SHIP HANDLING

Capt. A.AMINIAN
FACTORS IN SHIP-HANDLING ARE DEVIDED ON 2 PARTS:

A-Controllable Factors such as:

1. Main engine power.

2. Propeller or propellers. Fixed or controllable pitch.
3. Anchors.
4. Mooring ropes.
5. Rudder movement.
6. Bow thrust (if fitted).
7. Astern thrust (if fitted).
8. Bow rudder (if fitted).
9. Tugs.
B-Uncontrollable Factors such as:
1. The weather. wind
2. Tide and/or current.
3. Geographical features such as shallow water, floating obstructions,
bridges and ice accretion , squat . Intraction.
4. Traffic density.
Venturi Ejector Systems - Deep Vacuum | Fox Venturi Products
propeller

The propeller is essentially a screw that, when turned, pulls itself

through the air or water in the same way that a bolt pulls itself through
a nut. Marine propellers are frequently termed screws.

Typical propellers consist of two, three, or four blades, each

of which is a section of a helix, which is the geometric form
of a screw thread
Propeller
Propeller (mechanics), mechanical device that produces a force, or
thrust, along the axis of rotation when rotated in a fluid, gas or
liquid.
Propellers may operate in either air or water, although a propeller
designed for efficient operation in one of these media would be
extremely inefficient in the other.
Virtually all ships are equipped with propellers, and until the
development of jet propulsion, virtually all aircraft, except gliders,
were also propelled in the same way.
The blades of a propeller act as rotating wings (the blades of a
propeller are in fact wings or airfoils), and produce force through
application of both Bernoulli's principle and Newton's third law,
generating a difference in pressure between the forward and
rear surfaces of the airfoil-shaped blades and by accelerating a
mass of air rearward.
Skewback propeller

As in the scimitar blades used on some aircraft, the blade tips of a

skewback propeller are swept back against the direction of rotation.
In addition, the blades are tilted rearward along the longitudinal axis,
giving the propeller an overall cup shaped appearance. This design
preserves thrust efficiency while reducing cavitation, and thus makes
for a quiet, stealthy design
Pitch , slip
The distance that a propeller or propeller blade will move forward
when the propeller shaft is given one complete rotation, if there is
this corresponds to the pitch, is called the geometric pitch or the
distance between adjacent threads, of a simple screw.
The distance that the propeller actually moves through the air or
water in one rotation is called the effective pitch, and the
difference between effective and geometric pitch is called slip. no
slippage, is called the geometric pitch.
• During a 24-hour period of a voyage a ship’s propeller shaft
was observed to turn at 87 rpm.
• The pitch of the propeller was 3.8 m.
• The observed ship’s speed over the ground was 10 knots for
the same 24-hour period.
• Calculate the value of the propeller slip during this period.
(A nautical mile equals 1852 m.)
Thrust

Thrust is a reaction force described quantitatively by

Newton's Second and Third Laws. When a system
expels or accelerates mass in one direction the
accelerated mass will cause a proportional but
opposite force on that system.
Propellers / Rudders
Primary means of controlling the stern

Thrust

Side Force

Rudder Force
Propeller Thrust
 ENGINES
Power train:
power source turns a shaft (through reduction gears), which turns a propeller

Propellers may be fixed or controllable pitch propellers

• Fixed: Ship speed (thrust) is controlled by shaft RPM only

• CRP controllable pitch propellers : Ship speed (thrust ) is controlled by both

shaft rpm and propeller blade pitch
ControllablePitch Propellers

The shaft always spins in same direction whether going forward or

backward.

At maneuvering speed the shaft rotates at maneuvering RPM

Thrust (speed) controlled by changing the pitch of the propeller blade ( at
maneuvering maximum pitch)

At full sea speed with full RPM Thrust (speed) controlled by shaft speed
as well as changing the pitch of the propeller blade but at restricted
pitch.
Fixed Pitch Propellers

Cannot change pitch of propeller blades.

Thrust (speed) controlled by changing speed of the shaft speed.

