Introduction to Turbulence Modelling

Slides prepared by Drs. Essel and Balachandar

Other sources:
Dr. Taka Nishino, Cranfield University, Turbulence Modelling course
Stephen Pope, Turbulent flows, Cambridge University Press, 2000
 Lecture overview
• Introduction to turbulence modelling

• Reynolds-averaged decomposition
• Closure problem

• RANS-based turbulence models

• Eddy-viscosity models
• Zero, One and Two-equation models
• Second-moment closure models

• Large-eddy simulations (LES)

• Hybrid RANS-LES

1
 What you will learn
Turbulence modelling is complicated and difficult to learn in two lectures
The goal here is to understand the basic concepts so that you can begin to use StarCCM+

(1) Basic concepts of turbulence and its modelling

• What is turbulence? Why is it important?
• Instantaneous vs. Mean flow characteristics
• Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations

(2) RANS-based turbulence models

• Eddy viscosity models vs Reynolds stress models
• Some examples of eddy viscosity models (k-ε , k-ω, etc.)
• Wall function approach vs Wall resolving approach

(3) Introduction to advanced topics

• Unsteady RANS (URANS) simulations
• Large-eddy simulations (LES)
• Detached-eddy simulations (DES)

2
Turbulence?

3
Examples

nasa.gov
All fluid flows of interest in BBA are turbulent
Very important to predict the role of turbulence

4
Evolution of square jet

5
 Need to be careful
Visualization of von Karam type vortex shedding
behind a circular cylinder (Re = 100)
Owen et al., Physics of Fluids, 2000

Laminar

Transitional

Re clearly indicates that this is not a turbulent flow

Unsteady, but not turbulent Turbulent
Recall Reynolds experiment, Re > 2300 for pipe flow to
become turbulent

6
Reynolds number: We need to know the Reynolds number
• Ratio of (nonlinear) inertial forces to the linear viscous force.

• The inertial forces are responsible for the flow instability while the viscous forces convert the
kinetic energy into thermal energy.

• 𝑅𝑒 = 𝑈𝐿/𝜈, where 𝐿 is a characteristic length scale, 𝑈 is a characteristic velocity scale (𝑙/𝑇,

where 𝑇 is time scale) and 𝜈 is kinematic viscosity.

• The largest scales are determined by the flow domain (geometry).

• The small scales are determined by the fluid viscosity and they depend on Reynolds number.
The smallest length scale is called the Kolmogorov length scale, 𝑙 = 𝜈 3 𝐿/𝑈 3 1/4

7
8
 Computation of Turbulent Flow
• Turbulent flow is governed by the Navier-Stokes equations: Continuity, Momentum (3
directions) and Energy
• For incompressible fluid (𝜌 = constant) with constant viscosity and no body forces,
• Continuity equation:
𝜕𝑈𝑖
=0
𝜕𝑥𝑖

• Navier-Stokes equation:

𝜕𝑈𝑖 𝜕𝑈𝑖 1 𝜕𝑃 𝜕 2 𝑈𝑖
+ 𝑈𝑗 =− +𝜈
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜌 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝑥𝑗

Momentum Viscous force

Surface force
convection (Diffusion)
(Pressure)

9
 Computation of Turbulent Flow
• The equations are highly (the 3 N’s)
• Non-linear,
• Non-integrable and
• Non-local

• However, the equations can be modelled through computational methods such as direct
numerical simulation (DNS).

• But there are many challenges

10
 Computational Methods
Direct Numerical Simulations (DNS)
Principle: Directly solves the complete Navier-Stokes equations.
Pros: Resolves all the spatial and temporal scales
Cons: Computationally expensive and not applicable for high Reynolds number flows

Large Eddy Simulations (LES)

Principle: Solves a filtered version of the Navier-Stokes equations which resolves the large-
scale eddies but models the smaller eddies
Pros: Lesser computational cost compared to DNS
Cons: Can’t fully account for the turbulence phenomena of the flow since not all the scales are
resolved.

11
 Computational Methods
Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS)-based models
Principle: Solves a Reynolds-averaged form of the Navier-Stokes equations with the use of
models developed to represent the Reynolds stresses.
Pros: Simple and lesser computational cost.
Cons: Doesn’t resolve the turbulence phenomena since it solves an averaged equations.

Hybrid RANS-LES
Principle: Resolves the large-scales eddies away from the wall using LES formulation and
models the small-scales near the wall using RANS
Pros: Lesser computational cost compared to full LES
Cons: Doesn’t fully resolve all the scales.

12
DNS

13
 Engineers at Work
• The computational domain size must be much larger than the largest eddy size, while the grid size
must be small enough the resolve the smallest eddy.
• In a 1D flow, calculate the number of computational nodes required to resolve all the length scales
from the largest (L) to the smallest (𝑙 = 𝜈 3 𝐿/𝑈 3 1/4 )?

3/4
𝐿 𝐿 𝑈𝐿
= 1 = = 𝑅𝑒 3/4
𝑙 𝜈
𝜈3𝐿 4
𝑈3

• How many nodes are required to resolve the full 3D flow?

𝑹𝒆𝟗/𝟒

• Any remarks from this observation?

• Grid requirements increases rapidly as Reynolds number increases

14
 Computation of Turbulent Flow

• Since the smallest scale in a flow domain is 𝑙 = 𝜈 3 𝐿/𝑈 3 1/4 , the number of computational
nodes required to cover the length (largest scale, L) while resolving the smallest eddies is of
the order

3/4
𝐿 𝐿 𝑈𝐿
= 1 = = 𝑅𝑒 3/4
𝑙 3 𝜈
𝜈 𝐿 4
𝑈3

• Since turbulent flow is 3D, we need these many points in each direction. Therefore, the total
number of nodes required increases to

𝑹𝒆𝟗/𝟒
• Thus, the grid requirement increase rapidly as Reynolds number increases

15
 Engineers at Work
• What is the largest and smallest scales in an open channel flow of water depth, h = 200 mm
and freestream velocity, U = 0.5 m/s? (N.B. 𝑙 = 𝜈 3 𝐿/𝑈 3 1/4 )

• What is the ratio of the largest and smallest scales?

