Thermal Properties of Matter

PHYSICS
Target : NEET-2023
Exercise Sheet
Thermal Properties of Matter
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THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
TEMPERATURE
Temperature is a macroscopic physical quantity related to our sense of hot and cold. The natural flow of heat is
from higher temperature to lower temperature, i.e. temperature determines the thermal state of a body whether it can
give or receive heat.
TEMPERATURE SCALES
(i) The Kelvin temperature scale is also known as thermodynamic scale. The SI unit of temperature is the kelvin and
is defined as (1/273.16) of the temperature of the triple point of water. The triple point of water is that point on a P–
T diagram where the three phase of water, the solid, the liquid and the gas, can coexist in equilibrium.
(ii) In addition to Kelvin temperature scale, there are other temperature scales also like Celsius, Fahrenheit, Reaumur,
Rankine, etc. Temperature on one scale can be converted into other scale by using the following identity
Reading on any scale  lower fixed point (LFP)
= constant for all scales
Upper fixed point (UFP)  lower fixed point (LFP)
C  0° F  32° K  273.15
Hence = =
100°  0° 212°  32° 373.15  273.15
(iii) Different temperature scales :
Name of the Symbol for Lower fixed Upper fixed Number of divisions on
scale each degree point (LFP) point (UFP) the scale
Celsius °C 0°C 100°C 100
Fahrenheit °F 32°F 212°F 180
Kelvin K 273.15 K 373.15 K 100
Ex. Express a temperature of 60°F in degree celsius and in kelvin.
C  0° F  32° K  273.15
Sol. By using = =
100°  0° 212°  32° 373.15  273.15
C  0° 60   32° K  273.15
 = =  C = 15.15° C and K = 288.7 K
100°  0° 212°  32° 373.15  273.15
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THERMAL EXPANSION
When matter is heated without any change in it's state, it usually expands. According to atomic theory of matter,
asymmetry in potential energy curve is responsible for thermal expansion. As with rise in temperature the amplitude
of vibration increases and hence energy of atoms increases, hence the average distance between the atom
increases. So the matter as a whole expands.
Thermal expansion is minimum in case of solids but maximum in case of gases because intermolecular force is
maximum in solids but minimum in gases.
Solids can expand in one dimension (Linear expansion), two dimension (Superficial expansion) and three dimension
(Volume expansion) while liquids and gases usually suffers change in volume only.
Linear expansion :
 = 0 (1 + )   = 0
Superficial (areal) expansion :
A = A0 (1 + )
Also A0 = 02 and A = 2
So 2 = 02(1 + ) = [0(1 + )]2  =2
Volume expansion :
V = V0 (1 + ) Also V = 3 and V0=03 so  =3
 6 = 3 = 2 or  :  :  = 1 : 2 : 3
Contraction on heating :
Some rubber like substances contract on heating because transverse vibration of atoms of substance dominate
over longitudinal vibration which is responsible for expansion.
Application of thermal Expansion in Solids
(a) Bi–metallic strip : Two strips of equal length but of different materials (different coefficient of linear expansion)
when join together, it is called "Bi–metallic strip" and can be used in thermostat to break or make electrical
contact. This strip has the characteristic property of bending on heating due to unequal linear expansion
of the two metals. The strip will bend with metal of greater on outer side.
Steel Brass ON OFF

Brass
Steel Bimetallic
strip
Room temperature Higher temperature At room temperature At high temperature
(b) Effect of temperature on the time period of a simple pendulum : A pendulum clock keeps proper time at
temperature  If temperature is increased to ' ( >) then due to linear expansion, length of pendulum increases
and hence its time period will increase.
T 1 T 1 
Fractional change in time period =  ( T     )
T 2 T 2 

(i) Due to increment in its time period, a pendulum clock becomes slow in summer and will lose time. Loss
1
of time in a time period T=  T
2
(ii) The clock will lose time i.e. will become slow if '> (in summer) and will gain time i.e will become
fast if ' < (in winter).
(iii) Since coefficient of linear expansion () is very small for invar, hence pendulums are made of invar to
show the correct time in all seasons.
(c) When a rod whose ends are rigidly fixed such as to prevent expansion or contraction, undergoes a change
in temperature due to thermal expansion or contraction, a compressive or tensile stress is developed in it.
Due to this thermal stress the rod will exert a large force on the supports. If the change in temperature of
a rod of length L is  then :–
Heating Cooling
L ΔL 1 stress
Thermal strain = =  α = × So thermal stress = Y    Y 
L L Δθ strain
So force on the supports F=YA
(d) Error in scale reading due to expansion or contraction: If a scale gives correct reading at temperature
 At temperature '(>) due to linear expansion of scale, the scale will expand and scale reading will be
lesser than true value so that,
(e) Expansion of cavity: Thermal expansion of an isotropic object may be imagined as a photographic enlargement.
(f) Some other application

(i) When rails are laid down on the ground, space is left between the ends of two rails
(ii) The transmission cable are not tightly fixed to the poles
(iii) Test tubes, beakers and cubicles are made of pyrex–glass or silica because they have very low value
of coefficient of linear expansion
(iv) The iron rim to be put on a cart wheel is always of slightly smaller diameter than that of wheel
(v) A glass stopper jammed in the neck of a glass bottle can be taken out by warming the neck of the
bottle.

Ex. A steel ruler exactly 20 cm long is graduated to give correct measurements at 200C. (  steel  1.2  10 5 C 1 )
(a) Will it give readings that are too long or too short at lower temperatures?
(b) What will be the actual length of the ruler be when it is used in the desert at a temperature of 400C?
Sol. (a) If the temperature decreases, the length of the ruler also decreases through thermal contraction. Below
200C, each centimeter division is actually somewhat shorter than 1.0 cm, so the steel ruler gives readings
that are too long.
(b) At 400C, the increases in length of the ruler is
=T = (20) (1.2 × 10–5) (400 – 200) = 0.48 × 10–2 cm
 The actual length of the ruler is, '=+=20.0048 cm
Thermal Expansion in Liquids
(i) Liquids do not have linear and superficial expansion but these only have volume expansion.
(ii) Since liquids are always to be heated along with a vessel which contains them so initially on heating the system
(liquid + vessel), the level of liquid in vessel falls (as vessel expands more since it absorbs heat and liquid expands
less) but later on, it starts rising due to faster expansion of the liquid.
R
P
Q
PQ  represents expansion of vessel

QR represents the real expansion of liquid.
(iii) The actual increase in the volume of the liquid
= The apparent increase in the volume of liquid + the increase in the volume of the vessel.
(iv) Liquids have two coefficients of volume expansion.
(A) Co–efficient of apparent expansion (a)
It is due to apparent (that appears to be, but in not) increase in the volume of liquid if expansion of vessel
containing the liquid is not taken into account.
Apparent expansion in volume (V)
a  
Initial volume   V  
(B) Co–efficient of real expansion (r)
(a) It is due to the actual increase in volume of liquid due to heating.
Real increase in volume (V)
r  
Initial volume   V  
(V)Vessel
(b) Also coefficient of expansion of flask  Vessel 
V  
(c) Real = Apparent + Vessel
(d) Change (apparent change) in volume in liquid relative to vessel is
Vapp= V(Real – Vessel)  = V(r – 3)
 = Coefficient of linear expansion of the vessel.
Different level of liquid in vessel
 V Level
 Re al.  Vessel ( 3 )   app  0 Vapp is positive Level of liquid inVessel will rise on heating
 Re al.  Vessel ( 3 )   app  0 Vapp is negative Level of liquid invessel will fall onheating
 Re al  Vessel ( 3 )   app  0 Vapp  0 Level of liquid in vessel will remain same

Ex. In figure shown, left arm of a U–tube is immersed in a hot water bath at temperature t°C, and right arm is
immersed in a bath of melting ice; the height of manometric liquid in respective columns is h t and h0. Determine
the coefficient of expansion of the liquid.
Water at
temperature t0C
Melting ice
ht
h0
Sol. The liquid is in hydrostatic equilibrium  t gh t  0 gh 0

Where, t is density of liquid in hot bath, 0 is density of liquid in cold bath.
Volumes of a given mass M of liquid at temperatures t and 00C
0 V0 0
are related by Vt = V0(1+t) Since t Vt  0 V0  t  
Vt 1  t 
0 h 0 h t  h0 
Since ht =  h 0 1  t  which on solving for  , yields  =
t h0 t
Anomalous expansion of water
Generally matter expands on heating and contracts on cooling. In case of water, it expands on heating if its
temperature is greater than 4°C. In the range 0°C to 4°C, water contracts on heating and expands on cooling, i.e. 
is negative. This behaviour of water in the range from 0°C to 4°C is called anomalous expansion.
maximum
min
Anomalous
Vol/mass
Bahaviour
Anomalous
Vol/mass
Bahaviour
0°C 4°C 0°C 4°C

Temperature Temperature
(B) (A)
This anomalous behaviour of water causes ice to form first at the surface of a lake in cold weather. As winter
approaches, the water temperature increases initially at the surface. The water there sinks because of its increased
density. Consequently, the surface reaches 0°C first and the lake becomes covered with ice. Aquatic life is able to
survive the cold winter as the lake bottom remains unfrozen at a temperature of about 4°C. At 4°C, density of water
is maximum while its specific volume is minimum.
Ex. There are two spheres of same radius and material at same temperature but one being solid while the other
hollow. Which sphere will expand more if
(a) they are heated to the same temperature,
(b) same heat is given to them ?
Sol. (a) As thermal expansion of isotropic solids is similar to true photographic enlargement,
expansion of a cavity is same as if it had been a solid body of the same material
V V
i.e. V = V
As here V,  and  are same for both solid and hollow spheres treated (cavity) ;
so the expansion of both will be equal.
(b) If same heat is given to the two spheres due to lesser mass, rise in temperature of hollow sphere will be
Q
more [as   ] and hence its expansion will be more [as V = V].
mc

Heat is a form of energy which transfers from a body at higher temperature to a body at lower temperature.
The transfer of heat from one body to another may take place by any one of the following modes :
1. Conduction
The process in which the material takes an active part by molecular action and energy is passed from one particle to
another is called conduction. It is predominant in solids.
2. Convection
The transfer of energy by actual motion of particle of medium from one place to another is called convection. It is
predominant is fluids (liquids and gases).
3. Radiation
Quickest way of transmission of heat is known as radiation. In this mode of energy transmission, heat is transferred
from one place to another without effecting the intervening medium.
Conduction Convection Radiation

Heat Transfer due to Heat transfer due to density Heat transfer with out any
Temperaturedifference difference medium
Due to free electron or vibration Actual motion of particles Electromagnetic radiation
motion of molecules
Heat transfer in solid body (in Heat transfer in fluids (Liquid + All 
mercury also) gas)
Slow process Slow process Fast process (3 × 108 m/sec)
Irregular path Irregular path Straight line (like light)
THERMAL CONDUCTION
The process by which heat is transferred from hot part to cold part of a body through the transfer of energy from one
particle to another particle of the body without the actual movement of the particles from their equilibrium positions
is called conduction. The process of conduction only in solid body (except Hg) Heat transfer by conduction from
one part of body to another continues till their temperatures become equal.
The process of transmission of heat energy in which heat is transferred from
one particle of the medium to the other, but each particle of the medium stays at
its own position is called conduction, for example if you hold an iron rod with
one of its end on a fire for some time, the handle will get hot. The heat is
transferred from the fire to the handle by conduction along the length of iron
rod. The vibrational amplitude of atoms and electrons of the iron rod at the hot end takes on relatively higher values
due to the higher temperature of their environment. These increased vibrational amplitude are transferred along the
rod, from atom to atom during collision between adjacent atoms. In this way a region of rising temperature extends
itself along the rod to your hand.
Consider a slab of face area A, Lateral thickness L, whose faces have temperatures TH and TC(TH > TC).
Now consider two cross sections in the slab at positions A and B separated by a lateral distance of dx. Let
temperature of face A be T and that of face B be T + T. Then experiments show that Q, the amount of heat crossing
the area A of the slab at position x in time t is given by
Q dT
= –KA
t dx
Here K is a constant depending on the material of the slab and is named thermal conductivity of the material, and the
 dT 
quantity   is called temperature gradient. The (–) sign in equation (2.1) shows heat flows from high to low
 dx 
temperature (T is a –ve quantity)

STEADY STATE (v) For cooking the food, low specific heat and
If the temperature of a cross-section at any posi- high conductivity utensils are most suitable.
tion x in the above slab remains constant with time APPLICATION OF THERMAL CONDUCTION
(remember, it does vary with position x), the slab is
(i) In winter, the iron chairs appear to be colder
said to be in steady state.
than the wooden chairs.
Remember steady-state is distinct from thermal equi-
(ii) Cooking utensils are made of aluminium and
librium for which temperature at any position (x) in
brass whereas their handles are made of wood.
the slab must be same.
(iii) Ice is covered in gunny bags to prevent melting
For a conductor in steady state there is no absorp-
of ice.
tion or emission of heat at any cross-section. (as
temperature at each point remains constant with (iv) We feel warm in woollen clothes and fur coat.
time). The left and right face are maintained at con- (v) Two thin blankets are warmer than a single
stant temperatures TH and TC respectively, and all blanket of double the thickness.
other faces must be covered with adiabatic walls so (vi) Birds often swell their feathers in winter.
that no heat escapes through them and same amount (vii) A new quilt is warmer than old one.
of heat flows through each cross-section in a given
Interval of time. Hence Q1 = Q = Q2. Consequently THERMAL RESISTANCE TO CONDUCTION
the temperature gradient is constant throughout the If you are interested in insulating your house from
slab. cold weather or for that matter keeping the meal hot
Hence, in your tiffin-box, you are more interested in poor
dT T Tf  Ti TC  TH heat conductors, rather than good conductors. For
  
dx L L L this reason, the concept of thermal resistance R has
Q T Q  TH  TC  been introduced.
and   KA  = KA 
t L t L  For a slab of cross-section A, Lateral thickness
Here Q is the amount of heat flowing through a L
L and thermal conductivity K, R 
cross-section of slab at any position in a time inter- KA
val of t. In terms of R, the amount of heat flowing though a
Ex. One face of an aluminium cube of edge 2 metre is Q (TH  TL )
slab in steady-state (in time t) 
maintained at 100 °C and the other end is main- t R
tained at 0 °C. All other surfaces are covered by Q
adiabatic walls. Find the amount of heat flowing If we name as thermal current iT then,
t
through the cube in 5 seconds. (thermal conductiv-
ity of aluminium is 209 W/m–°C) T  TL
iT  H
Sol. Heat will flow from the end at 100ºC to the end at R
0°C. This is mathematically equivalent to OHM’s law,
Area of cross-section perpendicular to direction of with temperature donning the role of electric poten-
Q (T  T ) tial. Hence results derived from OHM’s law are also
heat flow, A = 4m2 then  KA H C
valid for thermal conduction.
t L
2
(209 W / mº C)(4m )(100º C  0º C)(5 sec) More over, for a slab in steady state we have seen
Q  209 kJ earlier that the thermal current iL remains same at
2m
each cross-section. This is analogous to kirchoff’s
Thermal conductivity (K) : current law in electricity, which can now be very
(i) It's depends on nature of material. conveniently applied to thermal conduction.
Order of thermal conductivity Ag > Cu > Au > Al
Ex. Three identical rods of length 1m each, having
For Ag maximum is (410 W/mK) cross-section area of 1cm2 each and made of Alu-
K
For Freon minimum is 12 (0.008 W/mK) minium, copper and steel respectively are maintained
(ii)SI Unit : J s–1 m–1 K–1 Dimensions : M1 L1 T–3 –1 at temperatures of 12ºC, 4ºC and 50ºC respectively
(iii) For an ideal or perfect conductor of heat the at their separate ends. Find the temperature of their
value of K =  common junction. [ KCu=400 W/m-K , KAl = 200 W/
(iv) For an ideal or perfect bad conductor or m-K, Ksteel = 50 W/m-K ]
insulator the value of K = 0

50ºC
Q T – TC
i= I= =  T – TC = IR 2
t R2
l
ee
st
12ºC
Adding equation
Aluminium TH  TC
TH – TL = (R1 + R2)I I = R  R
co
pp
er
1 2
4ºC Thus these two slabs are equivalent to a single slab
of thermal resistance R1 + R2.
L 1 10 4 If more than two slabs are joined in series and are
Sol. RAl =  4 
KA 10  200 200 allowed to attain steady state, then equivalent ther-
51ºC
mal resistance is given by
iS R = R1 + R2 + R3 + .......
iAl Rs
12ºC Equivalent conductivity for Heat flow through slabs
RAl T RCu in series
iCu
Req = R1 + R2
4ºC
L1  L2 L1 L2
104 104 = K A K A
Similarly Rsteel = and Rcopper = K eq A 1 2
50 400
Let temperature of common junction = T
then from Kirchoff's current laws, iAl + isteel + iCu = 0

T  12 T  50 T  4
   0
R Al R steel RCu
 (T – 12) 200 + (T – 50) 50 + (T – 4) 400 Equivalent thermal conductivity of the system is
 4(T – 12) + (T – 50) + 8 (T – 4) = 0 L1  L2 L i
 13T = 48 + 50 + 32 = 130  T = 10°C Keq = L1 L 2 = L i
 
K1 K 2 Ki
SLABS IN PARALLEL AND SERIES Slabs in Parallel (in steady state):
Slabs in series (in steady state) Consider two slabs held between the same heat res-
Consider a composite slab consisting of two mate- ervoirs, their thermal conductivities K1 and K2 and
rials having different thickness L1 and L2 different cross-sectional areas A1 and A2
L
cross-sectional areas A1 and A2 and different ther-
mal conductivities K1 and K2. The temperature at
SLAB 1
the outer surface of the states are maintained at TH K1 A1 Q1
and TC, and all lateral surfaces are covered by an

adiabatic coating.
L2 L1
SLAB 2 Q2
K2 A2
adiabatic coating
Heat
Q Heat reservoir Heat reservoir
reservoir
at temperature TH at temperature TC
K2 K1 at T C
L L
then R1 = K A , R2 = K A
Heat reservoir 1 1 2 2
at temperature T H adiabatic coating TH  TC
Let temperature at the junction be T, since steady thermal current through slab 1 : I1  and
R1
state has been achieved thermal current through
each slab will be equal. Then thermal current through TH  TC
that through slab 2 : I2 
the first slab. R2
Q T –T Net heat current from the hot to cold reservoir
I= = H  TH – T = IR1
t R1  1 1 
and that through the second slab, I  I1  I2  (TH  TC ) 
 R1 R 2 
Comparing with For A and B  A  B  60 0  B
TH  TC 1 1 1
I , we get, =   60  B  2R  I ...(i)
R eq R eq R1 R2
2
If more than two rods are joined in parallel, the For B and C B  C  I  R ....(ii)
3
equivalent thermal resistance is given by
2
1 1 1 1 C  E  RI
    ..... 3
R eq R1 R 2 R 3 For A and E
• Equivalent thermal conductivity for Heat flow  A  E  60  10  50
through slabs in parallel
10
1 1 1 L K eq    ....(iii)
  ,R= ; (A1 + A2) 3 R  I  50
R eq R1 R 2 KA L  R  I  15
K1 A 1 K 2 A 2   A  B  2  15  30 , B  60  30 = 300C,
= 
L L
2
B  C     15  10
A1 K1 Q
 3
Q t
t  C  30  10  20 0 C
A2
K2
T1 T2
Obviously, C  D  20 0 C
L
R1
equivaleent to
GROWTH OF ICE ON LAKES
R2 In winter atmospheric temperature falls below 0°C
Equivalent thermal conductivity and water in the lake start freezing.
K A  K2 A 2 K i A i Let at time t thickness of ice on the surface of the
K eq  1 1 = lake = x and air temperature = –° C
A1  A 2 A i
The temperature of water in contact with the lower
Ex. Three rods of material X and three rods of material
surface of ice = 0°C
Y are connected as shown in figure. All the rods
Let area of the lake = A
are identical in length and cross–sectional area.
If the end A is maintained at 600C and the junction Due to escape of this heat increasing extra thickness
E at at 100C, calculate the temp. of the junctions of ice = dx
B,C,D. The thermal conductivity of X is 0.92 CGS Mass of this extra thickness of ice is m = V= 
units and that of Y is 0.46 CGS units. A.dx
dQ = mL = ( A.dx) L
1 1 R K Y 0.46 1
Sol. RX  , RY   X = = = 
KA dt = ( A.dx) L dt 
L
KX KY R Y K X 0.92 2  x dx
x K
Let RX = R  RY = 2R
The total resistance R  R Y + effective resistance
in the bridge
2R  4R 4 10
R  2R  = 2R + R= R
2R  4 R 3 3
So time taken by ice to grow a thickness x is
z
&  Δθ =  × R
L x 1 L 2
C t= x dx  x
X
K 0 2 K
X
0
60 C 0
10 C
So time taken by ice to grow from thickness x1 to
A
Y B E thickness x2 is
Y Y
D 1 L 2
t = t2 – t1 = (x – x12) and t  (x22 – x12)
Further IBCE (2R) = IBDE(4R) and IBCE + IBDE = I 2 KT 2
2 1 Time taken to double and triple the thickness ratio
IBCE = I and IBDE = I t1 : t2 : t3 :: 12 : 22 : 32 So t1 : t2 : t3 :: 1 : 4 : 9
3 3

Ex. One end of a brass rod 2m long and having 1 cm
2cm 5cm
radius is maintained at 250°C. When a steady state
plate 1
is reached, the rate of heat flow across any cross–
section is 0.5 cal s–1. What is the temperature of the plate 2
other end K = 0.26 cal s–1 cm–1 °C–1.
0 0
Q 20C 20C
Sol. = 0.5 cal s–1; r = 1 cm
t (i) Here 1 = –20°C, 2 = 20°C,
 Area A = r2 = 3.142 × 1 cm2 = 3.142 cm2 L1 = 2 cm = 0.02 m, L2 = 5 cm = 0.05 m and K1 = K2 =
L = Length of rod = 2m = 200 cm, T1 = 250°C, T2 = ? K
Q KA (T1  T2 )  equation (i) becomes
We know
t
=
L b
KA 20   g = KAb  20 g
Q x 0.02 0.05
or (T1 – T2) = ×
t kA  5(–20 –) = 2( – 20)  –100 – 5 = 2 – 40
0 .5  2 0 0  7 = – 60   = – 8.6°C
= =122.4°C
0.2 6 C 1  3 .1 4 2 K1 2 2
 T2 = 250°C – 122.4°C = 127.6°C (ii) K2 = 5 or K1 = 5 K2
Ex. The thermal conductivity of brick is 1.7 W m–1 K–1,  from equation (i)
and that of cement is 2.9 W m–1 K–1. What thickness
of cement will have same insulation as the brick of
b
2 5 K 2 A 20   g = K Ab  20 g –20 – 
2
0.02 0.05
thickness 20 cm. =  – 20 or –2 = 0  = 0°C
KA (T1  T2 )t
Sol. Since Q = . For same insulation by CONVECTIONS
L
Convection requires a medium and is the process
the brick and cement Q, A (T1 – T2) and t do not
in which heat is transferred from one place to other
K by actual movement of heated substance (usually
change. Hence, remain constant. If K1 and K2 be
L fluid).The type of convection which results from
the thermal conductivities of brick and cement difference in densities is called natural convection
respectively and L1 and L2 be the required thickness (for example, a fluid in a container heated through
its bottom).
K1 K 1.7 2.9
then = 2 or =
L1 L2 20 L2
2.9
 L2 = × 20 = 34.12 cm
1.7
Ex. Two plates of equal areas are placed in contact with
each other. Their thickness are 2.0 cm and 5.0 cm A
respectively. The temperature of the external surface
of the first plate is –20°C and that of the external
Flame
surface of the second plate is 20°C. What will be
the temperature of the contact surface if the plate
(i) are of the same material, (ii) have thermal
conductivities in the ratio 2 : 5.
Sol. Rate of flow of heat in the plates is However, if a heated fluid is forced to move by a
blower, fan or pump, the process is called forced
Q K A (1  ) K 2 A (   2 )
= 1 = ...(i) convection. The rate of heat convection from an
t L1 L2 object is proportional to the temperature difference
() between the object and convective fluid and

 dQ 
(iv) Ventilation :
the area of contact A, i.e.,   = hA  Ventilator of exhaust fan in a room help of remove
 dt  convection impure and warm air from a room. The fresh air
where, h represents a constant of proportionality from outside blows into the room. This is all due
called convection coefficient and depends on the to the convection current set up in the room.
properties of fluid such as density, viscosity, (v) To regulate temperature in the human
specific heat and thermal conductivity, etc. body :
PHENOMENA BASED ON CONVECTION Heat transfer in the human body involves a
(i) Land and sea breezes : combination of mechanisms. These together
The heat from the Sun is absorbed more rapidly maintain a remarkably uniform temperature in the
by land than by sea–water. Moreover, the specific human body inspite of large changes in
heat of land is low as compared to that of sea– environmental conditions.
water. Consequently, the rise in temperature of The chief internal mechanism is forced convection.
land is higher as compared to that of sea–water. The heart serves as the pump and the blood as
To sum–up, land is hotter than the sea during the circulating fluid.
day time. As a result of this, the colder air over ETOOS KEY POINTS
the sea blows towards the land. This is called
sea–breeze.  (i) Natural convection takes place from bottom to
top while forced convection in any direction.
At night, air blows from land towards sea. This
is called land breeze.  (ii) In case of natural convection, convection currents
move warm air upwards and cool air downwards.
(ii) Formation of trade winds : This is why heating is done from base, while
The surface of Earth near the equator gets heated cooling from the top.
strongly. So, the air in contact with the surface  (iii) Natural convection is not possible in a gravity
of Earth at the expands and rises upwards. As free region such as a freely falling lift or an orbiting
a result of this, a low pressure is created at the satellite.
equator.
 (iv) Natural convection plays an important role in
At the poles, the air in the upper atmosphere gets ventilation, in changing climate and weather and
cooled and comes down. So, a high pressure is in forming land and sea breezes and trade winds.
created at the poles. Due to difference of pressures
 (v) The forced convection of blood in our body by
at the poles and equator, the air at the poles moves
a pump (heart) helps in keeping the temperature
towards the equator, rises up, moves the poles
of body constant.
and so on. In this way, a wind is formed in the
atmosphere.  (vi) For heat propagation via convection, temperature
gradient exists in vertical direction and not in
The rotation of the Earth also affects the motion
horizontal direction.
of the wind. Due to anti–clockwise rotation of
Earth the warm wind blowing from equator to north (vii) Most of heat transfer that is taking place on Earth
drifts towards east. The steady wind blowing from is by convection, the contribution due to
north–Earth to equator, near the surface of Earth, conductionand radiation is very small.
is called trade wind. Ex. Water in a closed tube is heated with one arm
(iii) Monsoons : vertically placed above the lamp. In what direction
In summer, the peninsular mass of central Asia water will begin the circulate along the tube ?
becomes more strongly heated than the water of Sol. On heating the liquid at A will become lighter and
the Indian Ocean. This is due to the fact that will rise up. This will push the liquid in the tube
the specific heat of water is much higher than upwards and so the liquid in the tube will move
that of the soil and rocks. Hot air from the heated clockwise i.e. form B to A.
land mass rises up and moves towards the Indian
ocean. Air filled with moisture flows over the Indian
ocean on the south towards heated land mass.
A B
When obstructed by mountains, the moist air
rushes upwards to great height. In the process,
it gets cooled. Consequently, the moisture
condenses and falls as rain.

