K.S.R.COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, TIRUCHENGODE-637215.

(AUTONOMOUS)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

18EE313 ANALOG ELECTRONICS

PREPARED BY:
A.VASANTHI
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,

1
 K.S.R. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING (Autonomous) R 2018
SEMESTER - III
L T P C
18EE313 ANALOG ELECTRONICS
3 0 0 3
Prerequisite:-
Objectives :
 Impart knowledge on semiconductors
 To study the characteristics and applications of transistor amplifier
 To study the working of feedback and oscillator circuits
 To introduce an operational amplifiers and 555 timer characteristics and its applications
UNIT - I SEMICONDUCTORS [9]
PN junction diode: VI characteristics, Dynamic Resistance, Temperature coefficients, Drift and diffusion
currents - Zener diode: VI characteristics – Voltage Regulators. - Special Diodes: PIN diode, Varactor diode.
UNIT - II TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER [9]
Bipolar Junction Transistor: structure, Operation, configurations, h-Parameter: CE, CC and CB configurations -
Power amplifier: class A and class B - Junction Field Effect Transistor: structure, operation and characteristics.
UNIT - III FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS AND OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT [9]
Introduction to feedback amplifiers - Effect of positive and negative feedbacks – voltage series, current series,
voltage shunt, current shunt feedback amplifiers.
Oscillator: condition for oscillation,RC phase shift , Wein bridge ,crystal oscillator,UJT Relaxation Oscillator.
UNIT - IV IC FABRICATION & OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS [9]
Basic planar process for IC fabrication - Op Amp: Ideal characteristics - inverting and non inverting operational
amplifiers - DC and AC characteristics: frequency response of op - amp, slew rate - differential amplifiers -
CMRR.
UNIT - V APPLICATIONS OF OPAMP & 555 TIMER [9]
Differentiator, Integrator, V to I and I to V converters - DAC: R-2R ladder, Weighted resistor types - ADC: Flash
type, Successive approximation type - 555 timer: Mode of operations and its applications.
Total = 45 Periods
Course Outcomes : On Completion of this course, the student will be able to
 Illustrate the operation of various semiconductors
 Analyze the function of transistor amplifiers
 Discuss the various oscillatory circuits
 Describe the op-amp and its characteristics
 Explain the applications of op-amp and 555 timers
Text Books :
1 Albert Malvino& David Bates, Electronic Principles, Tata McGraw Hill, Eighth Edition, 2016.
2 D.RoyChoudhary and Shell B.Jani, Linear Integrated Circuits, New Age International, Fourth Edition, 2012.
Reference Books :
1 R.S. Sedha, A textbook of Applied Electronics, S.Chand& Company Pvt. Ltd., Re-edition 2014
2 David A Belll, Fundamentals of Electronic Devices and Circuits, Oxford University Press India, Fifth Edition,
PHI. 2009.
3 David A. Bell, Op-amp & Linear ICs, Oxford University Press India, Third Edition , 2011.
Gray and Mayer, Analysis and design of Analog Integrated Circuits, Wiley International, FifthEdition,
4
2009.

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 Course plan
18EE313 - ANALOG ELECTRONICS

S.No Page
Topic Source
No
Unit-1 SEMICONDUCTORS
L01 Introduction- PN junction diode Reference Book1 232-233
L02 VI characteristics ,, 233-235

L03 Dynamic Resistance, Temperature coefficients ,, 235-240

L04 Drift and diffusion currents ,, 235-240

L05 Introduction- Zener diode ,, 267,268

L06 VI characteristics ,, 268-269

L07 Voltage Regulators 268-269

,,
L08 PIN diode ,, 286-287

L09 Varactor diode ,, 277-281

Unit-2 TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER

L10 Introduction: Bipolar Junction Transistor ,, 325-326
L11 structure, Operation ,, 326-334

L12 configurations ,, 353-364

L13 h-Parameter: CE configuration ,, 713-736

L14 h-Parameter: CB configuration ,, 713-736

L15 h-Parameter: CC configuration ,, 713-736

L16 Power amplifier: class A and class B: ,, 795-821

L17 Introduction: - Junction Field Effect Transistor “ 376-377

L18 structure, operation and characteristics “ 377-394

Unit-3 FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS AND OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT
L19 Introduction to feedback amplifiers ,, 846
L20 Effect of positive and negative feedbacks ,, 846-861

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 L21 voltage series, current series feedback ,,
861-864
amplifiers
L22 voltage shunt, current shunt feedback ,,
861-864
amplifiers
L23 Introduction to Oscillator: condition for ,,
912, 917
oscillation
L24 RC phase shift oscillator ,, 938-940