16
 Computation of Turbulent Flow
• Therefore, DNS offer some promise, but most turbulent flows of engineering importance
occur at large Reynolds numbers (i.e. very wide range of scales, 𝑹𝒆𝟗/𝟒 ) that is practically
impossible to simulate even with the most advanced computational resources.

• To perform simulations of engineering flows, we need to consider other alternatives.

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Instantaneous vs. mean flow characteristics

18 Nishino and Shariff, 2012, AIAA Journal

19
Reynolds-Averaged Decomposition

20
 Learning objectives
At the end of this section, you will be able to

• Express instantaneous turbulent fields into mean, fluctuations and higher-order moments
based on Reynolds decomposition

• Construct the RANS equations from the Navier-Stokes Equations

• Describe the Closure problem

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 Background: Statistics
• When you have a set of discrete random data points (𝑥𝑖 ) of size N, you can easily
calculate the
• Mean (𝑋)
𝑁
1
𝑋 = ෍ 𝑥𝑖
𝑁
𝑖=1

• Fluctuations or deviations as

𝑥𝑖′ = 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑋

• Standard deviation (𝜎)

𝑁
1 2
𝜎 = 𝑥𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ෍ 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑋
𝑁
𝑖=1

• Variance
𝑁
1
𝜎 2 = ෍ 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑋 2
𝑁
𝑖=1

22
 Reynolds Decomposition: Mean and Turbulence Field

• In turbulent flows, instantaneous flow variables such as velocity, 𝑈 and pressure, P can be
decomposed into mean values and fluctuations:
𝑈=𝑈 ഥ + 𝑢′
𝑉 = 𝑉ത + 𝑣 ′
𝑊=𝑊 ഥ + 𝑤′
𝑃 = 𝑃ത + 𝑝′
• As a property, the mean of the fluctuation is zero
𝑢ഥ′ = 0
• Therefore, we represent the fluctuations by the root-mean-square
𝑢𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑢′ 𝑢′
often referred to as the intensity of turbulence.
• The (relative) turbulence intensity is given as
ഥ
𝑇𝑢 = 𝑢𝑟𝑚𝑠 /𝑈

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 Second order moments (Reynolds stress)

• Reynolds stresses: 𝑢𝑖′ 𝑢𝑗′

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝑖 𝑢′2 𝑢′ 𝑣 ′ 𝑢′ 𝑤 ′
𝑗 𝑢′ 𝑣 ′ 𝑣 ′2 𝑣 ′ 𝑤 ′
𝑘 𝑢′ 𝑤 ′ 𝑣 ′ 𝑤 ′ 𝑤 ′2
• Symmetric along the diagonal so although the tensor has 9 variables, it is reduced to 6.
• The diagonals are called the Reynolds normal stresses
• Streamwise (𝑢′2 ), transverse (𝑣 ′2 ) and spanwise (𝑤 ′2 ) according to the direction
• The Reynolds normal stresses add up to form the turbulent kinetic energy (per unit mass)
𝑘 = 0.5 𝑢′2 + 𝑣 ′2 + 𝑤 ′2 = 0.5𝑢𝑖′ 𝑢𝑖′
• The off-diagonal terms are called the Reynolds shear stresses

24
 Third order moments
(Triple velocity correlations)

• Triple velocity correlations: 𝑢𝑖′ 𝑢𝑗′ 𝑢𝑘′

𝑢′3 , 𝑣 ′3 , 𝑤 ′3

𝑢′2 𝑣 ′ , 𝑢′2 𝑤 ′ , 𝑢′ 𝑣 ′ 𝑤 ′

𝑢′ 𝑣 ′2 , 𝑣 ′2 𝑤 ′ , 𝑢′ 𝑤 ′2 , 𝑣 ′ 𝑤 ′2

25 25
 Engineers at Work
Rules of averaging
• If 𝐴 = 𝐴ҧ + 𝑎 and 𝐵 = 𝐵ത + 𝑏 are any independent flow variables and 𝑠 is any of the spatial
coordinates (x, y, z), what is
• 𝐴ҧ + 𝑎 = 𝐴ҧ
• 𝐴ҧ𝐵ത = 𝐴ҧ𝐵ത
ҧ =0
• 𝐴𝑏
• 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴ҧ𝐵ത + 𝑎𝑏
𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴ҧ
• =
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠

• ‫𝐴 ׬ = 𝑠𝑑 𝐴 ׬‬ҧ 𝑑𝑠
Key: The average of a variable’s fluctuation is zero

26
 RANS Equations
Continuity Equation:

𝜕𝑈𝑖 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑊
= + + =0
𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Reynolds decomposition:

ഥ+𝑢
𝜕 𝑈 𝜕 𝑉ത + 𝑣 ഥ +𝑤
𝜕 𝑊
+ + =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

ഥ 𝜕 𝑉ത 𝜕𝑊
𝜕𝑈 ഥ 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
+ + + + + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Averaging:

ഥ 𝜕 𝑉ത 𝜕 𝑊
𝜕𝑈 ഥ
+ + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

27
 RANS Equations
Momentum Equation:
𝜕𝑈𝑖 𝜕𝑈𝑖 𝜕𝑃 𝜕 2 𝑈𝑖
𝜌 + 𝑈𝑗 =− +𝜇
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝑥𝑗

Reynolds decomposition and Averaging (x-component)

ഥ
𝜕𝑈 ഥ
𝜕𝑈 ഥ
𝜕𝑈 ഥ 𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝑢𝑣 𝜕𝑢𝑤
𝜕𝑈 𝜕 𝑃ത
𝜌 ഥ
+𝑈 + 𝑉ത ഥ
+𝑊 + + + =−
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥

𝜕 𝜕𝑈ഥ 𝜕 𝜕𝑈ഥ 𝜕 𝜕𝑈ഥ

+𝜇 + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧

Rearranging:
ഥ
𝜕𝑈 ഥ
𝜕𝑈 ഥ
𝜕𝑈 ഥ
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑃ത
𝜌 ഥ
+𝑈 ത
+𝑉 ഥ
+𝑊 =−
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥

𝜕 ഥ
𝜕𝑈 𝜕 ഥ
𝜕𝑈 𝜕 ഥ
𝜕𝑈
+ 𝜇 − 𝜌𝑢𝑢 + 𝜇 − 𝜌𝑢𝑣 + 𝜇 − 𝜌𝑢𝑤
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧

28
 RANS Equations
y-component
𝜕𝑉ത 𝜕𝑉ത 𝜕𝑉ത 𝜕𝑉ത 𝜕𝑃ത
𝜌 ഥ
+𝑈 ത
+𝑉 ഥ
+𝑊 =−
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦

𝜕 𝜕𝑉ത 𝜕 𝜕𝑉ത 𝜕 𝜕𝑉ത

+ 𝜇 − 𝜌𝑢𝑣 + 𝜇 − 𝜌𝑣𝑣 + 𝜇 − 𝜌𝑣𝑤
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧

z-component
𝜕𝑊ഥ ഥ
𝜕𝑊 ഥ
𝜕𝑊 ഥ
𝜕𝑊 𝜕𝑃ത
𝜌 ഥ
+𝑈 + 𝑉ത ഥ
+𝑊 =−
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧

𝜕 ഥ
𝜕𝑊 𝜕 ഥ
𝜕𝑊 𝜕 ഥ
𝜕𝑊
+ 𝜇 − 𝜌𝑢𝑤 + 𝜇 − 𝜌𝑣𝑤 + 𝜇 − 𝜌𝑤𝑤
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧

29
 NS vs RANS Equations
• NS Equation:
𝜕𝑈𝑖 𝜕𝑈𝑖 𝜕𝑃 𝜕 𝜕𝑈𝑖
𝜌 + 𝑈𝑗 =− + 𝜇
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗

• RANS Equation:

ഥ𝑖
𝜕𝑈 ഥ𝑖
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑃ത 𝜕 ഥ𝑖
𝜕𝑈
𝜌 ഥ𝑗
+𝑈 =− + 𝜇 − 𝜌𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗

• The mean momentum equation is complicated by the introduction of the new term referred
to as the Reynolds stress tensor

• The Reynolds stress tensor introduces 9 new variables that can be defined only through
(unavailable) knowledge of the detailed turbulent structure

30
 Closure Problem
• So, by averaging the Navier-Stokes equations to obtain the RANS equations, we introduced

• 6 additional terms (Reynolds stresses)

ഥ 𝑉,
• Together with the mean variables, 𝑈, ത 𝑊,
ഥ and 𝑃,
ത we have a total of
• 10 variables to be determined from

• 4 RANS equations (3 momentum equations and the averaged Continuity equation)

• Thus, the RANS equations are open (i.e. not closed) – big problem!

• To effect “Closure”, we must develop models for the unclosed terms (𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗 )

31
RANS-based Turbulence Models (I)

32
 Learning objectives
At the end of the section, you will be able to

• Discuss the two main approaches used in RANS-based turbulence modelling

• Explain the Boussinesq Eddy Viscosity Assumption

• Develop the general formulation of the Eddy Viscosity Models

33
 RANS Equation

ഥ𝑖
𝜕𝑈 ഥ𝑖
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑃ത 𝜕 ഥ𝑖
𝜕𝑈
𝜌 ഥ𝑗
+𝑈 =− + 𝜇 − 𝜌𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗

• How can we solve the Closure problem?

• Boussinesq Eddy Viscosity Assumption (Eddy viscosity models)

• The transport equations of the Reynolds stresses (Second moment closure (SMC)
models)

34
 RANS Equation
ഥ𝑖
𝜕𝑈 ഥ𝑖
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑃ത 𝜕 ഥ𝑖
𝜕𝑈
𝜌 ഥ𝑗
+𝑈 =− + 𝜇 − 𝜌𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗

• We can rearrange into the form

ഥ𝑖
𝜕𝑈 ഥ𝑖
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑃ത 𝜕
𝜌 ഥ
+ 𝑈𝑗 =− + 𝜏𝑖𝑗
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗

where the total stress, 𝜏𝑖𝑗 is given as

ഥ𝑗
ഥ𝑖 𝜕𝑈
𝜕𝑈
𝜏𝑖𝑗 = 𝜇 + − 𝜌𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗
𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖
Laminar Turbulent
(Viscous stresses) (Reynolds stresses)

35
 Boussinesq Eddy Viscosity Assumption
• Assuming that the turbulent (Reynolds) stresses act like the viscous stresses, thus, they are
also proportional to the mean velocity gradients

• Boussinesq introduced the concept of “turbulent” or “eddy” viscosity, 𝜇𝑡 such that

ഥ𝑗
ഥ𝑖 𝜕𝑈
𝜕𝑈
−𝜌𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗 = 𝜇𝑡 + ҧ
= 𝜇𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑗
𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖
where
ഥ𝑖
𝜕𝑈 ഥ𝑗
𝜕𝑈
ҧ =
𝑆𝑖𝑗 + is the deformation tensor
𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖

• Note, however, that in general, 𝜇𝑡 cannot be a scalar constant as originally proposed by

Boussinesq.

36
What is Eddy viscosity?

37
 Boussinesq Eddy Viscosity Assumption
• Furthermore, the above relation is generally not correct because if we apply contraction and
divide by 𝜌, we obtain

ഥ𝑖
𝜕𝑈
−𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑖 = 2𝜈𝑡
𝜕𝑥𝑖
• The left-hand side of the relation is twice the turbulent kinetic energy.
• For incompressible flow, the right hand side is zero (continuity equation), the left-hand side
is non-zero (in general) unless there is no turbulence at all.
• Instead, we write
1 2
ҧ ҧ
−𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗 = 𝜈𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑗 − 𝑢𝑘 𝑢𝑘 𝛿𝑖𝑗 = 𝜈𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑗 − 𝑘𝛿𝑖𝑗
3 3
where 𝛿𝑖𝑗 is the Kronecker delta.