THERMAL RADIATION (iii) Radiation intensity measured with a specific
The process of the transfer of heat from one place device named as Bolometer.
to another place without heating the intervening (iv) Heat radiation are always obtained in infra–red
medium is called radiation. When a body is heated region of electromagnetic wave spectrum so
and placed in vacuum, it loses heat even when there they are called Infra red rays.
is no medium surrounding it. The heat can not go (v) Thermal radiations is incident on a surface, it
out from the body by the process of conduction or exerts pressure on the surface, which is known
convection since both of these process require the as Radiation Pressure.
presence of a material medium between source and BASIC FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS
surrounding objects. The process by which heat is 1. Energy Density (u)
lost in this case is called radiation. This does not
The radiation energy of whole wavelength (0 to )
require the presence of any material medium.
present in unit volume at any point in space is
It is by radiation that the heat from the Sun reaches defined as energy density. S I UNIT : J/m3
the Earth. Radiation has the following properties:
2. Spectral energy density (u ) : Energy density per
(a) Radiant energy travels in straight lines and

when some object is placed in the path, it's
shadow is formed at the detector. unit spectral region. u   u  d SI UNIT : J/m3 Å
0
(b) It is reflected and refracted or can be made
3. Absorptive power or absorptive coefficient 'a' :
to interfere. The reflection or refraction are
The ratio of amount of radiation absorbed by a
exactly as in case of light.
surface (Qa) to the amount of radiation incident (Q)
(c) It can travel through vacuum.
upon it is defined as the coefficient of absorption
(d) Intensity of radiation follows the law of inverse
square. Qa
a .It is unitless
(e) Thermal radiation can be polarised in the same Q
way as light by transmission through a nicol
prism. Qa 
4. Spectral absorptive power (a) : a= :
Q
All these and many other properties establish that
heat radiation has nearly all the properties Also called monochromatic absorptive coefficient
z
possessed by light and these are also 
electromagnetic waves with the only difference At a given wavelength a  a  d . For ideal black
of wavelength or frequency. The wavelength of 0
heat radiation is larger than that of visible light.
body a and a = 1, a and a are unitless
Types of thermal Radiation
5. Emissive power (e) : The amount of heat radiation
Two types of thermal radiation.
emitted by unit area of the surface in one second at
Plane Radiation Diffuse Radiation a particular temperature. SI UNIT : J/m2s
6. Spectral Emmisive power (e) : The amount of heat
radiation emitted by unit area of the body in one second
in unit spectral region at a given wavelength. Emissive
Radiations which are incident Incident on the surface at all
on a surface at certain angle angles 
power or total emissive power e   e  d

0
(i) When radiation passes through any medium
then radiations slightly absorbed by medium SI UNIT : W/m2 Å
according to its absorptive power so EMISSIVITY (e)
temperature of medium slightly increases. (i) Absolute emissivity or emissivity : Radiation
energy given out by a unit surface area of a body in
(ii) In order to obtain a spectrum of radiation, a
unit time corresponding to unit temperature
special prism used like KC prism, Rock salt
prism Flourspar prism. Normal glass prism or difference w.r.t. the surroundings is called Emissivity.
Quartz prism can not be used (because it S I unit : W/m2 °K
absorbed some radiation).

Q GB e GB % of transmittive power
(ii) Relative emissivity (er) : er = = Sol. Q = Qt + Qr + Qa  400 = 80 + 120 + Qt
Q IBB E IBB
 Qt = 200. So % of transmittive poweris 50%
emitted radiation by gray body
= IDEAL BLACK BODY
emitted radiation by ideal black body
(i) For a body surface which absorbs all incident
GB = gray or general body, IBB = Ideal black body thermal radiations at low temperature irrespective
(i) No unit (ii) For ideal black body er = 1 of their wave length and emitted out all these
absorbed radiations at high temperature assumed
(iii) range 0 < er < 1
to be an ideal black body surface.
Spectral, Emissive, Absorptive and Transmittive (ii) The identical parameters of an ideal black body is
Power of a given body surface given by a = a = 1 and r = 0 = t, er = 1
Due to incident radiations on the surface of a body (iii) The nature of emitted radiations from surface of
following phenomena occur by which the radiation ideal black body only depends on its temperature
is divided into three parts.
(a) Reflection (b) Absorption (c) Transmission
• From Energy Conservation
amount of incident amount of reflected

radiation Q radiation Qr
amount of Ferry's ideal black body

absorbed
radiation Qa
amount of transmitted (iv) The radiations emitted from surface of ideal black
radiation Q t body called as either full or white radiations.
(v) At any temperature the spectral energy distribution
Q Q Q curve for surface of an ideal black body is always
Q = Qr + Qa + Qt  r  a  t  1
Q Q Q continuous and according to this concept if the
 r+a+t=1 spectrum of a heat source obtained to be continuous
then it must be placed in group of ideal black body
Qr like kerosene lamp; oil lamp Heating filament etc.
Reflective Coefficient r = ,
Q (vi) There are two experimentally ideal black body
(a) Ferry's ideal black body
Qa
Absorptive Coefficient a = , (b) Wien's ideal black body.
Q (vii) At low temperature surface of ideal black body is a
perfect absorber and at a high temperature it proves
Qt
Transmittive Coefficient t = to be a good emitter.
Q (viii) An ideal black body need not be black colour (eg.
r = 1 and a = 0 , t = 0 Sun)
 Perfect reflector
PREVOST'S THEORY OF HEAT ENERGY
a = 1 and r = 0, t=0
EXCHANGE
 Ideal absorber (ideal black body)
According to Prevost at every possible temperature
t = 1 and a = 0, r = 0
(Not absolute temperature) there is a continuous
 Perfect transmitter (diathermanous)
heat energy exchange between a body and its
Qr  surrounding and this exchange carry on for infinite
Reflection power (r) =   1 00  % , Absorption
Q  time.
Q
 a  The relation between temperature difference of
power (a) =   10 0  % body with its surrounding decides whether the body
Q 
experience cooling effect or heating effect.
Qt 
Transmission power (t) =   10 0  % When a cold body is placed in the hot surrounding
Q  : The body radiates less energy and absorbs more
Ex. Total radiations incident on body = 400 J, 20% energy from the surrounding, therefore the
radiation reflected and 120 J absorbs. Then find out temperature of body increases.
When a hot body placed in cooler surrounding : the Sun.
The body radiates more energy and absorb less chromosphere
vapour
energy from the surroundings. Therefore state
temperature of body decreases. K
Ca SUN photo
When the temperature of a body is equal to the Na sphere
107K
temperature of the surrounding
The energy radiated per unit time by the body is 6000K
equal to the energy absorbed per unit time by the

body, therefore its temperature remains constant. When white light emitted from the central core of the
Sun (Photosphere) passes. Through its atmosphere
 (i) At absolute zero temperature (0 kelvin) all atoms (Chromosphere) radiations of those wavelengths will
of a given substance remains in ground state, so, be absorbed by the gases present, resulting in dark
at this temperature emission of radiation from any lines in the spectrum of Sun. At the time of total solar
substance is impossible, so Prevost's heat energy eclipse direct light rays emitted from photosphere
exchange theory does not applied at this cannot reach on the Earth and only rays from
temperature, so it is called limited temperature of chromosphere are able to reach on the Earth surface.
prevosts theory. At that time we observe bright fraunhoffer lines.
 (ii) With the help of Prevost's theory rate of cooling (ii) In deserts days are hot and nights cold
of any body w.r.t. its surroundings can be worked Sand is rough and black, so it is a good absorber
out (applied to and hence in deserts, days (When radiation from
Stefen Boltzman law, Newton's law of cooling.) Sun is incident on sand) will be very hot. Now in
accordance with Kirchhoff's Law, good absorber is
KIRCHHOFF'S LAW a good emitter.
At a given temperature for all bodies the ratio of So nights (when send emits radiation) will be cold.
their spectral emissive power (e) to spectral
absorptive power (a) is constant and this constant
STEFAN'S LAW
is equal to spectral emissive power (E) of the ideal The amount of radiation emitted per second per unit
black body at same temperature area by a black body is directly proportional to the
fourth power of its absolute temperature.
e Amount of radiation emitted E where
 E  = constant
a T = temperature of ideal black body (in K)
E  This law is true for only ideal black body
 e   e 
     = constant e  a SI Unit : E = watt/m2
  1  a  2
a Stefen's constant = 5.67 x10–8 watt /m2 K4
Good absorbers are good emitters and bad Dimensions of : M1 L0 T–3 –4
absorbers are bad emitters Total radiation energy emitted out by surface of
area A in time t :
Ideal black body QIBB = A T4 t and for any other
(i) For a constant temperature the spectral emmisive
bodyQGB = erA T4 t
power of an ideal black body is a constant
parameter Rate of emission of radiation
(ii) The practical confirmation of Kirchhoff's law When Temperature of surrounding T0 (Let T0 < T)
carried out by Rishi apparatus and the main base Rate of emission of radiation from ideal black body
of this apparatus is a Lessilie container. surface E1 = T4
(iii) The main conclusion predicted from Kirchhof's Rate of emission of radiation from surrounding
law can be expressed as E2 = T04
Good absorber  Good emitter Net rate of loss of radiation from ideal black body
surface is E = E1 – E2 = T4– T04 = ( T4 – T04 )
Bad absorber  Bad emitter
Net loss of radiation energy from entire surface area
(at Low temperature) (at high temperature) in time t is QIBB = A( T4 – T04 ) t
For any other body QGB = er A( T4 – T04 ) t
APPLICATIONS OF KIRCHOFF LAW If in time dt the net heat energy loss for ideal black
(i) Fraunhoffer's lines body is dQ and because of this its temperature falls
Fraunhoffer lines are dark lines in the spectrum of by d
FG dQ IJ is directly proportional
Rate of loss of heat RH =
dQ
dt
  A(T 4  T04 ) Rate of loss of heat H dt K
to excess of temperature of the body over that of
It is also equal to emitted power or radiation emitted
per second surrounding. [(when (–0)  35°C]
Rate of fall in temperature (Rate of cooling) RF = dQ dQ d
(–0)  = ms
d A 4  dQ d  dt dt dt
 (T  T04 )   msJ  = temperature of body [ in °C], = temperature of
dt ms J  dt dt 
surrounding,–= excess of temperature 
Note : If the temperature of body decrease d in time dt
(i) If all of T, T0, m, s, V, , are same for different
d
shape body then RF and RH will be maximum in then rate of fall of temperature –  (  0 )
the flat surface. dt
(ii) If a solid and hollow sphere are taken with all Where negative sign indictates that the rate of
the parameters same then hollow will cool down cooling is decreasing with time.
at fast rate. Excess of temperature
1 d If the temperature of body decreases from 1 to
(iii) Rate of temperature fall , R F   so dt 2 and temperature of surroundings is 0 then
s dt
 s. If condition in specific heat is    2 
average excess of temperature =  1  0 
 s1 > s2 > s3  2 
If all cooled same temperature i.e. temperature
fall is also identical for all then required time       
  1 2  = – K  1 2  0 
t s  t1 > t2 > t3  t   2 
When a body cools by radiation the cooling Ex. If a liquid takes 30 seconds in cooling of 80°C to 70°C
depends on : and 70 seconds in cooling 60°C to 50°C, then find
(i) Nature of radiating surface : greater the the room temperature.
emissivity (er), faster will be the cooling.
(ii) Area of radiating surface : greater the area of 1 –  2 FG   2 IJ
H K
1
Sol. =K – 0
radiating surface, faster will be the cooling. t 2
(iii) Mass of radiating body : greater the mass of
80 – 7 0  80  70 
radiating body slower will be the cooling. In first case, =K  – 0 
30  2 
(iv) Specific heat of radiating body : greater the
specific heat of radiating body slower will be 1
= K (75 – 0) ...(i)
the cooling. 3
(v) Temperature of radiating body : greater the 60 – 50 FG 60  50 –  IJ
temperature of radiating body faster will be the
In second case ,
70
=K
H 2 K0
cooling.
1
Ex. The operating temperature of a tungesten filament = K (55 – 0) ... (ii)
in an incandescent lamp is 2000 K and its emissivity 7
is 0.3. Find the surface area of the filament of a 25 Equation (i) divide by equation (ii)
watt lamp. Stefan's constant  = 5.67 × 10–8 Wm–2 (75 – 0 )
7
K–4 = (55 –  )  385 – 70 = 225 – 30
3
Sol.  Rate of emission = wattage of the lamp 0
W 160
 W = AeT4  A = 0 = = 40°C
eT 4 4
Limitations of Newton's Law
25
= = 0.918 m2 (i) Temperature difference should not exceed 35° C, (
0.3  5.67  10 8  (200)4
– 0)  35° C
NEWTON'S LAW OF COOLING (ii) Loss of heat should only be by radiation.

(iii) This law is an extended form of Stefan–Boltzman's
law.  dQ   dQ 
    
For Heating, Newton's law of heating  dt  Water  dt  Liquid
1  2  1  2   1  2      
t
 H 0  2  where H heating  (m s+w)    (m ' s ' w)  t 
  t
 1   2 
constant.
Derivation of Newton's law from Steafen's Boltzman msw m 's' w
 =
law t1 t2
d A 4  T  T0  T  where w = water equivalent of calorimeter.

 (T 4  T0 )   Cooling curve :
dt m s J  T  T0  T 
d A
 (T0  T)4  T04 
dt m s J 
If x <<< 1 then (1 + x)n = 1 + nx
d A  4 T 4 
  T0 (1  )  T04 
dt m s J  T0 
Ex. When a calorimeter contains 40g of water at 50°C,
A 4  T 4  A 4  T 
then the temperature falls to 45°C in 10 minutes. The
= m s J T0 (1  T )  1  = m s J T0 1  4 T  1 
 0   0  same calorimeter contains 100g of water at 50°C, it
takes 20 minutes for the temperature to become 45°C.
d   A 3  d Find the water equivalent of the calorimeter.
 4 T0  T   K T
dt  m s J  dt
m 1 s1  W m s W
Sol. = 2 2 where W is the water
4 A T 3
0
t1 t2
constant K 
msJ equivalent
d 40  1  W 100  1  W
 T  =
Newton's law of cooling (for small 10 20
dt
temperature difference) 80 + 2W = 100 + W  W = 20 g
APPLICATION OF NEWTON'S LAW OF SPECTRAL ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
COOLING CURVE OF BLACK BODY RADIATIONS
• To find out specific heat of a given liquid
Practically given by : Lumers and Pringshem
If for the two given liquids their volume, radiating Mathematically given by : Plank
surface area, nature of surface, initial temperature
are allowed to cool down in a common environments
then rate of loss of heat of these liquids are equal .
stirrer stirrer
 1 – 2 1 – 2
t1 t2
water liquid
ms m' s' water out
air air air
water in
fall of temperature from 1 2 in time t for

1 water and t for2 liquid

Dimensions of b : = M0 L1 T0 
Relation between frequency and temperature
c
m  T
b
Ex. The temperature of furnace is 2000°C, in its spectrum
the maximum intensity is obtained at about 4000Å,
If the maximum intensity is at 2000Å calculate the
temperature of the furnace in °C.
Sol. By using mT = b, 4000 (2000+273) = 2000(T)
 T = 4546K
The temperature of furnace = 4546 – 273 = 4273 °C
SOLAR CONSTANT 'S'
The Sun emits radiant energy continuously in space
of which an in significant part reaches the Earth.
The solar radiant energy received per unit area per
unit time by a black surface held at right angles to
the Sun's rays and placed at the mean distance of
the Earth (in the absence of atmosphere) is called
solar constant.
The solar constant S is taken to be 1340 watts/m2
or 1.937 Cal/cm2–minute
• Temperature of the Sun
1 Let R be the radius of the Sun and 'd' be the radius
(i) m 
T of Earth's orbit around the Sun. Let E be the energy
emitted by the Sun per second per unit area.
(ii) E m  T 5 The total energy emitted by the Sun in one second
4
= E.A = E × 4R2. (This energy is falling on a sphere

4 A1  T1  of radius equal to the radius of the Earth's orbit
(iii) Area  E d  E  T  
around the Sun i.e., on a sphere of surface area
0 A2  T2 
4d2)
ETOOS KEY POINTS So, The energy falling per unit area of Earth
(i) Spectral energy distribution curves are continuous. 4 R 2  E E R2
At any temperature in between possible = =
4 d 2 d2
wavelength (0 – ) radiation emitted but for d
different wavelength quantity of radiations are

different. R
(ii) As the wave length increases, the amount of
radiation emitted first increase, becomes maximum
T
and then decreases.
(iii) At a particular temperature the area enclosed A
A'
between the spectral energy curve shows the
spectral emissive power of the body.

R = 7× 108m , d = 1.5 × 1011 m,
Area   E  d  E  T 4 s = 5.7 × 10–8 W m–2 K–4
0 E R2
Solar constant S=
WEIN'S DISPLACEMENT LAW d2
The wavelength corresponding to maximum By Stefan's Law E = T4
emission of radiation decrease with increasing  T 4 R2
S=
 1 d2
temperature  m   . This is known as Wein's
 T 1 1
 S  d 2  4  1340  (1.5  10 11 )2  4
displacement law. mT = b where b Wein's constant T=  2 
 8 8 2 
= = 2.89 x 10–3 mK.   R   5.7  10  (7  10 ) 
= 5732 K
HEAT SPECIFIC HEAT (s or c )

When a hot body is put in contact with a cold one, It is the amount of energy required to raise the
the former gets colder and the latter warmer. From temperature of unit mass of that substance by 1°C
this observation it is natural to conclude that a (or 1K) is called specific heat. It is represented by s
certain quantity of heat has passed from the hot or c.
body to the cold one. Heat is a form of energy. If the temperature of a substance of mass m
Heat is felt by its effects. Some of the effects of changes from T to T + dT when it exchanges an
heat are : amount of heat dQ with its surroundings then its
(a) Change in the degree of hotness 1 dQ
(b) Expansion in length, surface area and volume specific heat is c =
m dT
(c) Change in state of a substance The specific heat depends on the pressure, volume
(d) Change in the resistance of a conductor and temperature of the substance.
(e) Thermo e.m.f. effect For liquids and solids, specific heat measurements
SI Unit : J (joule) Also measured in the unit are most often made at a constant pressure as
calorie. functions of temperature, because constant
pressure is quite easy to produce experimentally.
(i) Calorie
SI unit : joule/kg–K
It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of 1 g water by 1°C. CGS unit : cal/g –°C
Specific heat of water : cwater = 1 cal/g–°C = 1 cal/g–
(ii) International calorie K = 1 kcal/kg–K = 4200 joule/kg–K
International calorie is the amount of heat required When a substance does not undergo a change of
to raise the temperature of 1g water from state (i.e., liquid remains liquid or solid remains
14.5 °C to 15.5 °C rise of temperature. solid), then the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of mass m of thesubstance by an
(iii) Kilo Calorie amount  is Q = ms
Kilo calorie is defined as the amount of heat required The temperature dependence of the specific heat
to raise the temperature of 1 kg water from 14.5 of water at 1 atmospheric pressure is shown in
°C to 15.5 °C. (1 kcal = 1000 calorie). figure. Its variation is less than 1% over the interval
from 0 to 100°C. Such a small variation is typical
(iv) British thermal unit (B. T. U.)
for most solids and liquids, so their specific heats
It is the amount of heat required to raise the can generally be taken to be constant over fairly
temperature of one pound water by 1°F. large temperature ranges.
(1 B.T.U. = 252 calorie).
The temperature dependence of the
MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT OF HEAT specific heat of water at 1 atm
According to Joule, work may be converted into 1.008
Specific heat (cal/g °C )
heat and vice–versa. The ratio of work done to

1.004
heat produced is always constant.
1.000
W
= constant (J) W = J H
H
W must be in joule, irrespective of nature of energy 0 20 40 60 80
Temperature (°C)
or work and H must be in calorie.
(i) There are many processes possible to give
J is called mechanical equivalent of heat. It is not a heat to a gas.
physical quantity but simply a conversion factor.
A specific heat can be associated to each such
It converts unit of work into that of heat and vice- process which depends on the nature of
versa. process.
J = 4.18 joule/cal or 4.18 × 10³ joule per kilo–cal. For (ii) Value of specific heats can vary from zero (0)
rough calculations we take J = 4.2 joule/cal to infinity.
(iii) Generally two types of specific heat are (i) Latent heat of fusion
mentioned for a gas – It is the quantity of heat (in kilocalories)
(a) Specific heat at constant volume (Cv) required to change its 1 kg mass from solid to
(b) Specific heat at constant pressure (CP) liquid state at its melting point. Latent heat of
(iv) These specific heats can be molar or gram. fusion for ice : 80 kcal/kg = 80 cal /g.
MOLAR HEAT CAPACITY (ii) Latent heat of vaporization
The amount of energy needed to raise the The quantity of heat required to change its 1
temperature of one mole of a substance by 1°C (or kg mass from liquid to vapour state at its boiling
1K) is called molar heat capacity. The molar heat point.
capacity is the product of molecular weight and Latent heat of vaporisation for water : 536 kcal/
specific heat i.e., kg = 536 cal/g
Molar heat capacity C = Molecular weight (M) ×
CHANGE OF STATE
1  dQ  (i) Melting
Specific heat( c)  C   
µ  dT  Conversion of solid into liquid state at constant
If the molecular mass of the substance is M and temperature is known as melting.
the mass of the substance is m then number of (ii) Boiling
m Evaporation within the whole mass of the liquid is
M  dQ 
moles of the substance µ = C    called boiling. Boiling takes place at a constant
M m  dT  temperature known as boiling point. A liquid boils
SI Unit : J/mol–K
when the saturated vapour pressure on its surface
THERMAL CAPACITY is equal to atmospheric pressure. Boiling point
The quantity of heat required to raise the reduces on decreasing pressure.
temperature of the whole of that substance through
(iii) Evaporation
1°C is called thermal capacity. The thermal capacity
Conversion of liquid into vapours at all temperatures
of mass m of the whole of substance of specific
is called evaporation. It is a surface phenomenon.
heat s is = ms
Greater the temperature, faster is the evaporation.
Thermal capacity = mass × specific heat
Smaller the boiling point of liquid, more rapid is the
Thermal capacity depends on property of material
evaporation. Smaller the humidity, more is the
of the body and mass of the body.
evaporation. Evaporation increases on decreasing
SI Unit : cal/°C or cal/K,
pressure that is why evaporation is faster in
Dimensions : ML2 T–2K–1
vacuum.
WATER EQUIVALENT OF A BODY Heat of evaporation
As the specific heat of water is unity so the thermal Heat required to change unit mass of liquid into
capacity of a body (ms) represents its water vapour at a given temperature is called heat of
equivalent also. evaporation at that
(i) Mass of water having the same thermal temperature.
capacity as the body is called the water equivalent (iv) Sublimation
of the body Direct conversion of solid in to vapour state is called
(ii) The water equivalent of a body is the amount sublimation.
of water that absorbs or gives out the same amount Heat of sublimation
of heat as is done by the body when heated or Heat required to change unit mass of solid directly
cooled through 1°C. into vapours at a given temperature is called heat
Water equivalent= mass of body × specific of sublimation at that temperature.
heat of the material (w = ms). • Camphor and ammonium chloride sublimates
LATENT HEAT OR HIDDEN HEAT on heating in normal conditions.
When state of a body changes, change of state • A block of ice sublimates into vapours on the
takes place at constant temperature [melting point surface of moon because of very–very low
or boiling point] and heat released or absorbed is pressure on its surface
Q = mL where L is latent heat. Heat is absorbed if (v) Condensation
solid converts into liquid (at melting point) or liquid The process of conversion from gaseous or vapour
state to liquid state is known as condensation .
converts into vapours (at boiling point) and heat is
These materials again get converted to vapour or
released if liquid converts into solid or vapours
gaseous state on heating.
converts into liquid.

(vi) Hoar frost the curve AC represents the liquid phase of water.
Direct conversion of vapours into solid is called The region below the curves AC and AD represents
hoar frost. This process is just reverse of the the gaseous phase of water (i.e. water vapour). A
curve on the phase diagram represents the
process of sublimation. Ex. : Formation of snow by
boundary between two phases of the substance.
freezing of clouds.
Along any curve the two phases can coexist in
(vii) Regelation
equilibrium
Regelation is the melting of ice caused by pressure
(i) Along curve AB, ice and water can remain in
and its resolidification when the pressure is equilibrium.This curve is called fusion curve or ice
removed. Ice shrinks when it melts, and if pressure line. This curve shows that the melting
is applied, deliberately promoting shrinkage, it is point of ice decreases with increase in pressure.
found that melting is thereby assisted. (ii) Along the curve AC, water and water vapour can
PHASE OF A SUBSTANCE remain in equilibrium. The curve is called
The phase of a substance is defined as its form vaporisation curve or steam line. The curve shows
which is homogeneous, physically distinct and that the boiling point of water increases with
mechanically separable from the other forms of that increase in pressure.
substance. (iii) Along the curve AD, ice and water vapour can
remain in equilibrium.
Phase diagram
This curve is called sublimation curve or hoar frost
A phase diagram is a graph in which pressure (P) is line.
represented along the y–axis and temperature (T)
TRIPLE POINT OF WATER
is represented along the x–axis.
The three curves in the phase diagram of water
Characteristics of Phase diagram meet at a single point A, which is called the triple
(i) Different phases of a substances can be point of water. The triple point of water represents
shown on a phase diagram. the co–existance of all the three phases of water
(ii) A region on the phase diagram represents a ice water and water vapour in equilibrium. The
single phase of the substance, a curve represents pressure corresponding to triple point of water is
equilibrium between two phases and a 6.03 × 10–3 atmosphere or 4.58 mm of Hg and
temperature corresponding to it is 273.16K.
common point represents equilibrium between
three phases. • Significance of triple point of water
(iii) A phase diagram helps to determine the Triple point of water represents a unique condition
and it is used to define the absolute temperature.
condition under which the different phases are in
While making Kelvin's absolute scale, upper fixed
equilibrium. point is 273.16 K and lower fixed point is 0 K. One
(iv) A phase diagram is useful for finding a
1
convenient way in which a desired change of phase kelvin of temperature is fraction of the
can be produced. 2 7 3 .1 6
temperature of triple point of water.
PHASE DIAGRAM FOR WATER
HEATING CURVE
The phase diagram for water consists of three
If to a given mass (m) of a solid, heat is supplied at
curves AB, AC and AD meeting each other at the constant rate and a graph is plotted between
point A, these curves divide the phase diagram temperature and time as shown in figure is called
into three regions. heating curve.
Region to the left of the curve AB and above the (i) In the region OA
curve AD represents the solid phase of water ( ice). Rate of heat supply P is constant and temperature of
The region to the right of the curve AB and above solid is changing with time

So, Q = mcS T  P t = mcS T [ Q = P t] LAW OF MIXTURES
T (a) When two bodies (one being solid and other liquid
 = The slope of temperature–time curve so
t or both being liquid) at different temperatures are
specific heat of solid mixed, heat will be transferred from body at higher
1 temperature to a body at lower temperature till both
cS  specific heat (or thermal acquire same temperature. The body at higher
slope of line OA
temperature released heat while body at lower
capacity) is inversely proportional to the slope of
temperature–time curve. temperature absorbs it, so that Heat lost = Heat
gained. Principle of calorimetry represents the law
(ii) In the region AB
of conservation of heat energy.
Temperature is constant, so it represents change
(b) Temperature of mixture (T) is always  lower
of state, i.e., melting of solid with melting point T1.
temperature (TL) and higher temperature (TH), TL
At point A melting starts and at point B all solid is
T TH
converted into liquid. So between A and B
substance is partly solid and partly liquid. If LF is The temperature of mixture can never be lesser than
the latent heat of fusion then lower temperature (as a body cannot be cooled
below the temperature of cooling body) and greater
P(t 2  t1 ) than higher temperature (as a body cannot be heated
Q = mLF  L F  [as Q = P(t2 – t1]
m above the temperature of heating body). Further
 LF length of line AB more usually rise in temperature of one body is not
i.e., Latent heat of fusion is proportional to the equal to the fall in temperature of the other body
length of line of zero slope. though heat gained by one body is equal to the
heat lost by the other.
1
[In this region specific heat = ] Ex. 5g ice at 0°C is mixed with 5g of steam at 100°C .
tan 0 
What is the final temperature?
(iii) In the region BC
Sol. Heat required by ice to raise its temperature to
Temperature of liquid increases so specific heat (or
thermal capacity) of liquid will be inversely 100°C,
proportional to the slope of line BC, Q1 = m1L1 + m1c11 = 5 × 80 + 5 × 1 × 100 = 400 + 500
+ 900 = 1800 cal
1
cL  Heat given by steam when condensed
slope of line BC
Q2 = m2L2 = 5 × 536 = 2680 cal
(iv) In the region CD
As Q2 > Q1. This means that whole steam is not
Temperature in constant, so it represents change even condensed.
of state, i.e., liquid is boiling with boiling point T2.
Hence temperature of mixture will remain at 100°C.
At C all substance is in liquid state while at D is
vapour state and between C and D partly liquid
and partly gas. The length of line CD is proportional
to latent heat of vaporisation, i.e., LV Length of
line CD.
1
[In this region specific heat  = ]
tan 0
The line DE represents gaseous state of substance
with its temperature increasing linearly with time.
The reciprocal of slope of line will be proportional
to specific heat or thermal capacity of substance in
vapour state.

