbers into scientific notation.
(a) 26,789,000 (b) 123 (c) 0.00009870 (d) 0.980

5. Convert the following numbers from scientific notation to decimal form.

(a) 3.456 x 1014 (b) 1.2341 x 103 (c) 3.45 x 10-5 (d) 3.1 x 10-1

References

http://guroako.com/2020/05/15/most-essential-learning-competencies-melcs-direct-download/

https://www.homesciencetools.com/content/reference/chemistry_mod.pdf

16
 Lesson 2: Vectors

Learning Competencies
At the end of the lesson, you shall be able to:
1. discuss and solve problems involving vectors.
2. solve for the components of a vector.
3. determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant vector.

Key Terms/Ideas:

 Vectors can be broken down into two components: magnitude and direction.
 By taking the vector to be analyzed as the hypotenuse, the horizontal and vertical components can be
found by completing a right triangle. The bottom edge of the triangle is the horizontal component and
the side opposite the angle is the vertical component.
 The angle that the vector makes with the horizontal can be used to calculate the length of the two
components.
 coordinates: Numbers indicating a position with respect to some axis. Ex: xx and yy coordinates
indicate position relative to xx and yy axes.

 axis: An imaginary line around which an object spins or is symmetrically arranged.

 magnitude: A number assigned to a vector indicating its length.

Performance Standards: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. solve, using experimental and theoretical approaches, multi concept, rich-context problems involving
measurement, vectors, motions in 1D, 2D, and 3D, Newton’s Laws, work, energy, center of mass,
momentum, impulse, and collisions
2. solve multi-concept, rich context problems using concepts from rotational motion, fluids, oscillations, gravity, and
thermodynamics

Subject Matter Content

Vector Addition

17
Vectors

 Finding the Resultant for 2 Vectors (A&B) (Triangle Method)

1) Set up a scale (ex. 1 N = 2 cm.)

2) Convert the magnitudes of your vectors into lengths (ex. 7 N => 7x2= 14cm.)
3) Select a starting point.
4) Draw the first vector from the starting point.
5) Starting at the arrow tip of the first vector, draw the second vector.
6) Draw a line to connect the original starting point to the arrow tip of the second vector.
7) Measure the length of that line (the resultant) and convert from length to magnitude.
8) Measure the angle of the resultant from a definite point of reference.
NOTE: If one (or both) of the vectors is not along the horizontal or vertical axis, you will need to resolve that
vector into its vertical and horizontal components. Then solve for the resulting right triangle.

Resolving Vectors into Components

The easiest and most common method is to resolve a vector into its vertical and horizontal
components. This is done by:

1) Draw the vector at its scale length and in the proper direction.
2) Draw two vectors to make a right triangle, with the original vector as the hypotenuse.
3) Using one of the acute angles of the triangle and the relationships given above, solve for sides a
and b, the horizontal and vertical sides.

Evaluation
 “On Your Own”. Write your answer on the space provided.

Vector resolution is the process of resolving a vector into its components. Resolve the following vectors into
their x and y components:

1. d = 60 km, 500 East of North (Ans. dx = 45.96 km. dy = 38.57 km) (10 pts)

2. F = 118 N, 370 North of West (Ans. Fx = 94 m. Fy = 71 m) (10 pts)

18
Assessment Tasks. Write your answer on the space provided.

Component Method of Vector Addition: Add the following force vectors using the component method. Commented [MBP1]: The instructions are provided
Determine the direction and magnitude of the resultant: (20 pts) already as to what to do with the vectors.

1. F1 = 10 N, 550 North of East

F2 = 15 N, North

2. d1 = 10 km, 250 North of East

d2 = 15 km, South

References

https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/vectors.html

https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/vectors/Lesson-1/Vector-Addition

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vkPlzmalvN4&t=338s

19
 Lesson 3: Forces, Work, Energy, Power

Learning Competencies
At the end of the lesson, you shall be able to:
1. state and discuss the concepts and laws involving forces, work, energy, and power.
2. solve problems involving the concepts of force, work, energy, and power.

Key Terms/Ideas:

 A force is a push or pull upon an object resulting from the object's interaction with another
object. Whenever there is an interaction between two objects, there is a force upon each of the
objects.

 Work can be defined as transfer of energy. In physics we say that work is done on an object
when you transfer energy to that object. If one object transfers (gives) energy to a second
object, then the first object does work on the second object.

 Work is the application of a force over a distance. Lifting a weight from the ground and putting
it on a shelf is a good example of work. The force is equal to the weight of the object, and the
distance is equal to the height of the shelf (W= Fxd).

 Work-Energy Principle --The change in the kinetic energy of an object is equal to the net work
done on the object.
 Energy can be defined as the capacity for doing work. The simplest case of mechanical work is
when an object is standing still and we force it to move. The energy of a moving object is called
kinetic energy.

 For an object of mass m, moving with velocity of magnitude v, this energy can be calculated
𝟏
from the formula E= mv2.
𝟐

 There are two types of energy in many forms:

Kinetic Energy = Energy of Motion
Potential Energy = Stored Energy

Performance Standards: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. solve, using experimental and theoretical approaches, multi concept, rich-context problems involving
measurement, vectors, motions in 1D, 2D, and 3D, Newton’s Laws, work, energy, center of mass,
momentum, impulse, and collisions
2. solve multi-concept, rich context problems using concepts from rotational motion, fluids, oscillations, gravity, and
thermodynamics

Subject Matter Content

To understand the interconnectedness of work, energy, and power, you should review the concept of
force learned from your JHS and elementary science.

A force is a push or pull upon an object resulting from the object's interaction with another object.
Whenever there is an interaction between two objects, there is a force upon each of the objects. When
the interaction ceases, the two objects no longer experience the force. Forces only exist as a result of an
interaction.

Contact versus Action-at-a-Distance Forces

For simplicity sake, all forces (interactions) between objects can be placed into two broad categories:

20
 contact forces, and
 forces resulting from action-at-a-distance

Contact forces are those types of forces that result when the two interacting objects are perceived to be
physically contacting each other. Examples of contact forces include frictional forces, tensional forces,
normal forces, air resistance forces, and applied forces. These specific forces will be discussed in more detail
later in Lesson 2 as well as in other lessons.

Action-at-a-distance forces are those types of forces that result even when the two interacting objects are
not in physical contact with each other, yet are able to exert a push or pull despite their physical separation.
Examples of action-at-a-distance forces include gravitational forces. For example, the sun and planets exert
a gravitational pull on each other despite their large spatial separation. Even when your feet leave the earth
and you are no longer in physical contact with the earth, there is a gravitational pull between you and the
Earth. Electric forces are action-at-a-distance forces. For example, the protons in the nucleus of an atom and
the electrons outside the nucleus experience an electrical pull towards each other despite their small spatial
separation. And magnetic forces are action-at-a-distance forces. For example, two magnets can exert a
magnetic pull on each other even when separated by a distance of a few centimeters.
Examples of contact and action-at-distance forces are listed in the table below.
Contact Forces Action-at-a-Distance Forces
Frictional Force Gravitational Force
Tension Force Electrical Force
Normal Force Magnetic Force
Air Resistance Force
Applied Force
Spring Force

The Newton
Force is a quantity that is measured using the standard metric unit known as the Newton. A Newton is
abbreviated by an "N." To say "10.0 N" means 10.0 Newton of force. One Newton is the amount of force
required to give a 1-kg mass an acceleration of 1 m/s/s. Thus, the following unit equivalency can be stated:
1 Newton = 1 kg • m/s2

Force is a Vector Quantity

A force is a vector quantity. As learned in an earlier unit, a vector quantity is a quantity that has both
magnitude and direction. To fully describe the force acting upon an object, you must describe both the
magnitude (size or numerical value) and the direction. Thus, 10 Newton is not a full description of the force
acting upon an object. In contrast, 10 Newton, downward is a complete description of the force acting upon an
object; both the magnitude (10 Newton) and the direction (downward) are given.
Because a force is a vector that has a direction, it is common to represent
forces using diagrams in which a force is represented by an arrow. Such vector
diagrams were introduced in an earlier unit and are used throughout the study of
physics. The size of the arrow is reflective of the magnitude of the force and the
direction of the arrow reveals the direction that the force is acting. (Such
diagrams are known as free-body diagrams and are discussed later in this lesson.)
Furthermore, because forces are vectors, the effect of an individual force upon an
object is often canceled by the effect of another force. For example, the effect of a
20-Newton upward force acting upon a book is canceled by the effect of a 20-
Newton downward force acting upon the book. In such instances, it is said that the two individual
forces balance each other; there would be no unbalanced force acting upon the book.

21
 Other situations could be imagined in which two of the individual
vector forces cancel each other ("balance"), yet a third individual force exists
that is not balanced by another force. For example, imagine a book sliding
across the rough surface of a table from left to right. The downward force of
gravity and the upward force of the table supporting the book act in opposite
directions and thus balance each other. However, the force of friction acts
leftwards, and there is no rightward force to balance it. In this case,
an unbalanced force acts upon the book to change its state of motion.

The exact details of drawing free-body diagrams are discussed later. For now, the emphasis is upon
the fact that a force is a vector quantity that has a direction. The importance of this fact will become clear as
we analyze the individual forces acting upon an object later in this lesson.

Work can be defined as transfer of energy. In physics we say that work is done on an object when
you transfer energy to that object. If one object transfers (gives) energy to a second object, then the first object
does work on the second object.
Work is the application of a force over a distance. Lifting a weight from the ground and putting it on a
shelf is a good example of work. The force is equal to the weight of the object, and the distance is equal to the
height of the shelf (W= Fxd).
Work-Energy Principle --The change in the kinetic energy of an object is equal to the net work done on the
object.
Energy can be defined as the capacity for doing work. The simplest case of mechanical work is when
an object is standing still and we force it to move. The energy of a moving object is called kinetic energy. For
an object of mass m, moving with velocity of magnitude v, this energy can be calculated from the formula E=
1/2 mv^2.
Types of Energy
There are two types of energy in many forms:
Kinetic Energy = Energy of Motion
Potential Energy = Stored Energy

Forms of Energy
Solar Radiation - Infrared Heat, Radio Waves, Gamma Rays, Microwaves, Ultraviolet Light
Atomic/Nuclear Energy -energy released in nuclear reactions. When a neutron splits an atom's
nucleus into smaller pieces it is called fission. When two nuclei are joined together under millions of degrees
of heat it is called fusion
Electrical Energy --The generation or use of electric power over a period of time expressed in
kilowatt-hours (kWh), megawatt-hours (NM) or gigawatt-hours (GWh).
Chemical Energy --Chemical energy is a form of potential energy related to the breaking and
forming of chemical bonds. It is stored in food, fuels and batteries, and is released as other forms of energy
during chemical reactions.
Mechanical Energy -- Energy of the moving parts of a machine. It also refers to movements in
humans
Heat Energy -- a form of energy that is transferred by a difference in temperature

What is Power
Power is the work done in a unit of time. In other words, power is a measure of how quickly work can
be done. The unit of power is the Watt = 1 Joule/ 1 second.
One common unit of energy is the kilowatt-hour (kWh). If we are using one kW of power, a kWh of energy
will last one hour.

22
Calculating Work, Energy and Power
WORK = W=Fd
Because energy is the capacity to do work , we measure energy and work in the same units (N*m or
joules).
POWER (P) is the rate of energy generation (or absorption) over time:P = E/t
Power's SI unit of measurement is the Watt, representing the generation or absorption of energy at the
rate of 1 Joule/sec. Power's unit of measurement in the English system is the horsepower, which is equivalent
to 735.7 Watts

Evaluation
“On Your Own” . Write your answer on the space provided.

Criteria for items with explanation:

Content- 7pts
clarity of ideas – 3 pts
---------------------------------
Total – 10 pts

1. Why then, do we observe everyday objects in motion slowing down and becoming motionless
seemingly without an outside force? (10 pts)
___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

2. Why is there a need for us to use seatbelts? (10 pts)

___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

3. If objects in motion tend to stay in motion, why don’t moving objects keep moving forever? (10 pts)

23
 ___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

4. What acceleration will result when a 12 N net force applied to a 3 kg object? (10 pts)

5. A net force of 16 N causes a mass to accelerate at a rate of 5 m/s 2. Determine the mass. (10 pts)

6. How much force is needed to accelerate a 66 kg skier 1 m/sec/sec? (10 pts)

7. What is the force on a 1000 kg elevator that is falling freely at 9.8 m/sec/sec? (10 pts)

Assessment Tasks

A. Solve the following items and write your answer inside the rectangles:
1) A force of 20 newtons pushing an object 5 meters in the direction of the force. How much work is done?
Please enter your answer in the space provided:

joules

2) If you do 100 joules of work in one second (using 100 joules of energy). How much power is used?
watts

3) 1 horsepower is equal to how many watts?

watts

B. Multiple Choice Questions. Encircle the letter that corresponds to the correct answer.
1. An example of Kinetic Energy would be:
a) a moving car

b) a stretched rubber band that was just released

c) a charge particle in an electric field
d) all of the above
2. An example of Potential Energy would be:
a) a moving car
b) a battery

24
 c) a book resting on a table
d) both b and c
3. Which is not an example of Solar Radiation
a) microwaves
b) magnetism
c) gamma rays
d) visible light
4. An example of a system having both kinetic and potential energy would be:
a) a book resting on a table
b) a piece of sugar
c) an object in free fall
d) a stretched rubber band
5. Which of the following statements is not correct?
a) Energy is the capacity to do work.
b) Work can be express as Force x Distance.
c) Power is the amount of work done in a unit of time.
d) The unit of power is the joule.