L25 Wein bridge oscillator ,, 947-948

L26 crystal oscillator “ 934-938

L27 UJT Relaxation Oscillator “ 1037-1039

Unit-4 IC FABRICATION & OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
L28 Basic planar process for IC fabrication Text book 2 4-16
L29 Op Amp: Ideal characteristics ,, 37-42

L30 Inverting amplifier ,, 43-47

L31 non inverting amplifier ,, 47-48

L32 DC characteristics ,, 104-111

L33 AC characteristics: frequency response of op - ,,

111-125
amp, slew rate
L34 AC characteristics: frequency response of op - ,,
111-125
amp, slew rate
L35 differential amplifiers ,, 50-52

L36 CMRR 50-52

Unit-5 APPLICATIONS OF OPAMP & 555 TIMER
L37 Differentiator ,, 164-168

L38 Integrator ,, 168-172

L39 V to I and I to V converters ,, 146-147

L40 DAC: R-2R ladder, Weighted resistor types ,, 349-353

L41 ADC: Flash type, Successive approximation type ,, 357-363

L42 555 timer: Mode of operations ,, 311-324

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 L43 555 timer: Mode of operations ,, 311-324

L44 555 timer applications ,, 311-324

L45 555 timer applications ,, 311-324

UNIT I
SEMICONDUCTORS
1. Define semiconductors?(Remembering)
A semiconductor is an element with electrical properties between those of a conductor and those
of an insulator. The best semiconductor has four valance electrons.

2. Write the two types of Extrinsic Semiconductors. (Remembering)

N – Type semiconductor.
P – Type Semiconductor.

3. Define N – Type Semiconductor. (Remembering)

Silicon that has been doped with a pentavalent impurity is called an n type semiconductor, where n
stands for negative.

4. Define P – Type Semiconductor. (Remembering)

Silicon that has been doped with a trivalent impurity is called a P type semiconductor, where n
stands for Positive.

5. Give the value of Charge, Mass of an electron. (Remembering)

Charge of an electron – 1.6 x 10 -19 coloumbs.
Mass of an electron - 9.11 x 10 -31 Kgs.

6. What is doping?(Understanding)
Process of adding impurity to a intrinsic semiconductor atom is doping. The impurity is called
doping.

7. Which charge carriers is majority and minority carrier in N-type Semiconductor? (Understanding)
Majority carrier: Electron and Minority carrier: Holes.

8. Which charge carriers is majority and minority carrier in P-type Semiconductor? (Understanding)
Majority carrier: Holes and Minority carrier: Electron.

9. Define P-N junction. (Remembering)

When P-type and N-type are suitably joined together by the conducting surfaces of these two
semiconductors is called P-N junction

10. Define forward biasing. (Remembering)

When a diode is forward biased the current is produced because the holes in the P-region and
electron from N-region moves towards the junction. The depletion region formed will be very small hence
recombination occurs and current will be produced.

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11. Define reverse biasing. (Remembering)
When a reverse biased voltage is given an electron from N-region and holes from P-region moves
away from the junction, hence the depletion region formed is very high and hence a small current will be
produced due to minority carriers.

12. Define reverse resistance. (Remembering)

The resistance offered by the diode in its reversed biased condition is called reverse resistance.

13. Define forward resistance. (Remembering)

The resistance offered by the diode in its forward biased condition when a voltage is given is called forward
resistance.

14. Define transition capacitance. (Remembering)

The P-N region on either of the dielectric media act as the plates hence we have components for
making a plate capacitor the junction capacitance is called transition capacitance.

15. Define power rating. (Remembering)

The power rating of a diode is defined as the maximum value of power that can be dissipated without
failure if Vf is the forward biased voltage and If is the forward biased current.
Pd= Vf x If

16. Define diffusion capacitance. (Remembering)

This capacitance effect is present when the junction is forward biased it is called diffusion
capacitance.

17. Define drift velocity and drift current. (Remembering)

When an electric field is applied the charge carriers moves in the opposite direction and produce
current this result is drift current and net average velocity is called drift velocity.

18. What are valence electrons? (Understanding)

Electron in the outermost shell of an atom is called valence electron.

19. What is forbidden energy gap? (Understanding)

The space between the valence and conduction band is said to be forbidden energy gap.

20. What are conductors? Give examples? (Understanding)

Conductors are materials in which the valence and conduction band overlap each other so there is
a swift movement of electrons which leads to conduction. Ex.: Copper, silver.

21. What are insulators? Give examples? (Understanding)

Insulators are materials in which the valence and conduction band are far away from each other. So
no movement of free electrons and thus no conduction. Ex glass, plastic.

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22. Give the energy band structure of Insulator. (Understanding)
In Insulators there is a wide forbidden energy gap. So movement of valence electron from valence
to conduction band is not possible.

23. What is Intrinsic Semiconductor? (Understanding)

Pure form of semiconductors are said to be intrinsic semiconductor. Ex: silicon , germanium.