To go backwards, must stop the shaft and spin it in the opposite

direction.
Controllable Pitch Propeller
SIDE FORCE

In addition to fore and aft thrust, propeller rotation also causes what
is known as “side force”:
Side force is a lateral force caused by propeller rotation.
The direction of the force is the direction in which the propeller
would “walk” along the bottom due to its rotation.

Side force reduces to minimum or zero when:

Ships' speed increases Or

With a vessel with reduced (narrower) astern construction
Standard
propeller rotation
for single and
twin screw ships
(ahead operation)
Right-hand Fixed Propeller
• the ahead motion created by the pitch angle of the blade. Due to
turning direction of right hand propeller it would be seen that the
stern of the vessel is tend to move to starboard. Consequently, if the
stern is moved to starboard, then the bow may be seen to move to
port. The opposite will happen when the vessel is moving astern, the
stern cants to port, with the bow going to starboard. This is named
(Transverse thrust effects.)
ENGINES

Almost all ships have one of three propulsion plants:

1. Gas turbine (requires CRP): most surface Navy combatants

2. Diesel: Large auxiliaries, …minesweepers
3. Steam (Conventional or Nuclear): Older ships, aircraft carriers,
submarines , Navy ships
Cavitation
Cavitation is defined as the phenomenon of formation of vapor bubbles
of a flowing liquid in a region where the pressure of the liquid falls
below its vapor pressure.
Cavitation is usually divided into two classes of behavior:
inertial cavitation and non-inertial cavitation.
As an impeller's (in a pump), or propeller's (as in the case of a ship or
submarine) blades move through a fluid, low pressure areas are formed as
the fluid accelerates around and moves past the blades. The faster the blades
move, the lower the pressure around it can become. As it reaches vapor
pressure, the fluid vaporizes and forms small bubbles of gas.
This is cavitations. When the bubbles collapse later, they typically cause
very strong local shockwaves in the fluid, which may be
audible and may even damage the blades.
Discharge cavitation
Discharge cavitation occurs when the pump discharge pressure is
extremely high, The high discharge pressure causes the majority of the
fluid to circulate inside the pump instead of being allowed to flow out
the discharge.
As the liquid flows around the impeller it must pass through the small
clearance between the impeller and the pump cutwater at extremely
high velocity.
This velocity causes a vacuum to develop at the cutwater (similar to
what occurs in a venturi) which turns the liquid into a vapor. A pump
that has been operating under these conditions shows premature wear
of the impeller vane tips.
 Pump Cavitation What Happens
and What Causes It? | Fluid
Handling Pro

Cavitation - Wikipedia
Pump cavitation what happens and what causes it? -
Rodelta
Steering

• The effectiveness of a conventional rudder is determined by the

water flowing over it, causing different pressures on either side. The
stern moves toward the low pressure side causing the bow to move in
the opposite direction.
Twin-screw Single Rudder Vessels
• Twin-screw vessels are normally designed with their propellers
equidistant from the fore and aft line. Usually both are outward turning,
the starboard propeller being right-hand-fixed and the port-propeller
left-hand fixed. Many modern vessels are now constructed with twin
controllable pitch propellers, especially fast ferries and the like. The
twin-screw vessel is usually easier and simpler to handle than the
conventional single-screw vessel. The transverse thrust on a single screw
vessel strongly affects the steering capability, but with twin screws the
forces tend to counteract each other, preventing the steering problems
experienced by the single screw vessel distinct advantage of twin
screws, apart from the increased speed created, is that if the steering
gear breaks down, the vessel can still be steered by adjusting the engine
revolutions on one or other of the propellers. When turning the vessel,
for instance, one propeller can go ahead while the other is going astern.
 AZIMUTH THRUSTERS
Controllable Pitch Propeller
RUDDERS