38
 Boussinesq Eddy Viscosity Assumption
2
ҧ
−𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗 = 𝜈𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑗 − 𝑘𝛿𝑖𝑗
3

𝜕𝑈 ഥ𝑗
ഥ𝑖 𝜕𝑈 2
−𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗 = 𝜈𝑡 + − 𝑘𝛿𝑖𝑗
𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖 3
where
• 𝜈𝑡 is the kinetic turbulent/eddy viscosity
• 𝑘 = 0.5𝑢𝑖′ 𝑢𝑖′ is the turbulent kinetic energy

• The modelling effort is shifted from the Reynolds stresses to the eddy-viscosity

• N.B. the above equation is not a turbulence model

• However, the Eddy Viscosity Models are based on this equation

39
 Eddy Viscosity Model
• A common formulation of RANS-based model:

ഥ𝑖
𝜕𝑈 ഥ𝑖
𝜕𝑈 𝜕 𝑃ത 2 𝜕 ഥ𝑗
ഥ𝑖 𝜕 𝑈
𝜕𝑈
ഥ𝑗
+𝑈 =− + 𝑘 + [𝜈𝑡 + 𝜈] +
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜌 3 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖

𝑃ത 2
• Notice that 𝜌
+ 3 𝑘 are combined because they are both normal stresses

• Also, 𝑘 does not require modelling, only 𝜈𝑡 does.

• Based on dimensional analysis, the kinetic turbulent viscosity

𝜈𝑡 ∝ [𝑉][𝐿]

where 𝑉 is a velocity scale and 𝐿 is a length scale

40
What is the muddiest point?

https://www.prodigygame.com/main-en/blog/active-learning-strategies-examples

41
 Learning objectives
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to

• Discuss the two main approaches used in RANS-based turbulence modelling

• Explain the Boussinesq Eddy Viscosity Assumption

• Develop the general formulation of the Eddy Viscosity Models

42
 Resources
• Pope, S. B. (2000). Turbulent flows. Cambridge University Press.
• White, F. M. (1991). Viscous fluid flow. 2nd edition (Chapter 6). New York: McGraw-Hill.
• George, W. K. (2013) Lecture notes:
https://www.uio.no/studier/emner/matnat/math/MEK4300/v13/undervisningsmateriale/t
b_16january2013.pdf

43
Turbulence Modelling

Part II
Previously…
• Challenges of turbulence modelling and the different approaches
• Reynolds decomposition: Mean velocity and higher-order moments
ഥ + 𝑢′
𝑈=𝑈 Triple velocity
Reynolds stresses
𝑈 correlations
ഥ
𝑈 𝑢𝑖′ 𝑢𝑗′
𝑢𝑖′ 𝑢𝑗′ 𝑢𝑘′
𝑡
• Development of RANS Equations from the NS Equations and the Closure problem
ഥ𝑖
𝜕𝑈 ഥ𝑖
𝜕𝑈 𝜕 𝑃ത 𝜕 ഥ𝑖
𝜕𝑈
𝜌 ഥ
+ 𝑈𝑗 =− + 𝜇 − 𝜌𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗
• Eddy viscosity models based on the Boussinesq Assumption:
𝜕𝑈 ഥ𝑗
ഥ𝑖 𝜕 𝑈 2
−𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗 = 𝜈𝑡 + − 𝑘𝛿𝑖𝑗
𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖 3
• General formulation of Eddy viscosity models:
ഥ𝑖
𝜕𝑈 ഥ𝑖
𝜕𝑈 𝜕 𝑃ത 2 𝜕 ഥ𝑗
ഥ𝑖 𝜕𝑈
𝜕𝑈
ഥ
+ 𝑈𝑗 =− + 𝑘 + [𝜈𝑡 + 𝜈] +
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜌 3 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖
where 𝜈𝑡 ∝ [𝑉][𝐿]

45
Eddy viscosity models

46
 Energy Cascade
&
Zero Equation Models
 Learning objectives
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to

• Describe the energy cascade

• Discuss the three main length scales in turbulent flows

• Develop the zero-equation mixing length model

• Discuss the pros and cons of the mixing length model

48
 Energy Cascade: Scales of Turbulent flows
Energy
Containing Inertial Viscous
Range Sub-range Range
E (𝜅) Production (P)

Dissipation (𝜀)

ℓ 𝜆𝑇
η
Wave number (𝜅)
ℓ > 𝜆𝑇 > 𝜂

• E() is the energy contained in eddies of size, l • ℓ = integral length scale

• Wavenumber,  = 2/l • 𝜆 𝑇 = Taylor microscale
∞ • 𝜂 = Kolmogorov length
• 𝑘 = ‫׬‬0 𝐸 𝜅 𝑑𝜅
scale

49
 Energy Cascade: Scales of Turbulent flows
• The integral length scale is a measure of the large-scale eddies in the production or
energy containing range: 𝑅𝑢𝑢

ℓ ∝ 𝑘 3/2 Τ𝜀
∆𝑥
The proportionality constant is of the order one
• The Taylor microscale is a measure of the size of the eddies in the inertial subrange:

1/2
𝜆 𝑇 ≈ 10𝜈𝑘/𝜀

2
′2
𝜕𝑢′
𝜆𝑇 = 𝑢 ൘
𝜕𝑥
• The Kolmogorov microscale is the size of the smallest eddies present in the flow:

𝜂 ≈ 𝜈 3 /𝜀 1/4

• The length scales can be related as follows: (N.B. 𝑅𝑒 = 𝑈𝐿/𝜈)

𝜆 𝑇 Τℓ = 10𝑅𝑒 −1/2 , 𝜂 Τℓ = 𝑅𝑒 −3/4
𝜆 𝑇 Τ𝜂 = 10𝑅𝑒 1/4 , 𝜆 𝑇 = 10𝜂 2/3 ℓ1/3

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51
 Eddy Viscosity Models
• They are also known as first order models and can be classified into

• Zero Equation Models (e.g. Mixing length)

• One Equation Models (e.g. Spalart-Allmaras)

• Two Equation Models (e.g. 𝑘 − 𝜀, 𝑘 − 𝜔)

depending on the number of transport equations solved to model the eddy viscosity.