Performance Task 1. Make a video presentation using experimental or theoretical approaches

explaining/discussing Newton’s three (3) laws of motion.
Criteria: (content- 30 pts, presentation- 20 pts = 50 pts)

References

https://www.edinformatics.com/math_science/work-energy-
power.html#:~:text=Work%20can%20be%20defined%20as,transfer%20energy%20to%20that%20object.&te
xt=The%20force%20is%20equal%20to,shelf%20(W%3D%20Fxd).

Lesson 4: Fluid Mechanics

Learning Competencies
At the end of the lesson, you shall be able to:
1. discuss and solve problems involving concepts of fluid mechanics.

Key Terms/Ideas:

 A fluid is a state of matter that yields to sideways or shearing forces. Liquids and gases are both
fluids. Fluid statics is the physics of stationary fluids.

 Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance or object, defined as ρ=mVρ=mV. The SI
unit of density is kg/m3.

25
 Pressure is the force per unit perpendicular area over which the force is applied, p = FAFA.
The SI unit of pressure is the pascal: 1 Pa = 1 N/m2.

 Pressure due to the weight of a liquid of constant density is given by p = ρρgh, where p is the
pressure, h is the depth of the liquid, ρρ is the density of the liquid, and g is the acceleration due
to gravity.

 Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure.

 Absolute pressure is the sum of gauge pressure and atmospheric pressure.

 Open-tube manometers have U-shaped tubes and one end is always open. They are used to
measure pressure. A mercury barometer is a device that measures atmospheric pressure.

 The SI unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa), but several other units are commonly used.
Pressure is force per unit area.
 A change in pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to all portions of
the fluid and to the walls of its container.

 A hydraulic system is an enclosed fluid system used to exert forces.

 Buoyant force is the net upward force on any object in any fluid. If the buoyant force is greater
than the object’s weight, the object will rise to the surface and float. If the buoyant force is less
than the object’s weight, the object will sink. If the buoyant force equals the object’s weight, the
object can remain suspended at its present depth. The buoyant force is always present and
acting on any object immersed either partially or entirely in a fluid.

 Archimedes’ principle states that the buoyant force on an object equals the weight of the fluid it
displaces.

 Flow rate Q is defined as the volume V flowing past a point in time t, or Q = dVdtdVdt where V
is volume and t is time. The SI unit of flow rate is m 3/s, but other rates can be used, such as
L/min.

 Flow rate and velocity are related by Q = Av where A is the cross-sectional area of the flow and
v is its average velocity.

 The equation of continuity states that for an incompressible fluid, the mass flowing into a pipe
must equal the mass flowing out of the pipe.

 Bernoulli’s equation states that the sum on each side of the following equation is constant, or
the same at any two points in an incompressible frictionless fluid:

 Bernoulli’s principle is Bernoulli’s equation applied to situations in which the height of the fluid
is constant. The terms involving depth (or height h) subtract out, yielding

26
  Bernoulli’s principle has many applications, including entrainment and velocity measurement.

 Laminar flow is characterized by smooth flow of the fluid in layers that do not mix.

 Turbulence is characterized by eddies and swirls that mix layers of fluid together.

 Fluid viscosity is due to friction within a fluid.

 Flow is proportional to pressure difference and inversely proportional to resistance:

 The pressure drop caused by flow and resistance is given by p 2 – p1 = RQ.

Performance Standards: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. solve, using experimental and theoretical approaches, multi concept, rich-context problems involving
measurement, vectors, motions in 1D, 2D, and 3D, Newton’s Laws, work, energy, center of mass,
momentum, impulse, and collisions
2. solve multi-concept, rich context problems using concepts from rotational motion, fluids, oscillations, gravity, and
thermodynamics

Subject Matter Content

Fluid mechanics is a broad topic in Physics. Let us discuss one by one. Let us begin with this
situation

Picture yourself walking along a beach on the eastern shore of the United States. The air smells of sea
salt and the sun warms your body. Suddenly, an alert appears on your cell phone. A tropical depression has
formed into a hurricane. Atmospheric pressure has fallen to nearly 15% below average. As a result,
forecasters expect torrential rainfall, winds in excess of 100 mph, and millions of dollars in damage.

A fluid is a state of matter that yields to sideways or shearing forces. Liquids and gases are both
fluids. Fluid statics is the physics of stationary fluids. Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance or
object while pressure is the force per unit perpendicular area over which the force is applied. Pressure due to
the weight of a liquid of constant density is given by the product of the liquid's depth, density, and
acceleration due to gravity.

Pressure is defined for all states of matter, but it is particularly important when discussing fluids. An
important characteristic of fluids is that there is no significant resistance to the component of a force applied
parallel to the surface of a fluid. The molecules of the fluid simply flow to accommodate the horizontal force.
A force applied perpendicular to the surface compresses or expands the fluid.

Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure. Absolute pressure is the sum of gauge
pressure and atmospheric pressure. Open-tube manometers have U-shaped tubes and one end is always open.
They are used to measure pressure. A mercury barometer is a device that measures atmospheric pressure. The
SI unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa), but several other units are commonly used.

27
 Pressure is force per unit area. A change in pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted
undiminished to all portions of the fluid and to the walls of its container. A hydraulic system is an enclosed
fluid system used to exert forces.
Buoyant force is the net upward force on any object in any fluid. The buoyant force is always present and
acting on any object immersed either partially or entirely in a fluid. Archimedes’ principle states that the
buoyant force on an object equals the weight of the fluid it displaces.

Flow rate Q is defined as the volume V flowing past a point in time t. The SI unit of flow rate is
(m^3)/s, but other rates can be used, such as L/min. Flow rate and velocity are related by the product of the
cross-sectional area of the flow by its average velocity. The equation of continuity states that for an
incompressible fluid, the mass flowing into a pipe must equal the mass flowing out of the pipe.

Bernoulli’s equation states that pressure is the same at any two points in an incompressible frictionless fluid.
Bernoulli’s principle is Bernoulli’s equation applied to situations in which the height of the fluid is constant.
Bernoulli’s principle has many applications, including entrainment and velocity measurement.

In this subsection, we introduce the forces of friction that act on fluids in motion. For example, a fluid flowing
through a pipe is subject to resistance, a type of friction, between the fluid and the walls. Friction also occurs
between the different layers of fluid. These resistive forces affect the way the fluid flows through the pipe.

Evaluation
“On Your Own”. Try to solve the following problems: Write your answer on the space provided.

1. A reservoir of carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) has a mass of 500 kg and a volume of 0.315 m3. Find the carbon
tetrachloride’s weight, mass density, specific weight, and specific gravity.

2. Water is pumped with a 120 kPa compressor entering the lower pipe (1) and flows upward at a speed of 1
m/s. Acceleration due to gravity is 10 m/s and water density is 1000 kg/m-3. What is the water pressure on the
upper pipe (II).

Assessment Tasks. Write your answer on the space provided.

28
Solve the following items:

1. An object weighs 36 g in air and has a volume of 8.0 cm3. What will be its apparent weight when
immersed in water? (10 pts)

2. A reservoir of glycerin (glyc) has a mass of 1200 kg and a volume of 0.952 𝑚3 .Find the glycerin’s weight
(W), mass density (ρ), specific weight (ϒ), and specific gravity (s.g.). (30 pts)

Performance Task 2 :Make a video presentation using experimental or theoretical approaches

explaining/discussing a chosen principle in fluid dynamics.

Criteria: (content- 30 pts, presentation- 20 pts = 50 pts)

References

https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/University_Physics/Book%3A_University_Physics_(OpenStax)/Map
%3A_University_Physics_I_Mechanics%2C_Sound%2C_Oscillations%2C_and_Waves_(OpenStax)/14%3A
_Fluid_Mechanics

https://physics.gurumuda.net/fluid-dynamics-problems-and-solutions.htm

https://archibouyancy.weebly.com/sample-problems.html

29
 Lesson 5: Momentum, Impulse, Collisions

Learning Competency
At the end of the lesson, you shall be able to:
1. discuss and solve problems involving impulse and momentum and their relationships, law
of conservation of momentum, and collisions.

Key Terms/Ideas:

 Momentum is mass in motion, and any moving object can have momentum.

 An object's change in momentum is equal to its impulse. Impulse is a quantity of force times the
time interval.

 Impulse is not equal to momentum itself; rather, it's the increase or decrease of an
object's momentum.

 Collisions occur when one object strikes another. Problems involving collisions are
usually solved using conservation of momentum and conservation of energy.

 There are two types of collisions:

 Inelastic collisions: momentum is conserved,

 Elastic collisions: momentum is conserved and kinetic energy is conserved.

Performance Standards: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. solve, using experimental and theoretical approaches, multi concept, rich-context problems involving
measurement, vectors, motions in 1D, 2D, and 3D, Newton’s Laws, work, energy, center of mass,
momentum, impulse, and collisions
2. solve multi-concept, rich context problems using concepts from rotational motion, fluids, oscillations, gravity, and
thermodynamics

Subject Matter Content

Momentum Change and Impulse Connection
Did you know momentum is a commonly used term in sports. When
a sports announcer says that a team has the momentum they mean that the
team is really on the move and is going to be hard to stop. The
term momentum is a physics concept. Any object with momentum is going
to be hard to stop. To stop such an object, it is necessary to apply
a force against its motion for a given period of time. The more momentum
that an object has, the harder that it is to stop. Thus, it would require a greater amount of force or a longer
amount of time or both to bring such an object to a halt. As the force acts upon the object for a given amount
of time, the object's velocity is changed; and hence, the object's momentum is changed.

30
 The concepts in the above paragraph should not seem like abstract
information to you. You have observed this a number of times if you have
watched the sport of football. In football, the defensive players apply a force
for a given amount of time to stop the momentum of the offensive player who
has the ball. You have also experienced this a multitude of times while
driving. As you bring your car to a halt when approaching a stop sign or
stoplight, the brakes serve to apply a force to the car for a given amount of
time to change the car's momentum. An object with momentum can be
stopped if a force is applied against it for a given amount of time.
A force acting for a given amount of time will change an object's
momentum. Put another way, an unbalanced force always accelerates an
object - either speeding it up or slowing it down. If the force acts opposite the
object's motion, it slows the object down. If a force acts in the same direction
as the object's motion, then the force speeds the object up. Either way, a force
will change the velocity of an object. And if the velocity of the object is changed, then the momentum of the
object is changed.

Impulse
These concepts are merely an outgrowth of Newton's second law as discussed in an earlier unit.
Newton's second law (Fnet = m • a) stated that the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net
force acting upon the object and inversely proportional to the mass of the object. When combined with the
definition of acceleration (a = change in velocity / time), the following equalities result.
F=m•a

or

F = m • ∆v / t

If both sides of the above equation are multiplied by the quantity t, a new equation results.
F • t = m • ∆v
This equation represents one of two primary principles to be used in the analysis of collisions during
this unit. To truly understand the equation, it is important to understand its meaning in words. In words, it
could be said that the force times the time equals the mass times the change in velocity. In physics, the
quantity Force • time is known as impulse. And since the quantity m•v is the momentum, the quantity m•Δv
must be the change in momentum. The equation really says that the
Impulse = Change in momentum

One focus of this unit is to understand the physics of collisions. The physics of collisions are
governed by the laws of momentum; and the first law that we discuss in this unit is expressed in the above
equation. The equation is known as the impulse-momentum change equation. The law can be expressed this
way:
In a collision, an object experiences a force for a specific amount of time that results in a change in
momentum. The result of the force acting for the given amount of time is that the object's mass either speeds
up or slows down (or changes direction). The impulse experienced by the object equals the change in
momentum of the object. In equation form, F • t = m • Δ v.
In a collision, objects experience an impulse; the impulse causes and is equal to the change in
momentum. Consider a football halfback running down the football field and encountering a collision with a
defensive back. The collision would change the halfback's speed and thus his momentum. If the motion was
represented by a ticker tape diagram, it might appear as follows:

At approximately the tenth dot on the diagram, the collision occurs and lasts for a certain amount of
time; in terms of dots, the collision lasts for a time equivalent to approximately nine dots. In the halfback-
defensive back collision, the halfback experiences a force that lasts for a certain amount of time to change his
momentum. Since the collision causes the rightward-moving halfback to slow down, the force on the halfback

31
must have been directed leftward. If the halfback experienced a force of 800 N for 0.9 seconds, then we could
say that the impulse was 720 N•s. This impulse would cause a momentum change of 720 kg•m/s. In a
collision, the impulse experienced by an object is always equal to the momentum change.
Elastic collisions are collisions between objects where both momentum and kinetic energy are
conserved. This elastic collision example problem will show how to find the final velocities of two bodies
after an elastic collision.