24. Give the energy band structure of Semi conductor. (Understanding)

In Semiconductors there is a small forbidden energy gap. So movement of valence electron from
valence to conduction band is possible if the valence electrons are supplied with some energy.

25. Give the energy band structure of conductor. (Understanding)

In conductors there is no forbidden energy gap, valence band and conduction and overlap each
other. So there is a heavy movement of valence electrons.

26. What is Extrinsic Semiconductor? (Understanding)

If certain amount of impurity atom is added to intrinsic semiconductor the resulting semiconductor
is Extrinsic or impure Semiconductor.

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27. Give the energy band structure of n- type semiconductor. (Understanding)

28. Give the energy band structure of P- type semiconductor. (Understanding)

29. What is Reverse saturation current? (Understanding)

The current due to the minority carriers in reverse bias is said to be reverse saturation current. This
current is independent of the value of the reverse bias voltage.

30. What is meant by biasing a PN junction? (Understanding)

Connecting a PN junction to an external voltage source is biasing a PN junction.

31. What is barrier potential? (Understanding)

Because of the oppositely charged ions present on both sides of PN junction an electric potential is
established across the junction even without any external voltage source which is termed as barrier
potential

32. What is depletion region in PN junction? (Understanding)

The region around the junction from which the mobile charge carriers (electrons and holes) are
depleted is called as depletion region. Since this region has immobile ions, which are electrically charged,
the depletion region is also known as space charge region.

33. What is the static resistance of a diode? (Understanding)

Static resistance R of a diode can be defined as the ratio of voltage V across the diode to the current
flowing through the diode.
R = V/ I
Where
R - Static resistance of a diode
V - Voltage across the diode
I - current across the diode

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34. Define dynamic resistance. (Remembering)
Dynamic resistance of a diode can be defined as the ratio of change in voltage across the diode to the
change in current through the diode.
r = ∆V / ∆ I
Where,
r - Dynamic resistance of a diode.
∆ V - change in voltage across the diode.
∆ I - change in current through the diode.

35. Define energy gap. (Remembering)

The energy required to break a covalent bond in a semi conductor is known as energy gap.

36. Define diffusion current. (Remembering)

A concentration gradient exists, if the number of either electrons or holes is greater in one region
of a semiconductor as compared to the rest of the region. It has been observed that when the
concentration gradient of carriers tend to move from the region of higher concentration to the region of
lower concentration. This process is called diffusion and the electric current produced due to the process is
known as diffusion current.

37. Define diffusion capacitance. (Remembering)

The capacitance, which exists in forward biased junction, is called a diffusion or storage
capacitance.

38. Write the fabrication of PN junction diode. (Understanding)

1. Grown junction
2. Alloy junction
3. Diffused junction
4. Epitaxial growth
5. Point contract junction.

39. Draw V-I Characteristics of a PN junction Diode. (Remembering)

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40. Write the application of diode. (Understanding)
1. As rectifiers or power diode in DC power supplies.
2. As signal diodes in commutation circuits.
3. As zener diodes in voltage stabilizing circuits.
4. As a switch in logic circuits

41. Define Zener break down. (Remembering)

The break down occurs in junctions, which are heavily doped. The heavily doped junctions have a
narrow depletion layer. When the reverse voltage is increased, the electric field at the junction also
increases. A strong electric field causes a covalent bond to break from the crystal structure. As a result of
this, a large number of minority carries are generated and a large current flows through the junction.

42. Write the application of zener diode. (Understanding)

1. As a voltage regulator.
2. As a fixed reference voltage in transistor biasing circuits.
3. As peak clippers or limited in wave shaping circuits.
43. Draw the VI Characteristics of Zener diode. (Remembering)

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 UNIT II
TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER

1. What is Biasing? (Remembering)

Biasing  In order to operate transistor in the desired region we have to apply external dc voltages
of correct polarity and magnitude at the two junctions of the transistor.

2. What are transistors? (Remembering)

Transistors  Three terminal devices that can function as electronic switches or as signal
amplifiers. They are current operated devices with high input impedance and low output impedance. 
Since it transfers current from a high to a low resistance region, it was named bipolar.

3. What is BJT? (Remembering)

BJT  Bipolar Junction Transistor.
 Since the operation of a BJT depends on the interaction of both the majority and minority carriers it is
named bipolar.
 The transistor is used as an amplifier and for an amplifier to operate properly, a steady level of current
and voltage should be established.
 The steady state voltage and current in which the amplifier is operated is called operating point or
quiescent point.
 The method of establishing the operating point is called biasing.

4. How Transistor Amplifier is biased? (Understanding)

 The biasing of a transistor is defined as supplying the transistor with proper input and output DC
voltage such that the currents and voltages of the transistor are within the desired region.