52
 Zero Equation Models
• This is a simple model that does not solve any transport equation (i.e. zero equation)

• Developed for simple two-dimensional turbulent flows (“thin shear layers”)

• 2D: the flow is homogeneous in one direction,
• say 𝜕Τ𝜕𝑧 = 0 but 𝜕Τ𝜕𝑥 ≠ 0 and 𝜕Τ𝜕𝑦 ≠ 0
• However, 𝜕Τ𝜕𝑦 ≫ 𝜕Τ𝜕𝑥 or 𝜕Τ𝜕𝑥 = 0 (fully developed flow)
ഥ ≫ 𝑉ത or 𝑉ത ≈ 0 (fully developed flow)
• 𝑈
• Thus only 𝑈 ഥ and mean shear (𝜕Τ𝜕𝑦) are important here

• For thin shear layers, the total stress depends on only the mean shear and Reynolds shear stress:
ഥ 𝜕𝑉ത
𝜕𝑈 ഥ
𝜕𝑈
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜇 + − 𝜌𝑢𝑣 = 𝜇 − 𝜌𝑢𝑣
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

53
 Zero Equation Models
• Therefore, the Boussinesq Eddy Viscosity Assumption reduces to
𝜕𝑈ഥ 𝜕𝑉ത
−𝑢𝑣 = 𝜈𝑡 +
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Applying the B.C.: 𝜕Τ𝜕𝑦 ≫ 𝜕Τ𝜕𝑥 or 𝜕Τ𝜕𝑥 = 0 (fully developed flow)

ഥ
𝜕𝑈
−𝑢𝑣 = 𝜈𝑡
𝜕𝑦
where 𝜈𝑡 ∝ [𝑉][𝐿]
• Since, we do not want to solve any transport equation, the “easiest” approach is
use dimensional analysis to reduce the number of unknowns:

ഥ
𝜕𝑈
𝑉 = 𝑐𝐿
𝜕𝑦
• Thus
ഥ
𝜕𝑈 ഥ
𝜕𝑈
𝜈𝑡 = 𝑐𝐿2 2
= 𝑙𝑚
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
where 𝑙𝑚 is the Prandtl’s mixing length

54
 Zero Equation Models
• Therefore
ഥ
𝜕𝑈
−𝑢𝑣 = 𝜈𝑡
𝜕𝑦

2 ഥ
𝜕𝑈 ഥ
𝜕𝑈
−𝑢𝑣 = 𝑙𝑚 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

• So the modelling effort is now shifted from the eddy viscosity, 𝜈𝑡 to the mixing length, 𝑙𝑚

• However, the mixing length, 𝑙𝑚 is not universal.

• It depends on the type of flow, geometric/boundary conditions (e.g. smooth or rough), etc.

• Therefore, requires calibration based on experimental measurements.

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56
 Mixing length Models
Examples of mixing lengths for 2D turbulent flows

Flow Mixing length, 𝑙𝑚 𝐿

Mixing layer 0.07𝐿 Layer width
Jet 0.09𝐿 Jet half width
Wake 0.16𝐿 Wake half width
Axisymmetric jet 0.075𝐿 Jet half width
Boundary layer Boundary layer thickness
Viscous sublayer and log- 𝑦+
− 26
law layer (y/L < 0.22) 𝐾𝑦 1 − 𝑒
Outer layer (y/L > 0.22) 0.09𝐿
Pipes and channels (fully 𝐿 0.14 − 0.08 1 −
𝑦 2
− 0.06 1 −
𝑦 4 Pipe radius or channel
developed flow) 𝐿 𝐿
half width

57
 Mixing length Models: Pros & Cons
• Advantages
• Easy to implement
• Economical (computational resources and time)
• Good predictions for simple flows where experimental correlations for the mixing length exist

• Disadvantages
• Cannot describe flows where the turbulent length scale varies (e.g. separated and reattached
flows)
• No history effects
• Only calculates mean flow properties and turbulent shear stress

• Application
• Sometimes used for simple external aero flows
• No longer popular

58
59
60
61
62
63
64
One & Two-Equation Models
 Learning objectives
At the end of this part, you will be able to
• Develop the one-equation eddy viscosity model
• Discuss the pros and cons of the Spalart-Allmaras model
• Identify the two main types two-equation models
• Develop the equations for the eddy viscosity used in the two-equation models
• Identify the terms in the k-transport equation that are modelled
• Differentiate between the exact PDE and modelled transport equations
• Discuss the two main limitations of the two-equation models

66
 One Equation Models
• One-equation model solves one transport equation (PDE) for either the velocity or length scales

• Most one-equation models solve a transport equation for the turbulent kinetic energy (𝑘) to get
the velocity scale:

𝑉= 𝑘

• Kolmogorov-Prandtl expression:

𝜈𝑡 = 𝐶𝜇 𝑘𝐿

where 𝐶𝜇 is an empirical/model constant. Often, 𝐶𝜇 =0.09

• For the length scale, most of the models use the mixing length

• Most popular one-equation model: Spalart-Allmaras Model

67
 Spalart-Allmaras Model: Pros & Cons
• Advantages
• Economical and accurate for:
• Attached wall-bounded flows
• Flows with mild separation and recirculation

• Disadvantages
• Not suitable for
• Massively separated flows
• Free shear flows
• Decaying turbulence

• Application
• Used in unstructured codes in the aerospace industry
• Less popular

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69
 Two-Equation Models
• Two-equation models solve two transport equations for the velocity or
length scales

• Most two-equation models solve a transport equation for the turbulent

kinetic energy (𝑘) to get the velocity scale:

𝑉= 𝑘

• The major difference in the models is the approach used to get the
length scale
• Turbulent dissipation rate, 𝜀