This illustration shows a generic elastic collision between two masses A and B. The variables involved are
mA is the mass of the object A
VAi is the initial velocity of the object A
VAf is the final velocity of the object A
mB is the mass of the object B
VBi is the initial velocity of the object B and
VBf is the final velocity of the object B.
If the initial conditions are known, the total momentum of the system can be expressed as
total momentum before collision = total momentum after collision
or
mAVAi + mBVBi = mAVAf + mBVBf
The kinetic energy of the system is
kinetic energy before collision = kinetic energy after collection
½mAVAi2 + ½mBVBi2 = ½mAVAf2 + ½mBVBf2
These two equations can be solved for the final velocities as

and

If you’d like to see how to get to these equations, see Elastic Collision of Two Masses – It Can Be Shown
Exercise for a step by step solution.
Elastic Collision Example Problem
A 10 kg mass traveling 2 m/s meets and collides elastically with a 2 kg mass traveling 4 m/s in the opposite
direction. Find the final velocities of both objects.

Solution
First, visualize the problem. This illustration shows what we know of the conditions.

32
Two masses approach each other and collide elastically. Find the final velocities of each mass.
The second step is to set your reference. Velocity is a vector quantity and we need to distinguish the direction
of the velocity vectors. I’m going to choose from left to right as the “positive” direction. Any velocity moving
from right to left will then contain a negative value.
Next, identify the known variables. We know the following:
mA = 10 kg
VAi 2 m/s
mB = 2 kg
VBi = -4 m/s. The negative sign indicates the velocity is in the negative direction.

Now we need to find V Af and VBf. Use the equations from above. Let’s start with V Af.

Plug in our known values.

VAf = 0 m/s
The final velocity of the larger mass is zero. The collision completely stopped this mass.
Now for VBf

Plug in our known values

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VBf = 6 m/s

Answer
The second, smaller mass shoots off to the right (positive sign on the answer) at 6 m/s while the first, larger
mass is stopped dead in space by the elastic collision.
Note: If you chose your frame of reference in the opposite direction in the second step, your final answer will
be VAf = 0 m/s and V Bf = -6 m/s. The collision does not change, only the signs on your answers. Make sure
the velocity values you use in your formulas match your frame of reference.

Evaluation
“On Your Own”. Write your answer on the space provided. (20 pts)

Try this exercise:

34
Assessment Tasks.

Solve the following items:

Jerome plays middle linebacker for South's varsity football team. In a game against cross-town rival North, he
delivered a hit to North's 82-kg running back, changing his eastward velocity of 5.6 m/s into a westward
velocity of 2.5 m/s. (40 pts)

a. Determine the initial momentum of the running back.

b. Determine the final momentum of the running back.

c. Determine the momentum change of the running back.

d. Determine the impulse delivered to the running back.

References

https://www.physicsclassroom.com/calcpad/momentum/problems

https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/momentum/Lesson-1/Momentum-and-Impulse-Connection

https://sciencenotes.org/elastic-collision-example-problem-physics-example-problems/

Lesson 6: Center of Mass, Equilibrium, Elasticity, Simple Machines

Learning Competency
At the end of the lesson, you shall be able to:
1. discuss and solve problems involving center of mass, conditions for equilibrium,
elasticity of materials, concepts of stress and strain, and simple machines.

Key Terms/Ideas:

35
Performance Standards: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

36
1. solve, using experimental and theoretical approaches, multi concept, rich-context problems involving
measurement, vectors, motions in 1D, 2D, and 3D, Newton’s Laws, work, energy, center of mass,
momentum, impulse, and collisions
2. solve multi-concept, rich context problems using concepts from rotational motion, fluids, oscillations, gravity, and
thermodynamics

Subject Matter Content

There are two conditions for equilibrium. Let us now begin our discussion.

First Condition

The first condition of equilibrium is that the net force in all directions must be zero.

Key Points

 There are two conditions that must be met for an object to be in equilibrium.
 The first condition is that the net force on the object must be zero for the object to be in equilibrium.
 If net force is zero, then net force along any direction is zero.

Key Terms
 force: A physical quantity that denotes ability to push, pull, twist or accelerate a body which is
measured in a unit dimensioned in mass × distance/time² (ML/T²): SI: newton (N); CGS: dyne (dyn)
 torque: A rotational or twisting effect of a force; (SI unit newton-meter or Nm; imperial unit foot-
pound or ft-lb)
 translation: Motion of a body on a linear path, without deformation or rotation, i.e. such that every
part of the body moves at the same speed and in the same direction; also (in physics), the linear motion
of a body considered independently of its rotation.
First Condition of Equilibrium

For an object to be in equilibrium, it must be experiencing no acceleration. This means that both the net force
and the net torque on the object must be zero. Here we will discuss the first condition, that of zero net force.

In the form of an equation, this first condition is:

Fnet=0Fnet=0.

In order to achieve this conditon, the forces acting along each axis of motion must sum to zero. For example,
the net external forces along the typical x– and y-axes are zero. This is written as

net Fx=0net Fx=0 and net Fy=0net Fy=0.

The condition Fnet=0Fnet=0 must be true for both static equilibrium, where the object’s velocity is zero, and
dynamic equilibrium, where the object is moving at a constant velocity.

Below, the motionless person is in static equilibrium. The forces acting on him add up to zero. Both forces are
vertical in this case.

37
Person in Static Equilibrium: This motionless person is in static equilibrium.

Below, the car is in dynamic equilibrium because it is moving at constant velocity. There are horizontal and
vertical forces, but the net external force in any direction is zero. The applied force between the tires and the
road is balanced by air friction, and the weight of the car is supported by the normal forces, here shown to be
equal for all four tires.

A Car in Dynamic Equilibrium: This car is in dynamic equilibrium because it is moving at constant velocity.
The forces in all directions are balanced.

Second Condition

The second condition of static equilibrium says that the net torque acting on the object must be zero.

Identify the second condition of static equilibrium

Key Points
 The second condition necessary to achieve equilibrium involves avoiding accelerated rotation.

38
  A rotating body or system can be in equilibrium if its rate of rotation is constant and remains
unchanged by the forces acting on it.
 The magnitude of torque about a axis of rotation is defined to be τ=rFsinθ.

Key Terms

 torque: A rotational or twisting effect of a force; (SI unit newton-meter or Nm; imperial unit foot-
pound or ft-lb)
 equilibrium: The state of a body at rest or in uniform motion, the resultant of all forces on which is
zero.

A child’s seesaw, shown in, is an example of static equilibrium. An object in static equilibrium is one that
has no acceleration in any direction. While there might be motion, such motion is constant.

Two children on a seesaw: The system is in static equilibrium, showing no acceleration in any direction.

If a given object is in static equilibrium, both the net force and the net torque on the object must be
zero. Let’s break this down:

Net Force Must Be Zero

The net force acting on the object must be zero. Therefore all forces balance in each direction. For
example, a car moving along a highway at a constant speed is in equilibrium, as it is not accelerating in any
forward or vertical direction. Mathematically, this is stated as Fnet = ma = 0.

Net Torque Must Be Zero

The second condition necessary to achieve equilibrium involves avoiding accelerated rotation
(maintaining a constant angular velocity ). A rotating body or system can be in equilibrium if its rate of
rotation is constant and remains unchanged by the forces acting on it.

To understand what factors affect rotation, let us think about what happens when you open an
ordinary door by rotating it on its hinges. The magnitude, direction, and point of application of the force are
incorporated into the definition of the physical quantity called torque—the rotational equivalent of a force. It
is a measure of the effectiveness of a force in changing or accelerating a rotation (changing the angular
velocity over a period of time).

39
 In equation form, the magnitude of torque is defined to be τ = r F sin θ where τ (the Greek letter tau)
is the symbol for torque, r is the distance from the pivot point to the point where the force is applied, F is the
magnitude of the force, and θ is the angle between the force and the vector directed from the point of
application to the pivot point.

Two-Component Forces

In equilibrium, the net force and torque in any particular direction equal zero.

Key Points

 In equilibrium, the net force in all directions is zero.

 If the net moment of inertia about an axis is zero, the object will have no rotational acceleration about
the axis.
 In each direction, the net force takes the form: ∑F=ma=0∑F=ma=0 and the net torque take the
form: ∑τ=Iα=0∑τ=Iα=0 where the sum represents the vector sum of all forces and torques acting.
Key Terms
 equilibrium: The state of a body at rest or in uniform motion, the resultant of all forces on which is
zero.

An object with constant velocity has zero acceleration. A motionless object still has constant (zero)
velocity, so motionless objects also have zero acceleration. Newton’s second law states that:

∑F=ma∑F=ma

so objects with constant velocity also have zero net external force. This means that all the forces acting on the
object are balanced — that is to say, they are in equilibrium.

This rule also applies to motion in a specific direction. Consider an object moving along the x-axis. If
no net force is applied to the object along the x-axis, it will continue to move along the x-axis at a constant
velocity, with no acceleration.

Car Moving at Constant Velocity: A moving car for which the net x and y force components are zero

We can easily extend this rule to the y-axis. In any system, unless the applied forces cancel each other
out (i.e., the resultant force is zero), there will be acceleration in the direction of the resultant force. In static
systems, in which motion does not occur, the sum of the forces in all directions always equals zero. This
concept can be represented mathematically with the following equations:

∑Fx=max=0∑Fx=max=0

∑Fy=may=0∑Fy=may=0

This rule also applies to rotational motion. If the resultant moment about a particular axis is zero, the
object will have no rotational acceleration about the axis. If the object is not spinning, it will not start to spin.
If the object is spinning, it will continue to spin at the same constant angular velocity. Again, we can extend

40
this to moments about the y-axis as well. We can represent this rule mathematically with the following
equations:

∑τ x=Iαx=0∑τx=Iαx=0

∑τ y=Iαy=0

Stability, Balance, and Center of Mass

An object in static equilibrium remains in the same state forever, but not all forms of equilibrium are the
same.

Key Points

 Equilibrium is defined by no net forces or torques.

 Stability of an equilibrium can be determined by the second derivative of the potential.
 Defining a center of mass allows a simple way to study the behavior of a system or object as a whole.
 Stable equilibrium requires a restoring force. This restoring force can be derived by a Taylor expansion
of the force, F(x).
Key Terms
4. stable equilibrium: The response [of a system in static equilibrium] to a small perturbation is forces
that tend to restore the equilibrium.
5. center of mass: The center of mass (COM) is the unique point at the center of a distribution of mass in
space that has the property that the weighted position vectors relative to this point sum to zero.
6. static equilibrium: the physical state in which all components of a system are at rest and the net force
is equal to zero throughout the system

For an object to be in static equilibrium, we expect it to stay in the same state indefinitely. If it starts
accelerating away from its current position, it would hardly be in equilibrium. To quantify equilibrium for a
single object, there are two conditions:

1. The net external force on the object is zero: ∑iFi=Fnet=0∑iFi=Fnet=0

2. The net external torque, regardless of choice of origin, is also
zero: ∑iri×Fi=∑iτi=τnet=0∑iri×Fi=∑iτi=τnet=0

Those two conditions hold regardless of whether the object we are talking about is a single point particle, a
rigid body, or a collection of discrete particles. Being in equilibrium means that we expect no changes to the
linear momentum or the angular momentum. Note that this does not mean that the system is not moving or
rotating; instead it simply means that its movement will not change as time goes on.

Elasticity of Materials

In the science of physics, elasticity is the ability of a deformable body (e.g., steel, aluminum, rubber,
wood, crystals, etc.) to resist a distorting effect and to return to its original size and shape when that influence
or force is removed. Solid bodies will deform when satisfying forces are applied to them.

Elasticity is a physical property of a material whereby the material returns to its original shape after
having been stretched out or altered by force. Substances that display a high degree of elasticity are termed
"elastic." The SI unit applied to elasticity is the pascal (Pa), which is used to measure the modulus of
deformation and elastic limit.

The causes of elasticity vary depending on the type of material. Polymers, including rubber, may
exhibit elasticity as polymer chains are stretched and then subsequently return to their original form when the
force is removed. Metals may display elasticity as atomic lattices change shape and size, again, returning to
their original form once energy is removed.

Examples: Rubber bands and elastic and other stretchy materials display elasticity. Modeling clay, on the
other hand, is relatively inelastic and retains a new shape even after the force that caused it to change is no
longer being exerted.

41
 Recall Hooke's law — first stated formally by Robert Hooke in The True Theory of Elasticity or
Springiness (1676)…ut tensio, sic vis which can be translated literally into…As extension, so force. or
translated formally into…Extension is directly proportional to force.

Most likely we'd replace the word "extension" with the symbol (∆x), "force" with the symbol (F), and
"is directly proportional to" with an equals sign (=) and a constant of proportionality (k), then, to show that the
springy object was trying to return to its original state, we'd add a negative sign (−). In other words, we'd
write the equation…

F = − k∆x

This is Hooke's law for a spring — a simple object that's essentially one-dimensional. Hooke's law
can be generalized to…

Stress is proportional to strain.

where strain refers to a change in some spatial dimension (length, angle, or volume) compared to its original
value and stress refers to the cause of the change (a force applied to a surface).