5. What are the conditions for biasing? (Understanding)

Conditions for Biasing:
The values to be maintained for perfect operation are :
1. Proper dc value of the collector current.
2. Proper value of VBE (0.7V for Si and 0.3V for Ge)
3. Proper value of VCE (1V for Si and 0.5V for Ge) at any instant.

6. What are the methods for biasing? (Remembering)

The transistor needs two bias voltages VBB and VCC. The VBB supply is used for biasing of the emitter junction
and VCC supply for biasing the collector base junction. Also it is possible to bias both the junctions using a
single supply.
Common Methods:
1. Fixed Bias or Base Bias.
2. Emitter feedback bias.
3. Collector feedback bias
4. Voltage divider bias and
5. Emitter bias.
6.
7. Write the two types of BJT. (Remembering)
I) n-p-n Type.
II) p-n-p Type.

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8. Write the different types of configuration. (Remembering)
The transistors can be connected in a circuit in the following three configurations.
Common base configuration.
Common emitter configuration.
Common collector configuration.

9. Draw the input & output characteristics of common base configuration. (Remembering)

10. Draw the input & output characteristics of common collector configuration. (Remembering)

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

IB3

VCE in IB2
Volts
IB1
Volts

IE mA

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 11. Draw the input & output characteristics of common emitter configuration. (Remembering)

IB IB1
mA
IB2

IB3

VBE Volts

12. What are the three mode of operation of BJT? (Remembering)

Cut – off Mode.
Active
Saturation.

13. What is a FET? (Remembering)

A field effect transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device in which current conduction is by
one type of carriers (either electrons or holes) and is controlled by an electric field.

14. Which device is called as unipolar device? Why? (Understanding)

The operation of FET depends upon the flow of majority carriers (either the electrons or holes) only,
the FET is said to be unipolar device.

15. What is pinch off voltage? (Remembering)

Drain source voltage above which the drain current become constant is known as pinch off voltage.
The point N is called as pinch off point. Above the pinch off voltage the channel width becomes narrow and
drain current remains constant.

16. What are advantages of FET? (Remembering)

i. It is a voltage control, constant current driven device that is the variation in input voltage controls the
output current.
ii. The input impedance is very high so it allows a high degree of isolation between the input and the output
circuit.
iii. The carriers are not crossing the junction hence the noise is highly reduced.
iv. It has a negative temperature co-efficient of resistance. This can avoid thermal runaway.

13
 17. What are the two types of small signal model? (Remembering)
i. The small signal model is of two types
ii. Low frequency small signal model.
iii. High frequency small signal model.

18. Define transconductance? (Remembering)

It is the ratio of change in drain current to the change in gate source voltage at constant drain source
voltage.

19. Define amplification factor? (Remembering)

It is the product of drain resistance and transconductance.

20. Why the input impedance of FET is more than that of a BJT? (Understanding)
The input impedance of FET is more than that of BJT because the input circuit of FET is reverse
biased whereas the input circuit of BJT is forward biased.

21. Difference between FET and BJT. (Understanding)

FET BJT
1. It is a unipolar device. 1. It is a bipolar device
2. It is a voltage controlled device 2. It is a current driven device
3. Its input resistance is very high. 3. Its input resistance is very low.
4. It is less noisy. 4. It is comparatively more noisy.
5. No thermal runaway 5. There is thermal runaway
6. High switching speed 6. Lower switching speed.

22. Name the special features of a FET? (Remembering)

High input resistance

Low noise
Better thermal stability
High power gain
High frequency repose.

23. Define voltage variable resistance. (Remembering)

FET can also be used in the region before pinch off. FET can also be used as a voltage control
resistor. For this operation the drain to source resistance is controlled by the voltage VGS. Hence it is called
as voltage variable resistor VBR.

24. The noise level in FET is very small. Why? (Understanding)

In FET, for current conduction no junction is involved. The conduction is either through an N- type
or P-type semiconductor. Therefore, the noise level is very small.

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 UNIT III
FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS AND OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT

1. What is the requirement of feedback signal? (Understanding)

An ideal amplifier provides a stable output which is an amplified version of the input signal. But the
gain and stability of this amplifier are not consistent due to changes in ambient temperature, parameter
variation and non linearity in the device. This problem is overcome by the techniques of feedback, wherein
a portion of the output signal in feedback to the input and combined with the put signal to produce the
desired output.
Amplifier gain
Vs
A= Vo/V1
-

Feedback network
gain β = (Vf / Vo)

A = block
Simple Vo/V1diagrams of feedback amplifier

2. Explain the types of feedback connection of amplifiers? (Remembering)

The feedback may be classified into two types:
1) Positive feedback
2) Negative feedback
a) Positive feedback
If the feedback signal applied is in phase with the input signal, it results in increase in the input and
is called as positive feedback or regenerative feedback. The voltage gain of a feedback is greater than the
open loop gain.

b) Negative feedback
If the feedback signal applied to the input is out of phase with the input signal then the net input
signal to the amplifier decreases. This is known as negative feedback or degenerative feedback.
3. What is an oscillator? (Remembering)
A device that works on the principle of positive feedback producing the waveform of desired
frequency is called an oscillator. If the waveform that it generates is sinusoidal in nature then it is called as
sinusoidal oscillator. In general, an oscillator can generate the output waveform of high frequency upto
GHz.