𝐿= 𝑘 3 ൗ𝜀 Recall: ℓ ∝ 𝑘 3/2 Τ𝜀

• Specific dissipation rate, 𝜔 = 𝜀/𝑘

𝐿 = 𝑘 Τ𝜔

70
 Two-Equation Models
• 𝜀- based models
𝜈𝑡 = 𝐶𝜇 𝑘 𝑘 3 ൗ𝜀 = 𝐶𝜇 𝑘 2 Τ𝜀
• Examples
• Standard 𝑘 − 𝜀 model (Launder and Spalding, 1974)
• Realizable 𝑘 − 𝜀 model (Shih et al., 1995)
• Renormalization Group (RNG) 𝑘 − 𝜀 model (Yakhot et al. 1986)

• 𝜔- based models
𝜈𝑡 = 𝑘 𝑘Τ𝜔 = 𝑘Τ𝜔

• Example: Standard 𝑘 − 𝜔 model (Wilcox, 1988)

• Hybrid (𝜔 − 𝜀) models
• Baseline (BSL) model (Menter 1994)
• Shear Stress Transport (SST) model (Menter 1994)

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72
 𝑘 −Transport Equation (Exact PDE)
𝑘 = 0.5 𝑢′2 + 𝑣 ′2 + 𝑤 ′2 = 0.5𝑢𝑖′ 𝑢𝑖′

• Turbulent kinetic energy transport equation:

• 𝐿𝑘 : local change in time
𝜕𝑘 𝜕𝑘 • 𝐶𝑘 : convective transport by the
ഥ𝑗
+𝑈 = mean flow
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑗
• 𝑃𝑘 : production by the mean
deformation
ഥ𝑖
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝜕𝑢𝑗 𝜕𝑢𝑖 • 𝜀𝑘 : viscous destruction
−𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗 −𝜈 + (dissipation)
𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗 • 𝐷𝑘𝜈 : diffusive transport (viscous)
• 𝐷𝑘𝑡 : diffusive transport
𝜕 𝜕𝑘 𝑝 (turbulence)
+ 𝜈 − 𝑘𝑢𝑗 − 𝑢𝑗 •
𝑝
𝐷𝑙 : diffusive transport
𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜌
(pressure)

𝑝 Terms that require modelling:

𝐿𝑘 + 𝐶𝑘 = 𝑃𝑘 − 𝜀𝑘 + 𝐷𝑘𝜈 + 𝐷𝑘𝑡 + 𝐷𝑘 𝑝
𝜀𝑘 , 𝐷𝑘𝑡 and 𝐷𝑘 as well as −𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗

73
 Transport Equations: 𝑘 − 𝜀 model
• Exact PDE

𝜕𝑘 𝜕𝑘 𝜕𝑈𝑖 𝜕 𝜕𝑘 𝑝
+ 𝑈𝑗 = −𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗 + 𝜈 − 𝑘𝑢𝑗 − 𝑢𝑗 − 𝜀
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜌

• Standard 𝑘 − 𝜀 model (Launder and Spalding, 1974) (Steady flow, 𝝏Τ𝝏𝒕 = 𝟎)

𝜕𝑘 𝜕𝑈𝑖 𝜕𝑈𝑗 𝜕𝑈𝑖 𝜕 𝜈𝑡 𝜕𝑘

𝑈𝑗 = 𝜈𝑡 + + 𝜈+ −𝜀
𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜎𝑘 𝜕𝑥𝑗

𝜕 𝜕 𝜇𝑡 𝜕𝜀 𝜀
𝜌𝑈𝑗 𝜀 = 𝜇+ + 𝐶𝜀1 − 𝜌𝐶𝜀2 𝜀
𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜎𝜀 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝑘
Constants:
𝐶𝜀1 = 1.44, 𝐶𝜀2 = 1.92, 𝜎𝑘 = 1.0, 𝜎𝜀 = 1.3

74
 Transport Equations: 𝑘 − 𝜔 model
• Sstandard 𝑘 − 𝜔 model (Steady flow, 𝝏Τ𝝏𝒕 = 𝟎)

𝜕 𝜕 𝜇𝑡 𝜕𝑘
𝜌𝑈𝑗 𝑘 = 𝑃𝑘 + 𝜇+ − 𝛽∗ 𝜌𝑘𝜔
𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜎𝑘 𝜕𝑥𝑗

𝜕 𝜕 𝜇𝑡 𝜕𝜔 𝜔
𝜌𝑈𝑗 𝜔 = 𝜇+ + 𝛼 𝑃𝑘 − 𝛽𝜌𝜔2
𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜎𝜔 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝑘

where

𝜕𝑈𝑖 𝜕𝑈𝑗 𝜕𝑈𝑖

𝑃𝑘 = 𝜇𝑡 +
𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗

Constants:
𝛽 ∗ = 0.09,𝛼 = 5/9,𝛽 = 0.075,𝜎𝑘 = 2,𝜎𝜔 = 2

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76
 Limitations of Eddy Viscosity Models
1) Negative eddy viscosity for thin shear layers

ഥ
𝜕𝑈
−𝑢𝑣 = 𝜈𝑡
𝜕𝑦
Thus
ഥ
𝜕𝑈
𝜈𝑡 = (−𝑢𝑣)ൗ
𝜕𝑦

ഥ
𝜕𝑈
• Flow which (−𝑢𝑣) and do not have the same sign will give negative 𝜈𝑡 - big problem!
𝜕𝑦

• E.g. wall jets

77
 Limitations of Eddy Viscosity Models
• E.g. Wall jets

Um: maximum velocity

0.5Um ym : wall-normal location of Um

y0.5 : wall-normal location of 0.5Um

y0.5 y-uv=0 : wall-normal location where −𝑢𝑣
Um
changes sign
ym y-uv=0 ym

U −𝑢𝑣

ഥ
𝜕𝑈
• Since ym ≠ y−uv=0, the mismatch region (marked green) will yield negative 𝜈𝑡 since (−𝑢𝑣) and do
𝜕𝑦
not have the same sign.