The coefficient that relates a particular type of stress to the strain that results is called an elastic
modulus (plural, moduli). Elastic moduli are properties of materials, not objects. There are three basic types of
stress and three associated moduli.

modulus stress strain configuration

(symbols) (symbol) (symbol) change

Young's normal to length longer and thinner

(E or Y) opposite faces (σ) ε = ∆ℓ/ℓ0 or shorter and fatter

shear tangential to tangent rectangles become

(G or S) opposite faces (τ) γ = ∆x/y parallelograms

bulk normal to all faces, volume volume changes

(K or B) pressure (P) θ = ∆V/V0 but shape does not

Elastic moduli

The international standard symbols for the moduli are derived from appropriate non-English words
— E for élasticité (French for elasticity), G for glissement (French for slipping),
and K for kompression (German for compression). Some American textbooks have decided to break with
tradition and use the first letter of each modulus in English — Y for Young's, S for shear, and B for bulk.

Stresses on solids are always described as a force divided by an area. The direction of the forces may
change, but the units do not. The SI unit of stress is the newton per square meter, which is given the special
name pascal in honor of Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) the French mathematician (Pascal's triangle), physicist
(Pascal's principle), inventor (Pascal's calculator), and philosopher (Pascal's wager).

⎡ N⎤
⎢Pa = 2⎥
m
⎣ ⎦

Strains are always unitless.

type of strain name of symbol definition unit

Linear epsilon ε = ∆ℓ/ℓ0 m/m = 1

Shear gamma γ = ∆x/y m/m = 1

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 Volume theta θ = ∆V/V0 m3/m3 = 1

Strain units

Which means that pascal is also the SI unit for all three moduli.

stress = modulus × strain

[Pa = Pa ×1 ]

failure is an option

 elastic limit, yield strength

 breaking point, ultimate strength
 The strength of a material is a measure of its ability to withstand a load without breaking.
 Banerjee, et al. show that when nanoscale single-crystal diamond needles are elastically deformed,
they fail at a maximum local tensile strength of ~89 to 98 GPa.

 Experimental results and ab initio calculations indicate that the elastic modulus of carbon nanotubes
and graphene is approximately equal to 1 TPa.
 By contrast, the reported tensile strength of bulk cubic diamond is < 10 GPa

Young's modulus

Imagine a piece of dough. Stretch it. It gets longer and thinner. Squash it. It gets shorter and fatter.
Now imagine a piece of granite. Try the same mental experiment. The change in shape must surely occur, but
to the unaided eye it's imperceptible. Some materials stretch and squash quite easily. Some do not.

The quantity that describes a material's response to stresses applied normal to opposite faces is called
Young's modulus in honor of the English scientist Thomas Young (1773–1829). Young was the first person to
define work as the force displacement product, the first to use the word energy in its modern sense, and the
first to show that light is a wave. He was not the first to quantify the resistance of materials to tension and
compression, but he became the most famous early proponent of the modulus that now bears his name. Young
didn't name the modulus after himself. He called it the elastic modulus. The symbol for Young's modulus is
usually E from the French word élasticité (elasticity) but some prefer Y in honor of the scientist.

Young's modulus is defined for all shapes and sizes by the same rule, but for convenience sake let's
imagine a rod of length ℓ0 and cross sectional area A being stretched by a force F to a new length ℓ0 + ∆ℓ.

Tensile stress is the outward normal force per area (σ = F/A) and tensile strain is the fractional
increase in length of the rod (ε = ∆ℓ/ℓ0). The proportionality constant that relates these two quantities together
is the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain —Young's modulus.

F ∆ℓ
= E σ = Eε
A ℓ0

The same relation holds for forces in the opposite direction; that is, a strain that tries to shorten an object.

Replace the adjective tensile with compressive. The normal force per area directed inward (σ = F/A) is called
the compressive stress and the fractional decrease in length (ε = ∆ℓ/ℓ0) is called the compressive strain. This
makes Young's modulus the ratio of compressive stress to compressive strain. The adjective may have
changed, but the mathematical description did not.

43
F ∆ℓ
= E σ = Eε
A ℓ0

The SI units of Young's modulus is the pascal [Pa]…

⎡N M⎤
⎢ = Pa ⎥
A M
⎣ ⎦

but for most materials the gigapascal is more appropriate [GPa].

1 GPa = 109 Pa

The Six Types of Simple Machines

Wheel & Axle - Makes work easier by moving objects across distances. The wheel (or round end)
turns with the axle (or cylindrical post) causing movement. On a wagon, for example, a container rests on top
of the axle.

Inclined Plane - A flat surface (or plane) that is slanted, or inclined, so it can help move objects
across distances. A common inclined plane is a ramp.

Wedge - Instead of using the smooth side of the inclined plane to make work easier, you can also use
the pointed edges to do other kinds of work. When you use the edge to push things apart, this movable
inclined plane is called a wedge. An ax blade is one example of a wedge.

Lever - Any tool that pries something loose is a lever. Levers can also lift objects. A lever is an arm
that “pivots” (or turns) against a fulcrum (the point or support on which a lever pivots). Think of the claw end
of a hammer that you use to pry nails loose; it’s a lever. A see-saw is also a lever.

Pulley - Instead of an axle, a wheel could also rotate a rope, cord, or belt. This variation of the wheel
and axle is the pulley. In a pulley, a cord wraps around a wheel. As the wheel rotates, the cord moves in either
direction. Attach a hook to the cord, and now you can use the wheel’s rotation to raise and lower objects,
making work easier. On a flagpole, for example, a rope is attached to a pulley to raise and lower the flag more
easily.

Screw - When you wrap an inclined plane around a cylinder, its sharp edge becomes another simple
tool: a screw. If you put a metal screw beside a ramp, it may be hard to see similarities, but a screw is actually
just another kind of inclined plane. One example of how a screw helps you do work is that it can be easily
turned to move itself through a solid space like a block of wood.

Wheel and Axle

44
 Inclined Plane

Wedge

Lever

Pulley

Screw

Mechanical advantage

Mechanical advantage is a measure of the ratio of output force to input force in a system, used to
analyze the forces in simple machines like levers and pulleys. Despite changing the forces that are applied
the conservation of energy is still true and the output energy is still equal to the input energy. Typically the
mechanical advantage is expressed in ideal terms, where there is no losses in energy between the input and
output times, also known as 100% efficient systems.

By conservation of energy:

45
Fi ×di = Fo × do

The left side is the input energy (or work put into a machine), and the right side is the output energy
(or work that comes out of a machine, for no-loss energy exchange). Rearranging the equation gives the ideal
mechanical advantage for a system, expressed as

𝐹𝑜 𝑑𝑖
IMA= =
𝐹𝑖 𝑑𝑜

Below are the types of simple machines and their corresponding mechanical advantages. Mechanical
advantages allows humans to perform tasks much easier in terms of the force they need to apply, but must
always obey the conservation of energy.

This can be applied to many physical situations with rigid bodies, and can be used to analyze the
force advantage gained in using various tools. Simple machines use mechanical advantage as a key property
to their functionality, helping humans perform tasks that would be require more force than a person could
produce. Even work animals (like horses or oxen) and engines benefit from using the mechanical advantage
of simple machines.

How much a machine changes the input force is its mechanical advantage. Mechanical advantage is
the ratio of the output force to the input force, so it can be represented by the equation:

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Actual Mechanical Advantage =
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

Note that this equation represents the actual mechanical advantage of a machine. The actual
mechanical advantage takes into account the amount of the input force that is used to overcome friction. The
equation yields the factor by which the machine changes the input force when the machine is actually used in
the real world.

Ideal Mechanical Advantage

46
 It can be difficult to measure the input and output forces needed to calculate the actual mechanical
advantage of a machine. Generally, an unknown amount of the input force is used to overcome friction. It’s
usually easier to measure the input and output distances than the input and output forces.
The distance measurements can then be used to calculate the ideal mechanical advantage. The ideal
mechanical advantage represents the change in input force that would be achieved by the machine if there
were no friction to overcome. The ideal mechanical advantage is always greater than the actual mechanical
advantage because all machines have to overcome friction. Ideal mechanical advantage can be calculated with
the equation:

𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Ideal Mechanical Advantage =
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

A Simple Example

Look at the ramp in the Figure below. A ramp is a type of simple machine called an inclined plane. It
can be used to raise an object off the ground. The input distance is the length of the sloped surface of the
ramp. This is the distance over which the input force is applied. The output distance is the height of the ramp,
or the vertical distance the object is raised. For this ramp, the input distance is 6 m and the output distance is 2
meters. Therefore, the ideal mechanical advantage of this ramp is:

𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 6𝑚
Ideal Mechanical Advantage= = =3
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 2𝑚

An ideal mechanical advantage of 3 means that the ramp ideally (in the absence of friction) multiplies
the input force by a factor of 3. The trade-off is that the input force must be applied over a greater distance
than the object is lifted.

(A multimedia presentation on Measuring with a Vernier Caliper)

Evaluation

“On Your Own”. Write your answer on the space provided.

1. Discuss why ball on top of a hill as illustrated below is in a state of unstable equilibrium? (10 pts)
_________________________________________________________________________________
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47
2. Which is more elastic, a rubber or an iron spring? Explain your answer.

3. How much force is needed to pull a spring with a spring constant of 20 N/m a distance of 25 cm?

4. List down and identify at least 10 examples of simple machines you find at home.

Assessment Tasks. Write your answer on the space provided.

1. Solve the problem below.

48
2. A spring is pulled to 10 cm and held in place with a force of 500 N. What is the spring constant of the
spring? (10 pts)

3. A ramp has a sloping surface of 8 m and a vertical height of 4 m. What is the ideal mechanical advantage of
this ramp? (10 pts)

Let Us Check Your Understanding. Answer briefly the following questions. Write your answer on the space
provided.

Criteria:

49
 Content- 7pts
clarity of ideas – 3 pts
---------------------------------
Total – 10 pts

1. How important is having a standard of measurement in the seafaring industry? (10 pts)
_________________________________________________________________________________
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2. Differentiate between a scalar quantity and a vector quantity. (10 pts)

_________________________________________________________________________________
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3. State the three laws of motion. (10 pts)

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4. Discuss the importance of the following in the maritime profession:

a. Fluid mechanics (10 pts)
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________________________________________________________________________________________
b. Concepts of equilibrium (10 pts)

_________________________________________________________________________________
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50
References
https://academics.uccs.edu/rtirado/Giancoli_6e_Study_Guide/Ch_9_Static_Equilibrium_Elasticity_&_Struct
ure.pdf

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-physics/chapter/conditions-for-equilibrium/

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-physics/chapter/stability/

Helmenstine, Anne Marie, Ph.D. (2020, February 11). Elasticity: Definition and Examples. Retrieved from
https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-elasticity-605060

https://www.vexrobotics.com/vexiq/education/iq-curriculum/simple-machines-and-motion/six-types-of-
simple-machines

https://www.superteacherworksheets.com/simplemachines.htmlhttps://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Mech
anical_advantage

MODULE 2

Quarter: First Quarter

No. of Hours: (for Module 2 only) 20 Hours
Lesson 7: Sound Waves

Learning Competencies
At the end of the lesson, you shall be able to:
a. discuss and solve problems involving the nature and characteristics of sound.

Key Terms/Ideas:

 Sound is a form of energy which makes us hear. It travels in the form of wave. Sound wave can
be described by five characteristics.

 Wave interference is the phenomenon that occurs when two waves meet while traveling along
the same medium. The interference of waves causes the medium to take on a shape that results
from the net effect of the two individual waves upon the particles of the medium.

 A standing wave pattern is a vibrational pattern created within a medium when the vibrational
frequency of the source causes reflected waves from one end of the medium to interfere with
incident waves from the source.

 Doppler effect alteration in the observed frequency of a sound due to motion of either the
source or the observer.

 Hearing is the perception of sound.

 loudness perception of sound intensity

 Pitch is the perception of the frequency of a sound.

51
  Shock wave is a wave front that is produced when a sound source moves faster than the speed
of sound.

 Sonic boom is a loud noise that occurs as a shock wave as it sweeps along the ground.

 Sound is traveling pressure wave that may be periodic; the wave can be modeled as a pressure
wave or as an oscillation of molecules.

 Sound intensity level is a unitless quantity telling you the level of the sound relative to a fixed
standard.

 Timbre is the number and relative intensity of multiple sound frequencies.

 Transducer is a device that converts energy of a signal into measurable energy form, for
example, a microphone converts sound waves into an electrical signal

Performance Standards: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. solve, using experimental and theoretical approaches, multi concept, rich-context problems involving
measurement, vectors, motions in 1D, 2D, and 3D, Newton’s Laws, work, energy, center of mass,
momentum, impulse, and collisions
2. solve multi-concept, rich context problems using concepts from rotational motion, fluids, oscillations,
gravity, and thermodynamics

Eliciting Your Prior Knowledge

Try This!
1. How is sound produced and propagated?
_________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Why can’t sound waves travel in a vacuum?
_________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Why do we see lightning first before the thunderclap?
_________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________

Subject Matter Content

What are the characteristics of Sound Waves?

Sound is a form of energy which makes us hear. It travels in the form of wave. Sound wave can be
described by five characteristics. You will study through this article about it.

52
 The sensation felt by our ears is called sound. It is a form of energy which makes us hear. We hear
several sounds around us in our everyday life.

We know that sound travels in the form of wave.

A wave is a vibratory disturbance in a medium which carries energy from one point to another
without there being a direct contact between the two points.
We can say that a wave is produced by the vibrations of the particles of the medium through which it passes.

We can say that a wave is produced by the vibrations of the particles of the medium through which it
passes.