4. Mention the advantages and disadvantages of RC phase shift oscillator? (Remembering)

The advantages of RC phase shift oscillator are:
i) The circuit is simple to design.
ii) It can produce output at audio frequency range
iii) It produces sinusoidal output waveform.
iv) It is a fixed frequency oscillator.
v) It does not require any bulky and expensive inductors.
vi) Since only one frequency can fulfill barkheuron criterion hence pure sine wave output is possible.

15
The disadvantages RC phase shift oscillators are:
i ) By changing the value of R and C, the frequency of the oscillator can be changed. But this change
should occur simultaneously in all three sections which is practically impossible. Hence the phase shift
oscillator is considered as a fixed frequency oscillator, for all practical purposes.
ii) Frequency stability is poor due to the changes in the values of various components due to the effect
of temperature ageing, etc.
i) It needs high ‘β’ transistor to overcome losses in the network.

5. For the RC phase shift oscillator, find the frequency of oscillator if R = 4.7KΩ,
C = 0.47μF. (Evaluating)
Solution
Given data : R = 4.7 K C = 0.47 F
Formula:
f = 1 / 2RC6
= 1 / 2(4.7x103) (0.47x10-6) (6)
f = 29.413 Hz is the frequency of oscillator.

6. What is feed back? (Remembering)

It is the process of injecting some energy from the output and then returns it back to the input.

7. What is the disadvantage of negative feedback? (Remembering)

Reduces amplifier gain.

8. Define positive feedback? (Remembering)

If the feedback signal is in phase with input signal, then the net effect of the feedback will increase
the input signal given to the amplifier. This type of feedback is said to be positive or regenerative feedback.

9. Define negative feedback? (Remembering)

If the feedback signal is out of phase with the input signal then the input voltage applied to the
basic amplifier is decreased and correspondingly the output is decreased. This type of feedback is known as
negative or degenerative feedback.

10. Define sensitivity? (Remembering)

Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of percentage change in voltage gain with feedback to the
percentage change in voltage gain without feedback.

11. What are the types of feedback? (Remembering)

i. Voltage-series feedback
ii. Voltage-shunt feedback
iii. Current-series feedback
iv. Current-shunt feedback

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 12. Define feedback? (Remembering)
A portion of the output signal is taken from the output of the amplifier and is Combined with the
normal input signal. This is known as feedback.

13. Write the expression for input and output resistance of voltage series feedback amplifier.
(Remembering)
Input resistance with feedback
Output resistance with feedback,

14. Give an example for voltage-series feedback. (Remembering)

The Common collector or Emitter follower amplifier is an example for voltage series feedback.

15. Write the expression for input and output resistance of current shunt feedback amplifier.
(Remembering)
Input resistance with feedback
Output resistance with feedback

16. Give the properties of negative feedback. (Remembering)

i. Negative feedback reduces the gain
ii. Distortion is very much reduced

17. What are the requirements for producing sustained oscillations in feedback circuits?
(Remembering)
The essential conditions for maintaining oscillations are
1. |Aβ| = 1, ie, the magnitude of loop gain must be unity.
2. The total phase shift around the closed loop is zero or 360 degrees.

17
 UNIT IV
IC FABRICATION & OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

1. Define an Integrated circuit. (Remembering)

An integrated circuit(IC) is a miniature, low cost electronic circuit consisting of Active and passive
components fabricated together on a single crystal of silicon. The Active components are transistors and
diodes and passive components are resistors and capacitors.

2. What are the basic processes involved in fabricating ICs using planar technology? (Remembering)
1. Silicon wafer (substrate) preparation
2. Epitaxial growth
3. Oxidation
4. Photolithography
5. Diffusion
6. Ion implantation
7. Isolation technique
8. Metallization
9. Assembly processing & packaging

3. List out the steps used in the preparation of Si – wafers. (Remembering)

1. Crystal growth &doping

2. Ingot trimming & grinding
3. Ingot slicing
4. Wafer policing & etching
5. Wafer cleaning

4. Write the basic chemical reaction in the epitaxial growth process of pure silicon. (Understanding)
The basic chemical reaction in the epitaxial growth process of pure silicon is the
Hydrogen reduction of silicon tetrachloride.1200oC
SiCl4 + 2H2 < >Si + 4 HCl
5. What are the two important properties of SiO2? (Remembering)
1. SiO2 is an extremely hard protective coating & is unaffected by almost all Reagents except by
hydrochloric acid. Thus it stands against any contamination.
2. By selective etching of SiO2 , diffusion of impurities through carefully Defined Windows in the SiO2
can be accomplished to fabricate various components.