Rudder effectiveness is dependent on flow velocity over the rudder

surface.
“Bare steerageway” is the minimum speed at which a rudder is still
effective. This is generally 2 to 3 knots for most ships.
Rudder angles must be reversed for astern operation
RUDDERS
- Configuration: normally one rudder for each propeller,
mounted directly astern of the propeller.
- Range of motion: 35° left or right of CL
- Rudder angle
- Hard rudder: 35°
- Full rudder: 30°
- Standard rudder: 15°
Unbalanced Single Plate Rudder
• The rudder is defined as being‘unbalanced’ because the whole of the
surface area is aft of the turning axis.
• The rudder stock and all pivot points (pintles and gudgeons),
including the bearing pintle lie on a straight line.
• It is no longer used for large constructions because of alignment
problems but is occasionally seen on smaller vessels-coastal barges
and the like
Semi-balanced ‘Mariner 'Type Rudder
• The term ‘semi-balanced’ refers to the amount of surface
area forward of the turning axis.
• If the proportion of surface area is less than 20 per cent
forward of the axis, then the rudder is said to be
semibalanced.
• This is a very popular rudder for modern tonnage, especially
for the container type vessel and twin-screw vessels.
Balanced Bolt Axle Rudder
• The surface area of the rudder is seen to be proportioned
either side of the ‘bolt axle’. In fact, the amount of surface
area will vary but generally does not exceed 25 to 30 per
cent forward of the axle.
• The advantage of a balanced rudder is that a smaller force is
required to turn it, so that smaller steering gear may be
installed at lower running cost.
• Ideally a reduction of torque is achieved because the rudder
is turning about a more centralized position.
Balanced Bolt Axle Rudder
Balanced Spade Type Rudder
• A very widely used rudder, especially in vessels engaged on
short voyages, such as ferries and Roll on–Roll off ships. It is,
however, not common in other types of vessel. The main
disadvantage is that the total weight of the rudder is borne
by the rudder bearing inside the hull of the vessel.
T- Shaped rudder
(commonly known as single Schilling Rudder)
• The Schilling Profile is designed improve the effectiveness of
the rudder and maneuverability of the craft, especially at
slow speeds. The rudder is effective in both forward and
reverse.
Use of the Schilling Rudder
• Due to the nature of the design, the Schilling Rudders are commonly
fitted to large slow moving ships such as container ships and oil
tankers.
• Particularly as also longer/narrower ships are more prone to lack
maneuverability due to their inherent shape.
• Other slow moving boats, or boats with slower moving larger
propellers, are also very suitable to the fitting of a Schilling Rudder.
The Schilling Shape
 The Schillin Shape
• The basic principle proportions of a Schilling rudder
layout are as follows : Max Width of aero foil at 20% chord.
Taper to 60% chord.
Flat to 80% Chord
Flare to 100% The height should be similar to the
diameter of the propeller, with the chord length being up to 1.2 times
the propeller diameter. If extreme maneuverability is not required, chord
length can be reduced to a minimum of 0.55 x Propeller diameter.
SchillingRudder

• The hydrodynamic shape of the rudder helps to extract the slipstream

from the propeller at right angles, when at the maximum helm
position.

• This capability, which employs the main engine power, virtually acts
as a stern thruster providing an effective sideways berthing facility.
• The build of the rudder is quite robust and with no moving parts it is
relatively maintenance free, if compared to the rotor or flap types
 System Benefits:
• Exceptional full speed course-keeping ability
• Reduced rudder ”hunting” under autopilot operation
• Significantly reduced overshoot angles
• Reduced head reach and lateral deviation
• Improved crabbing and zero-speed control, reducing reliance on tug
assistance
• Enhanced turning capability with significantly reduced turning circles at
speed
• Single-piece construction with no moving parts makes Schilling ideally
suited for all ice notations
T- Shaped rudder
(commonly known as single Schilling
Rudder)
• The Schilling High-Lift Rudder
• offers improved manoeuvring
for all sizes and types of
vessels. It is available as a full
spade design (Schilling
MonoVEC) or, for larger
vessels, in semi-spade
The Schillingconcept

The Schilling Rudder is a high lift rudder, designed for vessels of any size, and
supplied in single or multiple configurations. Being of a single piece
construction with optimized shape and no moving parts, the Schilling Rudder
dramatically improves both course keeping and vessel control characteristics.
With operating angles up to 70° port and starboard, the Schilling Rudder can
control the propulsive force to achieve an efficient ‘side thrust’ effect at a
ship’s stern.
It is the enhanced levels of ship handling and control achieved with the
Schilling Rudder system that gives ship owners and operators access to a
range of long term operating, cost and safety benefits.
The unique profile of the Schilling Rudder incorporates:
The Schillingconcept