The properties of the gases are entirely different from those of solid and liquid. In case of gases, thermal expansion
is very large as compared to solids and liquids .To state the conditions of a gas, its volume, pressure and temperature
must be specified.
Intermolecular force Solid > liquid > real gas > ideal gas (zero)
Potential energy Solid < liquid < real gas < ideal gas (zero)
Internal energy, internal kinetic energy, internal potential energy
At a given temperature for solid, liquid and gas:
(i) Internal kinetic energySame for all
(ii) Internal potential Energy : Maximum for ideal gas (PE = 0) and Minimum for solids (PE = –ve)
(iii) Internal Energy : Maximum for Ideal gas and Minimum for solid
At a given temperature for rared and compressed gas :
(i) Internal kinetic energy  Same
(ii) Internal potential energy  (PE)Rared > (PE)compressed
(iii) Internal Energy  (U)Rared > (U)compressed
N.T.P. S.T.P.
(Normal temperature) (Standard Temperature and Pressure)
Temperature 0° C = 273.15 K 0.01° C = 273.16K
Pressure 1 atm = 1.01325 × 105 N/m2 1 atm
= 1.01325 × 105 pascal
Volume 22.4 litre 22.4 litre
IDEAL GAS CONCEPT
(i) A gas which follows all gas laws and gas equation at every possible temperature and pressure is known as ideal or
perfect gas.
(ii) Volume of gas molecules is negligible as compared to volume of container so volume of gas = volume of container
(Except 0K)
(iii) No intermolecular force act between gas molecules.
(iv) Potential energy of ideal gas is zero so internal energy of ideal gas is perfectly translational K.E. of gas. It is directly
proportional to absolute temperature.
So, internal energy depends only and only on its temperature.
Etrans
For a substance U = UKE + UPE
UKE : depends only on T, UPE : depends upon intermolecular forces (Always negative)
(v) Specific heat of ideal gas is constant quantity and it does
not change with temperature ideal gas real gas
C V C V
(vi) All real gases behaves as ideal gas at high temperature and
low pressure.
temperature temperature
(vii) Volume expansion coefficient () and pressure expansion coefficient () is same
1 1
for a ideal gas and value of each is per °C  = = per °C
273 273
(viii) Gas molecule have point mass and negligible volume and velocity is very high (107 cm/s). That's why there is no
effect of gravity on them.
EQUATION OF STATE FOR IDEAL GAS
M  mN  R 
PV = µRT where  = number of moles of gas  PV  RT =   RT =   N T = NkT
Mw  m N0   N0 

Ex. Calculate the value of universal gas constant at STP.
Sol. Universal gas constant is given by R  PV

T
One mole of all gases at S.T.P. occupy volume PV
V = 22·4 litre = 22·4 × 10–3 m3
P
P = 760 mm of Hg = 760 × 10–3 × 13·6 × 103 × 9.80
N m–2 T = 273 K Ex. A sample of oxygen with volume of 500 cc at a
pressure of 2 atm is compressed to a volume of
7 60  1 0 3  1 3 .6  1 0 3  9.80  2 2.4  1 0 3 400 cc. What pressure is needed to do this if the
 R =
273 temperature is kept constant ?
–1 –1
= 8·31 J mol K Sol. Temperature is constant, so P1 V1 = P2V2
Ex. A closed container of volume 0.02 m3 contains a
mixture of neon and argon gases at a temperature of V1  500 
 P2  P1 2  = 2.5 atm
27°C and pressure of 1 × 105 Nm2. The total mass of V2  400 
the mixture is 28 g. If the gram molecular weights of Ex. An air bubble doubles in radius on rising from
neon and argon are 20 and 40 respectively, find the bottom of a lake to its surface. If the atmosphere
masses of the individual gases in the container, pressuer is equal to that due to a column of 10 m of
assuming them to be ideal. Given : R = 8.314 J/mol/ water, then what will be the depth of the lake.
K.
(Assuming that surface tension is negligible) ?
Sol. Let m gram be the mass of neon. Then, the mass of
Sol. Given that constant temperature, we use
argon is (28 – m)g.
P1V1 = P2V2
Total number of moles of the mixture,
P2 = (10) dg (for water column)
m 28  m 28  m
   ...(i) P1 = (10+h) dg (where h=depth of lake)
20 40 40
PV 1  1 0 5  0.0 2 4 3 4 3  4 3
Now, 
RT

8 .3 1 4  30 0
 0 .8 ...(ii) V1  r , V2 
3
 2r   8  r = 8V
 3  1
3
28  m Thus for P2V2 = P1V1,
By (i) and (ii),  0 .8
40 We have 10 dg (8V1) = (10 + h) dg V1
 28 + m = 32  80 = 10 + h  h = 70 m
 m = 4 gram or mass of argon = (28 – 4)g = 24 g 2. Charle's Law
GAS LAWS According to it for a given mass of an ideal gas at
1. Boyle's Law constant pressure, volume of a gas is directly
According to it for a given mass of an ideal gas at proportional to its absolute temperature, i.e. V  T
constant temperature, the volume of a gas is if m and P = Constant
inversely proportional to its pressure,
1
i.e., V  if m and T = Constant
P
V V V
T T
m=constant
T(k) V T
T=constant
P PV Ex. 1500 ml of a gas at a room temperature of 23°C is

inhaled by a person whose body temperature is 37°C,
V V if the pressure and mass stay constant, what will be
the volume of the gas in the lungs of the person ?
Sol. T1 = 273 + 37 = 310 K; T2 = 273 + 23 = 296 K. Pressure
and amount of the gas are kept constant,
V1 V2
So 
T1 T2

T2 293 The Kinetic Theory of Gases
 V2  V1  = 1500  = 1417.74 ml Rudolph Claussius (1822–88) and James Clark
T1 310
Maxwell (1831–75) developed the kinetic theory
3. Gay–Lussac's Law of gases in order to explain gas laws in terms
According to it, for a given mass of an ideal gas at of the motion of the gas molecules. The theory
constant volume, pressure of a gas is directly is based on following assumptions as regards to
proportional to its absolute temperature, i.e., P  T the motion of molecules and the nature of the
if m and V = constant gases.
Basic Postulates of Kinetic Theory of Gases
(a) Every gas consists of extremely small particles
known as molecules. The molecules of a given
P P gas are all identical but are different than those
T another gas.
T(k) P (b) The molecules of a gas are identical, spherical,
rigid and perfectly elastic point masses.
(c) The size is negligible in comparision to inter
molecular distance (10–9 m)
P
T Assumptions regarding motion :
T (a) Molecules of a gas keep on moving randomly
Ex. A sample of O2 is at a pressure of 1 atm when the in all possible direction with all possible
volume is 100 ml and its temperature is 27°C. What velocities.
will be the temperature of the gas if the pressure (b) The speed of gas molecules lie between zero
becomes 2 atm and volume remains 100 ml. and infinity (very high speed).
Sol. T1 = 273 + 27 = 300 K (c) The number of molecules moving with most
probable speed is maximum.
P1 P2 P
For constant volume   T2  T1  2 Assumptions regarding collision:
T1 T2 P1
The gas molecules keep colliding among themselves
2 as well as with the walls of containing vessel. These
= 300  = 600 K = 600 – 273 = 327°C
1 collision are perfectly elastic. (ie., the total energy
4. Avogadro's Law before collision = total energy after the collisions.)
According to it, at same temperature and pressure of Assumptions regarding force:
equal volumes of all gases contain equal number of (a) No attractive or repulsive force acts between
molecules, i.e., N1 = N2 if P,V and T are same. gas molecules.
Dalton's Partial Pressure Mixture Law : (b) Gravitational attraction among the molecules
is ineffective due to extremely small masses and
According to it, the pressure exerted by a gasesous
very high speed of molecules.
mixture is equal to the sum of partial pressure of
each component gases present in the mixture, Assumptions regarding pressure:
ie., P = P1 + P2 + .... Molecules constantly collide with the walls of
container due to which their momentum changes.
Ex. The mass percentage in composition of dry air
This change in momentum is transferred to the walls
at sea level contains approximately 75.5% of N2.
of the container. Consequently pressure is exerted
If the total atmospheric pressure is 1 atm then what
by gas molecules on the walls of container.
will be the partial pressure of nitrogen ?
Assumptions regarding density:
Sol. The mole fraction of nitrogen
The density of gas is constant at all points of the
 Mnitrogen  29 container.
1    0 .7 5 5 
 Molecular weight  28 PROPERTIES/ASSUMPTIONS OF IDEAL GAS
= 0.78 (i) The molecules of a gas are in a state of
The partial pressure of nitrogen continuous random motion. They move with
all possible velocities in all possible directions.
RT 1 RT  1  They obey Newton's law of motion.
P1  1     P = (0.78) × 1
V  V   
(ii) Mean momentum = 0; Mean velocity = 0.< v >
= 0.78 atm = 0; < v2 >  0 (Non zero); < v3 > = < v5 > = 0
(iii) The average distance travelled by a molecule Number of collision per sec per molecule is
between two successive collisions is called as vx molecule velocity v
mean free path (m) of the molecule. fc  = , fc  rms
2 mean free path m
(iv) The time during which a collision takes place is
negligible as compared to time taken by the
or fc  vm
molecule to cover the mean free path so NTP m
ratio of time of collision to free time of motion
10–8 : 1. Hence momentum transferred in the wall per second
by the molecule is = force on the wall
(v) When a gas taken into a vessel it is uniformly
distributed in entire volume of vessel such that v x mv2x mv 2
forceF = (2 mvx) = 
its density, moleculer density, motion of 2  3
molecules etc. all are identical for all direction,
Pressure exerted by gas molecule
therefore root mean velocity v2x  v 2y  vz2 
equal Pressure exerted by the gas in all F 1 mv2 1 mv2
direction Px = Py = Pz = P equal
P
A
=
3 A
 P=
3 V
 A    V 
(vi) All those assumptions can be justified, if Pressure exerted by gas
number of gas molecules are taken very large 1 mv2 1 mv2 N 1 mN v 2
i.e., 1023 molecules/cm3. P= 

3 V
= 3 V  N =3 V N
EXPRESSION FOR PRESSURE OF AN IDEAL 1 mN 2
= v rms
GAS 3 V
Consider an ideal gas enclosed in a cubical vessel 3 PV 3 RT 3 RT
v2rms 
µMw  rms
 v  ,
of length . Suppose there are 'N' molecules in a gas M Mw
  
which are moving with velocities v1 , v2 ........v N .
1M 2 1
P= v rms  v 2rms
3 V 3
N
(i) Average number of molecules for each wall = .
6
N
No. of molecules along each axis = (N = Ny = Nz)
3 x
2
vrms
If we consider any single molecule than its (ii) v 2x  v 2y  v 2z  Root mean square velocity
instantaneous velocity v can be expressed as
3
along any axis for gas molecule is (vrms)= (vrms)y=

v  v xˆi  v yˆj  v z kˆ vrms
(vrms)z=
Due to random motion of the molecule 3
vx = vy = vz
All gas laws and gas equation can be obtained by
v  vx 3  vy 3  vz 3 = v 2x  v2y  v2z expression of pressure of gas (except Joule’s law)
Suppose a molecule of mass m is moving with a Ex. The mass of a hydrogen molecule is 3.32 × 10–
27
velocity vx towards the face ABCD. It strikes the kg. If 1023 molecules are colliding per second
face of the cubical vessel and returns back to strike on a stationary wall of area 2 cm 2 at an angle
the opposite face. of 45° to the normal to the wall and reflected
Change in momentum of the molecule per collision elastically with a speed 10 3 m/s. Find the pres-
p = – mvx – mvx = – 2 mvx sure exerted on the wall will be (in N/m2)
Momentum transferred to the wall of the vessel per Sol. As the impact is elastic 
molecule per collision p= 2 mvx  
p 1  p 2  p  mv = 3.32 × 10–24 kg m/s
The distance travelled by the molecule in going to A
face ABCD and coming back is 2. P1
So, the time between two successive collision is
45°
2 45°
O
t 
vx P2
B
The change in momentum along the normal (b) Rotational Degree of freedom : The number of
  degrees of freedom in this case depends on
p  p 2  p 1  2p cos 4 5   2 p
the structure of the molecule.
If f is the collision frequency then force applied on
(c) Vibrational Degree of freedom : It is exhibited
p at high temperatures.
the wall F   p  f  2pf
t Degree of freedom for different gases according
F 2pf to atomicity of gas at low temperature
 Pressure P  
A A Atomicity of gas Translational Rotational Total
24 23 Monoatomic 3 0 3 y
2  3.32  10  10 Ex. Ar, Ne, Ideal gas
=
2  10 4 etc
x
3 2 z
 2.347  10 N / m
Diatomic 3 2 5
DEGREE OF FREEDOM (f) Ex. O2, Cl2, N2 etc.
(i) The number of independent ways in which a
molecule or an atom can exhibit motion or have
Triatomic (linear) 3 2 5
energy is called it's degrees of freedom. Ex. CO2, C2H2
(ii) The number of independent coordinates required O=C=O
to specify the dynamical state of a system is called
it's degrees of freedom. Triatomic (Non–linear) 3 3 6
or Polyatomic
For example Ex. H2O, NH3, CH4
(a) Block has one degree of freedom, because it is
confined to move in a straight line and has only
one transistional degree of freedom. At high temperatures a diatomic molecule has 7
f=1 degrees of freedom. (3 translational, 2 rotational and
2 vibrational)
f=1
Ex. Calculate the total number of degrees of freedom
(b) The projectile has two degrees of freedom possessed by the molecules in one cm3 of H2 gas
becomes it is confined to move in a plane and so it at NTP.
has two translational degrees of freedom. Sol. 22400 cm3 of every gas constains
6.02 × 1023 molecules.
y  Number of molecules in 1 cm3 of H2 gas
6.02  1 0 23
f=2 = = 0.26875 × 1020
2 2 40 0
(c) The sphere has two degrees of freedom one Number of degrees of freedom of a H2 gas molecule
x
rotational and another translational. =5
 Total number of degrees of freedom of
f=2 0.26875 × 1020 × 5 = 1.34375 × 1020.
MAXWELL'S LAW OF EQUIPARTITION OF

ENERGY
Similarly a particle free to move in space will have
three translational degrees of freedom. The total kinetic energy of a gas molecules is equally
Note : In pure rolling sphere has one degree of distributed among its all degree of freedom and the
energy associated with each degree of freedom at
1 K2 7 1
freedom as KE = mv2 (1+ 2 ) = mv2 absolute temperature T is kT
2 R 10 2
THE DEGREES OF FREEDOM ARE OF For one molecule of gas
THREE TYPES 1
(a) Translational Degree of freedom : Maximum Energy related with each degree of freedom = kT
2
three degree of freedom are there
correspondingto translational motion.
f (v) 1 molecule of gases : Mean kinetic energy =
Energy related with all degree of freedom = kT 3 f
2 kT ; Total kinetic energy = kT
2 2 2
vrms 1 3
 v 2x  v 2y  v 2z   mv 2rms  kT
3 2 2  Degree of freedom
So energy related with one degree of freedom
Ex. Two ideal gases at temperature T1 and T2 are mixed.
1 v2 3 kT 1 There is no loss of energy. If the masses of molecules
= m rms   kT
2 3 2 3 2 of the two gases are m1 and m2 and number of their
DIFFERENT K.E. OF GAS molecules are n 1 and n 2 respectively. Find the
(INTERNAL ENERGY) temperature of the mixture.
(i) Translatory kinetic energy (ET) 3
Sol. Total energy of molecules of first gas = n 1 kT1 ,
1 3 2
ET = Mv2rms = PV
2 2 3
Total energy of molecules of second gas = n 2 kT2
1 2 2
Kinetic energy of volume V is = Mvrms
2 Let temperature of mixture be T then total energy of
Note : Total internal energy of ideal gas is kinetic 3
molecules of mixture = k (n 1  n 2 )T
(ii) Energy per unit volume or energy density (EV) 2
Total energy E 1 M 2 3 3
EV   ; EV  v rms  (n 1  n 2 )kT  k(n 1 T1  n 2 T2 )
Volume V 2  V  2 2
1 2 2 1  3 n 1 T1  n 2 T2
  v rms  P   v2rms   E V  P  T
2 3 2  2 (n 1  n 2 )
(iii) Molar K.E. or Mean Molar K.E. (E) Ex. The first excited state of hydrogen atom is 10.2 eV
above its ground state. What temperature is needed
1
E Mw v 2rms for N0 molecules or Mw (gram) to excite hydrogen atoms to first excited level.
2
Sol. K.E. of the hydrogen atom
3 3
E  RT  N 0 kT 3
2 2
2

kT = 10.2 eV = 1 0.2  1 .6  1 0 19 J
(iv) Molecular kinetic energy or mean molecular K.E.
(E) 19
 T  2  1 0 .2  1.6  1230  7.88  10 4 K
1 E 3 RT 3 3 1.3 8  1 0
E Mw v2rms , E    kT
2 N0 2 N 0 2
EXPLANATION OF GAS LAWS FROM
KINETIC THEORY
(i) Except 0 K, at any temperature T , E > Em > E
(ii) At a common temperature, for all ideal gas E 1. Boyle's Law
and E are same while Em is different and According to this law, the product of the pressure
depends upon nature of gas (Mw or m) and the volume of a given mass of gas at constant
(iii) For thermal equilibrium of gases, temperature temperature is constant. From the kinetic theory
of each gas is same and this temperature called of gases, the pressure of a given mass of an ideal
as temperature of mixture (Tm) which can be
find out on basis of conservation of energy 1 mN 2
gas is given by P  vrms . mN is the mass
(All gases are of same atomicity). 3 V
of the gas which is constant. If the temperature
Tm 
 NT  N T 1 1  N 2 T2  .........  N n Tn remains constant, the mean–square–velocity of
N N1  N2 ......N n
the molecules. ( v2rms ) also remains constant. Thus,
3
(iv) 1 mole gas : Mean kinetic energy = RT from the above equation, we have PV = constant.
2
1
f This is Boyle's law. V  (T = constant) or
; Total kinetic energy = RT P
2 PiVi = PfVf

4. Avogadro's Law
P PV Equal volumes of 'all gases' under the same
T=constant conditions of temperature and pressure contain
T=constant equal number of molecules.
At same pressure equal volumes V of different
gases contain respectively N1 and N2 molecules
P or V 1 2
V of masses m1 and m2. PV  m 1 N 1 v rms
3 1
2. Charle's Law 1 2
and PV  m 2 N 2 v rms2
According to this law, the volume of a given mass 3
of gas at constant pressure is directly proportional  m 1 N1 v2rms  m 2 N 2 vrms
2
1 2
to the absolute temperature of the gas. From kinetic
Now, if the gases are at the same temperature,
theory, we have V  2 N  1 mv2rms  their average kinetic energies of translation per
3 P  2  1 2 1 2
molecule are equal. That is m 1 v rms1  m 2 v rms2
2 2
2 N3  N  N1 = N2.
V kT  kT
3 P  2  P 5. Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures
The total pressure exerted by a mixture of non–
 1 3 
 2 mvrms  2 kT 
2
reacting gases occupying a vessel is equal to the
  sum of the individual pressures which each gas
If the pressure P is constant, then for a given would exert if it alone occupied the whole vessel.
mass of the gas, we have V  T This is Charle's Let as consider a mixture of gases occupying a
Law. volume V. Suppose the first gas contains N 1
V molecules, each of mass m1 having mean–square–
V
T speed v 2rms , the second gas contains N2 molecules
P=constant 1
P=constant
each of mass m2 and mean–square–speed v 2rms , 2
and so on. Let P1, P2,........ respectively the partial

T(in K) V or T pressures of the gases. Each gas fills the whole
volume V. According to kinetic theory, we have
3. Gay Lussac's law of Pressure law 1 1
For a given mass of a gas the pressure of a P1 V  m 1 N1 v2rms1 , P2 V  m 2 N 2 v2rm s2 ,
3 3
gas at constant and so on.
volume (called Isochoric process) is directly pro- Additing, we get
portional to its absolute temperature,
1
1 mN 2 (P1  P2  .......)V  (m 1 N1 v 2rms1  m 2 N 2 v2rms2  ......)
P v rms   v2rms T 3
3 V ......(i)
 P  T (V = constant) Now, the whole mixture is at the same temperature.
P Pi Pf 1 1 1
or = constant or   m 1 v2rms1  m 2 v2rms2 ......  mv 2rms
T Ti Vf 2 2 2
P–T graph in an isochoric process is a straight Substituting this result in eqn. (i) we have
P 1 2
line passing through origin or v/s P or T (P1  P2  ......)V  (N1  N 2  ......)mv rms
T 3
graph is a straight line parallel to P or T axis. The mixture has a total number of molecules
(N1 + N2 + .......). Hence the pressure P exerted
P P
by the mixture is given by
T
1
PV  (N1  N2  ......) mv2rms
3
P or T That P = P1 + P2 + ........ This is Dalton's law
of partial pressures.
T(in K)

DIFFERENT SPEEDS OF GAS MOLECULES (iv) The number of molecules within certain
Average Velocity velocity range is constant although the
velocity of molecule changes continuously at
Because molecules are in random motion in all
particular temperature.
possible direction in all possible velocity. Therefore,
(v) The area enclosed between the (N – v) curve
the average velocity of the gas in molecules in
   and the velocity axis presents the total number
 v  v2 ............ v N of molecules.
container is zero. < v > = 1 =0
N On the basis of velocity distribution Maxwell
RMS Speed of Molecules established gives the law of equipartition of
energy for gases of an temperature.
3P 3RT 3kT kT Velocity of Sound in Gas Medium
v = = = = 1.73
rms  Mw m m
P RT kT
Mean Speed of Molecules (VS) vsound = 
= Mw
=
m
By maxwell’s velocity distribution law
 (i) At any temperature
vM or < | v| > = v vrms > vMean > vMP > vsound (always)
mean
   (ii) For a gas at any temperature
 | v1 | | v2 | ..........| v n |
< v> = v =
mean N v rms 3 vrms 3
(T) v = , v =
8P 8 RT 8 kT kT sound  MP 2
= = = = 1.59
 M w m m (iii) A temperature is not possible at which above
order can be changed
Most Probable Speed of Molecules (v mp) vrms  vMean  vMP  vsound (always )
At a given temperature, the speed to which maximum
number of molecules belongs is called as most Ex. The velocities of ten particles in ms–1 are 0, 2, 3, 4, 4,
probable speed (vmp) 4, 5, 5, 6, 9. Calculate
2P 2RT 2kT kT (i) average speed and (ii) rms speed
vmp = = Mw = = 1.41 (iii) most probable speed.
 m m
Sol. (i) average speed,
MAXWELL'S LAW OF DISTRIBUTION OF
VELOCITIES 0 2 3  4  4  4 5 5 6 9 42
vav= =
10 10
–1
= 4·2 ms
(ii) rms speed
vrms =
12
 (0 )2  (2 )2  (3 )2  (4 )2  (4 )2  (4 )2  (5 )2  (5 )2  (6 )2  (9 )2 
 
 10 
1/ 2
 228  –1
=  = 4.77 ms
 10 
(iii) most probable speed vmp = 4 m/s
Ex. At what temperature, will the root mean square
velocity of hydrogen be double of its value at S.T.P.,
pressure remaining constant ?
(i) At any given temperature graph drawn in Sol. Let v1 be the r.m.s. velocity at S.T.P. and v2 be the
between molecular velocity and number of r.m.s. velocity at unknown temperature T2.
molecules is known as velocity distribution
curve. v12 T1
  or
(ii) The velocities of molecules of a gas are in v22 T2
between zero and infinity (0 –  ) v 
2
(iii) With the increase in the temperature, the most T2 = T1  2  = 273 × (2)2 = 273 × 4 = 1092 K
 v1 
probable velocity and maximum molecule = (1092 – 273) = 819°C
velocity both increases.
Thermal equilibrium be described by the remaining three variables

namely temperature, pressure and volume. These
Branch of physics which deals with the inter–
variables are interrelated by equation PV = µRT
conversion between heat energy and any other form
The thermodynamic state of the system is its
of energy is known as thermodynamics. In this
condition as identified by two independent
branch of physics we deals with the processes
thermodynamic variables (P, V or P, T or V, T).
involving heat, work and internal energy. In this
branch of science the conversion of heat into 1. ZEROTH LAW OF
mechanical work and vice versa is studied. THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamical System If objects A and B are separately in thermal
The system which can be represented in of pressure equilibrium with a third object C (say thermometer),
(P), volume (V) and temperature (T), is known then objects A and B are in thermal equilibrium with
thermodynamic system. A specified portion of each other. Zeroth law of thermodynamics
matter consisting of one or more substances on introduce the concept of temperature. Two objects
which the effects of variables such as temperature, (or systems) are said to be in thermal equilibrium if
volume and pressure are to be studied, is called a their temperatures are the same.
system. e.g. A gas enclosed in a cylinder fitted with In measuring the temperature of a body, it is
a piston is a system. important that the thermometer be in the thermal
equilibrium with the body whose temperature is to
(i) Surroundings
be measured.
Anything outside the system, which exchanges
Thermal equilibrium is a situation in which two
energy with the system and which tends to change
objects in thermal contact cease to exchange energy
the properties of the system is called its
by the process of heat. Heat is the transfer of energy
surroundings.
from one object to another object as a result of a
(ii) Heterogeneous System difference in temperature between them.
A system which is not uniform throughout is said Internal Energy
to be heterogeneous. e.g. A system consisting of
Internal energy of a system is the energy possessed
two or more immiscible liquids.
by the system due to molecular motion and
(iii) Homogeneous System molecular configuration. The energy due to
A system is said to be homogeneous if it is molecular motion is called internal kinetic energy
completely uniform throughout. e.g. Pure solid or (Uk) and that due to molecular configuration is called
liquid. internal potential energy (Up). dU = dUk + dUp
(iv) Isolated System If there no intermolecular forces, then dUp = 0
and dU = dUk = m cv dT
A system in which there can be no exchange of
matter and energy with the surroundings is said to cv = Specific heat at constant volume and
be an isolated system. dT = Infinitesimal change in temperature
(v) Universe m = Mass of system
The system and its surroundings are together M = Molecular weight
known as the universe. Molar heat capacity Cv = Mcv
Thermodynamic variables of the system
m
(i) Composition () (ii) Temperature (T) For µ–moles of ideal gas dU  µC v dT  C v dT
M
(iii) Volume (V) (iv) Pressure (P)
Internal energy in the absence of intermolecular
Thermodynamic state forces is simply the function of temperature and
The state of a system can be described completely state only, it is independent of path followed.
by composition, temperature, volume and pressure. U = Uf – Ui
If a system is homogeneous and has definite mass Ui = Internal energies in initial state and Uf = Internal
and composition, then the state of the system can energies in final state