18
 6. Explain the process of oxidation. (Understanding)

The silicon wafers are stacked up in a quartz boat & then inserted into quartz Furnace tube. The Si
wafers are raised to a high temperature in the range of 950 to 1150oC& at the same time, exposed to a gas
containing O2 or H2O or both. The chemical action is

Si + 2H2O > Si O2+ 2H2

7. What is meant by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE)? (Remembering)

In the molecular beam epitaxial, silicon along with dopants is evaporated. The evaporated species
are transported at a relatively high velocity in a vacuum to the substrate. The relatively low vapour
pressure of silicon & the dopants ensures condensation on a low temperature substrate. Usually, silicon
MBE is performed under ultra high vacuum (UHV) condition of 10-8 to 10-10 Torr.

8. What are the advantages of Molecular Beam Epitaxy( MBE )? (Remembering)

( i ) It is a low temperature process, useful for VLSI. This minimizes out diffusion
& auto doping.
( ii ) It allows precise control of doping& permits complicated profiles to be generated.
( iii )Linear doping profile desirable for varactor diode in FM , can be obtained with MBE.
( iv )Wider choice of dopants can be used.

9. `What is lithography? (Remembering)

Lithography is a process by which the pattern appearing on the mask is transferred to the wafer. It
involves two steps: the first step requires applying a few drops of photo resist to the surface of the wafer &
the second step is spinning the surface to get an even coating of the photo resist across the surface of the
wafer.
10. What are the different types of lithography? What is optical lithography? (Remembering)

The different types of lithography are :

1. Photolithography

2. Electron beam lithography

3. X ray beam lithography

4. Ion beam lithography

Optical lithography:

Optical lithography comprises the formation images with visible or UV radiation in a photo resist
using contact, proximity or projection printing.

19
 11. What are the two processes involved in photolithography? (Remembering)

a) Making a photographic mask

b) Photo etching

The development of photographic mask involves the preparation of initial artwork and its reduction,
decomposition of initial artwork or layout into several mask layers. Photo etching is used for the removal of
SiO2 from desired regions so that the desired impurities can be diffused.

12. Distinguish between dry etching & wet etching. (Understanding)

Dry etching Wet etching

Gaseous mixture is used as the chemical Chemical reagents used are in the liquid form
reagent

Smaller line openings ( 1μm) are possible with Line opening are larger.(>1μm)
dry etching

It produces straight walled etching process It produces patterns with undercutting

13. What is meant by reactive plasma etching? (Remembering)

The term reactive plasma is meant to describe a discharge in which ionization & fragmentation of
gases takes place& produce chemically active plasma species, frequently oxidizers and reducing agents.
Such plasmas are reactive both in the gas phase & with solid surfaces exposed to them. When these
interactions are used to form volatile products so that material is removed or etching of material form
surfaces that are not masked to form lithographic patterns , the technique is known as reactive plasma
etching.

14. What are isotropic & anisotropic etching processes? (Remembering)

Isotropic etching is a wet etching process which involves undercutting. A isotropic etching is a dry
etching process which provides straight walled patterns.

15. Define diffusion. (Remembering)

The process of introducing impurities into selected regions of a silicon wafer is called diffusion. The
rate at which various impurities diffuse into the silicon will be of the order of 1μm/hr at the temperature
range of 900oC to 1100oC .The impurity atoms have the tendency to move from regions of higher
concentrations to lower concentrations.

20
 16. What is dielectric isolation? (Remembering)

In dielectric isolation, a layer of solid dielectric such as SiO2 or ruby completely surrounds each
components thereby producing isolation, both electrical & physical. This isolating dielectric layer is thick
enough so that its associated capacitance is negligible. Also, it is possible to fabricate both PNP & NPN
transistors within the same silicon substrate.

17. What are the advantages of ion implantation technique? (Remembering)

1. It is performed at low temperature. Therefore, previously diffused regions have a lesser

tendency for lateral spreading.
2. In diffusion process, temperature has to be controlled over a large area inside The
oven, whereas in ion implantation process, accelerating potential & beam content
Are dielectrically controlled from outside.

18. What is metallization? (Remembering)

The process of producing a thin metal film layer that will serve to make interconnection of the
various components on the chip is called metallization.
19. What are the advantages of ICs over discrete circuits? (Remembering)
1. Minimization & hence increased equipment density.
2. Cost reduction due to batch processing.
3. Increased system reliability
4. Improved functional performance.
5. Matched devices.
6. Increased operating speeds
7. Reduction in power consumption.