There are two types of waves: Longitudinal waves and Transverse waves.

Longitudinal Waves: A wave in which the particles of the medium vibrate back and forth in the
‘same direction’ in which the wave is moving. Medium can be solid, liquid or gases. Therefore, sound waves
are longitudinal waves.

Transverse Waves: A wave in which the particles of the medium vibrate up and down ‘at right
angles’ to the direction in which the wave is moving. These waves are produced only in a solids and liquids
but not in gases.

Sound is a longitudinal wave which consists of compressions and rarefactions travelling through a medium.

Sound wave can be described by five characteristics: Wavelength, Amplitude, Time-Period,

Frequency and Velocity or Speed.

1. Wavelength

The minimum distance in which a sound wave repeats itself is called its wavelength. That is it is the
length of one complete wave. It is denoted by a Greek letter λ (lambda). We know that in a sound wave, the
combined length of a compression and an adjacent rarefaction is called its wavelength. Also, the distance
between the centres of two consecutive compressions or two consecutive rarefactions is equal to its
wavelength.

Note: The distance between the centres of a compression and an adjacent rarefaction is equal to half of its
wavelength i.e. λ/2. The S.I unit for measuring wavelength is metre (m).

2. Amplitude
When a wave passes through a medium, the particles of the medium get displaced temporarily from their
original undisturbed positions. The maximum displacement of the particles of the medium from their original

53
undisturbed positions, when a wave passes through the medium is called amplitude of the wave. In fact the
amplitude is used to describe the size of the wave. The S.I unit of measurement of amplitude is metre (m)
though sometimes it is also measured in centimetres. Do you know that the amplitude of a wave is the same
as the amplitude of the vibrating body producing the wave?

3. Time-Period
The time required to produce one complete wave or cycle or cycle is called time-period of the wave. Now,
one complete wave is produced by one full vibration of the vibrating body. So, we can say that the time taken
to complete one vibration is known as time-period. It is denoted by letter T. The unit of measurement of time-
period is second (s).

4. Frequency

The S.I unit of frequency is hertz or Hz. A vibrating body emitting 1 wave per second is said to have a
frequency of 1 hertz. That is 1 Hz is equal to 1 vibration per second.
Sometimes a bigger unit of frequency is known as kilohertz (kHz) that is 1 kHz = 1000 Hz. The frequency of
a wave is denoted by the letter f.

The frequency of a wave is the same as the frequency of the vibrating body which produces the wave.

What is the relation between time-period and frequency of a wave?

The time required to produce one complete wave is called time-period of the wave. Suppose the time-
period of a wave is T seconds.
In T seconds number of waves produced = 1
So, in 1 second, number of waves produced will be = 1/T
But the number of waves produced in 1 second is called its frequency.
Therefore, F = 1/Time-period
f = 1/T
where f = frequency of the wave
T = time-period of the wave

54
5. Velocity of Wave (Speed of Wave)
The distance travelled by a wave in one second is called velocity of the wave or speed of the wave. It
is
lower frequency (Hz) upper frequency (Hz)
Humans 20 20 000
Dogs 50 45 000

Cats 45 85 000
Bats 20 120 000

Dolphins 0,25 200 000

Elephants 5 10 000
represented by the letter v. The S.I unit for measuring the velocity is metres per second (m/s or ms-1).

What is the relationship between Velocity, Frequency and Wavelength of a Wave?\

Velocity = Distance travelled/ Time taken

Let v = λ / T
Where T = time taken by one wave.
v=fxλ
This formula is known as wave equation.
Where v = velocity of the wave
f = frequency
λ = wavelength
Velocity of a wave = Frequency X Wavelength

This applies to all the waves like transverse waves like water waves, longitudinal waves like sound
waves and the electromagnetic waves like light waves and radio waves
Therefore we have learnt various characteristics of sound waves.

Characteristics of a sound wave

55
Since sound is a wave, we can relate the properties of sound to the properties of a wave. The basic properties

of sound are: pitch, loudness and tone.

Pitch and Loudness of Sound. Sound B has a lower pitch (lower frequency) than Sound A and
is softer (smaller amplitude) than Sound C.

Pitch
The frequency of a sound wave is what your ear understands as pitch. A higher frequency sound has a
higher pitch, and a lower frequency sound has a lower pitch. In figure above sound A has a higher pitch than
sound B. For instance, the chirp of a bird would have a high pitch, but the roar of a lion would have a low
pitch.

The human ear can detect a wide range of frequencies. Frequencies from 20 to 20 000 Hz are audible
to the human ear. Any sound with a frequency below 20 Hz is known as an infrasound and any sound with a
frequency above 20 00020 000 HzHz is known as an ultrasound.

The table below lists the ranges of some common animals compared to humans.

Loudness

The amplitude of a sound wave determines its loudness or volume. A larger amplitude means a louder
sound, and a smaller amplitude means a softer sound. In the figure above, sound C is louder than sound B.
The vibration of a source sets the amplitude of a wave. It transmits energy into the medium through its
vibration. More energetic vibration corresponds to larger amplitude. The molecules move back and forth more
vigorously.

The loudness of a sound is also determined by the sensitivity of the ear. The human ear is more
sensitive to some frequencies than to others. The volume we receive thus depends on both the amplitude of a
sound wave and whether its frequency lies in a region where the ear is more or less sensitive.

Reflection, Refraction, and Diffraction

Like any wave, a sound wave doesn't just stop when it reaches the end of the medium or when it
encounters an obstacle in its path. Rather, a sound wave will undergo certain behaviors when it encounters the
end of the medium or an obstacle. Possible behaviors include reflection off the obstacle, diffraction around
the obstacle, and transmission (accompanied by refraction) into the obstacle or new medium. In this part of

56
lesson, we will investigate behaviors of sound waves and apply them towards the reflection, diffraction, and
refraction of sound waves.

Reflection and Transmission of Sound

When a wave reaches the boundary between one medium another medium, a portion of the wave
undergoes reflection and a portion of the wave undergoes transmission across the boundary. The amount of
reflection is dependent upon the dissimilarity of the two media. For this reason, acoustically minded builders
of auditoriums and concert halls avoid the use of hard, smooth materials in the construction of their inside
halls. A hard material such as concrete is as dissimilar as can be to the air through which the sound moves;
subsequently, most of the sound wave is reflected by the walls and little is absorbed. Walls and ceilings of
concert halls are made softer materials such as fiberglass and acoustic tiles. These materials are more similar
to air than concrete and thus have a greater ability to absorb sound. This gives the room more pleasing
acoustic properties.

Reflection of sound waves off of surfaces can lead to one of two phenomena - an echo or
a reverberation. A reverberation often occurs in a small room with height, width, and length dimensions of
approximately 17 meters or less. Why the magical 17 meters? The effect of a particular sound wave upon the
brain endures for more than a tiny fraction of a second; the human brain keeps a sound in memory for up to
0.1 seconds. If a reflected sound wave reaches the ear within 0.1 seconds of the initial sound, then it seems to
the person that the sound is prolonged. The reception of multiple reflections off of walls and ceilings within
0.1 seconds of each other causes reverberations - the prolonging of a sound. Since sound waves travel at about
340 m/s at room temperature, it will take approximately 0.1 s for a sound to travel the length of a 17 meter
room and back, thus causing a reverberation, t = d/v = (34 m)/(340 m/s) = 0.1 s). This is why reverberations
are common in rooms with dimensions of approximately 17 meters or less. Perhaps you have observed
reverberations when talking in an empty room, when honking the horn while driving through a highway
tunnel or underpass, or when singing in the shower. In auditoriums and concert halls, reverberations
occasionally occur and lead to the displeasing garbling of a sound.

But reflection of sound waves in auditoriums and concert halls do not always lead to displeasing
results, especially if the reflections are designed right. Smooth walls have a tendency to direct sound waves in
a specific direction. Subsequently the use of smooth walls in an auditorium will cause spectators to receive a
large amount of sound from one location along the wall; there would be only one possible path by which
sound waves could travel from the speakers to the listener. The auditorium would not seem to be as lively and
full of sound. Rough walls tend to diffuse sound, reflecting it in a variety of directions. This allows a spectator
to perceive sounds from every part of the room, making it seem lively and full. For this reason, auditorium
and concert hall designers prefer construction materials that are rough rather than smooth.

Reflection of sound waves also leads to echoes. Echoes are different than reverberations. Echoes
occur when a reflected sound wave reaches the ear more than 0.1 seconds after the original sound wave was
heard. If the elapsed time between the arrivals of the two sound waves is more than 0.1 seconds, then the
sensation of the first sound will have died out. In this case, the arrival of the second sound wave will be

57
perceived as a second sound rather than the prolonging of the first sound. There will be an echo instead of a
reverberation.

Reflection of sound waves off of surfaces is also affected by the shape of the surface. Flat or plane
surfaces reflect sound waves in such a way that the angle at which the wave approaches the surface equals the
angle at which the wave leaves the surface. Reflection of sound waves off of curved surfaces leads to a more
interesting phenomenon. Curved surfaces with a parabolic shape have the habit of focusing sound waves to a
point. Sound waves reflecting off of parabolic surfaces concentrate all their energy to a single point in space;
at that point, the sound is amplified. Perhaps you have seen a museum exhibit that utilizes a parabolic-shaped
disk to collect a large amount of sound and focus it at a focal point. If you place your ear at the focal point,
you can hear even the faintest whisper of a friend standing across the room. Parabolic-shaped satellite disks
use this same principle of reflection to gather large amounts of electromagnetic waves and focus it at a point
(where the receptor is located). Scientists have recently discovered some evidence that seems to reveal that a
bull moose utilizes his antlers as a satellite disk to gather and focus sound. Finally, scientists have long
believed that owls are equipped with spherical facial disks that can be maneuvered in order to gather and
reflect sound towards their ears.

Diffraction of Sound Waves

Diffraction involves a change in direction of waves as they pass through an opening or around a
barrier in their path. Water waves have the ability to travel around corners, around obstacles and through
openings. The amount of diffraction (the sharpness of the bending) increases with increasing wavelength and
decreases with decreasing wavelength. In fact, when the wavelength of the wave is smaller than the obstacle
or opening, no noticeable diffraction occurs.

Diffraction of sound waves is commonly observed; we notice sound diffracting around

corners or through door openings, allowing us to hear others who are speaking to us from
adjacent rooms. Many forest-dwelling birds take advantage of the diffractive ability of
long-wavelength sound waves. Owls for instance are able to communicate across long
distances due to the fact that their long-wavelength hoots are able to diffract around forest
trees and carry farther than the short-wavelength tweets of songbirds. Low-pitched (long
wavelength) sounds always carry further than high-pitched (short wavelength) sounds.

Scientists have recently learned that elephants emit infrasonic waves of very low frequency to
communicate over long distances to each other. Elephants typically migrate in large herds that may
sometimes become separated from each other by distances of several miles. Researchers who have observed
elephant migrations from the air and have been both impressed and puzzled by the ability of elephants at the
beginning and the end of these herds to make extremely synchronized movements. The matriarch at the front
of the herd might make a turn to the right, which is immediately followed by elephants at the end of the herd
making the same turn to the right. These synchronized movements occur despite the fact that the elephants'
vision of each other is blocked by dense vegetation. Only recently have they learned that the synchronized
movements are preceded by infrasonic communication. While low wavelength sound waves are unable to
diffract around the dense vegetation, the high wavelength sounds produced by the elephants have sufficient
diffractive ability to communicate long distances.

Bats use high frequency (low wavelength) ultrasonic waves in order to enhance their ability to hunt.
The typical prey of a bat is the moth - an object not much larger than a couple of centimeters. Bats use
ultrasonic echolocation methods to detect the presence of bats in the air. But why ultrasound? The answer lies
in the physics of diffraction. As the wavelength of a wave becomes smaller than the obstacle that it
encounters, the wave is no longer able to diffract around the obstacle, instead the wave reflects off the
obstacle. Bats use ultrasonic waves with wavelengths smaller than the dimensions of their prey. These sound
waves will encounter the prey, and instead of diffracting around the prey, will reflect off the prey and allow
the bat to hunt by means of echolocation. The wavelength of a 50 000 Hz sound wave in air (speed of
approximately 340 m/s) can be calculated as follows

wavelength = speed/frequency
wavelength = (340 m/s)/(50 000 Hz)

58
wavelength = 0.0068 m

The wavelength of the 50 000 Hz sound wave (typical for a bat) is approximately 0.7 centimeters,
smaller than the dimensions of a typical moth.

Refraction of Sound Waves

Refraction of waves involves a change in the direction of waves as they pass from one medium to
another. Refraction, or bending of the path of the waves, is accompanied by a change in speed and wavelength
of the waves. So if the media (or its properties) are changed, the speed of the wave is changed. Thus, waves
passing from one medium to another will undergo refraction. Refraction of sound waves is most evident in
situations in which the sound wave passes through a medium with gradually varying properties. For example,
sound waves are known to refract when traveling over water. Even though the sound wave is not exactly
changing media, it is traveling through a medium with varying properties;
thus, the wave will encounter refraction and change its direction. Since
water has a moderating effect upon the temperature of air, the air directly
above the water tends to be cooler than the air far above the water. Sound
waves travel slower in cooler air than they do in warmer air. For this reason, the portion of the wavefront
directly above the water is slowed down, while the portion of the wavefronts far above the water speeds
ahead. Subsequently, the direction of the wave changes, refracting downwards towards the water. This is
depicted in the diagram at the right.