Thermodynamic Processes (ii) Non–cyclic process
In the thermodynamic process pressure, volume, Non–cyclic process is that process in which the
temperature and entropy of the system change with system does not return to its initial stage.
time. (iii) Quasi–static or equilibrium process
Thermodynamic process is said to take place if Quasi–static is a thermodynamic process which
change occurs in the state of a thermodynamic proceeds extremely slowly such that at every instant
system. of time, the temperature and pressure are the same
Sign convention used for the study of in all parts of the system.
thermodynamic processes (iv) Reversible and Irreversible processes
Heat gained by a system Positive A reversible process is one in which the changes
Heat lost by a system Negative in heat and work of direct process from initial to a
The work done by a system Positive final state are exactly retraced in opposite sense in
the reverse process and the system and
Work done on the system Negative surroundings are left in their initial states. The
Increase in the internal energy of system Positive reversibility is an ideal concept and can not be
Decrease in the internal energy of system Negative realized in practice.
Indicator Diagram or P–V Diagram The process which is not reversible is the
irreversible process. In nature the processes are
In the equation of state of a gas PV = µRT irreversible.
Two thermodynamic variables are sufficient to
WORK DONE BY THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM
describe the behavior of a thermodynamic system.
One of the simple example of a thermodynamic
If any two of the three variables P, V and T are
system is a gas in a cylinder with a movable piston.
known then the third can be calculated.
P–V diagram is a graph between the volume V and dx
the pressure P of the system. area of
(P, V)
The volume is plotted against X–axis while the piston is A
pressure is plotted against Y–axis. F = P× A
The point A represents the initial stage of the

system. Initial pressure of the system is Pi and
initial volume of the system Vi .
The point B represents the final state of the system.
Pf and Vf are the final pressure and final volume (i) If the gas expands against the piston
respectively of the system. Gas exerts a force on the piston and displace it
through a distance and does work on the piston.
(P i , Vi) (ii) If the piston compresses the gas
P A
When piston moved inward, work is done on the
gas.
B
(P f, Vf) (iii) The work associated with volume changes
If pressure of gas on the piston = P.
V Then the force on the piston due to gas is F = PA
When the piston is pushed outward an infinitesimal
The points between A and B represent the
distance dx,
intermediate states of the system. With the help of
the indicator diagram we calculate the amount of
work done by the gas or on the gas during
expansion or compression.
(i) Cyclic process
Cyclic process is that thermodynamic process in
which the system returns to its initial stage after
undergoing a series of changes.
(iv) Cyclic process
(Pi , Vi)
P A P P
(Pf, Vf)
B
P
dV V
the work done by the gas is dW = F × dx = PA dx V V

The change in volume of the gas is dV = Adx, Wclockwise cycle = Wanticlockwise cycle =
 dW = PdV + Shaded area – Shaded area
For a finite change in volume from Vi to Vf, this
WORK DONE IN CLOCKWISE CYCLE
equation is then integrated between Vi to Vf to find
Vf Vf P
the net work done W  V dW  V PdV B
i i
Hence the work done by a gas is equal to the area

under P–V graph. A =
Following different cases are possible.
(i) Volume is constant V
P P
P initial V
B B
initial final
or
A
+ A
final
V V
V P
WAB I Positive WAB II Negative
V = constant and WAB = 0
(ii) Volume is increasing Wcyclic = WAB I(positive) + WAB II
P P f
(negative) = a o th
Initial Initial are d pa
Final se
A B A
Final clo
B
2. FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
or
Let a gas in a cylinder with a moveable piston
changes from an initial
V V
equilibrium state to a final equilibrium state.
V is increasing WAB > 0 WAB = Shaded area
System change its state through path 'a' :
(iii) Volume is decreasing
The heat absorbed by the system in this process
Final P = Qa
P
Final Initial
B P initial
Initial B A a
A b
or c final
V V
V is decreasing WAB < 0 WAB = – Shaded area V

The work done by the system = Wa

Again for path 'b' : (iii) Amount of heat supplied,
Heat absorbed by the system = Qb , (iv) Molar heat capacity of the gas R = 8.31 J
mol–1 K–1
Work done by the system = Wb.
It is experimental fact that the Sol. P1 = 4 × 105 Nm–2 P2 = 8 × 10+5 Nm–2, V1 = 0.2 m3,
V2 = 0.5 m3
Qa – Wa = Qb –Wb
(i) Work done by the gas = Area under P–V graph
Both Q and W depend on the thermodynamic
(Area ABCDEA)
path taken between two equilibrium states, but
difference Q – W) does not depends on path in P
between two definite states of the system. 8 B
(10 5 × N/m 2)
So, there is a function (internal energy) of the
thermodynamic coordinates (P, V and T) whose 4
A
C
final value (Uf) minus its initial value (Ui) equals
E D
the change Q – W in the process. dU =Q – W. 0 0.2 0.5 V
3
This is the first law of thermodynamics. (m )
Heat supplied to the system and work done by the 1

 (AE +BD) × AC
system are path dependent so they are denoted by 2
Q and W respectively. Change in internal energy 1
U = Uf – Ui does not depends on path it depends  (4 × 105 + 8 × 105) × (0.5–0.2)
2
only on initial and final positions of the system.
So, it is denoted by dU (or U) 1
 × 12 × 105 × 0.3 = 1.8 × 105 J
2
First Law of Thermodynamics
(ii) Increase in internal energy
If some quantity of heat is supplied to a system
CV
capable of doing external work, then the quantity U = CV (T2 – T1)  R(T2–T1)
of heat absorbed by the system is equal to the sum R
of the increase in the internal energy of the system CV
and the external work done by the system.  (P2V2 – P1V1)
R
Q = dU + W or Q = W + U 3
For monoatomic gas CV  R
(i) This law is applicable to every process in 2
nature
3
(ii) The first law of thermodynamics introduces  U  [(8 × 105 × 0.5) – (4 × 105 × 0.2)]
2
the concept of internal energy.
3
(iii) The first law of thermodynamics is based on  [4 × 105 – 0.8 × 105 ] = 4.8 × 105 J
the law of conservation of energy. 2
(iii) Q = U + W = 4.8 × 105 + 1.8 × 105
(iv) Q, dU and W must be expressed in the same
units (either in units of work or in units of = 6.6 × 105 J
heat). Q QR QR
(iv) C  
(v) This law is applicable to all the three phases T RT (P2 V2  P1 V1 )
of matter, i.e., solid, liquid and gas.
6 .6  1 0 5  8 .3 1
(vi) dU is a characteristic of the state of a system,  = 17.14 J/mole K
1  3 .2  1 0 5
it may be any type of internal energy–
translational kinetic energy, rotational kinetic APPLICATION OF FIRST LAW OF
energy, binding energy etc. THERMODYNAMICS
Ex. The pressure in monoatomic gas increases linearly (i) Melting Process
from 4 × 105 Nm–2 to 8 × 10+5 Nm–2 when its volume When a substance melts, the change in volume
increases from 0.2m3 to 0.5 m3. Calculate. (dV) is very small and can, therefore, be neglected.
(i) Work done by the gas, The temperature of a substance remains unchanged
during melting process.
(ii) Increase in the internal energy,

Let us consider the melting of a mass m of the solid. Equation of state P = constant × T (P and T are
Let L be the latent heat of fusion i.e., the heat variable, V is constant)
required L to change a unit mass of a solid to liquid Work done In this process volume remains
phase at constant temperature. Vf
constant V = 0 or dV = 0  W   PdV  0
Heat absorbed during melting process, Q = mL Vi
By the first law of thermodynamics Form of first Law Q = U

It means whole of the heat supplied is utilized for
Q = U + W  mL = U [W=PV=P × 0 = 0] change in internal
So, the internal energy increases by mL during the energy of the system. Q = U = µ Cv T
melting process.
dP
(ii) Boiling Process : Slope of the P–V curve =
dV
When a liquid is heated, it changes into vapour at
constant temperature (called boiling point) and
P V dV
pressure. When water is heated at normal dP
=0
atmospheric pressure, it boils at 100°C. The dP
=
dV
temperature remains unchanged during the boiling
process.
V P
Let us consider the vaporisation of liquid of mass
m. Let V and Vv be the volumes of the liquid and
vapours respectively. Specific heat at constant volume (CV)
The work done in expanding at constant The quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature and pressure P, W = PV = P (Vv – V) temperature of 1 gram mole gas through 1 °C at
constant volume is equal to the specific heat at
Let the latent heat of vaporisation = L  Heat
constant volume.
absorbed during boiling process, Q = mL
(a) A gas enclosed in a cylinder having rigid walls and
Let U and Uv be the internal energies of the liquid a fixed piston. When heat is added to the gas, there
and vapours respectively then U = Uv – U would be no change in the volume of the gas.
According to the first law of thermodynamics, (b) When a substance melts, the change in volume is
Q = U + W  mL = (Uv – U) + P(Vv – V) negligibly small. So, this may be regarded as a nearly
isochoric process.
Ex. 1 kg of water at 373 K is converted into steam at
(c) Heating process in pressure cooker is an example
same temperature. Volume of 1 cm 3 of water
of isometric process.
becomes 1671 cm3 on boiling. What is the change
in the internal energy of the system if the latent Ex. An ideal gas has a specific heat at constant pressure
heat of vaporisation of water is 5.4 × 105 cal kg–1? 5R
Sol. Volume of 1 kg of water = 1000 cm³ = 10–3 m³, CP = . The gas is kept in a closed vessel of
2
Volume of 1 kg of steam = 10³ × 1671 cm³ = 1.671 m³ volume 0.0083 m3 at a temperature of 300K and a
Change in volume, V = (1.671 – 10–3) m³ = 1.670 m³ pressure of 1.6 × 106 Nm–2. An amount of 2.49 × 104
, Pressure, P = 1 atm. = 1.01 × 105 N m–2 J of heat energy is supplied to the gas. Calculate
the final temperature and pressure of the gas.
In expansion work done,
5R 3R
1 .6 9 1  1 0 5 Sol. CV = CP – R = R  , V = 0, T1 = 300 K,
W = PV = 1.01 × 105 × 1.67 J = cal 2 2
4 .2
V = 0.0083 m3, P1 = 1.6 × 106 Nm–2
= 4.026 × 104 cal
From first law of thermodynamics Q = U + PV
But U = Q – W (first law of thermodynamics) or
U = (5.4 × 105 – 0.4026 × 105) cal = 4.9974 × 105 cal U = Q = 2.49 × 104 J
From gas equation
ISOMETRIC OR ISOCHORIC PROCESS
PV 1.6  1 0 6  0 .0 0 8 3 1 6
Isochoric process is a thermodynamic process that n  
takes place at constant volume of the system, but RT 8 .3  3 00 3
pressure and temperature varies for change in state
of the system.

U 2 .4 9  1 0 4  6 Sol. Heat energy absorbed by 2 kg of ice for melting
U = nCVT  T  nC  3  8 .3  1 6 Q = mL = 2 × 3.4 × 105 = 6.8 × 105J
v
Change in volume of 2 kg of ice = 2 × 91

= 375 K = 182 cm3 = 182 × 10–6 m3
Final temperature = 300 + 375 = 675K W = PV = 1.01 × 105 × (–182 × 10-6) = –18.4 J
P2 T2 Since, work is done on ice so work W is taken –ve.
According to pressure law P T  P  T Now from first law of thermodynamics
1 1
Q = U + W U = Q – W = 6.8 × 105 – (–18.4)
T2 6
1 .6  10  6 75 = (6.8 × 105 + 18.4)J
 P2  T  P1 
1 3 00 Ex. What amount of heat must be supplied to 2.0 ×
= 3.6 × 106 Nm–2 10–2 kg of nitrogen (at room temperature) to raise
ISOBARIC PROCESS the temperature by 45°C at constant pressure.
Molecular mass of N2 = 28, R = 8.3 J mol–1 K–1.
Isobaric process is a thermodynamic process that
takes place at constant pressure, but volume and Sol. Here m = 2 × 10–2 kg,
temperature varies for change in state of the m 2  10 2 5 7
system. n =   & CP  R
M 28  10 3 7 2
Equation of state : V = constant × T or V T
5 7
Work done In this process pressure remains Q = nCP T =   8.3  4 5  9 3 3.75 J
7 2
constantP = 0
Vf
Work done W   PdV  P(Vf  Vi ) ISOTHERMAL PROCESS
Vi
Form of first LawQ = U + P (Vf – Vi) In this process pressure and volume of system
µ Cp dT = µ Cv dT + P(Vf – Vi) change but temperature remains constant.
It is clear that heat supplied to the system is utilized In an isothermal process, the exchange of heat
for : between the system and the surroundings is
(i) Increasing internal energy and allowed.
(ii) Work done against the surrounding atmosphere. Isothermal process is carried out by either
 dP  supplying heat to the substance or by extracting
Slope of the PV curve :  dV  0
heat from it.
isobaric
A process has to be extremely slow to be
P V isothermal.
dP
=0 dV
dV =
dP Equation of state
P V = constant (µRT) (T is constant)
V P Work Done
Specific heat at constant pressure (CP) Consider µ moles of an ideal gas, enclosed in a
cylinder, at absolute temperature T, fitted with a
The quantity of heat required to raise the
frictionless piston. Suppose that gas undergoes
temperature of 1 gram mole gas through 1°C at
an isothermal expansion from the initial state (P1,
constant pressure is equal to the specific heat. V1) to the final state (P2, V2).
Heating of water at atmospheric pressure. • Melting
µRT
V2 V2 dV
of solids and boiling of liquids at atmospheric Work done : W  dV = µRT 
pressure.

V1 V V1 V
V
Ex. At normal pressure and 0°C temperature the = µRT  log e V V2 = µRT [loge V2 – loge V1]
1
volume of 1 kg of ice is reduced by 91 cm3 on

 V2 
melting. Latent heat of melting of ice is 3.4 × 105 J/ = µRT log e  
kg. Calculate the change in the internal energy when  V1 
2kg of ice melts at normal pressure and 0°C.  P1 
 W = 2.303µRT log10   [P1V1 = P2V2]
(P=1.01 × 105 Nm–2)  P2 
Form of First Law (vii) An ideal gas enclosed in a conducting cylinder
There is no change in temperature and internal fitted with a conducting piston. Let the gas be
energy of the system depends on temperature only allowed to expand very–very slowly.
(viii) This shall cause a very slow cooling of the gas, but
 V2 
So U = 0, Q = 2.303 µRT log10   heat will be conducted into the cylinder from the
 V1  surrounding. Hence the temperature of the gas
It is clear that Whole of the heat energy supplied remains constant. If the gas is compressed very–
to the system is utilized by the system in doing very slowly, heat will be produced, but this heat
external work. There is no change in the internal will be conducted to the surroundings and the
energy of the system. temperature of the gas shall remain constant.
Slope of the isothermal curve (ix) The temperature of a substance remains constant
For an isothermal process, PV = constant during melting. So, the melting process is an
Differentiating, isothermal process.
dP P (x) Boiling is an isothermal process, when a liquid boils,

PdV + VdP = 0  VdP = – PdV   its temperature remains constant.
dV V
P
isotherm
(xi) If sudden changes are executed in a vessel of infinite
Pi conductivity then they will be isothermal.
PV = constant
hyperbola Ex. Figure shows a process ABCA performed on an

ideal gas.
Pf
V
V2 C
Vi Vf V
A B
dP P V1
Slope of isothermal curve,   
 dV  isotherm al V
T1 T2 T
For a given system :
Find the net heat given to the system during the
(i) The product of the pressure and volume of a given process.
mass of a perfect gas remains constant in an
isothermal process. Sol. Since the process is cyclic, hence the change in
(ii) Boyle's law is obeyed in an isothermal process. internal energy is zero.
(iii) A graph between pressure and volume of a given The heat given to the system is then equal to the
mass of a gas at constant temperature is known work done by it.
as isotherm or isothermal of the gas. The work done in part AB is W1 = 0 (the volume
(iv) Two isotherms for a given gas at two different remains constant). The part BC represents an
temperatures isothermal process so that the work done by the
P
V2
T 2 > T1
gas during this part is W2 = nRT2 n V
1
T2
During the part CA VT
T1
V So, V/T is constant and hence,
at const P V T so T 2 > T1
nRT
T1 and T2 are shown in figure. P is constant
V
(v) The curves drawn for the same gas at different The work done by the gas during the part CA is
temperatures are mutually parallel and do not cut
each other. W3 = P(V1 – V2) = nRT1 – nRT2 = – nR (T2 – T1).
(vi) If two isotherms intersect each other at a single The net work done by the gas in the process ABCA
point we get same value of P and V at intersection  V2 
point. PV = µ RT1 for temperature T1 and PV = µ RT2 is W = W1 + W2 + W3 = nR  T2 n  (T2  T1 )
 V 1 
for temperature T2.
It means T1 = T2 which is not possible. The same amount of heat is given to the gas.

ADIABATIC PROCESS Slope of the adiabatic curve

It is that thermodynamic process in which pressure, For an adiabatic process, PV = constant
volume and temperature of the system do change (Adiabatic
but there is no exchange of heat between the system expansion of gas)
and the surroundings. P
mon
A sudden and quick process will be adiabatic since oato
mic
there is no sufficient time available for exchange of d i at o = 1.33
heat so process adiabatic. po m ic
ly a
to = 1.4
Equation of state : PV = µRT m
ic = 1.67

Equation for adiabatic process PV = constant V
Work done
Differentiating, P V dV + V dP = 0
 – 1
Let initial state of system is (P1, V1, T1) and after
 V dP = –  PV – 1 dV
adiabatic change final state of system is (P2, V2, T2)
 
then we can write P1 V1 = P2 V2 = K dP PV  1 P  P
  
     
(here K is const.) dV V V  V
V2
So W V1
PdV  dP 
Slope of adiabatic curve,   
P
 dV  adiabatic V
V2
V2  V   1 
 K 
V dV  K     1  Slope of adiabatic is greater than the slope of
V1
V 1 isotherm
K  dP   P  dP 
  V2   1  V1   1   dV      V     dV 
(   1)     adia     iso
slope of adiabatic changes
 K  P1 V1  P2 V2   =
slope of isothermal changes
1     (expansion of gas)
 W   P1 V1 V1 .V1  P2 V2 V2 .V2 
(  1)  P
is o th
e rm
1 al
=  [P V – P V ]
(  1) 1 1 2 2 a di
ab
a ti c
µR
 W 
(  1)
 T1  T2  ( PV = µRT) V
Since  is always greater than one so an adiabatic
Form of first law : dU = – W is steeper than an isotherm
It means the work done by an ideal gas during Examples of adiabatic process
adiabatic expansion (or compression) is on the cost (i) A gas enclosed in a thermally insulated cylinder
of change in internal energy proportional to the fall fitted with a non–conducting piston. If the gas is
compressed suddenly by moving the piston
(or rise) in the temperature of the gas.
downwards, some heat is produced. This heat
If the gas expands adiabatically, work is done by cannot escape the cylinder. Consequently, there
the gas. So, Wadia is positive. will be an increase in the temperature of the gas.
The gas cools during adiabatic expansion and (ii) If a gas is suddenly expanded by moving the piston
T1 > T2. outwards, there will be a decrease in the temperature
of the gas.
If the gas is compressed adiabatically, work is done
(iii) Bursting of a cycle tube.
on the gas. So, Wadia is negative.
(iv) Propagation of sound waves in a gas.
The gas heats up during adiabatic compression
and T1 < T2. (v) In diesel engines burning of diesel without spark
plug is done due to adiabatic compression of diesel
vapour and air mixture
Ex. Why it is cooler at the top of a mountain than For isothermal compression P2V2 = P1V1
at sea level?
P1 V1 PV
Sol. Pressure decreases with height. Therefore if hot air or P2    2P
V2 V
rises, it suffers adiabatic expansion.
2
From first law of thermodynamics Q = U + W
U = – W [ Q = 0] 
 V1 
This causes a decrease in internal energy and hence For adiabatic compression P2' = P1  
a fall of temperature.  V2 
Ex. 2m3 volume of a gas at a pressure of 4 × 105 Nm–2 is 

 V  
compressed adiabatically so that its volume  P2 '  P   2 P
becomes 0.5m3. Find the new pressure. Compare  V / 2 
this with the pressure that would result if the 
 
 P ´ = 2 P > 1 2 > 2 and P ' > P
2 2 2
compression was isothermal. Calculate work done
in each process.  Pressure during adiabatic compression is greater
than the pressure during isothermal compression.
Sol. V1 = 2m3, P1 = 4 × 105 Nm–2, V2 = 0.5m3
(i) When a gas expands its volume increases, then final
In adiabatic process pressure is less for adiabatic expansion. But, when
1.4 a gas compresses its volume decreases, then the
   2 
5 final pressure is more in case of adiabatic
P1 V = P2 V
1 2
P2 = 4 × 10  
 0.5  compression.
= 4 × 105 (4)1.4 = 2.8 × 106 Nm–2 adiabatic
P
In isothermal process P1V1 = P2V2 iso
th
er
m
P1 V1 4  1 0 5  2 al
P
 2   = 1.6 × 106 Nm–2. isobaric
V2 0 .5 isobaric
Now work done in adiabatic process is oth e
rma l
adiabatic
P2 V2  P1 V1
W V
 1
(2.8  1 0 6  0.5 )  (4  10 5  2 ) WIB > WIT > WAD
 = 1.48 × 106 J. P
1 .4  1 Pfinal PIB > PIT > PAD
Work done in isothermal process W = 2.3026RT P PAD > PIT > PIB
IB
V2 V2 IT
log = 2.3026P1V1 log
V1 V1 AD
 0.5 
= 2.3026 × 4 × 105 × 2 × log   V 2V V
 2.0 
1 W IB > W IT > WAD

= 2.3026 × 4 × 105 × 2log   = –1.1 × 106 J P
P final PAD > P IT > PIB
4
P P AD > PIT > PIB
Ex. Two samples of a gas initially at same temperature AD
and pressure are compressed from a volume V to IT
V IB
. One sample is compressed isothermally and
2
the other adiabatically. In which sample is the V/2 V V
pressure greater?
Sol. Let initial volume, V1 = V and pressure, P1 = P , final
V
volume, V2 = and final pressure, P2 = ?
2

First Law of Thermodynamics Applied
to Different Processes
Process Q U W free expansion of a gas
Cyclic W 0 Area of the closed curve Experimentally, we find that this process of free
expansion does not change the temperature of the
Isochoric U µC vT 0
gas – when the gas attains equilibrium and stops
(µ mole flowing, the final temperature of both botles are
of gas)
equal to the initial temperature T1. This process is
Isothermal W 0 V  called a free expansion.
RT log e  f  =
 Vi  The change in the internal energy of the gas can be
P  calculated by applying the first law of
RT log e  i  thermodynamics to the free–expansion process.
 Pf 
The process is adiabatic because of the insulation,
Adiabatic 0 –W µR(Tf  Ti ) So Q = 0.
1 No part of the surroundings moves so the system
does no work on its surroundings.
Isobaric µCPT C VT P (Vf – Vi) = µR(T f – Ti
(i) For ideal gas
(W)ext. = Work done against external atmosphere
Ex. Plot P – V , V – T graph corresponding to the P– = P dV = 0 (because P = 0)
T graph for an ideal gas shown in figure. Explain
(W)int. = Work done against internal molecular
your answers.
forces = 0
Q = dU + W 0 = dU + 0
The internal energy does not change dU = 0
So U and T are constant.
The initial and final states of this gas have the same
internal energy.
D
Which implies that the internal energy of an ideal
Sol. gas does not depend on the volume at all.
A
The free–expansion process has led us to the
V
following conclusion :
C
B The internal energy U(T) of an ideal gas depends
(P - V curve)
T only on the temperature.
(V - T curve)
(ii) For real gas
1
For process AB T = constant so P  In free expansion of real gases, measurements show
V
that the temperature changes slightly in a free
For process BC P = constant so V  T
expansion. Which implies that the internal energy
1 of a real gas depends on the volume also.
For process CD T = constant so V 
P Q =0 (W)ext. = 0 (P = 0)
For process DA P = constant so V  T (W)int.  0
(Intermolecular forces are present in real gases)
FREE EXPANSION
Q = dU + W
Take a thermally insulated bottle with ideal gas at
some temperature T1 and, by means of a pipe with 0 = dU + (W)int.  dU = – (W)int.
a stopcock, connect this to another insulated bottle U decreases. So T decreases.
which is evacuated. If we suddenly open the
stopcock, the gas will rush from the first bottle into
the second until the pressures are equalized.
RELATION BETWEEN DEGREE OF Atomicity of
f Cv CP 
FREEDOM AND SPECIFIC HEAT OF GAS gas
3 5 5
1 Monoatomic 3 R R  1.67
Energy related with each degree of freedom = kT , 2 2 3
2
5 7 7
f Diatomic 5 R R  1.4
Energy related with all degree of freedom = kT 2 2 5
2 Triatomic
Internal energy of one mole of ideal gas (total K.E.) and
Triatomic 7 9 9
f 7 R R  1.28
U RT for Isometric process (volume constant) linear 2 2 7
2 (at high
W = 0 temperature)
By first law of thermodynamics Q = W + dU Poly atomic
6 8 4
Triangular 6 R  3R R  4R  1.33
dU Non-linear 2 2 3
CV dT = dU CV =
dT
dU f R (i) 1 < < 2
CV   R
dT 2  1 (ii) If atomicity of gases is same U, CP, CV and  is same
f  R for gas mixture.
. CP  C V  R    1  R  and (iii) If in a gas mixture gases are of different atomicity,
2   1
C 2 then for gas mixture  changes according to
  P 1 following condition. Diatomic 1 < mixture < 2 mono
CV f
atomic where 1 < 2
R R 2 (iv) If 'f' is the degree of freedom per molecule for a gas,
CV  , CP  and   1 
 1  1 f then
General expression for C (CP or CV) in the process
fkT
R R Total energy of each molecule =
PVx = constant C   2
 1 1  x
f f
For isobaric process P = constant Total energy per mole of gas = N 0 kT  RT
2 2
so x= 0
(v) According to kinetic theory of gases, the molecule
R are not interacting with each other. So potential
 C  CP   R  CV  R
 1 energy is zero and internal energy of gas molecules
For isothermal process, PV = constant is only their kinetic energy.
so x= 1 
 C= 
For adiabatic process PV = constant (vi) For '' mole of a gas : Internal energy at temperature
so x=   C=0 fR T
T is U   C V T
2
Values of f, U, CV, CP and for different
gases are shown in table below. (vii) Change in internal energy is given by
 fR
dU  (dT)  C V dT
2
This change is process independent.
CP is greater than CV
If a gas is heated at constant volume, the gas does
no work against external pressure. In this case, the
whole of the heat energy supplied to the gas is
spend in raising the temperature of the gas.
If a gas is heated at constant pressure, its volume
increases. In this case, heat energy is required for
the following two purpose :

(i) To increase the volume of the gas against external Second Law of thermodynamics
pressure. Kelvin Planck statement
(ii) To increase the temperature of 1 mole of gas
No process is possible whose sole result is the ab-
through 1 K.
sorption of heat from a reversoir and the complete
Thus, more heat energy is required to raise the conversion of the heat into work.
temperature of 1 mole of gas through 1 K when it is Claussius Statement
heated at constant pressure than when it is heated
at constant volume.  CP > CV No process is possible whose sole result is the trans-
fer of heat from a colder object to a hotter object. It
The difference between CP and CV is equal to thermal can be proved that the two statements above are
equivalent of the work done by the gas in expanding completely equivalent.
against external pressure.
The second law of thermodynamics is a general prin-
Mayor's formula : CP – CV = R ciple which places constrains upon the direction of
 At constant pressure dQ = µCPdT, dU = µCVdT & heat transfer and the attainable efficiencies of heat
dW = PdV = µRdT engines.
Now from first law of thermodynamics dQ = dW + Entropy Statement of the second law of thermody-
dU namics
 µCPdT = µRdT + µCVdT CP = R + CV The entropy of the Universe never decrease. It ei-
ther increases (for irreversible processes) or remains
CP – CV = R the same (for reversible processes)
Ex. Calculate the difference between two specific heats Entropy
of 1 g of helium gas at NTP. Molecular weight of
To have a better understanding of thermodynamic
helium = 4 and J = 4.186 × 107 erg cal–1.
process and the second and third laws of thermo-
Sol. Gas constant for 1 g of helium, dynamics, let us introduce the concept of entropy.
It was introduced by clausius in 17865.
R PV 76  13.6  981  22400
r   A quantity that denotes the amount of disorder is
Mw T  Mw 273  4
called entropy and is denoted by S.
= 2.08 × 107 erg g–1 K–1
The total energy always conserved in any process
r 2 .0 8  1 0 7 but the total entropy always increases or remains
CP – CV =  = 0.5 cal g–1 K–1 the same in any process (ie., the disorder increases
J 4.18 6  1 0 7
or remain constant)
Ex. The specific heat of argon at constant volume is
0.075 kcal/kg K. Calculate its atomic weight, dQ dQ
dS   S = 
[R = 2cal/mol K] T T
Sol. As argon is monoatomic, its molar specific heat at Carnot cycle
Carnot devised an ideal engine which is based
3 3
constant volume will be C V  R   2  3 cal/ on a reversible cycle of four operations in
2 2 succession :
mol K, CV =Mw cV and cV = 0.075 cal/g K (i) Isothermal expansion, A B
So 3 = Mw × 0.075
3
Mw = = 40 gram/mole
0.075
Effeciency of a cycle ( ) :
total Mechanical work done by the gas
in the whole process