20. What is OPAMP? (Remembering)

An operational amplifier is a direct coupled high gain amplifier consisting one or more differential
amplifiers, followed by a level translator and an output stage. It is a versatile device that can be used to
amplify ac as well as dc input signals & designed for computing mathematical functions such as addition,
subtraction , multiplication, integration & differentiation
.
21. Draw the pin configuration of IC741. (Remembering)

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 22. List out the ideal characteristics of OPAMP? (Remembering)
(i) Open loop gain infinite
(ii) Input impedance infinite
(iii) Output impedance low
(iv) Bandwidth infinite
(v) Zero offset,ie,Vo=0 when V1=V2=0

23. What are the different kinds of packages of IC741? (Remembering)

a) Metal can (TO) package
b) Dual-in-line package
c) Flat package or flat pack

24. What are the assumptions made from ideal op amp characteristics? (Remembering)
i) The current drawn by either of the input terminals (non inverting/ inverting) is negligible.
ii) The potential difference between the inverting & non-inverting input terminals is zero.

25. Mention some of the linear applications of op – amps : (Remembering)

Adder, Subtract or, voltage –to- current converter, current –to- voltage converters, instrumentation
amplifier, analog computation ,power amplifier, etc are some of the linear op-amp circuits.

26. Mention some of the non – linear applications of op-amps. (Remembering)

Rectifier, peak detector, clipper, clamper, sample and hold circuit, log amplifier, anti –log amplifier,
multiplier are some of the non – linear op-amp circuits.

27. What are the areas of application of non-linear op- amp circuits? (Remembering)
1.Industrial instrumentation 2.Communication 3.Signal processing

28. What happens when the common terminal of V+ and V- sources is not grounded?
(Understanding)
If the common point of the two supplies is not grounded, twice the supply voltage will get applied and it
may damage the op-amp.

29. Define input offset voltage. (Remembering)

A small voltage applied to the input terminals to make the output voltage as zero when the two input
terminals are grounded is called input offset voltage.

30. Define input offset current. State the reasons for the offset currents at the input of the
Op-amp. (Understanding)
The difference between the bias currents at the input terminals of the op-amp is called as input offset
current. The input terminals conduct a small value of dc current to bias the input transistors. Since the
input transistors cannot be made identical, there exists a difference in bias currents.

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 31. Define CMRR of an op-amp. (Remembering)
The relative sensitivity of an op-amp to a difference signal as compared to a common –mode signal is called
the common –mode rejection ratio. It is expressed in decibels. CMRR= Ad/Ac

32. In practical op-amps, what is the effect of high frequency on its performance? (Understanding)
The open-loop gain of op-amp decreases at higher frequencies due to the presence of parasitic
capacitance. The closed-loop gain increases at higher frequencies and leads to instability.

33. What is the need for frequency compensation in practical op-amps? (Understanding)
Frequency compensation is needed when large bandwidth and lower closed loop gain is desired.
Compensating networks are used to control the phase shift and hence to improve the stability.

34. Mention the frequency compensation methods. (Remembering)

*Dominant-pole compensation
*Pole-zero compensation.

35. What are the merits and demerits of Dominant-pole compensation? (Understanding)
*Noise immunity of the system is improved.
*Open-loop bandwidth is reduced.

36. Define slew rate. (Remembering)

The slew rate is defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage caused by a step input voltage.
An ideal slew rate is infinite which means that op-amp’s output voltage should change instantaneously in
response to input step voltage.

37. Why IC 741 is not used for high frequency applications? (Understanding)
IC741 has a low slew rate because of the predominance of capacitance present in the circuit at higher
frequencies. As frequency increases the output gets distorted due to limited slew rate.

38. What causes slew rate? (Understanding)

There is a capacitor with-in or outside of an op-amp to prevent oscillation. It is this capacitor which
prevents the output voltage from responding immediately to a fast changing input.

39. Define thermal drift. (Remembering)

The bias current, offset current & offset voltage change with temperature. A circuit carefully nulled at 25oC
may not remain so when the temperature raises to 35oC.This is called thermal drift. Often, offset current
drift is expressed in nA/ oC and offset voltage drift in mV/ oC.

40. Define supply voltage rejection ratio (SVRR). (Remembering)

The change in OPAMP’s input offset voltage due to variations in supply voltage is called the supply voltage
rejection ratio. It is also called Power Supply Rejection Ratio(PSRR) or Power Supply Sensitivity(PSS).

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 UNIT V
APPLICATIONS OF OP AMP & 555 TIMER

1. List the broad classification of ADCs. (Remembering)

1. Direct type ADC.
2. Integrating type ADC.

2. List out the direct type ADCs. (Remembering)

1. Flash (comparator) type converter
2. Counter type converter
3. Tracking or servo converter
4. Successive approximation type converter
3. List out some integrating type converters. (Remembering)
1. Charge balancing ADC
2. Dual slope ADC

4. What is integrating type converter? (Remembering)

An ADC converter that perform conversion in an indirect manner by first changing the analog I/P signal to a
linear function of time or frequency and then to a digital code is known as integrating type A/D converter.