(A multimedia presentation about Sound Waves)

Evaluation

“On Your Own”

59
Assessment Tasks. Write your answer on the space provided.

1. A periodic wave with wavelength λ = 1m has a frequency f =3 Hz. What is the wave’s speed? (10 pts)

2. If the wavelength of a light in a vacuum is 5.12 × 10 -7m, and the frequency of the light is 5.86 × 10 15Hz,
what is its velocity? (10 pts)

3. If a beam of light travels in space at 3.00 × 10 8m/s, and its frequency is 7.44 × 10 7Hz, what is its
wavelength? (10 pts)

60
4. If the wavelength of a water wave is 6.5 meters, and its frequency is .80 Hz, then what is its velocity? (10
pts)

5. As shown in the diagram below, if the frequency is 0.5 Hz, then what is the wave’s velocity? (10 pts)

Performance Task 3: Make video presentation using experimental or theoretical approaches

explaining/discussing the concept and importance of sound waves in the
maritime industry .
Criteria: (content- 30 pts, presentation- 20 pts = 50 pts)
Let Us Check Your Understanding . Write your answer on the space provided.

Criteria:
Content- 7pts
clarity of ideas – 3 pts
---------------------------------
Total – 10 pts
1. Discuss the nature and properties of sound waves. (10 pts)
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2. Describe the wave characteristics. (10 pts)
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3. How do we solve problems involving period, frequency, wavelength, and velocity of sound waves? (10 pts)
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References

61
https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/what-are-the-characteristics-of-sound-waves-1525678871-
1#:~:text=Sound%20is%20a%20longitudinal%20wave,Frequency%20and%20Velocity%20or%20Speed.&te
xt=The%20minimum%20distance%20in%20which,itself%20is%20called%20its%20wavelength.

www.sites.google.com

www.media.openschool.com

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-physics-1/ap-mechanical-waves-and-sound/wave-characteristics-
ap/e/numerical-wave-equation-ap1

https://www.siyavula.com/read/science/grade-10/sound/10-sound-03

http://www.conantphysics.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Wave-Speed-Worksheet.pdf

MODULE 3
Quarter: First Quarter
No. of Hours: 20 Hours

Lesson 8: Heat and Thermodynamics

Learning Competency
At the end of the lesson, you shall be able to:
1. discuss and solve problems involving the concepts of heat and thermodynamic

Key Terms/Ideas:

 Temperature is a measure of the average amount of kinetic energy possessed by the particles in
a sample of matter. The more the particles vibrate, translate and rotate, the greater the
temperature of the object.

 Heat is a flow of energy from a higher temperature object to a lower temperature object. It is
the temperature difference between the two neighboring objects that causes this heat transfer.
The heat transfer continues until the two objects have reached thermal equilibrium and are at
the same temperature.

 ABSOLUTE ZERO:
The temperature, defined as 0K on the Kelvin scale, at which the motion of molecules in a solid
virtually ceases. The third law of thermodynamics establishes the impossibility of actually
reaching absolute zero.

 A measure of energy or heat in the Britishsystem, often used in reference to the capacity of an
air conditioner. A Btu is equal to 778 foot-pounds, or 1,054 joules.

 CALORIE:

62
 A measure of heat or energy in the SI or metric system, equal to the heat that must be added to
or removed from 1 gram of water to change its temperature by 33.8°F (1°C). The dietary
Calorie (capital C) with which most people are familiar is the same as the kilocalorie.

 CONDUCTION:
The transfer of heat by successive molecular collisions. Conduction is the principal means of
heat transfer in solids, particularly metals.

 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY:
A law of physics which holds that within a system isolated from all other outside factors, the
total amount of energy remains the same, though transformations of energy from one form to
another take place. The first law of thermodynamics is the same as the conservation of energy.

 CONSERVE:
In physics, "to conserve" something means "to result in no net loss of" that particular
component. It is possible that within a given system, the component may change form or
position, but as long as the net value of the component remains the same, it has been conserved.

 CONVECTION:
The transfer of heat through the motion of hot fluid from one place to another. In physics, a
"fluid" can be either a gas or a liquid, and convection is the principal means of heat transfer,
for instance, in air and water.

 ENERGY:
The ability to accomplish work.

 ENTROPY:
The tendency of natural systems toward breakdown, and specifically, the tendency for the
energy in a system to be dissipated. Entropy is closely related to the second law of
thermodynamics.

 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:

A law which states the amount of energy in a system remains constant, and therefore it is
impossible to perform work that results in an energy output greater than the energy input. This
is the same as the conservation of energy.

 FOOT-POUND:
The principal unit of energy—and thus of heat—in the British or English system. The metric or
SI unit is the joule. A foot-pound (ft · lb) is equal to 1.356 J.

 Gas laws, Laws that relate the pressure, volume, and temperature of a gas.

 HEAT:
Internal thermal energy that flows from one body of matter to another. Heat is transferred by
three methods conduction, convection, and radiation.

 HEAT CAPACITY:
The amount of heat that must be added to, or removed from, a unit of mass of a given substance
to change its temperature by 33.8°F (1°C). Heat capacity is sometimes called specific heat
capacity or specific heat. A kilocalorie is the heat capacity of 1 gram of water.

 HEAT ENGINE:
A machine that absorbs heat at a high temperature, performs mechanical work, and as a result
gives off heat at a lower temperature.

 KINETIC ENERGY:
The energy that an object possesses by virtue of its motion.

63
 JOULE:
The principal unit of energy—and thus of heat—in the SI or metric system, corresponding to 1
newton-meter (N · m). A joule (J) is equal to 0.7376 foot-pounds.

 KELVIN SCALE:
Established by William Thomson, Lord Kelvin (1824-1907), the Kelvin scale measures
temperature in relation to absolute zero, or 0K.(Units in the Kelvin system, known as Kelvins,
do not include the word or symbol for degree.) The Kelvin and Celsius scales are directly
related; hence Celsius temperatures can be converted to Kelvins by adding273.15.

 KILOCALORIE:
A measure of heat or energy in the SI or metric system, equal to the heat that must be added to
or removed from 1 kilogram of water to change its temperature by 33.8°F (1°C). As its name
suggests, a kilocalorie is 1,000 calories. The dietary Calorie (capital C) with which most people
are familiar is the same as the kilocalorie.

 MECHANICAL ENERGY:
The sum of potential energy and kinetic energy in a given system.

 POTENTIAL ENERGY:
The energy that an object possesses due to its position.

 RADIATION:
The transfer of heat by means of electromagnetic waves, which require no physical medium
(e.g., water or air) for the transfer. Earth receives the Sun's heat by means of radiation.

 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:

A law of thermodynamics which states that no engine can be constructed that simply takes heat
from a source and performs an equivalent amount of work. Some of the heat will always be lost,
and therefore it is impossible to build a perfectly efficient engine. This is a result of th efact that
the natural flow of heat is always from a high-temperature reservoir to alow-temperature
reservoir—a fact expressed in the concept of entropy. The second law is sometimes referred to
as "the law of entropy."

 SYSTEM:
In physics, the term "system" usually refers to any set of physical interactions isolated from the
rest of the universe. Anything outside of the system, including all factors and forces irrelevant
to a discussion of that system, is known as the environment.

 TEMPERATURE:
The direction of internal energy flow between bodies when heat is being transferred.
Temperature measures the average molecular kinetic energy in transit between those bodies.

 THERMAL ENERGY:
Heat energy, a form of kinetic energy produced by the movement of atomic or molecular
particles. The greater the movement of the separticles, the greater the thermal energy.

 THERMODYNAMICS:
The study of the relationships between heat, work, and energy.

 THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:

A law of thermodynamics which states that at the temperature of absolute zero, entropy also
approaches zero. Zero entropy would contradict the second law of thermodynamics, meaning
that absolute zero is therefore impossible to reach.

 WORK:
The exertion of force over a given distance to displace or move an object. Work is thus the
product of force and distance exerted in the same direction.

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Performance Standards

1. solve, using experimental and theoretical approaches, multi concept, rich-context problems involving
measurement, vectors, motions in 1D, 2D, and 3D, Newton’s Laws, work, energy, center of mass,
momentum, impulse, and collisions
2. solve multi-concept, rich context problems using concepts from rotational motion, fluids, oscillations,
gravity, and thermodynamics

Eliciting Your Prior Knowledge

Try This!
1. How does heat differ from temperature?
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2. Differentiate between sensible heat and latent heat.

_________________________________________________________________________________
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3. Describe the flow of heat.
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4. What is specific heat?

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________________________________________________________________________________________

5. Define gas laws.

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Subject Matter Content

What is thermodynamics? Please take a look at the picture below.

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 Heat is energy can be converted from one form to another, or transferred from one object to another.
For example, a stove burner converts electrical energy to heat and conducts that energy through the pot to the
water. This increases the kinetic energy of the water molecules, causing them to move faster and faster. At a
certain temperature (the boiling point), the atoms have gained enough energy to break free of the molecular
bonds of the liquid and escape as vapor.

Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that deals with the relationships between heat and other
forms of energy. In particular, it describes how thermal energy is converted to and from other forms of energy
and how it affects matter.

Calorimetry
- means measuring heat
- study of heat calculations
- quantitative measurement of heat exchange

Temperature
- a measure of hotness of object on a quantitative scale
- proportional to average kinetic energy of molecules in gases
- does not depend on the mass of the object

Thermal Energy (Internal Energy)

- the sum of KE and PE of random motion of particles making up the object
- transferred from a hot body to a cold body

* When thermal equilibrium is reached, the transfer of energy between bodies is equal.

Heat
- the quantity of thermal energy absorbed or given off by an object
- thermal energy in transit
- the energy that flows as a result of a difference in temperature

Sensible Heat
- heat removed or added that causes a change in temperature in an object

Latent Heat
- heat that causes a change of state with no change in temperature
(e.g. Water remains at 100 0C while boiling. The heat added to keep the water boiling is latent heat.)

The SI unit of heat is the joule. Other units used for heat are the ff:
1) 1 cal = 4.184 J
2) British Thermal Unit (1 BTU = 1054 J)

66
3) The ‘Calorie” used by nutritionists is called the “large calorie” and is actually a kilocalorie. (1 Cal = 1 kcal
= 103 cal)

The Specific Heat (or Specific Heat Capacity, c) of a substance is the quantity of heat required to change the
temperature of unit mass of the substance by one degree.

𝛥𝑄
C=
𝑚𝛥𝑇

Units of c:
𝐽
1) SI:
𝑘𝑔 . 𝐾

𝐽
2)
𝑘𝑔 . 𝟎C

𝑐𝑎𝑙
3) widely used unit:
𝑔 . 𝟎C
𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐽
Where, 1 = 4 184
𝑔 . 𝟎C 𝑘𝑔 . 𝟎C

*Each substance has a characteristic value of specific heat, which varies slightly with temperature. For water,

𝐽 𝑐𝑎𝑙
C = 4 180 =1 .
𝑘𝑔 . 𝟎C 𝑔 . 𝟎C

The Heat Gained (or Lost) by a body (whose phase does not change) as it undergoes a temperature change
𝛥𝑇, is given by

𝛥𝑄 = m C 𝛥𝑇

Thermal energy is the energy a substance or system has due to its temperature, i.e., the energy of
moving or vibrating molecules, according to the Energy Education website of the Texas Education Agency.
Thermodynamics involves measuring this energy, which can be "exceedingly complicated," according to
David McKee, a professor of physics at Missouri Southern State University. "The systems that we study in
thermodynamics … consist of very large numbers of atoms or molecules interacting in complicated ways.
But, if these systems meet the right criteria, which we call equilibrium, they can be described with a very
small number of measurements or numbers. Often this is idealized as the mass of the system, the pressure of
the system, and the volume of the system, or some other equivalent set of numbers. Three numbers describe
1026 or 1030 nominal independent variables."

Heat
Thermodynamics, then, is concerned with several properties of matter; foremost among these is heat.
Heat is energy transferred between substances or systems due to a temperature difference between them,
according to Energy Education. As a form of energy, heat is conserved, i.e., it cannot be created or destroyed.
It can, however, be transferred from one place to another. Heat can also be converted to and from other forms
of energy. For example, a steam turbine can convert heat to kinetic energy to run a generator that converts
kinetic energy to electrical energy. A light bulb can convert this electrical energy to electromagnetic radiation
(light), which, when absorbed by a surface, is converted back into heat.

Temperature
The amount of heat transferred by a substance depends on the speed and number of atoms or
molecules in motion, according to Energy Education. The faster the atoms or molecules move, the higher the
temperature, and the more atoms or molecules that are in motion, the greater the quantity of heat they transfer.

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 Temperature is "a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a sample of matter,
expressed in terms of units or degrees designated on a standard scale," according to the American Heritage
Dictionary. The most commonly used temperature scale is Celsius, which is based on the freezing and boiling
points of water, assigning respective values of 0 degrees C and 100 degrees C. The Fahrenheit scale is also
based on the freezing and boiling points of water which have assigned values of 32 F and 212 F, respectively.