Heat absorbed by the gas (only  ve)
area under the cycle in P-V curve (ii) Adiabatic expansion, B C
= Heat injected into the system
(iii) Isothermal compression C D
(iv) Adiabatic compression. D A
MAIN PARTS OF CARNOT'S ENGINE ARE This heat input Q1 to the gas from path A to B is
utilized for doing work W1.
(i) Source of heat :
By path A to B the heat input to the gas = the work
It is a hot body of very large heat capacity kept at a
done against the external pressure.
constant high temperature T1. Its upper surface is
perfectly conducting so that working substance can V2 V2 µRT1 V
take heat from it. W1  Q 1   PdV   dV  µRT1 n 2
V1 V1 V V1
(ii) Mechanical arrangements and working
substance : (b) Adiabatic expansion B  C
It is a hollow cylinder whose walls are perfectly Now cylinder is put in contact with a non–
non–conducting and its base is perfectly conducting stand and piston is allowed to move
conducting fitted with non–conducting piston. This outward, because no heat can enter in or leave out
piston move without any friction. Ideal gas enclosed so the expansion of gas is adiabatic.
in cylinder as a working substance.
(iii) Heat sink :
It is a cold body at low temperature T2. It is a body
of large heat capacity and its upper surface is highly
conducting so that working substance can reject
heat to it.
(iv) Stand :
It is made by perfectly insulating material. When Q=0
cylinder placed on it working substance can
expended or compressed adiabatic. The temperature falls to T2K and gas describes the
(v) Working : adiabatic from B to point C (P3, V3, T2). During this
expansion more work is done (W2) at the expense of
A set of reversible processes through them working
the internal energy.
substance is taken back to initial condition to get
maximum work from this type of ideal engine. Work done in adiabatic path BC is
PROCESSES OF CARNOT'S CYCLE CAN BE µR
DENOTED BY AN INDICATOR DIAGRAM
W2   T  T2 
 1 1
(a) Isothermal expansion (c) Isothermal compression C  D
Now the gas cylinder is placed in contact with sink
AB
at temperature T2.
Q
Q2
source
sink
Initially the cylinder is taken to be in thermal The piston is moved slowly inward so that heat
equilibrium with the high temperature T1, this is produced during compression passes to the sink.
initial state of working substance denoted by point The gas is isothermally compressed from C to point
A (P1, V1, T1). After that the piston is allowed to D (P4, V4, T2). The heat rejected Q2 to the cold
move outward slowly. With the movement of the reservoir (sink) at T2 occurs over this path. Amount
piston. The process is very slow so that it is of work done on gas W3 = amount of heat rejected
isothermal. Heat from reservoir flows through the to the sink
base of cylinder into the gas so temperature of the V  V 
gas remains T1. Gas expand and receive heat Q1 from Q2 = W3 = RT2n  4   Q2 = µRT
T2n  4 
source and gets state B(P2, V2, T1)  V3   V3 

(d) Adiabatic compression D  A The efficiency for the Carnot engine is the best that
can be obtained for any heat engine. The efficiency
of a Carnot engine is never 100% because it is 100%
only if temperature of sink T2 = 0 which is impossible.
CARNOT THEOREM
No irreversible engine (I) can have efficiency greater
than Carnot reversible engine (R) working between
same hot and cold reservoirs. R  I
T2 Q
Q=0  1 – > 1– 2
T1 Q1
The cylinder is removed from the sink and is put in
contact with insulating stand now piston moves HEAT ENGINE
inward. Heat is not allowed to go out and it increases Heat engine is a device which converts heat into
the internal energy of the system. Now work is done work. Three parts of a heat engine:
on the gas during adiabatic compression from state
source
D to initial point A (P1, V1, T1). No heat exchanges hot reservoir
occur over the adiabatic path. Work done on the T1
µR Q1
system W4 =  (T2  T1 ) working
1 substance
W
This cycle of operations is called a Carnot cycle. Q2
In first two steps work is done by engine W1 and sink
cold reservoir
W2 are positive T2
In last two steps work is done on gas W3 and W4 (i) Source of high temperature reservoir at
are negative temperature T1
The work done in complete cycle W = the area of (ii) Sink of low temperature reservoir at temperature
the closed part of the P–V cycle. T2
W = W1 + W2 + W3 + W4 (iii) Working substance.
V2 µR V µR In a cycle of heat engine the working substance
W  µRT1 n  (T1  T2 )  µRT2 n 4  (T2  T1 )
V1   1 V3   1 extracts heat Q1 from source, does some work W
V2 V and rejects remaining heat Q2 to the sink.
 µRT1 n  µRT2 n 4 Efficiency of heat engine
V1 V3
W work done (W) T  T2 Q 1  Q 2
Efficiency of Carnot Engine,     1 =
Q1 heat taken from source (Q 1 ) T1 Q1
V2 V4 TYPES OF HEAT ENGINE
µRT1  n  µRT2 n
V1 V3 (i) External combustion engine
  
V2
µRT1  n Steam engine is the example of external combustion
V1 engine. Its efficiency is 10 to 20% (small).
B to C and D to A are adiabatic paths (ii) Internal combustion engine
( – 1) ( – 1) ( – 1) ( – 1)
so T1V2 = T2 V3 and T1V1 = T2 V4 The examples are petrol engine and diesel engine.
V2 V3 T1  T2 Q  Q2 There are four strokes in internal combustion
     = 1
V1 V4 T1 Q1 engine.
Q2 T2 Q1 Q 2
(i) Intake stroke or Charging stroke
   1  Q  1  T T1

T2
(ii) Compression stroke
1 1
(iii) Working (or power) stroke of Expansion stroke
T  T2 Q  Q2 (iv) Exhaust stroke
 1  100%    1  100%
T1 Q1

The useful work is done in third stroke called work Ex. A carnot engine works as a refrigrator between 250
stroke or power stroke. K and 300 K. If it receives 750 cal of heat from the
The efficiency of internal combustion engine is 40 reservoir at the lower temperature. Calculate the
to 60%. amount of heat rejected at the higher temperature.
Ex. A carnot engine working between 400 K and 800 K Sol. T1 = 300 K T2 = 250 K Q2 = 750 Q1 = ?
has a work output of 1200 J per cycle. What is the
amount of heat energy supplied to the engine from Q1 T1

source per cycle? Q2 T2
Sol. W = 1200 J, T1 = 800 K, T2 = 400 K 300
Q1   7 5 0 = 900 cal
T2 W 400 1200 250
= 1 –   1  800  Q
T1 Q1 1 Ex. The temperature inside and outside of refrigerator
are 260 K and 315 K respectively. Assuming that the
1200 refrigerator cycle is reversible, calculate the heat
 0.5 = Q delivered to surroundings for every joule of work
1
done.
1200 Sol. T2 = 260 K, T1 = 315 K ; W = 1 joule
Heat energy supplied by source Q 1  = 2400
0.5 Coefficient of performance of Carnot refrigerator
joule per cycle
Q2 T2
 
REFRIGERATOR W T1  T2
It is inverse of heat engine. It extracts heat (Q2) from
Q2 260 260
a cold reservoir,   
1 3 1 5  2 60 42
same external work W is done on it and rejects heat
(Q1) to hot reservoir. 260
 Q 2  = 6.19 J
The coefficient of performance of a refrigerator. 42
Heat extracted from cold reservoir

Work done on refrigerator
Q2 Q2 1
  
W Q1  Q 2 Q 1
1
Q2
Hot reservoir
T1
Q1 = Q2 + W
Q2
Cold reservoir
T2
Q 1 T1
For Carnot reversible refrigerator 
Q 2 T2
Q2 1 1 T2
     =
W  Q1   T1  T1  T2
 Q  1   T  1
 2   2 

THERMAL SCALE & THERMAL EXPENSION

1. TEMPERATURE SCALES
Name of the Symbol for Lower fixed Upper fixed Number of divisions on
scale each degree point (LFP) point (UFP) the scale
Celsius °C 0°C 100°C 100
Fahrenheit °F 32°F 212°F 180
Kelvin K 273.15 K 373.15 K 100
C  0° F  32° K  273.15 X–LFP ΔC ΔF ΔK ΔX

= = =  = = =
100°  0° 212°  32° 373.15  273.15 UFP–LFP 100 180 100 UFP – LFP
(i) Old thermometry
θ–0 X – X0
= [two fixed points – ice & steam points]
100 – 0 X100 – X0
where X is the thermometric property i.e. length, resistance etc.
T–0 X
(ii) Modern thermometry = [Only one reflection point – triple point of water is chosen]
273.16 – 0 X tr
2. THERMALEXPANSION
In solids  Linear expansion  = 0 (1 + )
In solids  Areal Expansion A = A0 (1 + )
In solids, liquids and gases  volume expansion V = V0 (1 + )
[For isotropic solids :  :  :  = 1 : 2 : 3]

Thermal expansion of an isotropic object may be imagined as a photographic enlargement.
For anisotropic materials xy = x + y and  = x + y + z
T2
If  is variable :      dT
0
T1
3. Application of thermal Expansion in Soli
(a) Bi–metallic strip : Used as thermostat or auto-cutin electring heating circuits)
Steel Brass
Brass
Steel
Room temperature Higher temperature

(b) Simple Pendulum : Increase in height of liquid level in tube when bulb
was initially completely filled.
 T 1 
T  2 ( T     )
g T 2  apparent change in volume of liquid V0 (γ L  3 )T
h= 
area of tube A 0 (1+2 )T
T 1
Fractional change in time period = 
T 2 6. Anomalous expansion of water :
(c) Scale reading : Due to linear expansion / In the range 0°C to 4°C warter contract on heating
contraction, scale reading will be lesser / more and expands on cooling.
than actual value. At 4°C  density is maximum
If temperature  then actual value = scale Aquatic life is able to survive in very cold countries
reading (1 + ) as the lake bottom remains unfrpzen at the
(d) Thermal Stress temperature around 4°C.
7. Thermal expansion of gases :
(a) Coefficient of volume expansion
V 1
γV  
V0 T T
Heating (Compressive Stress) Cooling (Tensile Stress)
V T
[PV = nRT at constant pressure V  T   ]
V T
Δ
Thermal strain = = (b) Coefficient of pressure expansion

F/A P 1
As Young’s modulus Y  γP  
 /  P0 T T
So thermal stress = F=YA 8. Liquids usually expand more than solids because the
intermolecular forces in liquids are weaker than in
4. Thermal expansion in liquids (Only volume solids.
expansion) 9. Rubber contract on heating because in rubber as
Apparent expansion in volume temperature increases, the amplitude of transverse
a  vibrations increases more than the amplitude of
Initial volume × Temperature rise
longitudinal vibrations.
R
P 10. Water expands both when heated or cooled from 4°C
Q because volume of water at 4°C is minimum.
11. In cold countries, water pipes sometimes burst,
because water expands on freezing.
MODE OF HEAT TRANSFER

Heat Transfer
Real increase in volume 12.
γr =
Initial volume × temperature rise
 r = a + Vessel
Change in volume of liquid w.r.t. vessel In conduction, heat is transferred from one point to
ΔV = V0 ( r  3 )T another without the actual motion of heated particles.
5. Expansion in enclosed volume In the process of convection, the heated particles
of matter actually move.
In radiation, intervening medium is not affected
and heat is transferred without any material
medium.
13. THERMAL CONDUCTION
Rate of heat flow
dQ dT Q KA (T1  T2 )
= –KA or 
[  vessel ; L  liquid] dt dx t 

 Qa 
 10 0  % ;
Thermal resistance R H  Absorption power (a) = 
KA  Q 
Rods in series Rods in parallel
Qt 
Transmission power (t) =  100  %
Q 
16. Stefan’s Boltzmann law :
 KA Radiated energy emitted by a perfect block body per
K eq  K eq  unit area/sec E = T4
 / K A
For a general body E = erT4 [where 0  e,  1]
14. Growth of Ice on Ponds
Time taken by ice to grow a thickness from x1 to x2 17. Prevost’s theory of heat exchange
ρL A body is simultaneously emitting radiations to its
t
2 K

x22  x12  surrounding and absorbing radiations from the
[K = thermal conductivity of ice,  = density of surroundings.
ice] If surrounding has temperature T0 then
Enet = er (T4 – T04)
15. Radiation
18. Kirchhoff’s law
(a) Spectral, emissive, absorptive and transmittive
power of a given body surface The ratio of emissive power to absorptive power is
Due to incident radiations on the surface of a body same for all surfaces at the same temperature and is
following phenomena occur by which the radiation is equal to the emissive power of a perfectly black body
divided into three parts. (a) Reflection (b) Absorption at that temperature.
(c) Transmission e E E e
(b) From energy conservation = =  = E  e  a
a A 1 a
Qr Qa Qt Therefore a good absorber is a good emitter.
Q = Qr + Qa + Qt    1
Q Q Q 19. Perfectly Black Body
 r+a+t=1 A body which absorbs all the radiations incident on it
is called a perfectly black body.
amount of incident amount of reflected
radiation Q radiation Qr 20. Absorptive Power (a)
Absorptive power of a surface is defined as the ratio
amount of
of the radiant energy absorbed by it in a given time to
absorbed the total radiant energy incident on it in the same time.
radiation Qa
amount of transmitted For ideal black body, absorptive power = 1
radiation Q t
21. Emissive power (e)
Qr For a given surface it is defined as the radiant energy
Reflective Coefficient r = , emitted per second per u it area of the surface.
Q
22. Newton’s law of cooling:
Qa If temperature difference is small
Absorptive Coefficient a = ,
Q d
Rate of cooling  ( – 0)
Qt dt
Transmittive Coefficient t =   = 0 + (1 – 0) e–kt
Q
r = 1 and a=0,t=0 [where k = constant]
 Perfect reflector when a body cools from 1 to 2 in time ‘t’ in a
a = 1 and r = 0, t = 0 surrounding of temperature 0 then
 Ideal absorber (ideal black body) 1   2    
t = 1 and a = 0, r = 0  k  1 2  0  [where k = constant]
1  2 
 Perfect transmitter (daithermanons)
23. Wien’s Displacement Law : Product of the wavelength
Qr 
Reflection power (r) =  100  % ; m of most intense radiation emitted by a black body
 Q 
and absolute temperature of the black body is a
constant m T = b = 2.89 × 10–3 mK = Wein’s constant

 If thermal capacity of a body is expressed in terms
Area under e –  graph =  e d   e   T 4 of mass of water, it is called water equivalent. Water
0 equivalent of a body is the mass of water which when
given same amount of heat as to the body, changes
the temperature of water through same range as that
of the body.
Therefore water equivalent of a body is the quantity
of water, whose heat capacity is the same as the heat
capacity of the body. Water equivalent of the body,
 specific heat of body 

W = mass of body ×  
 specific heat of water 
Unit of water equivalent is g or kg.
24. Solar Constant d
29. Latent Heat (Hidden heat) : The amount of heat that
has to supplied to (or removed from) a body for its
R complete change of state (from solid to liquid, liquid
to gas etc) is called latent heat of the body. Remember
that phase transformation is an isothermal
T
(i.e. temperature = constant) change.
A 30. Principle of calorimetry
A'
Heat lost = heat gained
For temperature change Q = msT, For phase change
Q = mL
The Sum emits radiant energy continuously in space
31. Heating Curve
of which an insignificant part reaches the Earth. the
solar radiant energy received per unit area per unit If to a given mass(m) of a solid, heat is supplied at
time by a black surface held at right angles to the Sun’s constant rate (Q) and a graph is plotted between
rays and placed at the mean distance of the Earth (in temperature and time, the graph is called heating
the absence of atmosphere) is called solar constant. curve.
2
P 4 Rs2 T 4 R 
S    s  T4
4 r 2 4 r 2  r 
where Rs = radius of sun
r = average distance between sun and earth
Note : S = 2 cal cm–2 min = 1.4 kWm–2
T = temperature of sun = 5800 K
CALORIMETRY
Q
25. Thermal capacity of a body =
T 1
Specific heat (or thermal capacity) 
Amount of heat required to raise the temp. of a slope of curve
given body by 1°C (or 1K) Latent heat  length of horizontal line
Q 32. Specific heat of a body may be greater than its
26. Specific heat capacity = (m = mass) thermal capacity as mass of the body may be less
mT
than unity.
Amount of heat required to raise the temperature
33. The steam at 100°C causes more severe burn to
of unit mass of a body through 1°C (or 1K)
human body than the water at 100°C because steam
Q has greater internal energy than water due to latent
27. Molar heat capacity = (n = number of moles) heat of vaporization.
n T
34. Heat is energy in transit which is transferred from hot
28. Water equivalent body to cold body.
35. One calorie is the amount of heat required to raise 44. Ideal gasequation PV = RT
the temperature of one gram of water through 1°C
μRT N A kT  N 
(more precisely from 14.5°C to 15.5°C).  P=     kT = nkt
36. Clausins & clapeyron equation (effect of pressure on V V V
boiling point of liquids & melting point of solids 45. Gas Laws
(a) Boyle's Law : For a given mass of an ideal gas at
dP L
related with latent heat)  1
dT T(V2  V1 ) constant temperature. V 
P
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES (b) Charle's Law : For a given mass of an ideal gas
It related the macroscopic properties of gases to the at constant pressure. V  T
microscopic properties of gas molecules. (c) Gay–Lussac's Law : For a given mass of an
ideal gas at constant volume. P  T
37. Basic postulates of Kinetic theory of gases
(d) Avogadro's Law : P,V and T are same then number
(a) Every gas consists of extremely small particles
of molecules. N1 = N2
known as molecules. The molecules of a given
(e) Graham’s Law : At constant P and T, Rate of
gas are all identical but are different than those
another gas. 1
diffusion 
(b) The molecules of a gas are identical, spherical, p
rigid and perfectly elastic point masses. (f) Dalton’s law : P = P1 + P2 + .......
(c) The size is negligible in comparision to inter Total pressure = Sum of partial pressure
molecular distance (10–9 m) 46. Real gas equation (Vander Waal’s equation)
38. Assumptions regarding motion :
 μ 2a 
(a) Molecules of a gas keep on moving randomly in  P+ 2  (V–μb) = μRT
all possible direction with all possible velocities.  v 
(b) The speed of gas molecules lie between zero where a & b are under waal’s constant and depend on
and infinity (very high speed). the nature of gas.
(c) The number of molecules moving with most 8a
probable speed is maximum. 47. Critical temperature Tc =
27Rb
39. Assumptions regarding collision:
The maximum temperature below which a gas can be
The gas molecules keep colliding among themselves
liquefied by pressure above.
as well as with the walls of containing vessel. These
48. Critical volume Vc = 3b
collision are perfectly elastic. (ie., the total energy
before collision = total energy after the collisions.) a
13. Critical pressure Pc =
40. Assumptions regarding force: 27b 2
(a) No attractive or repulsive force acts between Pc Vc 3
gas molecules. Note : For a real gas =
RTc 8
(b) Gravitational attraction among the molecules is
ineffective due to extremely small masses and 49. Different speeds of molecules
very high speed of molecules.
3RT 3kT
41. Assumptions regarding pressure: v rms = =
Mw m
Molecules constantly collide with the walls of
container due to which their momentum changes. This
2RT 2kT
change in momentum is transferred to the walls of the v mp = =
container. Consequently pressure is exerted by gas Mw m
molecules on the walls of container.
8RT 8kT
42. Assumptions regarding density: vav = =
πM w πm
The density of gas is constant at all points of the
container. 50. Kinetic Interpretation of Temperature
1 Temperature of an ideal gas is proportional to the
43. Kinetic interpretation of pressure : PV  mNv 2rms
3 average KE of molecules,
[ m = mass of a molecule, N = no. of molecules]

55. For mixture of non-reacting gases
1 2
PV = mNVrms (a) Molecular weight
3
µ1M W1  µ2 M W2  ........
1 2 3 M Wmix 
& PV = µRT = mv rms  kT µ1 +µ2 +......
2 2
51. Degree of Freedom (F) (b) Specific heat at constant V
(a) Number of minimum coordinates required to µ1CV1  µ2 CV2  ........
specify the dynamical state of system. CVmix 
µ1 +µ2 +......
(b) For monoatomic gas (He, Ar etc.) f = 3 (Only
tarnslational) (c) Specific heat at constant P
(c) For diatomic gas (H2, O2 etc.) f = 5 (3 translational µ1CP1  µ2 CP2  ........
+ 2 rotational) CPmix 
µ1 +µ2 +......
(d) At higher temperature, diatomic molecules have
two degree of freedom due to vibrational motion C Pmix µ1C P1  µ2 C P2  ........
(one for KE + one for PE) γ mix  
CVmix µ1C V1  µ2 C V2  ........
(e) At higher temperature diatomic gas has f = 7
52. Maxwell’s Law of equipartition of energy 56. Kinetic energy per unit volume
Kinetic energy associated with each degree of freedom 1  mN  2 3
Ev =   vmix = P
1 2 V  2
of particles of an ideal gas is equal to kT
2 57. At absolute zero, the motion of all molecules of the
(a) Average KE of a particle having f degree of gas stops.
f 58. At higher temperature and low pressure or at higher
freedom = kT temperature and low density, a real gas behaves as an
2
ideal gas.
3
(b) Translational KE of a molecule = kT 59. For any general process
2
(a) Internal energy change ΔU=nC v dT
3
(c) Translational KE of a mole = RT
2 (b) Heat supplied to a gas ΔQ=nCdT
f where C for any polytropic process
(d) Internal energy of an ideal gas : U = µRT
2 R
PVx = constant is C = C v +
53. Specific heats (Cp and Cv) 1–x
(c) Work done for any process W = PV
dQ It can be calculated as area under P-V curve
(a) Molar specific heat of a gas C = µRT
nR
(d) Work done Q  U  dT
 dQ  dU 1 x
(b) Cv =   =
 µdT v = constant µdT For any polytropic process PVx = constant
 dQ  THERMODYNAMICS
(c) Cp =   = Cv  R 
 µdT dP =0 60. Zeroth law of thermodynamics
Mayer’s equation If two system are each in thermal equilibrium with a
54. Mean free path third, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each
other.
Average distance between two consecutive collisions
61. First law of thermodynamics
1 Heat supplied (Q) to a system is equal to algebraic
m 
2 d 2 n sum of change in internal (U) of the system and
where d = diameter of molecule, n = molecular density mechanical work (W) done by the system.
N
=
V

Q = W + U [ Here W= PdV : ΔU = nCv ΔT ]
For differential change

Q1 Working Q2
Q = W + dU Source T1 substance
Sink T2
path path W
dependent independent
62. Sign convention
Heat absorbed by the system Q 2 T2 Q T
 Positive 70. For carnot cycle  so η = 1– 2 = 1 – 2
Q1 T1 Q1 T1
Heat rejected by the system
 Negative 71. For refrigerator
Increase in the internal energy (i.e. rise in temperature) Certificate pf performance
 Positive Q2 Q2 T2
Decrease in the internal energy (i.e. fall in temperature) β= = =
W Q1 – Q2 T1 –T2
 Negative
Work done by the system Q1 Working Q2
Source T1 Sink T2
 Positive substance
Work done on the system
W
 Negative
63. For cyclic process U = 0  Q = W P
64. For isochoric process V = constant  P  T & W = 0 72. Bulk modulus of gases B 
ΔV
Q = U = µCvT 
V
65. For isobaric process P = constant  V  T & W = 0 Isothermal bulk modulus of elasticity,
Q = µCpT, U = µCvT
 P 
W = P(V2 – V1) = µRT BIT = –V  
 V T = constant
66. For adiabatic process PV = constant
Adiabatic bulk modulus of elasticity,
or T γ P1-γ = constant
P 
or TV γ-1 = constant BADAD= –γVγV  BBAD
AD γB
γBITIT
V 
In this process Q = 0 and
73. Work done is least for monoatomic gas (adiabatic
PV – P V process) in shown expansion.
W = –ΔU = µC v (T1 -T2 ) = 1 1 2 2
γ –1 P
67. For Isothermal Process T = constant Isobaric
or T = 0  PV = constant
In this process U = µCvT = 0
V  P  Isothermal
So, Q = W = µRT n  2   µRT n  1 
V
 1  P2  Diatomic
68. For any general polytropic process PVx = constant Adiabatic
Monoatomic
(a) Molar heat capacity C  Cv  R
1 x V
74. Carnot Engine
(b) Work done by gas It is a hypothetical engine with maximum possible
nR (T1  T2 ) ( PV PV ) efficiency
W  1 1 2 2
x 1 x 1 Process 1  2 & 3  4 are isothermal
(c) Slope of P-V diagram Process 2  3 & 4  1 are adiabatic
(also known as indicator diagram at any point P
QS
dP P 2
=–x ) 1
dV V
69. Efficiency of a cycle T3 – 4
  1
Work done by working substance T1 – 2

Heat supplied 4 3
W Q1 -Q2 Q QR
= Q = Q = 1– 2 V
1 1 Q1
SOLVED EXAMPLES Sol.  