78
 Limitations of Eddy Viscosity Models
2) Anisotropy
• The eddy viscosity models (Boussinesq expression and transport equations) are based on isotropic
turbulence

• Isotropic turbulence assumes that all turbulence statistics are independent of rotation and
reflection of the coordinate system
• Simply, all the Reynolds normal stresses are constant/the same

𝑢′2 = 𝑣 ′2 = 𝑤 ′2
Thus
𝑘 = 1.5 𝑢′2 Recall: 𝑘 = 0.5 𝑢′2 + 𝑣 ′2 + 𝑤 ′2

• Isotropic eddy viscosity is of limited practicability in complex turbulent flows

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80
 Learning objectives
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to
• Develop the one-equation eddy viscosity model
• Discuss the pros and cons of the Spalart-Allmaras model
• Identify the two main types two-equation models
• Develop the equations for the eddy viscosity used in the two-equation models
• Identify the terms in the k-transport equation that are modelled
• Differentiate between the exact PDE and modelled transport equations
• Discuss the two main limitations of the two-equation models

81
82
Second Moment Closure Models
 Learning objectives
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to

• Discuss the two main approaches used in Second moment closure models

• Discuss the challenges of the Reynolds stress models

• Discuss the pros and cons of Second moment closure models

84
 Second Moment Closure (SMC) Models
• These models address the limitations of the Eddy Viscosity models based on two main approaches

1) Development constitutive formulations that reflect the physical mechanism

• Algebraic Stress Models (ASM)
• Explicit Algebraic Reynolds Stress Models (EARSM) (Menter et al., 2012; Wallin & Johansson, 2000)
• Baseline (BSL) – EARSM
• 𝑘 − 𝜀 EARSM

2) Solving the transport equations (PDEs) for 𝑢𝑖′ 𝑢𝑗′

• Reynolds Stress Models (RSM)
• Launder, Reece and Rodi - Isotropization of Production (LRR-IP) model (Launder et al., 1975)
• BSL RSM
• Speziale, Sarkar and Gatski (SSG) RSM

85
 ASM vs RSM
• Algebraic Stress Models (ASM)
• Generally, solves two transport equations like the two-equation eddy viscosity models
• However, the Reynolds stress tensor is modelled using the Anisotropic tensor (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) formulation:

2
𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗 = 𝑘 𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑖𝑗
3

• Example: 𝑘 − 𝜀 EARSM solves the 𝑘 and 𝜀 transport equations and the constitutive expression for 𝑎𝑖𝑗

• Reynolds Stress Models (RSM)

• Solves the transport equations for 𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗 and a dissipation (𝜀 or 𝜔) transport equation.

86
 Challenges of RSM
• Exact PDE of 𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗
𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗 𝜕𝑢 𝑢
ഥ𝑘 𝑖 𝑗 =
+𝑈
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑘

ഥ𝑗
𝜕𝑈 ഥ𝑖
𝜕𝑈 𝑝 𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝜕𝑢𝑗 𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝜕𝑢𝑗
− 𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑘 + 𝑢𝑗 𝑢𝑘 + + − 2𝜈
𝜕𝑥𝑘 𝜕𝑥𝑘 𝜌 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑘 𝜕𝑥𝑘

𝜕 𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗 𝑝
+ 𝜈 − 𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗 𝑢𝑘 − 𝑢𝑖 𝛿𝑗𝑘 + 𝑢𝑗 𝛿𝑖𝑘
𝜕𝑥𝑘 𝜕𝑥𝑘 𝜌

𝑣 𝑡 𝑝
𝐿𝑖𝑗 + 𝐶𝑖𝑗 = 𝑃𝑖𝑗 + 𝜙𝑖𝑗 − 𝜀𝑖𝑗 + 𝐷𝑖𝑗 + 𝐷𝑖𝑗 + 𝐷𝑖𝑗

Note: 𝜙𝑖𝑗 : pressure redistribution or pressure-strain term

𝑡 𝑝
• Terms that require modelling: 𝜙𝑖𝑗 , 𝜀𝑖𝑗 , 𝐷𝑖𝑗 and 𝐷𝑖𝑗

• Modelling the dissipation and pressure-strain terms is challenging, therefore the different approaches used
often differentiates the various RSM models

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 Example of RSM: LRR-IP Model
• 𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗 transport equation

𝜕 𝜕 2 𝑘2 𝜕 𝜕𝑈𝑖 𝜕𝑈𝑖 2
𝜌𝑈𝑘 𝜌𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗 = 𝜇 + 𝐶𝑠 𝜌 𝜌𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗 − 𝜌𝑢𝑘 𝑢𝑗 − 𝜌𝑢𝑘 𝑢𝑗 + 𝜙𝑖𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖𝑗 𝜌𝜀
𝜕𝑥𝑘 𝜕𝑥𝑘 3 𝜀 𝜕𝑥𝑘 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑘 3

• 𝜀 −transport equation

𝜕 𝜕 𝜇𝑡 𝜕𝜀 𝜀 𝜕𝑈𝑖
𝜌𝑈𝑗 𝜀 = 𝜇+ + 𝐶𝜀1 −𝜌𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗 − 𝜌𝐶𝜀2 𝜀
𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜎𝜀 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝑘 𝜕𝑥𝑗

Pressure-strain term, 𝜙𝑖𝑗 :

2
𝜙𝑖𝑗 = −𝜌𝜀𝐶𝑠1 𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝜌𝑘𝐶𝑟2 𝑆𝑖𝑗 + 𝜌𝑘𝐶𝑟4 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑆𝑗𝑘 + 𝑎𝑗𝑘 𝑆𝑖𝑘 − 𝑎𝑘𝑙 𝑆𝑘𝑙 𝛿𝑖𝑗 + 𝜌𝑘𝐶𝑟5 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝛺𝑗𝑘 + 𝑎𝑗𝑘 𝛺𝑖𝑘
3

where
𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗 2 1 𝜕𝑈𝑖 𝜕𝑈𝑗 1 𝜕𝑈𝑖 𝜕𝑈𝑗
𝑎𝑖𝑗 = − 𝛿𝑖𝑗 , 𝑆𝑖𝑗 = + , 𝛺𝑖𝑗 = −
𝑘 3 2 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖 2 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖

Constants
𝐶𝑠 = 0.22, 𝐶𝑠1 = 1.8, 𝐶𝑟2 = 0.8, 𝐶𝑟4 = 0.6, 𝐶𝑟5 = 0.6, 𝐶𝜀1 = 1.45, 𝐶𝜀2 = 1.90, 𝜎𝜀 = 1.10

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 SMC Models: Pros & Cons
• Advantages
• Potentially the most complete turbulence models
• Provides the mean velocities and all the Reynolds stresses
• Suitable for simulation of complex turbulent flows

• Disadvantages
• Computationally expensive compared to the Eddy viscosity models
• The ASMs are less expensive compared to RSMs.