Scientists worldwide, however, use the Kelvin (K with no degree sign) scale, named after William
Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, because it works in calculations. This scale uses the same increment as the
Celsius scale, i.e., a temperature change of 1 C is equal to 1 K. However, the Kelvin scale starts at absolute
zero, the temperature at which there is a total absence of heat energy and all molecular motion stops. A
temperature of 0 K is equal to minus 459.67 F or minus 273.15 C.

Specific heat
The amount of heat required to increase the temperature of a certain mass of a substance by a certain
amount is called specific heat, or specific heat capacity, according to Wolfram Research. The conventional
unit for this is calories per gram per kelvin. The calorie is defined as the amount of heat energy required to
raise the temperature of 1 gram of water at 4 C by 1 degree.
The specific heat of a metal depends almost entirely on the number of atoms in the sample, not its mass. For
instance, a kilogram of aluminum can absorb about seven times more heat than a kilogram of lead. However,
lead atoms can absorb only about 8 percent more heat than an equal number of aluminum atoms. A given

mass of water, however, can absorb nearly five times as much heat as an equal mass of aluminum. The
specific heat of a gas is more complex and depends on whether it is measured at constant pressure or constant
volume.

Thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity (k) is “the rate at which heat passes through a specified material, expressed as
the amount of heat that flows per unit time through a unit area with a temperature gradient of one degree per
unit distance,” according to the Oxford Dictionary. The unit for k is watts (W) per meter (m) per kelvin (K).
Values of k for metals such as copper and silver are relatively high at 401 and 428 W/m·K, respectively. This
property makes these materials useful for automobile radiators and cooling fins for computer chips because
they can carry away heat quickly and exchange it with the environment. The highest value of k for any natural
substance is diamond at 2,200 W/m·K.
Other materials are useful because they are extremely poor conductors of heat; this property is referred to as
thermal resistance, or R-value, which describes the rate at which heat is transmitted through the material.
These materials, such as rock wool, goose down and Styrofoam, are used for insulation in exterior building
walls, winter coats and thermal coffee mugs. R-value is given in units of square feet times degrees Fahrenheit
times hours per British thermal unit (ft2·°F·h/Btu) for a 1-inch-thick slab.

Newton's Law of Cooling

In 1701, Sir Isaac Newton first stated his Law of Cooling in a short article titled "Scala graduum
Caloris" ("A Scale of the Degrees of Heat") in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. Newton's
statement of the law translates from the original Latin as, "the excess of the degrees of the heat ... were in
geometrical progression when the times are in an arithmetical progression." Worcester Polytechnic
Institute gives a more modern version of the law as "the rate of change of temperature is proportional to the
difference between the temperature of the object and that of the surrounding environment."

This results in an exponential decay in the temperature difference. For example, if a warm object is
placed in a cold bath, within a certain length of time, the difference in their temperatures will decrease by
half. Then in that same length of time, the remaining difference will again decrease by half. This repeated
halving of the temperature difference will continue at equal time intervals until it becomes too small to
measure.

Heat transfer

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 Heat can be transferred from one body to another or between a body and the environment by three
different means: conduction, convection and radiation. Conduction is the transfer of energy through a solid
material. Conduction between bodies occurs when they are in direct contact, and molecules transfer their
energy across the interface.
Convection is the transfer of heat to or from a fluid medium. Molecules in a gas or liquid in contact with a
solid body transmit or absorb heat to or from that body and then move away, allowing other molecules to
move into place and repeat the process. Efficiency can be improved by increasing the surface area to be
heated or cooled, as with a radiator, and by forcing the fluid to move over the surface, as with a fan.
Radiation is the emission of electromagnetic (EM) energy, particularly infrared photons that carry
heat energy. All matter emits and absorbs some EM radiation, the net amount of which determines whether
this causes a loss or gain in heat.

The Carnot cycle

In 1824, Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot proposed a model for a heat engine based on what has come to
be known as the Carnot cycle. The cycle exploits the relationships among pressure, volume and temperature
of gasses and how an input of energy can change form and do work outside the system.
Compressing a gas increases its temperature so it becomes hotter than its environment. Heat can then be
removed from the hot gas using a heat exchanger. Then, allowing it to expand causes it to cool. This is the
basic principle behind heat pumps used for heating, air conditioning and refrigeration.
Conversely, heating a gas increases its pressure, causing it to expand. The expansive pressure can then be
used to drive a piston, thus converting heat energy into kinetic energy. This is the basic principle behind heat
engines.

Entropy
All thermodynamic systems generate waste heat. This waste results in an increase in entropy, which
for a closed system is "a quantitative measure of the amount of thermal energy not available to do work,"
according to the American Heritage Dictionary. Entropy in any closed system always increases;
it never decreases. Additionally, moving parts produce waste heat due to friction, and radiative heat inevitably
leaks from the system.

This makes so-called perpetual motion machines impossible. Siabal Mitra, a professor of physics at
Missouri State University, explains, "You cannot build an engine that is 100 percent efficient, which means
you cannot build a perpetual motion machine. However, there are a lot of folks out there who still don't
believe it, and there are people who are still trying to build perpetual motion machines."

Entropy is also defined as "a measure of the disorder or randomness in a closed system," which also
inexorably increases. You can mix hot and cold water, but because a large cup of warm water is more
disordered than two smaller cups containing hot and cold water, you can never separate it back into hot and
cold without adding energy to the system. Put another way, you can’t unscramble an egg or remove cream
from your coffee. While some processes appear to be completely reversible, in practice, none actually are.
Entropy, therefore, provides us with an arrow of time: forward is the direction of increasing entropy.

The four laws of thermodynamics

The fundamental principles of thermodynamics were originally expressed in three laws. Later, it was
determined that a more fundamental law had been neglected, apparently because it had seemed so obvious
that it did not need to be stated explicitly. To form a complete set of rules, scientists decided this most
fundamental law needed to be included. The problem, though, was that the first three laws had already been
established and were well known by their assigned numbers. When faced with the prospect of renumbering
the existing laws, which would cause considerable confusion, or placing the pre-eminent law at the end of the
list, which would make no logical sense, a British physicist, Ralph H. Fowler, came up with an alternative
that solved the dilemma: he called the new law the “Zeroth Law.” In brief, these laws are:

The Zeroth Law states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with some third body, then they are also
in equilibrium with each other. This establishes temperature as a fundamental and measurable property of
matter.

The First Law states that the total increase in the energy of a system is equal to the increase in thermal
energy plus the work done on the system. This states that heat is a form of energy and is therefore subject to
the principle of conservation.

69
The Second Law states that heat energy cannot be transferred from a body at a lower temperature to a body
at a higher temperature without the addition of energy. This is why it costs money to run an air conditioner.

The Third Law states that the entropy of a pure crystal at absolute zero is zero. As explained above, entropy
is sometimes called "waste energy," i.e., energy that is unable to do work, and since there is no heat energy
whatsoever at absolute zero, there can be no waste energy. Entropy is also a measure of the disorder in a
system, and while a perfect crystal is by definition perfectly ordered, any positive value of temperature means
there is motion within the crystal, which causes disorder. For these reasons, there can be no physical system
with lower entropy, so entropy always has a positive value.
The science of thermodynamics has been developed over centuries, and its principles apply to nearly every
device ever invented. Its importance in modern technology cannot be overstated.

Gas laws, Laws that relate the pressure, volume, and temperature of a gas. Boyle’s law—named for Robert
Boyle—states that, at constant temperature, the pressure P of a gas varies inversely with its volume V,
or PV = k, where k is a constant. Charles’s law—named for J.-A.-C. Charles (1746–1823)—states that, at
constant pressure, the volume V of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute (Kelvin) temperature T,
or V/T = k. These two laws can be combined to form a single generalization of the behaviour of gases known
as an equation of state, PV = nRT, where n is the number of gram-moles of a gas and R is called the universal
gas constant. Though this law describes the behaviour of an ideal gas, it closely approximates the behaviour
of real gases.

(A multimedia presentation on Heat and Thermodynamics)

Evaluation

“On Your Own” . Write your answer on the space provided.

1. Discuss the difference between:

A. heat and temperature. (10 pts)
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B. sensible heat and latent heat. (10 pts)

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2. Discuss the flow of heat in the following:

A. land breeze (10 pts)

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________________________________________________________________________________________
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B. sea breeze (10 pts)

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3. Your mother asks you to help her in cleaning your home. Everything then is in its proper place. Does this
violate the law of thermodynamics? Explain. (10 pts)
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4. Solve the problem below: (10 pts)

𝐽
How much heat does 25 g of aluminum give off as it cools from 100 oC to 20 oC? (CAl = 880 )
𝑘𝑔 . 𝟎C

Assessment Tasks. Solve the following problems below. Write your answer on the space provided

1. How much heat (in kJ and kcal) does 25 g of aluminum give off as it cools from 100 oC to 20 oC? (10 pts)

2. How much heat (in kJ and cal) is required to raise the temperature of 250 mL of water from
20 oC to 35 oC? (10 pts)

71
3. How much heat (in kJ and cal) is lost by the water as it cools back down from 35 oC to 20 oC? (10 pts)

𝑚 𝐽
4. Given: (𝜌 = ) ; 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟= 1.00 𝑔 ; 𝐶𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟= 4.184
𝑣 𝑚𝐿 𝑔 . 𝑜𝐶
Problem:
𝐽
A 10 g of iron bar (C = 0.46 ) at 80 oC is dropped into 70 mL of water at 25 oC
𝑔 . 𝑜𝐶
𝐽
(C = 4. 184 ). What is the final temperature? (20 pts)
𝑔 .𝑜𝐶

Performance Task 4: Make video presentation using experimental or theoretical approaches

explaining/discussing the concept of heat and thermodynamics in the maritime
industry.

Criteria: (content- 30 pts, presentation- 20 pts = 50 pts)

B. Let Us Check Your Understanding. Write your answer on the space provided.

Criteria:
Content- 7pts
clarity of ideas – 3 pts
---------------------------------
Total – 10 pts

1. Distinguish heat, temperature, and thermal energy. (10 pts)

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2. What does it mean when a substance has a high specific heat? (10 pts)

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3. Discuss the concept of entropy in the maritime profession or seafaring industry. (10 pts)

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4. Discuss the importance of gas laws in the maritime profession. (10 pts)
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References

http://www.scienceclarified.com/everyday/Real-Life-Physics-Vol-2/Thermodynamics-Key-
terms.html#ixzz6SxaKBJay

https://www.livescience.com/50776-thermodynamics.html

Image: © Carolyn Franks | Shutterstock

American Heritage Dictionary.

Energy Education website of the Texas Education Agency

-------------------------------END-------------------------------

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 APPENDIX A

Learning Competencies Prescribed in the Curriculum Guide of Physics 1 by the Department of Education

Lesson 1- Units/Physical Quantities/Measurements/Graphical Presentation/Linear Fitting of Data

LC 1.1. Solve measurement problems involving conversion of units, expression of
measurements in scientific notation
LC 1.2. Differentiate accuracy from precision
LC 1.3. Differentiate random errors from systematic errors
LC 1.4. Use the least count concept to estimate errors associated with single measurements
LC 1.5. Estimate errors from multiple measurements of a physical quantity using variance
LC 1.6. Estimate the uncertainty of a derived quantity from the estimated values and
uncertainties of directly measured quantities
LC 1.7. Estimate intercepts and slopes—and their uncertainties—in experimental data with
linear dependence using the “eyeball method” and/or linear regression formulae

Lesson 2- Vectors
LC 2.1. Differentiate vector and scalar quantities
LC 2.2. Perform addition of vectors
LC 2.3. Rewrite a vector in component form
LC 2.4. Calculate directions and magnitudes of vectors

Lesson 3- Kinematics: Motion along a Straight Line

LC 3.1. Convert a verbal description of a physical situation involving uniform acceleration in
one dimension into a mathematical description
LC 3.2. Recognize whether or not a physical situation involves constant velocity or constant
acceleration
LC 3. 3. Interpret displacement and velocity, respectively, as areas under velocity vs. time
and acceleration vs. time curves

74
 LC 3.4. Interpret velocity and acceleration, respectively, as slopes of position vs. time and
velocity vs. time curves
LC 3.5. Construct velocity vs. time and acceleration vs. time graphs, respectively,
corresponding to a given position vs. time-graph and velocity vs. time graph and
vice versa
LC 3.6. Solve for unknown quantities in equations involving one-dimensional uniformly
accelerated motion

LC 3.7. Use the fact that the magnitude of acceleration due to gravity on the Earth’s surface
is nearly constant and approximately 9.8 m/s 2 in free-fall problems
LC 3.8. Solve problems involving one-dimensional motion with constant acceleration in
contexts such as, but not limited to, the “tail-gating phenomenon”, pursuit, rocket
launch, and freefall problems

Lesson 4- Kinematics: Motion in 2D and 3D

LC 4.1. Describe motion using the concept of relative velocities in 1D and 2D
LC 4.2. Extend the definition of position, velocity, and acceleration to 2D and 3D using
vector representation
LC 4.3. Deduce the consequences of the independence of vertical and horizontal components
of projectile motion
LC 4.4. Calculate range, time of flight, and maximum heights of projectiles
LC 4.5. Differentiate uniform and non-uniform circular motion
LC 4.6. Infer quantities associated with circular motion such as tangential velocity,
centripetal acceleration, tangential acceleration, radius of curvature
LC 4.7. Solve problems involving two dimensional motion in contexts such as, but not
limited to ledge jumping, movie stunts, basketball, safe locations during firework
displays, and Ferris wheels
LC 4.8. Plan and execute an experiment involving projectile motion: Identifying error
sources, minimizing their influence, and estimating the influence of the identified
error sources on final results