0.5  10 3
= 5 × 10–5 K–1
T 2 5 
Ex.1 In a 20m deep lake, the bottom is at a constant
temperature of 4°C. The air temperature is constant   = 3 = 1.5 × 10–4 K–1
at –10°C. The thermal conductivity of ice is 4 times
Ex.4 540 g of ice at 0°C is mixed with 540 g of water at
than water. Neglecting the expansion of water on
80°C. The final temperature of the mixture is
freezing, the maximum thickness of ice will be
(Given latent heat of fusion of ice = 80 cal/g and
20 200 specific heat capacity of water = 1 cal/g0C)
(A) m (B) m
11 11 (A) 0°C (B) 40°C
(C) 20 m (D) 10 m (C) 80°C (D) less than 0°C
Sol. The rate of heat flow is the same through water Sol. Heat taken by ice to melt at 0°C is Q2 = mL =
and ice in the steady state so
540 × 80 = 43200 cal
10°C Heat given by water to cool upto 0°C is Q2 = ms
x 4K ice
0°C
= 540 × 1× (80–0) = 43200 cal
20-x K water Hence heat given by water is just sufficient to melt
4°C the whole ice and final temperature of mixture is
0°C.
KA
KA  4 4 0 0 4 KA
4KA 0 0  1010   x 200
200
 
  m
2020 x x xx 1111 Ex.5 A fine steel wire of length 4m is fixed rigidly in a
heavy brass frame as shown in figure. It is just
Ex.2 Certain perfect gas is found to obey PV n = taut at 20°C. The tensile stress developed in steel
constant during adiabatic process. The volume wire if whole system is heated to 120°C is :–
expansion coefficient at temperature T is (Given brass = 1.8 × 10–5 °C–1, steel=1.2 × 10–5 °C–1,
1n 1 n 1 Ysteel =2 × 1011 Nm–2,Ybrass=1.7 × 107 Nm–2)
(A) (B)  (C) (D)
T 1  n T T nT
 1 
 
Sol.  V  T  1 n  
PVn = constant & PV = RT 
(A) 1.02 × 104 Nm–2 (B) 1.2 × 108 Nm–2

V  1  T 6
(C) 1.2 × 10 Nm –2
(D) 6 × 108 Nm–2
  
  
V 1  n T Sol. Stress = Y (strain) = YS(b–s)T= (2 × 1011)
 volume expansion coefficient (0.6 × 10–5) (100) = 1.2 × 108 Nm–2
V 1 Ex.6 5n, n and 5n moles of a monoatomic, diatomic and
 
VT 1  n T non-linear polyatomic gases (which do not react
Ex.3 Figures shows the expansion of a 2m long metal chemically with each other) are mixed at room
rod with temperature. The volume expansion temperature. The equivalent degree of freedom for
coefficient of the the mixture is-
metal is :–
25 48 52 50
(A) (B) (C) (D)
7 11 11 11
f1 n1  f2 n 2  f3 n 3
Sol. feq   
n1  n 2  n 3 5n  n  5 n 11
f1 n 1 f2 n 2 f3 n 3 (5n)(3 )  (n)(5 )  (5n)(6 ) 50

  
n n n 5n  n  5n 11
(A) 3 × 10–4 K–1 (B) 1.5 × 10–4 K–1 Ex.7 Figure shows the adiabatic curve on log–log scale
(C) 3 × 10–5 K–1 (D) 1.5 × 10–5 K–1 performed on a ideal gas. The gas must be :–

PV = 2 × 1.013 × 105 (0.824 × 0.001) = 0.167 × 106 J
7
U = Q – W = 2.033 × 106 J
6
Ex.10 A gas undergoes an adiabatic process in which
5
4  8 
lo gT
pressure becomes   times and volume

3 3 3
2
3
1 become of initial volume. If initial absolute
4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 temperature was T, the final temperature is
log V
(A) Monoatomic 32 T 2T
(A) (B)
(B) Diatomic 9 3 3
(C) A mixture of monoatomic and diatomic
(D) A mixture of diatomic and polyatomic 3T
(C) T3/2 (D)
Sol. For adiabatic process TV–1 = constant 2
 log T + (–1) log V = constant  slope = – (–1 Sol. For adiabatic process, P1V1=P2V2

 5  3  8 3 
= –       P0 V0    P0   V0  ......(i)
10 2 3 3 4 
5  1
For monoatomic gas   ;  1  1 3 
3 Also, TT11V  TV0 1  T2  V0 
V11 1  T22 V22 1
4 
7 7 3 5
For diatomic gas   As     2T
5 5 2 3 ...(ii) Solving (i) & (ii), T2 
3
Hence, the gas must be a mixture of monoatomic &
diatomic gas. Ex.11 The temperature drop through a two layer furnace
wall is 900°C. Each layer is of equal area of cross–
Ex.8 Given T–P curve for three processes. If initial and section. Which of the following action(S) will result
final pressure are same for all processes then in lowering the temperature  of the interface?
work done in process 1, 2 and 3 is W1, W2 & W3
respectively. Correct order is 1
2
T
(A) W1 < W2 > W3 3
(B) W1 > W2 > W3

(C) W1 < W2 < W3 inner outer
(D) W1 = W2 = W3 P
layer layer
Sol. Here T  P n where for : graph-1, n >1 W > 0 ; (A) By increasing the thermal conductivity of outer
graph-2, n =1 W = 0; graph-3, n <1 W < 0 layer. 1000°C 100°C
Ex.9 When water is boiled at 2 atm pressure, the latent (B) By increasing the thermal conductivity of inner
heat of vaporization is 2.2 × 106 J/kg and the boiling layer.
point is 120°C. At 2 atm pressure, 1 kg of water (C) By increasing thickness of outer layer.
has volume of 10–3 m3 and 1 kg of steam has a (D) By increasing thickness of inner layer.
volume of 0.824 m3. The increase in internal energy
of 1 kg of water when it is converted into steam Sol. Rate of heat flow
at 2 atm pressure and 120°C is [1 atm pressure =
1.013 × 105 N/m2]
(A) 2.033 J (B) 2.033 × 106 J K i A 1000   K 0 A    100 
  
6
(C) 0.167 × 10 J (D) 2.267 × 106 J i 0
Sol. Total heat given to correct convert water into steam
at 120 °C is Q = mL = 1 × 2.2 × 106 = 2.2 × 106 J   100 1
 
 
The work done by the system against the surrounding 900 K 
is 1 0 i
Ki  0

Now, we can see that  can be decreased by
f  f
increasing thermal conductivity of outer layer (Ko) At any temperature Cp – Cv =   1   R = R
and thickness of inner layer (i). 2  2
from process T = k 1V2 & ideal gas equation
Ex.12 Which of the following graph(S) shows the correct
PV = nRT we have PV–1 = constant  x =–1
variation in intensity of heat radiations by black
body and frequency at a fixed temperature– R R R

 C  CV   CV   CV 
E 1x 1 1 2
UV Visible Infra-red
5 R
3500K At normal temperature C = R + = 3R
2500K 2 2
(A)
1500K
Ex.14 An ideal gas expands in such a way that
PV2 = constant throughout the process. Select
E correct alternative
UV Visible Infra-red
(A) This expansion is not possible without heating
(B) This expansion is not possible without cooling
1500K
(B) 2500K (C) Internal energy remains constant in this
3500K expansion
(D) Internal energy increases in this expansion
1
Sol. PV = nRT & PV2 = constant 
V gas can
T
expand only if it cools
(C)
As tempeature decreases during expansion so
internal energy will decrease.
Ex.15 to 17
One mole of a monoatomic ideal gas occupies two
chambers of a cylinder partitioned by means of a
(D) movable piston. The walls of the cylinder as well as
the piston are thermal insulators. Initially equal
amounts of gas fill both the chambers at (P0, V0, T0).
1 A coil is burnt in the left chamber which absorbs
Sol. According to Wien's law m  mT. As the heat and expands, pushing the piston to the right.
T
The gas on the right chamber is compressed until to
temperature of body increases, frequency
pressure becomes 32 P0.
corresponding to maximum energy in radiation (m)
increases.
Also area under the curve  E  d  E  d  T 4 P0,V0,T0 P0,V0,T0
Ex.13 n moles of an ideal triatomic linear gas undergoes

a process in which the temperature changes with
volume as T = k1V2 where k1 is a constant. Choose 15. The final volume of left chamber is
correct alternative(S). V0 15
(A) (B) V0
5 8 8
(A) At normal temperature Cv = R 7 9
2 (C) V0 (D) V0
(B) At any temperature Cp – Cv = R 8 8
(C) At normal temperature molar heat capacity 16. The work done on the gas in the right chamber is
C = 3R 9 9
(A) P V (B) – P V
(D) At any temperature molar heat capacity C=3R 2 0 0 2 0 0
f 5 13 17
Sol. At normal temperature Cv= R= R; (C) PV (D) PV
2 2 2 0 0 2 0 0

17. The change in internal energy of the gas in the left
20. The efficiency of cycle is
chamber is
1 86 177  9 n3  4   9 n3  4 
(A) RT0 (B) RT0 (A)   (B)  
4 4 9 n3  12  9 n3  12 
59 1 31
(C) RT0 (D) RT0  9 n3  4   9 n3  12 
2 4 (C)   (D)  
9 n3  16  9 n3  16 
Solutions 15 to 17
Solutions 18 to 20
15. Since the compression on the right is adiabatic so
P0V0 = PRVR
18. W  W12  W2 3  W31  4 P0 2 V0  nRT n 3  P0 8 V
5/ 3 5/ 3 V
 P0 V 0  32P0 VR   VR  0
8 1
W  W12  W23  W31 
2
 4 P0 2 V0   nRTn 3   P0  8 V0   4 P0 V0  9 P0 V0 
7 15
VL = V0 + V = V
8 0 8 0
W  W12  W23  W31  4 P0 2 V0  nRT n 3  P0 8 V0  4P0 V0  9 P0 V0 n3  9 n3  4  P0 V0
16. Work done on the gas =
PR VR  P0 V0 4 P0 V0  P0 V0 9
  P0 V0  3R 
 1 5 / 3 1 2 n .T   W
Q  2  3R 4P0 V0 3R P V
19. C      0
17. For mechanical equilibrium PL = PR = 32 P0 n T n T 2 n T 2 n 2T
 15 V0 
So PLVL = (32P0)   = 60P0V0 = 60nRT
T0 = nRTL
8 Q 3R 4 P0 V0 3R PV 3R R
C      0 0    2R
TL = 60T0 n T n T 2 n T 2 n  2 T0  2 2
The change in the internal energy of the gas in the
left chamber Q 123  n 2R   T12    W23   n 2R 8 T0  nR 9 T0 n
1 3 177  n 2R T  W  n  2R   8 T   nR  9 T  n  3   nRT 16  9 n3
U  nC V T   R  59 T0  Q 123
RT0 12 23 0 0 0
2 2 4
Q 1 23  n 2R T12  W23  n 2R 8 T0  nR 9 T0 n 3  nRT0 16  9 n3 
Ex.18 to 20
One mole of an ideal monoatomic gas undergoes a
cyclic process as shown in figure. Temperature at W  9 n3  4 
20.   
point 1 = 300 K and process 2-3 is isothermal. Q 123  9 n3  1 6 
Ex.21 An ideal gas whose adiabatic exponent equals

7
to   is expanded according to the law P=2V. The
5
initial volume of the gas is equal to V0= 1 unit. As
a result of expansion the volume increases 4 times.
25
18. Net work done by gas in complete cycle is (Take R = units)
3
(A)  9 n3  1 2  P0 V0 (B)  9 n3  4  P0 V0 Column - I Column - II
(C)  9 n3  4  P0 V0 (D)  9 n3  8  P0 V0 (A) Work done by the gas (P) 25 units
(B) Increment in internal energy (Q) 45 units
19. Heat capacity of process 1  2 is of the gas
R 3R (C) Heat supplied to the gas (R) 75 units
(A) (B)
2 2 (D) Molar heat capacity of the (S) 15 units
5R gas in the process (T) 55 units
(C) (D)2R
2
Sol. Ans. (A)  (S); (B) (R); (C) (Q); (D) (P) Ex.23 Two different rods A and B are kept as shown in
4 V0
figure.
4 V0
W   PdV   2 VdV   V2  V0  15 V02 Temp.(°C)
V0
100°
= 15 units
70°
From PV = nRT, 2V2 = nRT 35°
 2  V  V   nR  T   nRT = 30V02

2
2 1
2
Distance
0 30 100 (cm)
100°C 70°C 35°C
nR 3 0 V02 3 0 1 30
U  nC V T  T    5 A B
 1  1 2 The variation of temperature of different cross
2
sections is plotted in a graph shown in figure.
nR 3 0 V02 3 0 1  30 Find the ratio of thermal conductivities of B to A.
T  T     5  = 75 units
 1  1 7 2
1
5  Q   Q 
Sol. 
    
 t  A  t  B 30 70
Q = W + U = 15 + 30 = 45 units
Molar heat capacity :
    K A 100  70  K B A  70  35  K
  A     B
R 5 R 5 R  t   2 t5   30 70 2 K
C  CV   R  R   3R  3 
1x 2 1   1  2 2 3
K A AK A100
A 100 70 70 K B AKB70
A 7035 35 KB K B KB
R 5 R 5 R   2 5    K A K     2 2
  R  R t t 3R t 3 t = 2530
units
30 70 70 2 2 K KA
1x 2 1  1 2 2 3
Ex.24 A cylinder of cross-section area A has two pistons
Ex.22 In an industrial process 10 kg of water per hour is of negligible mass sepa rated by distances  loaded
to be heated from 20°C to 80°C . To do this steam with spring of negligible mass. An ideal gas at
at 150°C is passed from a boiler into a copper coil temperature T1 is in the cylinder where the springs
are relaxed. When the gas is heated by some means
immersed in water. The steam condenses in the coil
its temperature becomes T2 and the springs get
and is returned to the boiler as water at 90°C. How
many kg of steam is required per hour. 
compressed by each. If P0 is atmospheric
2
(Specific heat of steam = specific heat of water = 1
cal/g°C, Latent heat of vaporisation = 540 cal/g) 2P0 A
pressure and spring constant k = , then find
Sol. Suppose m kg steam is required per hour 
Heat is released by steam in following three steps the ratio of T2 and T1.
(i) When 150°C steam  Q1
 100°C steam
\\\\\\\\\\\\
\\\\\\\\\\\\
Q1 = mcsteam  = m × 1 (150–100) = 50 m cal

(ii) When 100°C steam  Q2
 100°C water
Q2 = mLv = m× 540= 540 m cal
(iii) When 100 °C water   90°C water P1 V1 P2 V2
Q2 Sol.  where V1 = A and V2 = 2A and P1
Q3 = mcW = m × 1 × (100 –90) = 10 m cal T1 T2
Hence total heat given by the steam kx T PV
= P0 and P2 =  P0  2P0   2 = 2 2 = 4
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = 600 m cal ....(i) A T1 P1V1
Heat taken by 10 kg water
Q' = mcW = 10 × 103 × 1 × (80 – 20) = 600 × 103 cal Ex.25 A body cools from 50°C to 49.9°C in 5 sec. It cools
from 40°C to 39.9°C in t sec. Assuming Newtons law
Hence Q = Q'  600 m = 600 × 103 of cooling to be valid and temperature of surrounds
 m = 103 gm = 1 kg at 30°C, value of t/5 will be?
1  2    2 
Sol. From  k 1  0 
t  2 

0.1  39.5  0.1  19.5  Ex.28 One mole of an ideal monatomic gas undergoes the
We have  k and  k
5  2  t  2  process P = T1/2, where  is constant. If molar heat
t 39.5 t capacity of the gas is R when R = gas constant
39.5 t
Þ =

 =2t
2Þ 
t ==
t10 Þ
10
10=2 2
 then find the value of .
5 19.5
19.5 5 5
Sol. P  T1 / 2 and PVPV 
 nRT
 nRT PVPV 1  constant
 
Ex.26 The relation between internal energy U, pressure P
and volume V of a gas in an adiabatic process is: R 3R R

 C  CV     2R
U=a+bPV where a = b = 3. Calculate the greatest 1   1  2 2
integer of the ratio of specific heats [].
Sol. For an adiabatic process,dQ=dU+PdV =0 Ex.29 Two plates of equal areas are placed in contact with
 d[a+bPV] + PdV=0  bPdV + bV dP + PdV = 0 each other. Their thickness are 2.0 cm and 5.0 cm
respectively. The temperature of the external surface
dV dP of the first plate is –20°C and that of the external
 (b + 1)PdV+bV dP=0  (b  1) b 0
V P surface of the second plate is 20°C. What will be the
 (b+1)logV + b logP= constant; Vb+1Pb =constant temperature of the contact surface if the plate (i) are
b 1 b1 4 of the same material, (ii) have thermal conductivities
 PV b = constant      1 .3 3 in the ratio 2 : 5.
b 3
Sol. Rate of flow of heat in the plates is
Ex.27 A cont ainer havin g base
area A0. Contains mercury Q K A (1  ) K 2 A (   2 )
= 1 = ...(i)
upto a height  0 . At it s t L1 L2
bottom a thin tube of length
2cm 5cm
40 and cross-section area A
(A<<A0) having lower end plate 1
closed is attached. plate 2
Initially the length of mercury in tube is 3 0. In 0

0
20C 20C
remaining part 2 mole of a gas at temperature T is
closed as shown in figure. Determine the work done (i) Here 1 = –20°C, 2 = 20°C,
(in joule) by gas if all mercury is displaced from tube L1 = 2 cm = 0.02 m, L2 = 5 cm = 0.05 m and K1 = K2 =
by heating slowly the gas in the rear end of the tube K
by means of a heater. (Given : density of mercury =  equation (i) becomes
, atmospheric pressure P0 = 20g, CV of gas = 3/2 b
KA 20   g = KAb  20 g
R, A= (3/)m2, 0 = (1/9) m, all units in S.I.) 0.02 0.05
Sol. If x is length of mercury in tube then pressure of  5(–20 –) = 2( – 20)  –100 – 5 = 2 – 40
gas  7 = – 60   = – 8.6°C
P' = P0 + g0 + gx = 3g0 + gx
K1 2 2
0 (ii) K2 = or K = K
 W     3 g 0  gx  Adx  1 3.5 gA 0  5 5 1 5 2
3 0  from equation (i)
b
2 5 K 2 A 20   g = K Ab  20 g –20 – 
2
W 3 g  0  gx Adx  13 .5 gA  5

2
0
0.02 0.05
=  – 20 or –2 = 0  = 0°C

(A) Are the same for both
EXERCISE-1 (B) Is greater for the ball
(C) Is greater for the spring
SINGLE CHOICE TYPE QUESTIONS (D) For the two may or may not be the same depending
upon the metal
CALORIMETRY 12. Compared to a burn due to water at 100°C, a burn due ot
1. The amount of heat required to change the state of 1 kg stem at 100°C is
of substance at constant temperature is called (A) More dangerous (B) Less dangerous
(A) kilocal (B) calorie (C) Equally dangerous (D) None of these
(C) specific heat (D) latent heat 13. A 5°C rise in temperature is observed in a conductor by
2. The water equivalent of a 400 g copper calorimeter passing a current. When the current is doubled the rise
(specific heat = 0.1 cal/gºC) in temperature will be approximately :
(A) 40 g (B) 4000 g (A) 16°C (B) 10°C (C) 20°C (D) 12°C
(C) 200 g (D) 4 g 14. If 1g of steam is mixed with 1 g of ice, then the resultant
3. Heat required to convert 1 g of ice at 0ºC into steam at temperature of the mixture is :
100ºC is (A) 270°C (B) 230°C (C) 100°C (D) 50°C
(A) 100 cal (B) 0.01 cal/ºC 15. The amount of heat required to convert gram of ice at
(C) 720 cal (D) 1 kilocal 0ºC into steam at 100ºC will be -
4. The thermal capacity of 40 g of aluminium (specific heat (A) 716 cal (B) 500 cal
= 0.2 cal/gmºC) (C) 180 cal (D) 100 cal
(A) 40 cal/ºC (B) 160 cal/ºC 16. 10 grams of ice at 0ºC is mixed with 10 grams of water at
(C) 200 cal/ºC (D) 8 cal/ºC 20ºC. The final temperature of mixture will be-
5. The boiling water is changing into steam. Under this (A) 50ºC (B) 10ºC (C) 0ºC (D) 15ºC
condition, the specific heat of water is 17. Value of – 40ºC in Fahrenheit scale is :
(A) zero (B) one (A) –40º F (B) 32°F (C) –32ºF (D) 40ºC
(C) infinite (D) less than one
18. The amount of heat required to change 1 gm (0ºC) of ice
6. One kg of ice at 0ºC is mixed with 1 kg of water at 10ºC. into water of 100°C, is :
The resulting temperature will be (A) 716 cal (B) 500 cal
(A) between 0ºC and 10ºC (B) 0ºC (C) 180 cal (D) 100 cal
(C) less than 0ºC (D) greater than 0ºC
19. If temperature of an object is 140º F, then its tempera-
7. If 10g of ice at 0ºC is mixed with 10g of water at 40ºC, the ture in centrigrade is :
final mass of water in the mixture is (A) 105ºC (B) 32ºC
(A) 10 g (B) 15 g (C) 140°C (D) 60ºC
(C) 18 g (D) 20 g
20. Latent heat of 1 gm of steam is 536 cal/gm , then its
8. 540 g of ice at 0ºC is mixed with 540 g of water at 80ºC. value in joule/kg is:
The final temperature of the mixure is (A) 2.25 × 106 (B) 2.25 × 103
(A) 0ºC (B) 40ºC (C) 2.25 (D) none of these
(C) 80ºC (D) less than 0ºC 0ºC
21. At 100ºC, the substance that causes the causes the
9. Steam at 100ºC is passed into 2.0 kg of water contained most severe burn, is -
in a calorimeter of water equivalent 0.02 kg at 15ºC till (A) Oil (B) Steam
the temperature of the calorimeter and its contents rise (C) Water (D) Hot air
to 90ºC. The mass of steam condensed in kg is
(A) 0.301 (B) 0.280 22. The SI unit of mechanical equivalent of heat is -
(C) 0.60 (D) 0.02 (A) joule × calorie (B) joule/calorie
(C) calorie×erg (D) erg/calorie
10. How much heat energy is gained when 5 kg of water at
20°C is brought to its boiling point 23. Volume expansion coefficient of a gas at constant
(Specific heat of water = 4.2 kg–1c–1) presure equal to :
(A) 1680 kJ (B) 1700 kJ (A) temperature
(C) 1720 kJ (D) 1740 kJ (B) proportional to square root of temperature
(C) inversely proportional to square root of tempera-
11. A metallic ball and highly stretched spring are made of ture
the same material and have the same mass. They are (D) inversely proportional to temperature
heated so that they melt, the latent heat required
24. 50 gm ice at 0ºC in insulator vessel, 50 g water of 100ºC the bars
is mixed in it, then final temperature of the mixture is 32. A motallic bar is heated from 0ºC to 100ºC. The coefficient
(neglect the heat loss) : of linear expansion is 10 –5K–1. What will be the
(A) 10ºC (B) 0º << Tm < 20ºC percentage increase in length
(C) 20ºC (D) Above 20ºC (A) 0.01% (B) 0.1%
25. Work done in converting one gram of ice at –10ºC into (C) 1% (D) 10%
steam at 100ºC is - 33. Expansion during heating -
(A) 3045 J (B) 6056 J (A) Occurs only in solids
(C) 721 J (D) 616 J (B) Increases the weight of a material
(C) Decreases the density of a material
THERMAL EXPANSION (D) Occurs at the same rate for all solids and liquids
26. Two large holes are cut in a metal sheet. If this is 34. A pendulum clock has an iron pendulum 1m long (iron =
heated, distances AB and BC, (as shown) 10–5/ºC). If the temperature rises by 10ºC, the clock-
(A) Will lose 8 seconds per day
(B) Will lose 4.32 seconds per day
(C) Will gain 8 seconds per day
(D) Will gain 4.32 seconds per day
(A) both will increase
(B) both will decrease 35. Two rods of lengths 1 and 2 are made of materials
(C) AB increases, BC decreases whose coefficient of linear expansions are 1 are 2. If
(D) AB decreases, BC increases the difference between two lengths is independent of
temperature -
27. A steel scale is to be prepared such that the millimeter
1 1 1 2
intervals are to be accurate within 6 × 10 –5 mm. The (A) = (B) =
maximum temperature variation from the temperature 2 2 2 1
of calibration during the reading of the millimeter
marks is ( = 12 × 10–6 k–1) 12  22
(C) 2 1 = 1 2
2 2
(D) =
(A) 4.0°C (B) 4.5°C 1 2
(C) 5.0°C (D) 5.5°C
36. If , ,  are linear, superficial and cubical expansivity of
28. Expansion during heating – a solid, then -
(A) occurs only in a solid (A)  :  :  = 1 : 2 : 3 (B)  :  :  = 3 : 2 : 1
(B) increases the density of the material (C)  :  :  = 2 : 3 : 1 (D)  :  :  = 3 : 1 : 3
(C) decreases the density of the material
(D) occurs at the same rate for all liquids and solids. 37. The coefficient of linear expansion of steel and brass
are 11 × 10–6/ºC and 19 × 10–6/ºC respectively. If their
29. f a bimetallic strip is heated , it will . difference in lengths at all temperatures has to be kept
(A) bend towards the metal with lower thermal expan- constant at 30cm, their lengths at 0ºC should be -
sion coefficient.
(A) 71.25 cm and 41.25 cm (B) 82 cm and 52 cm
(B) bend towards the metal with higher thermal expan-
sion coefficient. (C) 92 cm and 62 cm (D) 62.25 cm and 32.25 cm
(C) twist itself into helix. 38. A solid ball of metal has a spherical cavity inside it . If
(D) have no bending. the ball is heated, the volume of the cavity will -
30. Two holes of unequal diameters d1 and d2(d1 > d2) are (A) Increase (B) Decrease
cut in a metal sheet. If the sheet is heated- (C) Remains unchanged (D) Have its shape changed
(A) Both d1 and d2 will decrease 39. If the length of a cylinder on heating increases by 2%,
(B) Both d1 and d2 will increase the area of its base will increase by-
(C) d1 will increase d2 will decrease (A) 0.5% (B) 2% (C) 1% (D) 4%
(D) d1 will dcrease, d2 will increase
40. A uniform metal rod is used as a bar pendulum. If the
31. Two bars of copper having same length but unequal
room temperature rises by 10ºC, and the coefficient of
diameter are heated to the same temperature. The change
in length will be - linear expansion of the metal of the rod is 2 × 10–6perºC,
(A) More in thinner bar the period of the pendulum will have percentage increase
(B) More in thicker bar of -
(C) Same for both the bars (A) – 2 × 10–3 (B) – 1 × 10–3
(D) Determined by the ratio of length and diameter of (C) 2 × 10–3
(D) 1 × 10–3