• RSM: The modelling of the dissipation and pressure-strain terms is challenging and can cause unstable
simulation (difficulty in convergence to a solution)

• Increased number of coefficients and constants that may require calibration for different types of flows

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What is the muddiest point?

https://www.prodigygame.com/main-en/blog/active-learning-strategies-examples

90
 Learning objectives
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to

• Discuss the two main approaches used in Second moment closure models

• Discuss the challenges of the Reynolds stress models

• Discuss the pros and cons of Second moment closure models

91
Introduction to LES

92
 Learning objectives
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to

• Describe the general formulation/procedure used in LES

• List three common filters used in LES

• Give examples of subgrid scale models

• Describe the approach used in the Smagorinsky model

93
 Large Eddy Simulations (LES)
• LES resolves the large-energy containing scales and model the small scales

• The velocity vector is decomposed into filtered velocity and subgrid scale or residual (analogous to
the Reynolds decomposition)

ഥ 𝒙, 𝑡 + 𝑢′ (𝒙, 𝑡)
𝑈 𝒙, 𝑡 = 𝑈

• The filtered velocity is obtained by using a filter function, say 𝐺(𝑟) (Leonard 1974)
∞
ഥ 𝒙, 𝑡 = න 𝐺 𝑟, 𝒙 𝑈 𝒙 − 𝑟, 𝑡 𝑑𝑟
𝑈
−∞

• ഥ 𝒙, 𝑡 can be adequately resolved on a relatively coarse grid

The filtering is done so that 𝑈
(compared with what is required for DNS)

• The required grid spacing is proportional to the specified filter width (∆) in the filter function
 Types of filters

• Box filter

• Sharp spectral filter

• Gaussian filter

95
 Filtered equations
• Continuity

ഥ𝑖
𝜕𝑈
=0
𝜕𝑥𝑖

• Momentum

𝜕𝑈 ഥ𝑖 𝑈
ഥ𝑖 𝜕𝑈 ഥ𝑗 1 𝜕𝑃ത ഥ𝑖
𝜕 2𝑈 𝜕𝜏𝑖𝑗
+ =− +𝜈 −
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜌 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗

• Residual stress (Closure problem):

ഥ𝑖 𝑈
𝜏𝑖𝑗 = 𝑈𝑖 𝑈𝑗 − 𝑈 ഥ𝑗

• Traceless Residual stress:

∗ 1
𝜏𝑖𝑗 = 𝜏𝑖𝑗 − 𝜏𝑘𝑘 𝛿𝑖𝑗
3
 Subgrid scale (SGS) modelling
• Examples:

• Smagorinsky model (Smagorinsky 1963)

• Scale-similarity model

• Dynamic model (Germano et al. 1991, Lilly 1992, Meneveau et al. 1996)
 Smagorinsky model
• Analogous to the linear eddy viscosity model

∗
𝜏𝑖𝑗 = −2𝜈𝑠𝑔𝑠 𝑆𝑖𝑗

• The eddy viscosity of the residual stress (𝜈𝑠𝑔𝑠 ) is model based on the analogy of the mixing length hypothesis

𝜈𝑠𝑔𝑠 = 𝑙𝑠2 𝑆ҧ

where
𝑙𝑠 = 𝐶𝑠 ∆

∗
𝜏𝑖𝑗 = −2(𝐶𝑠 ∆)2 𝑆ҧ 𝑆𝑖𝑗

𝑙𝑠 : Smagorinsky lengthscale, 𝐶𝑠 : Smagorinsky coefficient, ∆: filter width

1 𝜕𝑈𝑖 𝜕𝑈𝑗 0.5
filtered strain rate tensor: 𝑆𝑖𝑗 = + , 𝑆ҧ = 2𝑆𝑖𝑗 . 𝑆𝑖𝑗
2 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖
What is the muddiest point?

https://www.prodigygame.com/main-en/blog/active-learning-strategies-examples

99
 Learning objectives
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to

• Describe the general formulation/procedure used in LES

• List three common filters used in LES

• Give examples of subgrid scale models

• Describe the approach used in the Smagorinsky model

100
Concluding Remarks

101
 Lecture overview

• Introduction to turbulence modelling

• Reynolds-averaged decomposition
• Closure problem

• RANS-based turbulence models

• Eddy-viscosity models
• Zero, One and Two-equation models
• Second-moment closure models

• Large-eddy simulations (LES)

• Hybrid RANS-LES

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 Engineers at Work
Assuming you have access to all the models (zero-equation to Hybrid LES-RANS), which model
will you use for simulating the following flows? (N.B. Time and computational resources are
factors to consider)

• Open channel flow with strong secondary currents.

• A simple fully developed channel flow where only the U and −𝑢𝑣 are required.

• Separated and reattached flow over a 2D backward-facing step.

• A flow where the mean velocity and all the Reynolds stresses are required due to high
anisotropy in the flow.

• A flow around an Ahmed body where you are interested in the unsteady wake characteristics.

103
 Resources
• Pope, S. B. (2000). Turbulent flows. Cambridge University Press

• White, F. M. (1991). Viscous fluid flow. 2nd edition (Chapter 6). New York: McGraw-Hill

• George, W. K. (2013) Lecture notes:

https://www.uio.no/studier/emner/matnat/math/MEK4300/v13/undervisningsmateriale/tb_16janua
ry2013.pdf

• Wilcox, D. C. (1994). Turbulence modeling for CFD. La Canada, CA: DCW industries

• Hoffmann, K. A., & Chiang, S. T. (2000). Computational fluid dynamics volume III. Fourth edition,
Engineering Education System

• ANSYS CFX-solver Theory Guide. (2018) ANSYS CFX Release (Vol. 19.2).

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