Lesson 5- Newton's Laws of Motion

LC 5.1 Define inertial frames of reference
LC 5.2. Differentiate contact and noncontact forces
LC 5.3. Distinguish mass and weight
LC 5.4. Identify action-reaction pairs
LC 5.5. Draw free-body diagrams
LC 5.6. Apply Newton’s 1st law to obtain quantitative and qualitative conclusions about the
contact and noncontact forces acting on a body in equilibrium
LC 5.7. Differentiate the properties of static friction and kinetic friction
LC 5.8. Compare the magnitude of sought quantities such as frictional force, normal force,
threshold angles for sliding, acceleration, etc.
LC 5.9. Apply Newton’s 2nd law and kinematics to obtain quantitative and qualitative
conclusions about the velocity and acceleration of one or more bodies, and the
contact and noncontact forces acting on one or more bodies
LC 5.10. Analyze the effect of fluid resistance on moving
LC 5.11. Solve problems using Newton’s Laws of motion in contexts such as, but not limited
to, ropes and pulleys, the design of mobile sculptures, transport of loads on
conveyor belts, force needed to move stalled vehicles, determination of safe driving
speeds on banked curved roads
LC 5.12. Plan and execute an experiment involving forces (e.g., force table, friction board,
terminal velocity) and identifying discrepancies between theoretical expectations
and experimental results when appropriate

Lesson 6- Work, Energy and Energy Conservation

LC 6.1. 1. Calculate the dot or scalar product of vectors
LC 6.2 Determine the work done by a force (not necessarily constant) acting on a system

75
 LC 6.3.Define work as a scalar or dot product of force and displacement
LC 6.4. Interpret the work done by a force in one dimension as an area under a Force vs.
Position curve
LC 6.5. Relate the work done by a constant force to the change in kinetic energy of a system
LC 6.6. Apply the work-energy theorem to obtain quantitative and qualitative conclusions
regarding the work done, initial and final velocities, mass and kinetic energy of a
system

LC 6.7. Represent the work-energy theorem graphically

LC 6.8. Relate power to work, energy, force, and velocity
LC 6.9. Relate the gravitational potential energy of a system or object to the configuration of
the system
LC 6.10. Relate the elastic potential energy of a system or object to the configuration of the
system
LC 6.11. Explain the properties and the effects of conservative forces
LC 6.12. Identify conservative and nonconservative forces
LC 6.13. Express the conservation of energy verbally and mathematically
LC 6.14. Use potential energy diagrams to infer force; stable, unstable, and neutral equilibria;
and turning points
LC 6.15. Determine whether or not energy conservation is applicable in a given example
before and after description of a physical system
LC 6.16. Solve problems involving work, energy, and power in contexts such as, but not
limited to, bungee jumping, design of roller-coasters, number of people required to
build structures such as the Great Pyramids and the rice terraces; power and energy
requirements of human activities such as sleeping vs. sitting vs. standing, running
vs. walking. (Conversion of joules to calories should be emphasized at this point.)

Lesson 7- Center of Mass, Momentum, Impulse and Collisions

LC 7.1. Differentiate center of mass and geometric center
LC 7.2. Relate the motion of center of mass of a system to the momentum and net external
force acting on the system
LC 7.3. Relate the momentum, impulse, force, and time of contact in a system
LC 7.4. Explain the necessary conditions for conservation of linear momentum to be valid
LC 7.5. Compare and contrast elastic and inelastic collisions
LC 7.6. Apply the concept of restitution coefficient in collisions
LC 7.7. Predict motion of constituent particles for different types of collisions (e.g., elastic,
inelastic)
LC 7.8. Solve problems involving center of mass, impulse, and momentum in contexts such
as, but not limited to, rocket motion, vehicle collisions, and ping-pong. (Emphasize
also the concept of whiplash and the sliding, rolling, and mechanical deformations in
vehicle collisions.)
LC 7.9. Perform an experiment involving energy and momentum conservation and analyze
the data identifying discrepancies between theoretical expectations and experimental
results when appropriate

Lesson 8- Rotational Equilibrium and Rotational Dynamics

LC 8.1. Calculate the moment of inertia about a given axis of single-object and multiple-
object systems
LC 8.2. Exploit analogies between pure translational motion and pure rotational motion to
infer rotational motion equations (e.g., rotational kinematic equations, rotational
kinetic energy, torque-angular acceleration relation)
LC 8.3.Calculate magnitude and direction of torque using the definition of torque as a cross
product
LC 8.4. Describe rotational quantities using vectors
LC 8.5. Determine whether a system is in static equilibrium or not
LC 8.6. Apply the rotational kinematic relations for systems with constant angular
accelerations
LC 8.7. Apply rotational kinetic energy formulae
LC 8.8. Solve static equilibrium problems in contexts such as, but not limited to, see-saws,

76
 mobiles, cable-hinge-strut system, leaning ladders, and weighing a heavy suitcase
using a small bathroom scale
LC 8.9. Determine angular momentum of different systems
LC 8.10. Apply the torque-angular momentum relation
LC 8.11. Recognize whether angular momentum is conserved or not over various time
intervals in a given system
LC 8.12. Perform an experiment involving static equilibrium and analyze the data—
identifying discrepancies between theoretical expectations and experimental results
when appropriate
LC 8.13. Solve rotational kinematics and dynamics problems, in contexts such as, but not
limited to, flywheels as energy storage devices, and spinning hard drives

Lesson 9- Gravity
LC 9.1. Use Newton’s law of gravitation to infer gravitational force, weight, and acceleration
due to gravity
LC 9.2. Determine the net gravitational force on a mass given a system of point masses
LC 9.3. Discuss the physical significance of gravitational field
LC 9.4. Apply the concept of gravitational potential energy in physics problems
LC 9.5. Calculate quantities related to planetary or satellite motion
LC 9.6. Apply Kepler’s 3rd Law of planetary motion
LC 9.7. For circular orbits, relate Kepler’s third law of planetary motion to Newton’s law of
gravitation and centripetal acceleration
LC 9.8. Solve gravity-related problems in contexts such as, but not limited to, inferring the
mass of the Earth, inferring the mass of Jupiter from the motion of its moons, and
calculating escape speeds from the Earth and from the solar system

Lesson 10- Periodic Motion

LC 10.1. Relate the amplitude, frequency, angular frequency, period, displacement, velocity,
and acceleration of oscillating systems
LC 10.2. Recognize the necessary conditions for an object to undergo simple harmonic
motion
LC 10.3. Analyze the motion of an oscillating system using energy and Newton’s 2nd law
approaches
LC 10.4. Calculate the period and the frequency of spring mass, simple pendulum, and
physical pendulum
LC 10.5. Differentiate underdamped, overdamped, and critically damped motion
LC 10.6. Describe the conditions for resonance
LC 10.7. Perform an experiment involving periodic motion and analyze the data—identifying
discrepancies between theoretical expectations and experimental results when
appropriate
LC 10.8. Define mechanical wave, longitudinal wave, transverse wave, periodic wave, and
sinusoidal wave
LC 10.9. From a given sinusoidal wave function infer the (speed, wavelength, frequency,
period, direction, and wave number
LC 10.10. Calculate the propagation speed, power transmitted by waves on a string with given
tension, mass, and length

Lesson 11- Mechanical Waves

LC 11.1. Apply the inverse-square relation between the intensity of waves and the distance
from the source
LC 11.2. Describe qualitatively and quantitatively the superposition of waves
LC 11.3. Apply the condition for standing waves on a string
LC 11.4. Relate the frequency (source dependent) and wavelength of sound with the motion
of the source and the listener
LC 11.5. Solve problems involving sound and mechanical waves in contexts such as, but not
limited to, echolocation, musical instruments, ambulance sounds
LC 11.6. Perform an experiment investigating the properties of sound waves and analyze the
data appropriately—identifying deviations from theoretical expectations when appropriate

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Lesson 12- Fluid Mechanics

LC 12.1. Relate density, specific gravity, mass, and volume to each other
LC 12.2. Relate pressure to area and force
LC 12.3. Relate pressure to fluid density and depth
LC 12.4. Apply Pascal’s principle in analyzing fluids in various systems
LC 12.5. Apply the concept of buoyancy and Archimedes’ principle

LC 12.6. Explain the limitations of and the assumptions underlying Bernoulli’s principle and
the continuity equation
LC 12.7. Apply Bernoulli’s principle and continuity
equation, whenever appropriate, to infer relations involving pressure, elevation,
speed, and flux
LC 12.8. Solve problems involving fluids in contexts such as, but not limited to, floating and
sinking, swimming, Magdeburg hemispheres, boat design, hydraulic devices, and
balloon flight
LC 12.9. Perform an experiment involving either Continuity and Bernoulli’s equation or
buoyancy, and analyze the data appropriately—identifying discrepancies between
theoretical expectations

Lesson 13-Temperature and Heat

LC 13.1. Explain the connection between the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics, temperature,
thermal equilibrium, and temperature scales
LC 13.2. Convert temperatures and temperature differences in the following scales:
Fahrenheit, Celsius, Kelvin
LC 13.3. Define coefficient of thermal expansion and coefficient of volume expansion
LC 13.4. Calculate volume or length changes of solids due to changes in temperature
LC 13.5. Solve problems involving temperature, thermal expansion, heat capacity, heat
transfer, and thermal equilibrium in contexts such as, but not limited to, the design
of bridges and train rails using steel, relative severity of steam burns and water burns,
thermal insulation, sizes of stars, and surface temperatures of planets
LC 13.6. Perform an experiment investigating factors affecting thermal energy transfer and
analyze the data—identifying deviations from theoretical expectations when
appropriate (such as thermal expansion and modes of heat transfer)
LC 13.7. Carry out measurements using thermometers
LC 13.8. Solve problems using the Stefan-Boltzmann law and the heat current formula for
radiation and conduction

Lesson 14- Ideal Gas and the Laws of Thermodynamics

LC 14.1. Enumerate the properties of an ideal gas
LC 14.2. Solve problems involving ideal gas equations in contexts such as, but not limited to,
the design of metal containers for compressed gases
LC 14.3. Distinguish among system, wall, and surroundings
LC 14.4. Interpret PV diagrams of a thermodynamic process
LC 14.5. Compute the work done by a gas using dW=PdV
LC 14.6. State the relationship between changes internal energy, work done, and thermal
energy supplied through the First Law of Thermodynamics
LC 14.7. Differentiate the following thermodynamic processes and show them on a PV
diagram: isochoric, isobaric, isothermal, adiabatic, and cyclic
LC 14.8. Use the First Law of Thermodynamics in combination with the known properties of
adiabatic, isothermal, isobaric, and isochoric processes
LC 14.9. Solve problems involving the application of the First Law of Thermodynamics in
contexts such as, but not limited to, the boiling of water, cooling a room with an air
conditioner, diesel engines, and gases in containers with pistons
LC 14.10. Calculate the efficiency of a heat engine
LC 14.11. Describe reversible and irreversible processes

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 LC 14.12. Explain how entropy is a measure of disorder
LC 14.13. State the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
LC 14.14. Calculate entropy changes for various processes e.g., isothermal process, free
expansion, constant pressure process, etc.
LC 14.15. Describe the Carnot cycle (enumerate the processes involved in the cycle and
illustrate the cycle on a PV diagram)
LC 14.16. State Carnot’s theorem and use it to calculate the maximum possible efficiency of
a heat engine

LC 14.17. Solve problems involving the application of the Second Law of Thermodynamics
in context such as, but not limited to, heat engines, heat pumps, internal
combustion engines, refrigerators, and fuel economy

APPENDIX B

Essential Topics/Terms in Science Identified by the Faculty of the Basic Education Department and the
College of Maritime Education of John B. Lacson Colleges Foundation-Bacolod during the First Semester of
S.Y. 2019-2020 That Need to Be Reinforced.

(Note that some of these topics are found in General Chemistry 1)

• Archimedes’ Principle
• Battery (Cell)
• Bernoulli’s equation
• Buoyancy
• Center of Gravity
• Conditions of Equilibrium
• Conversion of Units
• Current
• Density
• Energy
• Flow rate
• Fluid mechanics
• Forces
• Gas laws
• Head in pumping system
• Heat exchange
• Heat transfer
• Hydrodynamics
• Hydromechanics
• Hydrostatics

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• Kinematics (motion along a straight line)
• Kinetic energy
• Measurement (steel rule, Vernier caliper, micrometer caliper)
• Mechanics
• Modulus of elasticity
• Moment (Torque)
• Newton’s Law of Motion
• Ohm’s law
• Pascal’s principle
• pH
• Potential energy
• Power
• Pressure
• Resistance
• Salinity
• Simple machines
• Specific gravity
• Specific heat
• Strain
• Stress
• Temperature
• Transfer of fluids
• Transformation of formulas
• Units of lengths
• Using the ruler and other measurement scales
• Vectors
• Voltage
• Work

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