41. The volume of a solid decreases by 0.6% when it is 48. The volume thermal expansion coefficient of an ideal
cooled through 50ºC. Its coefficient of linear expansion gas at constant pressure is
is - 1 1
(A) 4 × 10–6K (B) 5 × 10–5K (A) T (B) T2 (C) (D) 2
4 T T
(C) 6 × 10 K (D) 4 × 10–5K (Here T = absolute temperature of gas)
42. Which of the following curve represent variation of
density of water with temperature best - 49. Two rigid boxes containing different ideal gases are
placed on a table. Box A contains one mole of nitrogen
at temperature T0, While Box B contains one mole of
helium at temperature (7/3) T0. The boxes are then put
density
density
(A) (B) into thermal contact with each other and heat flows
between them until the gases reach a common final tem-
temp temp perature (lgnore the heat capacity of boxes). Then, the
final temperature of the gases, Tf, in term of T0 is
7 3
T0
density
density
(A) Tf = (B) Tf = T0
3 2
(C) (D)
5 3
temp temp (C) Tf = T0 (D) Tf = T0
2 7
43. A rectangular block is heated from 0ºC to 100ºC. The
50. The weight of person is 60 kg. If he gets 105 calories
percentage increase in its length is 0.10% What will be
heat through food and the efficiency of his body is
the percentage increase in it volume ?
28%, then upto how much height he can climb (approxi-
(A) 0.03 % (B) 0.10%
mately)
(C) 0.30% (D) none of these
(A) 100 m (B) 200 m
44. A thin copper wire of length  increases in lenth by 1% (C) 400 m (D) 1000 m
when heated from 0ºC to 100ºC. If a then cooper plate of
51. The relative humidity on a day, when partial pressure of
area 2  ×  is heated from 0ºC to 100ºC, the percentage water vapour is 0.012  105 Pa at 12° C is (take vapour
increase in its area will be pressure of water at this temperature as 0.016  105 Pa)
(A) 1% (B) 2% (C) 3% (D) 4% (A) 70% (B) 40 % (C) 75% (D) 25%
45. If  is the moment of inertia of a solid body having  52. The coefficients of linear expansions of brass and steel
-coefficient of linear expansion then the change in  are 1 and 2 respectively. When we take a brass rod of
corresponding to a small change in temperature T length 1 and a steel rod of length 2 at 0°C, then the
is difference in their lengths (2 – 1) will remain the same
1 at all temperatures if :
(A) T (B) T
2 (A) 11 = 22 (B) 12 = 21
(C) 2 T (D) 3 T (C) 122 = 221 (D) 122 = 2 12
46. A liquid with coefficient of volume expansion  is filled 53. If mass – energy equivalence is taken into account,
in a container of a material having the coefficient of when water is cooled to form ice, the mass of water
linear expansion  .f the liquid overflows on heating, should:
then. (A) increase (B) remain unchanged
(A)  > 3 (B)  < 3 (C) decrease (D) first increase then decrease
(C)  = 3 (D) none of these 54. A block of ice at -10ºC is slowly heated and converted
47. Two rods having length 1 and 2, made of materials to steam at 100ºC. Which of the following curves
with the linear expansion coefficient 1 and 2, were represents the phenomenon qualitatively:
soldered together. The equivalent coefficients of
linear expansion for the obtained rod :-
(A) (B)
 1  2   2 1  1 1   2  2
(A) (B)
1   2 1   2
(C) (D)
 1 1   2  2  2 1   1  2
(C) (D)
1   2 1   2
55. When a block of iron floats in mercury at 0°C a fraction (A) P is best, R worst (B) R is best, P worst
k 1 of i ts vol ume is submer ged, whil e a t t he (C) R is best, Q worst (D) P is best, Q worst
temperature 60ºC, a fraction k 2 is seen to be 65. Two thermometers are used to record the temperature
submerged. If the coefficient of volume expansion of a room. If the bulb of one is wrapped in wet hanky
k1 (A) The temperature recorded by both will be same
of iron is  Fe , then the ratio can be expressed (B) The temperature recorded by wet-bulb thermometer
k2
as: will be greater than that recorded by the other
1  60  Fe 1  60  Fe (C) The temperature recorded by dry-bulb thermometer
(A) 1  60  (B) 1  60  will be greater than that recorded by the other
Hg Hg
(D) None of the above
1  60  Fe 1  60  Hg
(C) 1  60  (D) 66. A centigrade and a Fahrenheit thermometer are dipped
Hg 1  60  Fe in boiling water. The water temperature is lowered until
56. 2 kg ice at – 20 ºC is mixed with 5 kg water at 20 ºC . Then the Fahrenheit thermometer registers 140°F. What is the
final amount of water in the mixture would be : Given : fall in temperature as registered by the Centigrade ther-
specific heat of ice = 0.5 cal/g ºC, specific heat of water mometer
= 1 cal/g ºC, latent heat of fusion of ice (A) 30° (B) 40° (C) 60° (D) 80°
= 80 cal/gm ] 67. A bottle is filled with water at 30ºC. When it is taken on
(A) 6 kg (B) 7 kg (C) 3.5 kg (D) 5 kg the moon then :
(A) water will freeze
TEMPERATURE (B) water will boil
(C) water will decompose in hydrogen and oxygen
57. A difference of temperature of 25º C is equivalent to a (D) nothing will happen to water
difference of :
68. The ratio of radii of two spheres of same material is 1 : 4,
(A) 45º F (B) 72º F (C) 32º F (D) 25º F
then the ratio of their heat capacities is
58. What is the temperature at which we get the same read- 1 1 1 1
ing on both the centigrade and Fahrenheit scales? (A) (B) (C) (D)
4 16 32 64
(A) – 40ºC or – 40ºF (B) – 30ºC or – 30º F
(C) – 30ºC or – 40ºF (D) – 10ºC or – 10ºF 69. Heat given to a body which raises its temperature by
1°C is :
59. Water is used to cool radiators of engines, because (A) water equivalent (B) thermal capacity
(A) Of its lower density (B) It is easily available (C) specific heat (D) temperature gradient
(C) It is cheap (D) It has high specific heat
70. Two rods , one of aluminium of length 1 having
60. Absolute temperature can be calculated by coefficient of linear expansion a and other of steel
(A) Mean square velocity is having coefficient of linear expansion s and length
(B) Motion of the molecule 2 are joined end to end . The expansion in both the
(C) Both (a) and (b) rods is same for same variation of temperature . Then
(D)None of the above
1
61. The absolute zero is the temperature at which the value of is
(A) Water freezes 1   2
(B) All substances exist in solid state s a
(C) Molecular motion ceases (A) (B)
(D) None of the above
a s
62. Absolute zero (0K) is that temperature at which s a
(C) (D)
(A) Matter ceases to exist a  s a  s
(B) Ice melts and water freezes
THERMAL CONDUCTION IN LINEAR
(C) Volume and pressure of a gas becomes zero
(D) None to these CONDUCTORS AT STEADY STATE
63. The temperature on Celsius scale is 25°C. What is the 71. A wall has two layers A and B, each made of different
corresponding temperature on the Fahrenheit scale material. Both the layers have the same thickness.
(A) 40°F (B) 77°F (C) 50°F (D) 45°F The thermal conductivity for A is twice that of B.
Under steady state, the temperature difference
64. One quality of a thermometer is that its heat capacity across the whole wall is 36°C. Then the temperature
should be small. If P is mercury thermometer, Qis resis- difference across the layer A is
tance thermomerter and R thermocouple type then (A) 6°C (B) 12°C (C) 18°C (D) 24°C
72. A heat flux of 4000 J/s is to be passed through a copper (ii) The ratio of the thermal current carried by the
rod of length 10 cm and area of cross-section 100 sq. copper cube t o t h a t ca r r ied by t h e
cm. The thermal conductivity of copper is 400 W/mC. aluminium cube is : –
The two ends of this rod must be kept at a temperature (A) 1.79 (B) 1.69 (C) 1.54 (D) 1.84
difference of– 77. A wall consists of alternating blocks with length ‘d’
(A) 1ºC (B) 10ºC and coefficient of thermal conductivity k1 and k2. The
(C) 100ºC (D) 1000ºC cross sectional area of the blocks are the same. The
73. If two conducting slabs of thickness d1 and d2, and equivalent coefficient of thermal conductivity of the
thermal conductivity K1 and K2 are placed together face wall between left and right is :-
to face as shown in figure In the steady state tempera-
tures of outer surfaces are 1 and 2. The temperature of
common surface is–
K1 K2 ( K1  K 2 )
(A) K1 + K2 (B)
2
d1 d2 K1 K 2 2 K1 K 2
(C) K  K (D) K  K
1 2 1 2
K11d1  K 2 2 d 2 K11  K 2 2 78. Two rods having thermal conductivities in the ratio of 5
(A) (B)
K1d1  K 2 d 2 K1  K 2 : 3 and having equal length and equal cross-section are
joined by face to face. If the temperature of free end of
K11  K 2 2 K11d 2  K 2 2 d1 first rod is 100ºC and the free end of second rod is 20ºC,
(C) (D) then temperature of the junction, is–
1   2 K 1d 2  K 2 d 1
(A) 50ºC (B) 70ºC (C) 85ºC (D) 90ºC
74. Which of following qualities suit for a cooking utensil? 79. Two cylindrical conductors A and B of same metallic
(A) High specific heat and low thermal conductivity material have their diameters in the raito 1 : 2 and lengths
(B) High specific heat and high thermal conductivity in the ratio 2 : 1. If the temperature difference between
(C) Low specific heat and low thermal conductivity their ends is same, the ratio of heats conducted respec-
(D) Low specific heat and high thermal conductivity tively by A and B per second is,
75. The lengths and radii of two rods made of same material (A) 1 : 2 (C) 1 : 4 (C) 1 : 16 (D) 1 : 8
are in the ratios 1 : 2 and 2 : 3 respectively; If the tem-
80. A wall has two layers A and B, each made of a different
perature difference between the ends for the two rods
material. Both the layers have the same thickness. The
be the same, then in the steady state, the amount of
thermal conductivity of the material of A is twice that of
heat flowing per second through them will be in the
B. Under thermal equilibrium, the temperature difference
ratio:
across the wall is 36ºC. The temperature difference across
(A) 1 : 3 (B) 4 : 3 (C) 8 : 9 (D) 3 : 2
the layer A is:
76. Two metal cubes with 3 cm-edges of copper and (A) 6ºC (B) 12ºC (C) 18ºC (D) 24ºC
aluminium are arranged as shown in figure
THERMAL CONDUCTION IN NONLINEAR
(KCU =385 W/m-K, KAL = 209 W/m-K)
CONDUCTORS AT STEADY STATE
(KCU =385 W/m-K, KAL = 209 W/m-K)
81. The coefficient of thermal conductivity of copper is nine
(i) The total thermal current from one reservoir to
times that of steel. In the composite cylindrical bar
the other is :
shown in the figure, what will be the temperature at the
junction of copper and steel ?
100ºC Copper Steel 0ºC
(A) 1.42 × 103 W (B) 2.53 × 103 W 18 cm 6 cm

(C) 1.53 × 104 W (D) 2.53 × 104 W (A) 75ºC (B) 67ºC
(C) 33ºC (D) 25ºC
82. Five rods of same dimensions are arranged as shown
in the fig. They have thermal conductivities, k1, k2, k5,
k4 and k3 when points A and B are maintained at differ-
ent temperatures. No heat flows through the central
rod if-
C
(A) 0.75 min (B) 0.5 min
k1 k2 (C) 1.5 min (D) 1 min
87. Three metal rods made of copper, aluminium and
A B
k5 brass, each 20 cm long and 4 cm in diameter, are placed
k3
end to end with aluminium between the other two.
k4
The free ends of copper and brass are maintained at
100 and 0°C respectively. Assume that the thermal
D
conductivity of copper is twice that of aluminium
(A) k1k4 = k2k3 (B) k1 = k4 and k2 = k3 and four times that of brass. The equilibrium
t emper a tur es of t he copper -a l um in i um a n d
k1 k 2 aluminium-brass junctions are respectively.
(C)  (D) k1k2 = k3k4
k 4 k3 (A) 68 °C and 75 °C (B) 75 °C and 68 °C
(C) 57 °C and 86 °C (D) 86 °C and 57 °C
83. Heat flows radially outward through a spherical shell 88. Area of cross-section of two rods of equal lengths are
of outside radius R 2 and inner radius R 1 . The A1 and A2 and thermal conductivities are K1 and K2.
temperature of inner surface of shell is 1 and that of Specific heats are S1 and S2. condition for equal heat
outer is . The radial distance from centre of shell flow is–
where the temperature is just half way between 1 (A) K1 = K2 (B) K1S1 = K2S2
and 2 is :
K1 K2
R1  R 2 R1 R 2 (C) 
(A) (B) R  R A 1S1 A 2 S 2 (D) K1A1 = K2A2
2 1 2
89. If two metallic plates of equal thickness and thermal
2 R1 R 2 R2 conductivities K1 and K2 are put together face to face
(C) R  R (D) R1 +
1 2 2 and a common plate is constructed, then the equivalent
84. The coefficients of thermal conductivity of a metal de- thermal conductivity of this plate will be-
pends on K1 K 2 2K1 K 2
(A) temperature difference between the two sides (A) (B)
K1  K 2 K1  K 2
(B) thickness of the metal plate
(C) area of the plate (K12  K 2 2 )3/2 (K12  K 2 2 )3/2
(D) none of the above (C) (D)
K1K 2 2 K1 K 2
85. Temperature of a piece of metal is increased from 27°C
90. Consider a compound slab consisting of two different
to 327°C. The rate of emission of heat by radiation by a materials having equal thicknesses and thermal con-
metal will become- ductivities k and 2k respectively. The equivalent ther-
(A) Double (B) Four times mal conductivity of the slab is –
(C) Eight times (D) Sixteen times 4 2
86. Two identical square rods of metal are welded end to (A) 2 (B) 3k (C) k (D) k
3 3
end as shown in figure (A). Assume that 10 cal of 91. Three rods made of the same material and having the
heat flows through the rods in 2 min. Now the rods same cross-section are joined as shown in the fig. Each
are welded as shown in figure. (B) The time it would rod is of same length. The left and right ends are kept at
take for 10 cal to flow through the rods now, is 0°C and 90°C respectively. The temperature of the junc-
tion of the three rods will be :
100°C
0°C
(a)
(A) 45°C (B) 60°C (C) 30°C (D) 20°C
RADIATION, STEFEN’S LAW, WEIN’S LAW & 101. If m denotes the wavelength at which the radiative
BLACK BODY RADIATION emission from a black body at a temperature T K is
maximum, then-
92. A metallic sphere having radius 0.08 m and mass m = 4
(A) m  T (B) m is independent of T
10kg is heated to a temperature of 227°C and –1
suspended inside a box whose walls are at a (C) m  T (D) m  T
temperature of 27°C. The maximum rate at which its 102. A black body at 1227°C emits radiations with maximum
temperature will fall is :- intensity at a wavelength of 5000 Å. If the temperature
(Take e = 1, Stefan’s constant  = 5.8 x 10-8 Wm-2 K-4 of the body is increased by 1000°C, the maximum inten-
and specific heat of the metal s = 90 cal/kg/deg J = sity will be at
4.2 Joules/Calorie) (A) 4000 Å (B) 5000Å
(A) .055 °C/sec (B) .066 °C/sec (C) 6000 Å (D) 3000Å
(C) .044 °C/sec (D) 0.03 °C/sec 103. Assuming the sun to have a spherical outer surface of
93. According to Kirchoff's law- radius r, radiating like a black body at temperature t°C,
the power received by a unit surface, (normal to the
(A) ae = E (B) Ea = e incident rays) at a distance R from the center of the sun
(C) a = eE (D) E, a, e = const. is
94. At T = 200K a black body emits maximum energy at 4 r 2 t 4 r 2 (t  273) 4
(A) (B)
wavelength of 14 m. Then at T = 1000K the body will R2 4 R 2
emit maximum energy at wavelength of-
16  2 r 2  t 4 r 2  (t  273) 2
(A) 70 mm (B) 70 m (C) (D)
R2 R2
(C) 2.8 m (D) 2.8 mm
104. A black body is at 727°C. It emits energy at a rate which
95. If the temperature of a black body is raised by 50%, is proprotional to
then the energy emitted per second will be increased (A) (277)2 (B) (1000)4
by an order of- (C) (1000) 2
(D) (727)4
(A) 50% (B) 100%
(C) 200% (D) 400% 105. Which of the following is more close to a black body ?
96. What represents the colour of star- (A) Black board paint (B) Green leaves
(A) Density (B) Distance (C) Black holes (D) Red roses
(C) Energy (D) Temperature 106. A black body is at a temperature of 2800 K. The energy
97. Black body spectrum is- of radiation emitted by this object with wavelength be-
(A) Continuous spectrum with black lines tween 499 nm and 500 nm is U1, between 999 nm and
(B) Continuous spectrum with black bands 1000 nm is U2 and between 1499 nm and 1500 nm is U3.
(C) Continuous spectrum The Wien constant b = 2.88 × 106 nm K. Then
(D) None of the above (A) U1 = 0 (B) U3 = 0
98. There is a black spot on a body. If the body is heated (C) U1 > U2 (D) U2 > U1
and carried in dark room then it glows more. This can 107. The plots of intensity vs. wavelength for three black
be explained on the basis of- bodies at temperatures T1, T2 and T3 respectively are as
(A) Newton's law of cooling (B) Vien's law shown. Their temperatures are such that-
(C) Kirchoff's law (D) Stefan's
 T3
99. A spherical solid black body of radius ‘r’ radiates T2
power ‘H’ and its rate of cooling is ‘C’. If density is T1
constant then which of the following is/are true.
1
(A) H  r and c  r 2 (B) H  r 2 and c  
r
12 (A) T1 > T2 > T3 (B) T1 > T3 > T2
(C) H  r and c  (D) H  r and c  r 2
2
r (C) T2 > T3 > T1 (D) T3 > T2 > T1

100. Which of the following is nearest to blackbody-
(A) An enclosure with a small hole NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING
(B) Carbon black 108. Newton’s law of cooling is a special case of
(C) Abonite (A) Wien’s displacement law
(D) None of these (B) Kirchoff’s law
(C) Stefan’s law (D) Planck’s law

109. A hot liquid is kept in a big room. Its temperature is 117. Fig. shows graphs of pressure vs density for an ideal
plotted as a funcation of time. Which of the following gas at two temperatures T1 and T2.
curves may represent the plot ?
(A) T1 > T2 (B) T1 = T2

(C) T1 < T2 (D) any of the three is possible
(A) a (B) c (C) d (D) b 118. Suppose a container is evacuated to leave just one
molecule of a gas in it. Let a and rms represent the
110. A body takes 4 minutes to cool from 100°C to 70°C. To average speed and the rms speed of the gas.
cool from 70°C to 40°C it will take-(room temperature is (A) a > rms (B) a < rms
15°C) (C) a = rms (D) rms is undefined
(A) 7 minutes (B) 6 minutes
(C) 5 minutes (D) 4 minutes 119. The rms speed of oxygen molecules in a gas is . If the
temperature is doubled and the O2 molecule dissociate
111. A cup of tea cools from 80°C to 60°C in one minute. into oxygen atoms, the rms speed will become
The ambient temperature is 30°C. In cooling from 60°C (A)  (B) 2 (C) 2  (D) 4
to 50°C it will take-
(A) 30 seconds (B) 60 seconds 120. Consider a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen kept at room
(C) 96 seconds (D) 48 seconds tempertaure. As compared to a hydrogen molecule an
112. A hot liquid cools from 70°C to 60°C in 5 minutes. The oxygen molecule hits the wall
time needed by same liquid to cool from 60°C to 50°C (A) With greater average speed
will be- (B) with smaller average speed
(A) Less than 5 minutes (C) with greater average kinetic energy
(B) More than 5 minutes (D) with smaller average kinetic energy.
(C) Equal to 5 minutes 121. Consider the quantity MkT / pV of an ideal gas where
(D) Less or more than 5 minutes that depends on the M is the mass of the gas. It depends on the
density of liquid (A) temperature of the gas
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES, RMS VELOCITY, (B) volume of the gas
(C) pressure of the gas
KINETIC ENERGY AND EQUATION OF STATE
(D) nature of the gas
113. When an ideal gas is compressed isothermally then its
pressure increases because :
MAXWELL’S DISTRIBUTION OF VELOCITIES,
(A) its potential energy decreases LAW OF EQUIPARTITION AND INTERNAL
(B) its kinetic energy increases and molecules move ENERGY
apart
(C) its number of collisions per unit area with walls of 122. The ratio of the mean speed of hydrogen molecules to
container increases the mean speed of nitrogen molecules in a sample con-
(D) molecular energy increases taining a mixture of the two gases.
114. Which of the following quantities is zero on an average (A) 14 (B) 7
for the molecules of an ideal gas in equilibrium ?
(C) 28 (D) None of these
(A) kinetic energy (B) momentum
(C) density (D) speed 123. Three closed vessels A, B, and C are at the same
115. The average momentum of a molecule in a sample of an temperature T and contain gases which obey the
ideal gas depends on Maxwellian distribution of velocities. Vessel A
(A) temperature (B) number of moles contains only O2, B only N2 and C a mixture of equal
(C) volume (D) none of these quantities of O2 and N2. If the average speed of O2
molecules in vessel A is V1, that of the N2 molecules
116. A gas behaves more closely as an ideal gas at in vessel B is V2 ,the average speed of the O2 molecules
(A) low pressure and low temperature
in vessel C will be :
(B) low pressure and high temperature
(A) (V1 + V2 )/2 (B) V1
(C) high pressure and low temperature
(D) high pressure and high temperature (C) (V1V2 )1/2 (D) 3kT/ M

2E
124. The pressure of an ideal gas is written as P = . Here
3V
E refers to
(A) translatioal kinetic energy
(B) rotational kinetic energy
(C) vibrational kinetic energy
(D) total kinetic energy.
125. Which of the following quantities is the same for all (A) zero (B) positive
ideal gases at the same temperature ? (C) negative (D) infinite
(A) the kinetic energy of 1 mole
129. The process U = 0, for an ideal gas can be best repre-
(B) the kinetic energy of 1 g
sented in the form of a graph :
(C) the number of molecules in 1 mole
A
(D) the number of molecules in 1 g P
126. Refer to fig. Let U1 and U2 be the changes in inter-
nal energy of the system in the processes A and B (A) (B)
then B
V
(C) (D)
(A) U1 > U2 (B) U1 = U2 130. In the following V-T diagram what is the relation be-
(C) U1 < U2 (D) U1  U2 tween P1 and P2 :
(A) P2 = P1
CALCULATION OF WORK (B) P2 > P1
(C) P2 < P1
127. In the following figures (A) to (D), variation of volume
(D) cannot be predicted
by change of pressure is shown. A gas is taken along
the path ABCDA. The change in internal energy of the
131. In the isothermal expansion of an ideal gas. Select wrong
gas will be: statement:
(A) there is no change in the temperature of the gas
(B) there is no change in the internal energy of the gas
(C) the work done by the gas is equal to the heat sup-
(A) (B) plied to the gas
(D) the work done by the gas is equal to the change in
its internal energy
132. In the cyclic process shown on the P – V diagram the
magnitude of the work done is :
P
(C) (D)
P2
(A) positive in all cases from (A) to (D) P1

(B) positive in cases (A), (B) and (C) but zero in case (D)
V
(C) negative in cases (A), (B) and (C) but zero in case (D) O V1 V2
(D) zero in all the four cases.
2 2
128. An ideal gas changes from state a to state b as shown  P2  P1   V2  V1 
(A)    (B)   
in Fig. What is the work done by the gas in the  2   2 
process ?

(C) (P – P ) (V2 – V1) (D) (P2V2 – P1V1)
4 2 1

133. A fixed mass of ideal gas undergoes changes of pres- 136. A mass of an ideal gas undergoes a reversible
sure and volume starting at L, as shown in Figure. isothermal compression. Its molecules will then have
compared with initial state, the same
(i) root mean square velocity
(ii) mean mometum
(iii) mean kinetic energy
(A) (i), (ii), (iii) correct (B) (i), (ii) correct
(C) (ii), (iii) correct (D) (i) correct
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS,
Which of the following is correct :
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITIES OF GASES
Temperature/K
137. Ideal gas is taken through process shown in figure:

M
N
(A) (B)
L
volume
(A) In process AB, work done by system is positive

(B) In process AB, heat is rejected out of the system.
(C) (D) (C) In process AB, internal energy increases
(D) In process AB internal energy decreases and in
process BC internal energy increases.
134. A fixed mass of gas undergoes the cycle of changes 138. If heat is supplied to an ideal gas in an isothermal
represented by PQRSP as shown in Figure. In some of process,
the changes, work is done on the gas and in others, (A) the internal energy of the gas will increase
work is done by the gas. In which pair of the changes (B) the gas will do positive work
work is done on the gas ? (C) the gas will do negative work
(D) the said process is not possible
139. A system can be taken from the initial state p 1, V1 to
the final state p 2, V2 by two different methods. Let
Q and W represent the heat given to the system
and the work done by the system. Which of the fol-
lowing must be the same in both the methods ?
(A) Q (B) W
(C) Q + W (D) Q - W
(A) PQ and RS (B) PQ and QR 140. When an ideal diatomic gas is heated at constant
(C) OR and RS (D) RS and SP. pressure , the fraction of the heat energy supplied
135. Consider two processes on a system as shown in fig. which increases the internal energy of the gas is .
The volumes in the initial states are the same in the two 2 3 3 5
porcesses and the volumes in the final states are also (A) (B) (C) (D)
5 5 7 7
the same. Let W1 and W2 be the work done by the
system in the processes A and B respectively. 141. Boiling water is changing into steam. Under this
condition, the specific heat of water is
(A) zero (B) one
(C) Infinite (D) less than one
142. Supposing the distance between the atoms of a
diatomic gas to be constant, its specific heat at
constant volume per mole (gram mole) is
(A) W1 > W2 (B) W1 = W2
(C) W1 < W2 5 3 7
(A) R (B) R (C) R (D) R
(D) Nothing can be said about the relation between 2 2 2
W1 and W2
ADIABATIC PROCESS AND FREE EXPANSION 148. In a cyclic process shown in the figure an ideal gas is
adiabatically taken from B and A, the work done on the
143. A gas is contained in a metallic cylinder fitted with a gas during the process B  A is 30 J, when the gas is
piston. The piston is suddenly moved in to compress taken from A  B the heat absorbed by the gas is 20 J.
the gas and is maintained at this position. As time The change in internal energy of the gas in the process
passes, after this pressure of the gas in the cylinder A  B is :
(A) increases (B) decreases
(C) remains constant
(D) increases or decreases depending on the nature
of the gas.
144. Two sample A and B are initially kept in the same state.
The sample A is expanded through an adiabatic pro-
cess and the sample B through an isothermal process
upto the same final volume. The final pressures in A
(A) 20 J (B) – 30 J
and B are pA and pB respectively.
(C) 50 J (D) – 10 J
(A) pA > pB (B) pA = pB (C) pA < pB
(D) The relation between pA and pB cannot be deduced. 149. An ideal gas is allowed to expand freely against a
vacuum in a rigid insulated container. The gas under-
145. Four curves A, B, C and D are drawn in the Fig. for a
goes:
given amount of gas. The curves which represent
(A) an increase in its internal energy
adiabatic and isothermal changes are
(B) a decrease in its internal energy
(C) neither an increase nor decrease in temperature or
internal energy
(D) an increase in temperature
150. For free expansion of a gas in an adiabatic container
which of the following is true ?
(A) Q = W = 0 and U = 0
(B) Q = 0, W > 0 and U = Q
(A) C and D respectively (C) W = 0, Q > 0 and U = Q
(B) D and C respectively (D) W = 0, Q < 0 and U = 0
(C) A and B respectively 151. Starting with the same initial conditions, an ideal gas
(D) B and A respectively expands from volume V1 to V2 in three different ways.
146. For an ideal gas, the heat capacity at constant The work done by the gas is W1 if the process is iso-
pressure is larger than than that at constant volume thermal, W2 if isobaric and W3 if adiabatic, then :
because (A) W2 > W1 > W3 (B) W2 > W3 > W1
(A) positive work is done during expansion of the (C) W1 > W2 > W3 (D) W1 > W3 > W2
gas by the external pressure 152. The molar heat capacity for the process shown in fig. is
(B) positive work is done during expasion by the
gas against external pressure
(C) positive work is done during expansion by the
gas against intermolecular forces of attraction
(D) more collisions occur per unit time when volume
is kept constant.
147. When an ideal gas undergoes an adiabatic change (A) C = Cp (B) C = Cv
causing a temparture change T (C) C > Cv (D) C = 0
(i) there is no heat gained or lost by the gas
(ii) the work done by the gas is equal to change in SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
internal energy 153. A Carnot engine works between 600 K and 300 K. In
(iii) the change in internal energy per mole of the each cycle of operations, the engine draws 1000joule
gase is Cv T, where Cv is the molar heat capacity at of energy from the source at 600 K. The efficiency of
constnat volume. the engine is -
(A) i, ii, iii (B) i, ii (A) 20% (B) 50% (C) 70% (D) 90%
(C) i, iii (D) i

154. In the above problem, the useful work done by the REFRIGERATOR OR HEAT PUMP
engine is -
163. A Carnot working between 300K and 600K has work
(A) 100 joule (B) 500 joule
output of 800 J per cycle. What is amount of heat en-
(C) 1000 joule (D) 150 joule
ergy supplied to the engine form source per cycle
155. In the above problem, the energy rejected to the sink
(A) 1800 J/cycle (B) 1000 J/cycle
is -
(C) 2000 J/cycle (D) 1600 J/cycle
(A) 100 joule (B) 500 joule
(C) 1000 joule (D) 300 joule 164. The coefficient of performance of a carnot refrigertor
working between 30° C and 0° C is
156. A Carnot engine works between ice point and steam
(A) 10 (B) 1 (C) 9 (D) 0
point. Its efficiency will be -
(A) 26.81 % (B) 53.36 % 165. If the door of a refrigerator is kept open then which of
(C) 71.23 % (D) 85.42 % the following is ture
(A) Room is cooled (B) Room is heated
157. In the above problem, in order to increase the efficiency
(C) Room is either cooled or heated
of the engine by 20%, its sink temperature will have
(D) Room is neither cooled nor heated
to be changed by -
166. An Ideal gas heat engine operated in a carnot's cycle
(A) increase by 20 K (B) decrease by 293 K
between 227° C and 127° C . It absorbs 6 × 104 J at high
(C) increase by 20ºC (D) decrease by 20ºC
temperature. The amount of heat converted into work is
158. In the above problem, in order to increase the efficiency (A) 4.8 × 104 J (B) 3.5 × 104 J
of 20%, its source temperature will have to changed 4
(C) 1.6 × 10 J (D) 1.2 × 104 J
by -
167. An ideal gas heat engine exhausting heat at 77° C is not
(A) 402.5 K increase (B) 129.5 K decrease
have a 30% efficiency. It must take heat at
(C) 129.5 ºC increase (D) 129.5 ºC decrease
(A) 127° C (B) 227°
159. A Cannot engine works between 200ºC and 0ºC. (C) 327° C (D) 673°C
Another Carnot engine works between 0ºC and –200ºC. 168. Efficiency of carnot engine is 100% if
In both cases the working substance absorbs 4 kilo- (A) T2 = 273 K (B) T2 = 0 K
calories of heat from the source. The efficiency of first (C) T1 = 273 K (D) T1 = 0 K
engine will be -
169. The effciency of Carnot's engine operating between
100 200 200 273 reservoirs, maintained at temperatures 27° C and 123°
(A) (B) (C) (D)
473 473 273 373 C, is
160. In the above problem, the efficiency of second engine (A) 50% (B) 24%
will be - (C) 0.75% (D) 0.4%
170. A Carnot engine operates between 227° C and 27°C.
100 173 200 273
(A) (B) (C) (D) Efficiency of the engine will be
273 273 273 373
1 2 3 3
161. In the above problem, the ratio of efficiencies of two (A) (B) (C) (D)
3 5 4 5
engines will be -
(A) 0.18 (B) 0.38 (C) 0.58 (D) 0.78 171. A carnot engine has the same efficiency between 800 K
162. In the above problem, the mount of useful work done to 500 K and x K ot 600 K. The value of x is
by the first engine is - (A) 1000 K (B) 960 K
(A) 7.1 × 103 Joule (B) 3.8 × 104 Joule (C) 846K (D) 754 K
(C) 5.9 × 105 Joule (D) 9.3 × 106 Joule 172. A scientist says that the efficiency of his heat engine
which operates at source temperature 127°C and sink
temperature 27° C is 26% then
(A) It is impossible
(B) It is possible but less probable
(C) It is quite probable
(D) Data are incomplete ]