• A rounded leading edge promoting good flow properties at all rudder

angles
• A fishtail trailing edge that accelerates the flow and recovers lift over
the aft section of the rudder
• End and optional intermediate plates to control propeller slipstream
• High rudder balance optimizing propeller coverage
• Fully welded steel construction of the rudder blade
• Rudder blade to stock connection by keyless conical or flange coupling
• Single or multiple bearing support with no moving parts
• Mariner
• The fixed rudder horn and pintle provide increased rudder support.
• Efficient absorption of bending moments reduces the stock diameter
and hence rudder blade thickness
Mono VEC
The rudder stock is designed for
combined bending and
torsional loads, the main rudder
bearings are positioned
to minimize bending moments. Can be
supplied as full spade or with heel
Pintle as shown.
VecTwin

• VecTwin
• The VecTwin system offers significant maneuvering enhancement for
single-screw vessels.
• Twin asymmetric Schilling rudders operate independently behind a
single propeller, allowing
• full 360° vectoring of the propeller thrust.
 Flap Rudder
• (commonly known as Becker Rudder)
• Optimum balance and flap area
• Minimum size of steering gear
• Highest securing against flexural vibration, best values of natural
vibration
• Easy maintenance of link and hinge system
• Highest safety against cyclic stresses
• Durable in ice
• Rudder angles up to 65°
• Optional King support rudder ( KSR
Flap Rudder
The Becker Flap Rudder is the ultimate
rudder solution when it comes to ship
maneuverability. With decades of research,
development and practical
experience the rudder is the most mature
design of all flap rudders in the shipbuilding
industry.
Optimized profiles, rudder balance,
deflection ratio between rudder
blade and flap, hinge and link systems
guarantee a reliable and efficient tool for
your vessel.
Often copied but never equaled
Flap Rudder
(commonly known as Becker Rudder)
because the combination of all individual features are forging a
superb rudder.
Rudder angles of up to +/- 65 degrees and additional 45 degrees
of the flap permit extreme maneuvers and dynamic positioning
operations. Also attractive is the improved course keeping
performance and fuel saving, obtained through smaller required
rudder angles
compared to conventional rudders. In combination with the
Becker KSR Rudder support, the Flap Rudder can be offered
practically unlimited in size.
Becker Flap Rudder

• introduce the renowned Becker Flap Rudder to US inland waterways.

The Becker Flap Rudder – a proven product with more than
7,000 units sold worldwide – considerably increases the
manoeuvrability of vessel, giving the opportunity of actually steering
the vessel through the river bends instead of having to turn at very
low speed. By giving your vessel the ability to maintain forward speed
throughout each bend the Becker Flap Rudder also significantly
reduces fuel consumption and increases safety
Becker Flap Rudder
• Excellent manoeuvrability performance
• Reduced fuel consumption
• Increased safety due to better manoeuvrability
• For single, double and triple screw vessels
• Free-hanging or with heel pintle support
• Proven system with over 7,000 units sold worldwide
• Simple and economic:
- Existing trunks and steering gears can be retained
- Shortest installation times, little maintenance
Rotor rudder (commonly known as Jastram rudder) Combined
Rotor Cylinder with Improved Flap

Developments with rotors and flaps have greatly affected

the turning circles and the manoeuvrability of vessels so
equipped. The main disadvantage of these comparative
recent advances within the marine industry are the
additional maintenance problems because of the added
moving parts.
Comparable turning arcs would seem beneficial to
specialist craft which require more in the way of
demanding manoeuvres.
The cost of installation is an obvious disadvantage for the
ship’s owners, when compared with
a more conventional rudder
AUXILIARY PROPULSION
• Bow thruster
• Hull-mounted, transverse propeller used to develop lateral thrust
when pier side
• Normally found on larger ships

• Auxiliary Propulsion Unit (APU)

• Retractable, Omni-directional propulsion unit
• Emergency propulsion for single-screw ships
• Can be used for pier side maneuvering
Bow Thruster
• Lateral force of Bow thruster is reduced to minimum
to zero by increasing vessel’s speed.
• Which normally ineffective above 4 knots
 Pivot Point

Imaginary point on the ship’s centerline about which the

ship pivots
Pivot Point

A ship’s pivot point is a point on the centerline about which the

ship turns when the rudder is put over.
The pivot point scribes the ship’s turning circle

Usually located 1/3 the length of the ship from the bow.