5. Explain in brief the principle of operation of successive Approximation ADC. (Remembering)

The circuit of successive approximation ADC consists of a successive approximation register (SAR), to find
the required value of each bit by trial & error. With the arrival of START command, SAR sets the MSB bit to
1. The O/P is converted into an analog signal & it is compared with I/P signal. This O/P is low or High. This
process continues until all bits are checked.
6. What are the main advantages of integrating type ADCs? (Remembering)
i. The integrating type of ADC’s do not need a sample/Hold circuit at the input.
ii. It is possible to transmit frequency even in noisy environment or in an
isolated form.

7. Define conversion time. (Remembering)

It is defined as the total time required to convert an analog signal into its digital output. It depends on the
conversion technique used & the propagation delay of circuit components.
The conversion time of a successive approximation type ADC is given by
T(n+1)
where T---clock period
Tc---conversion time
n----no. of bits

8. Define resolution of a data converter. (Remembering)

The resolution of a converter is the smallest change in voltage which may be produced at the output or
input of the converter. Resolution (in volts)= VFS/2n-1=1 LSB increment. The resolution of an ADC is
defined as the smallest change in analog input for a one-bit change at the output.

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 9. Explain in brief stability of a converter: (Remembering)
The performance of converter changes with temperature age & power supply variation. So all the relevant
parameters such as offset, gain, linearity error & monotonicity must be specified over the full temperature
& power supply ranges to have better stability performances.

10. What is meant by linearity? (Remembering)

The linearity of an ADC/DAC is an important measure of its accuracy & tells us how close the converter
output is to its ideal transfer characteristics. The linearity error is usually expressed as a fraction of LSB
increment or percentage of full-scale voltage. A good converter exhibits a linearity error of less than ±½LSB.

11. What is a sample and hold circuit? Where it is used?(Understanding)

A sample and hold circuit is one which samples an input signal and holds on to its last sampled value
until the input is sampled again. This circuit is mainly used in digital interfacing, analog to digital systems,
and pulse code modulation systems.

12. Define sample period and hold period. (Remembering)

The time during which the voltage across the capacitor in sample and hold circuit is equal to the input
voltage is called sample period. The time period during which the voltage across the capacitor is held
constant is called hold period.

13. What are the applications of 555 Timer? (Remembering)

Astable multivibrator
Monostable multivibrator
Missing pulse detector
ramp generator
Frequency divider
Pulse width modulation
FSK generator
Pulse position modulator
Schmitt trigger

14. List the applications of 555 timer in monostable mode of operation: (Remembering)
 Missing pulse detector
 Linear ramp generator
 Frequency divider
 Pulse width modulation.
15. List the applications of 555 timers in Astable mode of operation: (Remembering)
*FSK generator
*Pulse-position modulator

16. Define 555 IC? (Remembering)

The 555 timer is an integrated circuit specifically designed to perform signal generation and timing
functions.
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 17. List the basic blocks of IC 555 timer? (Remembering)

A relaxation oscillator
RS flip flop
Two comparator
Discharge transistor.

18. List the features of 555 Timer? (Remembering)

It has two basic operating modes: monostable and astble
It is available in three packages. 8 pin metal can, 8 pin dip, 14 pin dip.
It has very high temperature stability.

19. Define duty cycle? (Remembering)

The ratio of high output and low output period is given by a mathematical parameter called duty
cycle. It is defined as the ratio of ON Time to total time.

20. What is a multivibrator? (Remembering)

Multivibrators are a group of regenerative circuits that are used extensively in timing applications. It is a
wave shaping circuit which gives symmetric or asymmetric square output. It has two states stable or quasi-
stable depending on the type of multivibrator.

21. What do you mean by monostable multivibrator? (Remembering)

Monostable multivibrator is one which generates a single pulse of specified duration in response to each
external trigger signal. It has only one stable state. Application of a trigger causes a change to the quasi-
stable state. An external trigger signal generated due to charging and discharging of the capacitor produces
the transition to the original stable state.

22. What is an astable multivibrator? (Remembering)

Astable multivibrator is a free running oscillator having two quasi-stable states. Thus, there is an oscillation
between these two states and no external signals are required to produce the change in state.

23. What is a bistable multivibrator? (Remembering)

Bistable multivibrator is one that maintains a given output voltage level unless an external trigger is applied
. Application of an external trigger signal causes a change of state, and this output level is maintained
indefinitely until an second trigger is applied . Thus, it requires two external triggers before it returns to its
initial state.

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