EXERCISE-2
Temperature
Temperature
(C) (D)
PART - 1
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS : NEET Time Time
6. One mole of an ideal gas goes from an initial state A to
1. A cylindrical metallic rod in thermal contant with two final state B via two processes. If first undergoes
reservoirs of heat at its two ends conducts an amount isothermal expansion from volume V to 3V and then its
of heat Q in time t. The metallic rod is melted and the volume is reduced from 3V to V at constant pressure.
material is formed into a rod of half the radius of the The correct p-V diagram representing the two processes
original rod. What is the amount of heat conducted by is [CBSE AIPMT 2012]
the new rod when placed in thermal contact with the
B A
two reservoirs in time t ? [CBSE AIPMT 2010]
(A) Q/ 4 (B) Q/16 (C) 2 Q (D) Q/2 p p
2. If U and W represent the increase in internal energy A B
and work done by the system respectively in a (A) (B)
thermodynamical process, which of the following is true? V 3V V 3V
[CBSE AIPMT 2010] V V
A A
(A) U = – W, in an adiabatic process
(B) U = W, in isothermal process
p p
(C) U = W, in an adiabatic process B B
(D) U = – W, in an isothermal process (C) (D)

3. During an isothermal expansion, a confined ideal gas V 3V V 3V
V V
does –150 J of work against its surroundings. This
implies that [CBSE AIPMT 2011] 7. If the radius of a star is R and it acts as a black body,
(A) 300 J of heat has been added to the gas what would be the temperature of the star, in which the
(B) no heat is transferred because the process is rate of energy production is Q ? [CBSE AIPMT 2012]
isothermal ( stands for Stefan’s constant.)
(C) 150 J of heat has been added to the gas (A) Q/4 R2 (B) (Q/4 R2)–1/2
(D) 150 J of heat has been removed from the gas (C) (4R2Q/)1/4 (D) (Q/4 R2)1/4
4. When 1 kg of ice at 0°C melts to water at 0°C, the
8. A thermodynamic system is taken through the cycle
resulting change in its entropy, taking latent heat of ice ABCD as shown in figure. Heat rejected by the gas
to be 80 cal/°C, is [CBSE AIPMT 2011] during the cycle is [CBSE AIPMT 2012]
(A) 8 × 104 cal/K (B) 80 cal/K
2p D C
(C) 293 cal/K (D) 273 cal/K
5. Liquid oxygen at 50 K is heated to 300 K at constant
Pressure
pressure of 1 atm. The rate of heating is constant. Which

p
one of the following graphs represents the variation of A B
temperature with time ? [CBSE AIPMT 2012]
V 3V
Volume
Temperature
Temperature
(A) 2 pV (B) 4 pV
(A) (B)
1
Time Time (C) pV (D) pV
2

9. The amount of heat energy required to raise the (B) Wien’s displacement law
temperature of 1 g of Helium at NTP, from T1 K to T2 K is
(C) Kirchhofff’s law
[NEET 2013]
(D) Newton’s law of cooling
3 3  T2  14. The molar specific heats of an ideal gas at constant
(A) Na k B (T2  T1 ) (B) 4 Na k B  T 
4  1 pressure and volume are denoted by C P and C V
CP
3 3 respectively. If   and R is the universal gas
(C) N a k B (T2  T1 ) (D) Na k B (T2  T1 ) CV
8 2
constant, then CV is equal to [NEET 2013]
10. In the given (V – T) diagram, what is the relation between
pressure P1 and P2 ? [NEET 2013] 1  R (   1)
(A) 1   (B) (   1) (C) (D) R
R
15. The mean free path of molecules of a gas, ( radius r) is
inversely proportional to [AIPMT 2014]
(A) r3 (B) r2 (C) r (D) r

16. A thermodynamic system undergoes cyclic process
ABCDA as shown in figure. The work done by the
system in the cycle is [AIPMT 2014]
(A) P2 < P1 (B) Cannot be predicted
(C) P2 = P1 (D) P2 > P1
P
3P0 C B
11. During an adiabatic process, the pressure of a gas is
found to be proportional to the cube of its temperature.
Cp 2P0
The ratio of for the gas is [NEET 2013]
Cv
P0 A D
5 2 4
(A) (B) (C) (D) 2
3 3 3 V0 2V0 V
12. A gas is taken through the cycle A  B  C  A, as (A) P0V0 (B) 2P0V0
shown. What is the net work done by the gas ?
[NEET 2013] P0 V0
(C) (D) zero
2
5
P (10 Pa) 17. A monoatomic gas at a pressure P, having a volume V
expands isothermally to a volume 2V and then
7 adiabatically to a volume 16V. The final pressure of the
6 B
5 gas is (Take  = 5/3) [AIPMT 2014]
4
3 A (A) 64 P (B) 32 P
2 C
1 –3 3
(C) P/64 (D) 16 P
0 V(10 m )
2 4 6 8 18. Certain quantity of water cools from 70°C to 60°C in the
first 5 min and to 54°C in the next 5 min. The temperature
(A) Zero (B) – 2000 J of the surroundings is [CBSE AIPMT 2014]
(C) 2000 J (D) 1000 J (A) 45°C (B) 20°C
(C) 42°C (D) 10°C
13. A piece of iron is heated in a flame. If first becomes dull
19. Steam at 100°C is passed into 20 g water at 10°C. When
red then bhecomes reddish yellow and finally turns to water acquires a temperature of 80°C, the mass of water
white hot. The correct explanation for the above present will be [Take specific heat of water = 1 calg–1°C–
1
observation is possible by using and latent heat of steam = 540 cal g–1]
(A) Stefan’s law [NEET 2013] [CBSE AIPMT 2014]
(A) 24 g (B) 31.5 g (C) 42.5 g (D) 22.5 g
20. The value of coefficient of volume expansion of glycerin The change in internal energy of the gas during the
is 5 × 10– 4 K–1. The fractional change in the density of transition is
glycerin for a rise of 40°C in its temperature is
[CBSE AIPMT 2015] (A) 20 kJ (B) – 20 kJ
(A) 0.015 (B) 0.020 (C) 20 J (D) – 12 kJ
(C) 0.025 (D) 0.010
1
21. Two vessels separately contain two ideal gases A and 27. A Carnot engine, having an efficiency of   as heat
B at the same temperature, the pressure of A being twice 10
engine, is used as a refrigerator. If the work done on the
that of B. Under such conditions, the density of A is
system is 10 J, the amount of energy absorbed from the
found to be 1.5 times the density of B. The ratio of
reservoir at lower temperature is [CBSE AIPMT 2015]
molecular weight of A and B is [CBSE AIPMT 2015]
2 3 1 (A) 100 J (B) 99 J
(A) (B) (C) 2 (D)
3 4 2 (C) 90 J (D) 1 J
22. The coefficient of performance of a refrigerator is 5. If
28. Figure below shows two paths that may be taken by a
the temperature inside freezer is – 20°C, the temperature
gas to go from a state A to a state C.
of the surroundings to which it rejects heat is
(A) 31°C (B) 41°C [CBSE AIPMT 2015] [CBSE AIPMT 2015]
(C) 11°C (D) 21°C p
4
6 × 10 Pa B C
23. 4.0 g of a gas occupies 22.4 L at NTP. The specific heat
capacity of the gas at constant volume is 5.0 JK–1 mol–1.
If the speed of sound in this gas at NTP is 952 ms–1,
4 A
then the heat capacity at constant pressure is (Take gas 2 × 10 Pa
constant R = 8.3 JK–1 mol–1) [CBSE AIPMT 2015] –3 3 –3 3
2 × 10 m 4 × 10 m
–1 –1 –1 –1
(A) 8.0 JK mol (B) 7.5 JK mol V
(C) 7.0 JK–1 mol–1 (D) 8.5 JK–1 mol–1
24. An ideal gas is compressed to half its initial volume by In process AB, 400 J of heat is added to the system and
means of several process. Which of the process results in process BC, 100 J of heat is added to the system. The
in the maximum work done on the gas ? heat absorbed by the system in the process AC will be
[CBSE AIPMT 2015] (A) 380 J (B) 500 J
(A) Adiabatic (B) Isobaric
(C) Isochoric (D) Isothermal (C) 460 J (D) 300 J
CP 29. The two ends of a metal rod are maintained at
25. The ratio of the specific heats   in terms of
CV temperatures 100°C and 110°C. The rate of heat flow in
degrees of freedom (n) is given by [CBSE AIPMT 2015] the rod is found to be 4.0 J/s. If the ends are maintained
at temperatures 200°C and 210°C, the rate of heat flow
 1  n
(A)  1   (B)  1   will be [CBSE AIPMT 2015]
 n  3
(A) 44.0 J/s (B) 16.8 J/s
 2  n (C) 8.0 J/s (D) 4.0 J/s
(C)  1   (D)  1  
 n  2
30. On observing light from three different stars P, Q and R,
26. One mole of an ideal diatomic gas undergoes a transition it was found that intensity of violet colour is maximum
from A to B along a path AB as shown in the figure. in the spectrum of P, the intensity of green colour is
[CBSE AIPMT 2015] maximum in the spectrum of R and the intensity of red
colour ismaximum in thespectrum of Q. If TP, TQ and TR
A are the respective absolute temperatures of P, Q and R,
5
then it can be concluded from the above observations
p (in kPa)2 B that [CBSE AIPMT 2015]
4 6 (A) TP > TQ > TR (B) TP > TR > TQ

V(in m3)
(C) TP < TR < TQ (D) TP < TQ < TR

31. A given sample of an ideal gas occupies a volume V at 38. A gas is compressed isothermally to half its initial
a pressure p and absolute temperature T. The mass of volume. The same gas is compressed separately
each molecule of the gas is m. Which of the following through an adiabatic process until its volume is again
gives the density of the gas ? [NEET 2016] reduced to half. Then [NEET 2016]
(A) p / (kT) (B) pm / (kT) (A) compressing the gas through adiabatic process will
(C) p / (kTV) (D) mkT require more work to be done.
32. The temperature inside a refrigerator is t2°C and the (B) compressing the gas isothermally or adiabatically
room temperature is t1°C. The amount of heat delivered will require the same amount of work.
to the room for each joule of electrical energy consumed (C) which of the case (wheter compression through
ideally will be [NEET 2016] isothermal or through adiabatic process) requires more
t1 t1  273 work will depend upon the atomicity of the gas.
(A) t  t (B) t  t (D) compressing the gas isothermally will require more
1 2 1 2
t 2  273 t1  t 2 work to be done.

(C) t  t (D) t  273 39. A black body is at a temperature of 5760 K. The energy
1 2 1
of radiation emitted by the body at wavelength 250 nm
33. One mole of an ideal monatomic gas undergoes a process
is U1, at wavelength 500 nm is U2 and that at 1000 nm is
described by the equation pV3 = constant. The heat
U3. Wien’s constant, b = 2.88 × 106 nmK. Which of the
capacity of the gas during this process is [NEET 2016] following is correct ? [NEET 2016]
3 5 (A) U3 = 0 (B) U1 > U2
(A) R (B) R
2 2 (C) U2 > U1 (D) U1 = 0
(C) 2R (D) R 1
34. A body cools from a temperature 3T to 2T in 10 minutes. 40. A Carnot engine having an efficiency of as heat
10
The room temperature is T. Assume that Newton’s law engine, is used as a refrigerator. If the work done on the
of cooling is applicable. The temperature of the body at system is 10 J, the amount of energy absorbed from the
the end of next 10 minutes will be [NEET 2016] reservoir at lower temperature is [NEET 2017]
7 3 (A) 1 J (B) 90 J
(A) T (B) T (C) 99 J (D) 100 J
4 2
4 41. A gas mixture consists of 2 moles of O2 and 4 moles of
(C) T (D) T
3 Ar at temperature T. Neglecting all vibrational modes,
35. Two identical bodies are made of a material for which the total internal energy of the system is [NEET 2017]
the heat capacity increases with temperature. One of (A) 4RT (B) 15RT
these is at 100°c, while the other one is at 0°C. If the two (C) 9RT (D) 11RT
bodies are brought into contact, then assuming no heat 42. Thermodynamic processes are indicated in the following
loss, the final common temperature is [NEET 2016] diagram [NEET 2017]
(A) 50°C P
IV
(B) more than 50°C f
(C) less than 50°C but greater than 0°C I III f
II
(D) 0°C f 700 K
36. A refrigerator works between 4°C and 30°C. It is required f 500 K
to remove 600 calories of heat every second in order to 300 K
V
keep the temperature of the refrigerated space constant.
Match the following :
The power required is
Column - I Column - II
(Take, 1 cal = 4.2 Joule) [NEET 2016]
(A) 23.65 W (B) 236.5 W P. Process I a. Adiabatic
(C) 2365 W (D) 2.365 W Q. Process II b. Isobaric
37. A piece of ice falls from a height h so that it melts R. Process III c. Isochoric
completely. Only one-quarter of the heat produced is S. Process IV d. Isothermal
absorbed by the ice and all energy of ice gets converted (A) P  a, Q  c, R  d, S  b
into heat during its fall. The value of h is [Latent heat of (B) P  c, Q  a, R  d, S  b
ice is 3.4 × 105 J/kg and g = 10 N/kg] [NEET 2016] (C) P  c, Q  d, R  b, S  a
(A) 544 km (B) 136 km (C) 68 km (D) 34 km
(D) P  d, Q  b, R  a, S  c
43. The efficiency of an ideal heat engine working
PART - 2
between the freezing point and boiiling point of water,
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS : AIIMS
is [NEET 2018]
(A) 6.25 % (B) 20 % (C) 26.8 % (C) 12.5 % 1. The latent heat of vaporisation of a substance is
44. At what temperature will the rms speed of oxygen mol- always [2010]
ecules become sufficient for escaping from the Earth's (A) greater than its latent heat of fusion
atmosphere ? [NEET 2018] (B) greater than its latent heat of sublimation
(Given : Mass of oxygen molecule (m) = 2.76 × 10–26 km. (C) equal to its latent heat of sublimation
Boltzmann's constant kB = 1.38 × 10–23 J K–1) (D) less than its latent heat of fusion
(A) 5.016 × 104 K (B) 8.360 × 104 K 2. Pr essure versus temperature graph of an ideal
(C) 2.508 × 104 K (D) 1.254 × 104 K gas is as shown in figure. Density of the gas at
45. The power radiated by a black body is P and it radiates point A is 0. Density at point B will be
maximum energy at wavelength, 0. If the temperature 3
(A) 0 P
of the black body is now changed so that it radiates 4
3P0 B [2010]
3
maximum energy at wavelength  0 , the power radi- 3 P0 A
4 (B) 0
2
ated by it becomes nP. The value of n is [NEET 2018]
4
256 4 3 81 (C) 0 T
(A) (B) (C) (D) 3 T0 2T0
81 3 4 256
(D) 20
46. A sample of 0.1 g of water at 100ºC and normal pressure
(1.013 × 105 Nm–2) requires 54 cal of heat energy to con- 3. Emissive and absorptive power of a material at 2000
vert to steam at 100ºC. If the volume of the steam pro- K is 8 and 10 respectively, calculate the emissivity
duced is 167.1 cc, the change in internal energy of the of IBB (Ideal black body) [2011]
sample, is [NEET 2018] (A) 0.2 (B) 0.4
(A) 42.2 J (B) 208.7 J (C) 104.3 J (D) 84.5 J (C) 0.6 (D) 0.8
47. In which of the following processes, heat is neither
4. For an adiabatic process, [2011]
absorbed nor released by a system ? [NEET 2019]
(A) S = 0 (B) U = 0
(A) Adiabatic (B) Isobaric
(C) Q = 0 (D) W = 0
(C) Isochoric (D) Isothermal
48. The unit of thermal conductivity is : [NEET 2019] 5. For cyclic process which of the following quantity
(A) J m–1 K–1 (B) W m K–1 is zero? [2011]
(C) W m–1 K–1 (D) J m K–1 (A) V (B) U
49. A copper rod of 88 cm and an aluminium rod ofunknown (C) W (D) Q
length have their increase in length independent of 6. Two conductors having same width and length,
increase in temperature. The length of aluminium rod is thickness d1 and d2, thermal conductivity K1 and K2
(A) 113.9 cm (B) 88 cm [NEET 2019] are placed one above the another. Find the equivalent
thermal conductivity. [2012]
(C) 68 cm (D) 6.8 cm
50. Increase in temperature of a gas filled in a container (d1  d 2 )(K1d 2  K 2d1 )
(A)
would lead to [NEET 2019] 2(K1  K 2 )
(A) Increase in its kinetic energy
(d1  d 2 )(K1d 2  K 2 d1 )
(B) Decrease in its pressure (B)
2(K1  K 2 )
(C) Decrease in intermolecular distance
(D) Increase in its mass K1d1  K 2d 2
(C)
d1  d 2
K1  K 2
(D)
d1  d 2

7. Conversion of water to steam is accompanied by 15. 1 g of steam is sent into 1 g of ice. At thermal
which process ? [2012] equilibrium, the resultant temperature of mixture is
(A) Adiabatic (B) Isothermal (A) 270°C (B) 130°C [2013]
(C) isochoric (D) Cyclic (C) 100°C (D) 120°C
8. A n i d e a l g a s taken through the cycle A  B 16. In a cylinder their are 60 g Ne and 64 g O2. If pressure
 C  A, as shown in figure. If the net heat supplied of mixture of gases in cylinder is 30 bar then in this
to the gas in the cycle is 5 J the work done by the cylinder partial pressure of O2 is (in bar) [2013]
gas in the process A  B is [2012] (A) 30 (B) 20
(C) 15 (D) 12
A
4 17. A gas mixture contain one mole O2 gas and one mole
3
V(m ) He gas. Find the ratio of specific heat at constant
B pressure to that at constant volume of the gaseous
2 C mixture. [2013]
(A) 2 (B) 1.5
0 1 2
5
P(N/m ) (C) 2.5 (D) 4
(A) 2 J (B) 3 J (C) 4 J (D) 5 J
18. Graph of specific heat at constant volume for a
9. What is the slope for an isothermal process ? monoatomic gas is [2013]
P P 3R
(A) (B)  [2012]
V V
(A) CV (B) CV
(B) Zero (D) 
10. Degree of freedom for polyatomic gas [2012] T T

(A)  4 (B)  5
(C)  6 (D)  7
(C) CV 3R (D) CV
11. In a cyclic process, work done by the system is 2
(A) zero [2013]
(B) more than the heat given to the system T T
(C) equal to heat given to the system 19. The molar specific heats of an ideal gas at constant
(D) independent of heat given to system pressure and volume are denoted by CP and CV
12. One mole of oxygen of volume 1 litre at 4 atm CP
respectively. If   and R is the universal gas
pressure to attains 1 atm pressure by result of CV
isothermal expansion. Find work done by the gas. constant, then CV is equal to [2013]
(A)  155 J (B)  206 J [2013] (   1)
(A) (B) R
(C)  355 J (D)  552 J R
1  R
13. Which of the following is not a state function ? (C) (D)
1  (   1)
(A) Work - done in adiabatic process [2013]
(B) Work done in isothermal process 20. 70 calories of heat are required to raise the
(C) Heat at constant pressure. temperature of 2 moles of an ideal gas at constant
pressure from 30°C to 35°C. The amount of heat
(D) Heat at constant volume.
required to raise the temperature of the same sample
14. An engine has an efficiency of 1/6. When the of the gas through the same range at constant
temperature of sink is reduced by 62°C, its efficiency
volume is (Gas constant = 1.99 cal/K-mole)
is doubled. The temperature of source will be
(A) 30 cal (B) 50 cal [2014]
(A) 37° C (B) 62° C [2013]
(B) 99° C (D) 124 ° C (C) 70 cal (D) 90 cal

21. 3 mole of hydrogen is mixed with 1 mole of neon. 27. The temperature of a body is increased from –73°C.
The molar specific heat at constant pressure is If its emissivity is 0.3, at what rate does it radiate
energy? [2016]
9R 9R
(A) (B) [2014] (A) 1/9 (B) 1/27
4 2
(C) 27 (D) 81
13R 13R
(C) (D)
4 2 28. The work done in which of the following
22. According to kinetic theory of gases, molecules of processes is equal to the internal energy of the
a gas behave like system [2017]
(A) inelastic spheres [2014] (A) Adiabatic process (B) Isothermal process
(C) Isochoric process (D) None of these
(B) perfectly elastic rigid spheres
(C) perfectly elastic non-rigid spheres 29. The temperature of the two outer surfaces of a
(D) inelastic non-rigid spheres composite slab consisting of two materials having
23. If 10 g of ice is added to 40 g of water at 15°C, then coefficient of thermal conductivity K and 2K and
the temperature of the mixture is (specific heat of thickness x and 4x respectively are T2 and T1 (T2
water = 4.2  103 J Kg–1 K–1, Latent heat of fusion of >T1). The rate of heat transfer through the slab,
ice = 3.36  105 J kg –1) [2015]  A  T2 – T1  K 
in a steady state is   f with f equal
(A) 15°C (B) 12°C  x 
(C) 10°C (D) 0°C to [2017]
24. A copper ball 2 cm in radius is heated in a furnace to
x 4x
327°C. If its emissivity is 0.3, at what rate does it
radiate energy? [2015]
T2 K 2K T1
(A) 1.72 W (B) 2.73 W
(C) 11.0 W (D) 2.15 W
25. A thermodynamic process is carried out from an (A)1 (B) 1/2
original state D to an intermediate state E by the (C) 2/3 (D) 1/3
linear process shown in figure.
30. The molar heat capacities of a mixture of two gases
D
at constant volume is 13R/6.The ratio of number
600
E
of moles of the first gas to the second is 1 : 2. The
F respective gases may be [2017]
-2
P(N m )
200 (A) O2 and N2 (B) He and Ne
(C) He and N2 (D) N2 and He
3.0 3
7.0
V(m ) 31. If 1 cm 3 of water is vaporized (latent heat of
The total work is done by the gas from D to E to F is vaporization = 540 cal/gºC) at P = 1 atm. If the volume
(A) 100 J (B) 800 J [2015] of steam formed is 1671 cm 3 calculate increase
internal energy. [2018]
(C) 300 J (D) 250 J (A) 373 cal (B) 372 cal
(C) 374 cal (D) 375 cal
26. 1 mole of H2 gas is contained in a box of volume
V = 1.00 m3 at T = 300 K. The gas is heated to a 32. The temperature of food material in refrigerator is 4° C
temperature of T = 3000 K and the gas gets and temperature of environment is 15° C. If carnot cycle
converted to a gas of hydrogen atoms. The final is used in its working gas, then find its carnot efficiency.
pressure would be (considering all gases to be ideal) (A) 0.038 (B) 0.028 (C) 0.053 (D) 0.072 [2019]
(A) same as the pressure initially [2015]
(B) 2 times the pressure initially 33. In an isobaric process, the work done by a di-atomic
(C) 10 times the pressure initially gas is 10 J, the heat given to the gas will be
(D) 20 times the pressure initially (A) 35 J (B) 30 J (C) 45 J (D) 60 J [2019]

34. If half life of an element is 69.3 h, then how much of its
percent will decay in 10th to 11th h. Initial activity = 50
Ci [2019]
(A) 1% (B) 2% (C) 3% (D) 4%
35. If temperature of Sun = 6000 K, radius of Sun is 7.2 × 105
km, radius of Earth = 6000 km and distance between
Earth and Sun = 15 × 107 km. Find intensity of light on
Earth. [2019]
(A) 19.2 × 1016 (B) 12.2 × 1016
(C) 18.3 × 1016 (D) 92 × 1016
36. Calculate radiation power for sphere whose temperature
is 227° C, radius 2 m and emissivity 0.8. [2019]
(A) 142.5 kW (B) 1500 W
(C) 1255 W (D) 1575 W
37. An ideal gas initially at pressure 1 bar is being
compressed from 30 m 3 to 10 m 3 volume and its
temperature decreases from 320 K to 280 K, then find
final pressure of the gas [2019]
(A) 2.625 bar (B) 3.4 bar
(C) 1.325 bar (D) 4.5 bar
CP
38. If 7 gm N2 is mixed with 20 gm Ar, there C of mixture
V
will be [2019]
25 kg
2 kg
17 11 17 17
(A) (B) (C) (D)
6 7 11 13

ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE-1
1. D 2. A 3. C 4. D 5. C 6. B 7. B 8. A 9. B 10. A 11. A 12. A 13. C

14. C 15. A 16. C 17. A 18. C 19. D 20. A 21. B 22. B 23. D 24. A 25. A 26. A
27. C 28. C 29. A 30. B 31. C 32. B 33. C 34. B 35. B 36. A 37. A 38. A 39. D
40. D 41. D 42. D 43. C 44. B 45. C 46. A 47. C 48. C 49. B 50. B 51. C 52. A
53. A 54. A 55. A 56. A 57. A 58. A 59. D 60. A 61. C 62. C 63. B 64. C 65. C
66. B 67. D 68. D 69. B 70. C 71. B 72. C 73. D 74. D 75. C 76. (i) A (ii) D
77. B 78. B 79. D 80. B 81. A 82. A 83. C 84. D 85. D 86. B 87. D 88. D 89. B
90. C 91. B 92. B 93. B 94. C 95. D 96. D 97. C 98. C 99. B 100. A 101. D 102. D
103. D 104. B 105. A 106. D 107. B 108. C 109. A 110.A 111. D 112.B 113.C 114.B 115.D
116.B 117.A 118.C 119.C 120. B 121. D 122. A 123. B 124. A 125. C 126. B 127. D 128. A
129. B 130. C 131. D 132. C 133. B 134. D 135. C 136. A 137. B 138. B 139. D 140. D 141. C
142. A 143. B 144. C 145. C 146. B 147. B 148. B 149. C 150. A 151. A 152. D 153. B 154. B
155. B 156. A 157. D 158. C 159. B 160. C 161. C 162. A 163. D 164. C 165. B 166. D 167. B
168. B 169. A 170. B 171. B 172. A
EXERCISE-2 : PART # 1
1. B 2. A 3. C 4. C 5. A 6. D 7. D 8. A 9. C 10. A 11. B 12. D 13. B

14. B 15. B 16. D 17. C 18. A 19. D 20. B 21. B 22. A 23. A 24. A 25. C 26. B
27. C 28. C 29. D 30. B 31. B 32. B 33. D 34. B 35. B 36. B 37. B 38. A 39. C
40. B 41. D 42. B 43. C 44. B 45. A 46. B 47. A 48. C 49. D 50. A
PART # 2
1. A 2. B 3. D 4. A 5. B 6. C 7. B 8. B 9. B 10. C 11. C 12. D 13. D

14. C 15. C 16. D 17. B 18. C 19. D 20. B 21. C 22. B 23. D 24. C 25. B 26. D
27. D 28. A 29. D 30. C 31. A 32. A 33. A 34. A 35. A 36. A 37. A 38. C


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PHYSICS

(iii) Different temperature scales :

Ex. Express a temperature of 60°F in degree celsius and in kelvin.

JEE | NEET | CBSE | Foundation (www.etoosindia.com)

Superficial (areal) expansion :

Also A0 = 02 and A = 2

So 2 = 02(1 + ) = [0(1 + )]2  =2

V = V0 (1 + ) Also V = 3 and V0=03 so  =3

Steel Brass ON OFF

Room temperature Higher temperature At room temperature At high temperature

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(f) Some other application

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PQ  represents expansion of vessel

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Sol. The liquid is in hydrostatic equilibrium  t gh t  0 gh 0

0°C 4°C 0°C 4°C

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Conduction Convection Radiation

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then from Kirchoff's current laws, iAl + isteel + iCu = 0

and TC, and all lateral surfaces are covered by an

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power or total emissive power e   e  d

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amount of incident amount of reflected

amount of Ferry's ideal black body

equal to the energy absorbed per unit time by the

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d A 4  T  T0  T  where w = water equivalent of calorimeter.

fall of temperature from 1 2 in time t for

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different wavelength quantity of radiations are

HEAT SPECIFIC HEAT (s or c )

heat and vice–versa. The ratio of work done to

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Sol. Universal gas constant is given by R  PV

P PV Ex. 1500 ml of a gas at a room temperature of 23°C is

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i.e., 1023 molecules/cm3. P= 

MAXWELL'S LAW OF EQUIPARTITION OF

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and so on. Let P1, P2,........ respectively the partial

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Thermal equilibrium be described by the remaining three variables

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The point A represents the initial stage of the

the work done by the gas is dW = F × dx = PA dx V V

Hence the work done by a gas is equal to the area

V is decreasing WAB < 0 WAB = – Shaded area V

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between two definite states of the system. 8 B