Pivot point is not fixed.

A ship’s pivot pointis nearly always located about one-third the
ship’s length from her bow when moving ahead ,

and at or near her stern when moving astern.

The location of the pivot point will vary with ship’s speed.
An increase in speed will shift the Pivot point in the direction of
the ship’s movement.
location of the Pivot Point affected by:
Headway or Sternway
Ship’s Speed
Anchors
Mooring Lines
Tugs
Turning Circle
• A ship’s turning circle is the path followed by the ship’s pivot point
when making a 360 degree turn.

• The diameter of the turning circle varies with rudder angle and speed.
• With constant rudder angle, an increase in speed results in an
increased turning circle.
• Very low speed (those approaching bare steerageway) also increases
the turning circle because of reduced rudder effect.
Path followed by the ship’s pivot point in a constant turn.
Advance
Advance is distance a vessel will continue to travel on her original course
until the ship arrives on a new course 90° from the original while a vessel
engaged in a turning manoeuvres.
Advance is measured from the point where the rudder is first put over
(kick).

Distance gained toward the direction of the original course after the rudder
is put over.
Transfer
Transfer is the amount of distance gained towards the new course.

Distance gained perpendicular to the original course after the rudder is put
over.

Tactical Diameter
Perpendicular distance between the path of the ship on original course
and final course after a 180° turn
FinalDiameter
Diameter of the ship’s turning circle

Kick - Momentary movement, at the start of a turn, of the ship’s stern

toward the side opposite the direction of the turn

Surge - Distance gained/lost during a speed increase or decrease

Turning Circle
Track Reach is defined as a distance along the vessel's track that the
vessel covers from the moment that the “full astern” command is given )
until the vessel is stopped dead in the water.
Drift angle
• the angle between the axis of a ship when turning and the tangent
to the path on which it is turning. 2 : the horizontal angle between
the longitudinal axis of an airplane and its path relative to the ground
: the angle between the heading and the track. — called also leeway
Stopping Distance
Stopping Distance Defined as the minimum distance that a vessel may be
seen to come to rest over the ground.
The distance is usually determined from a ship’s trials when the vessel is new.

Test runs will normally provide the stopping distance:

(a) from full ahead after ordering the main engines to stop;
(b) from crash full astern (emergency stop).
Turning Circle
Turning Circle of double flap rudder
SHIPHANDLING CHARACTERISTICS
Advance , Transfer , Tactical Diameter , Final Diameter ,

Knowledge of the turning characteristics of one’s ship

Is essential to safe ship handling , particularly when in restricted waters.
 RULES OF THUMB
• Turning circle diameter normally equals 3.5 to 4 time of ship’s length,
when depth of water in relation to ship’s draft (depth= 4 draft)
• Turning circle diameter in shallow water increases considerably due
to reduction of ship speed.
• when UKC = 0.4 draft Turning circle diameter may increase turning
circle 5.5 times of ship’s length.
• Resolution MSC.137 (76) , MSC 76/23/add.1 Annex 6 Standard for
ship maneuverability
• MSC/circ. 1053 Explanatory notes to the standard for ship
maneuverability
• IMO Recommendation with respect of turning ability of the ship that the
advance shall not exceed more than 4.5 of ship’s length and tactical
diameter should not exceed more than 5 of ship’s length
 RULES OF THUMB
IMO Recommendation with respect of stopping ability of the ship that the
the track reach in full stern stopping test should not exceed more than 15
of ship’s length and in no cases for large ship the stopping distance should
not exceed more than 20 of ship’s length

when UKC = 0.15 draft Turning circle diameter may increase turning circle
8.5 times of ship’s length. ( 2 times of normal)
Turning circle duration for most of the cargo ships is between 7 to 8
minutes.
By increasing ship’s initial speed Turning circle duration is reduces normally
not turning circle diameter.
Vessel steers irregularly when depth = 1.5 draft