RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY
ABC 2307

LECTURE NO. 2 & 3

Arch. Kibowen
KEY CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH &
OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH
PROCESS

SELECTION AND DEFINITION

OF A PROBLEM

OBJECTIVES, QUESTIONS,
HYPOTHESES & ASSUMPTIONS
KEY
CONCEPTS IN
RESEARCH
 Research Methodologies

01 Qualitative
02 Quantitative
03 Mixed
Methods

Usually emphasizes words Usually emphasizes Combines use of both

rather than quantification in quantification in the qualitative and quantitative
the collection and analysis of collection and analysis of research.
data. data.
It is inductivist, constructionist It is deductivist and objectivist
and interpretivist. and incorporates a natural
science model of the
research process.
Qualitative Research
Focuses on obtaining data through open-
1
ended and conversational communication.

Key assumption: reality can exist in

2
multiple ways by different individuals.

It is about “what” people think and “why” they

3 think so. Focuses on meaning interpretations
people attach to events and occurrences.

Data is usually in the form of texts or thick

4
descriptions.
Quantitative Research
Attempts precise measurement of something.
1
It is all about figures and numbers.

Key assumption: reality is orderly and can

2 be broken down into constructs and
variables.

Researcher aims to make inferences or

generalizations to the wider populations
3
based on the results obtained from a
probability sample.

Data is analyzed using established statistical

4
procedures.
 Examples
Surveys with open-
ended questions Application forms

Secondary research in
the form of texts, images, Closed ended
audio or video recordings questionnaires

One-on-one conversations IQ tests

or interviews

Case studies Measurements

 Qualitative research is focused on data obtained
through a researcher’s first-hand observations, natural
setting recording, artifacts, case studies, documents,
Qualitative Topics

questionnaires, and interviews. The findings in

qualitative research are usually non-numerical. Common
in Humanities and social sciences.

• Effects of gender-based violence on women’s social

lives in rural areas.
• How has the promotion of feminist values influenced
workplaces?
• Alcoholism among college students: a critical study.

• The root cause of the stigma of people living with

disabilities.

• The relationship between poor education systems and

crime rates.
• The challenges of social media on children’s brain
development.
 Quantitative research is focused on quantified data
collection and analysis processes. It also includes
Quantitative Topics

collecting and analyzing non-numerical data. Common

in the natural and social sciences e.g. business,
chemistry, economics, psychology etc.

• An analysis of study habits in STEM undergraduate

courses.
• Use of sustainable designs by engineers in
infrastructure projects.
• Effectiveness of brand strategies in gaining competitive
advantage in businesses.
• COVID-19 effects on the GDP of Kenya.

• GMO crops: are they good or bad for your health?

• Relationship between immigration and crime statistics.

• Correlation between parent interference and student

academic performance.
Mixed Research Methods
Combination of both qualitative and
quantitative data to answer research
1
questions to help minimize problems within
both.
Key assumption: philosophical foundation
2 is pragmatism (use the method that gets the
data which answers your questions)

Researcher mixes or combines qualitative

and quantitative techniques, methods,
3
approaches, concepts or language in a single
study.

A proper and rigorous mixed method design

4 addresses the issue of how to mix the data to
explain the findings.
 …more key concepts
Population
01 An entire group of individuals, units or
objects having a common observable
characteristic. Sample
A smaller group obtained from the
accessible population. Each member
02
Variable of the sample is referred to as a

03 Measurable characteristic that

assumes different values among
subject..

subjects. Data
Information a research gathers
for a study.
04
Parameter A statistic that represents a

05 A character that is measurable and

assumes different values in a
parameter.

population.
 …more key concepts

Theory Statistics
A system of explaining phenomena by Science of organizing, describing and
stating constructs and the laws that analyzing data.
interrelate these constructs to each
other.
e.g. Maslow’s theory of motivation 06 07

08 09
Hypothesis Concept
A researcher’s explanation or opinion This is a verbal abstraction drawn from
regarding the result of the study. observation of a number of specific cases. A
theoretical definition explains what is meant
by a concept.

…further reading Mugenda and Mugenda chapter 2. Familiarize yourself with all the key terms.
SELECTION &
DEFINITION OF
A PROBLEM
 First step in research

A research problem is defined as a difficulty which a

Definition
researcher experiences in the context of either a
theoretical or practical situation and seeks to obtain a
solution for the same. (Kothari)

Sources of research problems:

1. Deductions from Theory
2. Interdisciplinary perspectives
3. Interviewing practitioners
4. Personal Experience
5. Relevant Literature
 It should…
• Involve an issue in need of investigation. Non-hypothetical.
• Ask about a relationship between two or more variables.
• Be stated clearly and unambiguously.
Characteristics •
•
Be possible to collect data or answer the question asked.
Contribute to theory, or the body of knowledge.
• Not represent a moral or ethical position.
• Be that the researcher can adequately investigate (skill,
time & resources)

The problem needs to

be logical, based on
actual facts whose
data can be sufficiently
obtained.
 A research problem has the following
components (Good and Scates):

Criteria in • Novelty and avoidance of unnecessary duplications.

• Importance for the field represented and implementation.

selection • Interest, intellectual curiosity, and drive.

• Training and personal qualifications.
• Availability of data and method.
• Special equipment and working conditions.
• Approachability of the sample.
• Sponsorship and administrative cooperation.
• Hazards, penalties and handicaps.
• Cost and returns.
• Time factor.
 The following questions may be raised for
this purpose:
1.Is the problem really important?

Ask?
2. Is the problem interesting to others?
3. Is the chosen problem a real problem?
4. Does the problem display originality and creativeness?
5. Am I really concerned with finding the solution?
6. Am I able to state hypotheses from the problem in a
testable form?
7. Will I learn something new from this problem?
8. Do I understand the relationship of this specific problem
to the broader problem area?
9. Will I be able to select a sample from which I can
generalize to some population?
10. Will some other intelligent person be able to replicate
the study?
Factors to be 11. Will my proposed data-gathering instruments actually
give the information which I want?
considered are both 12. Is the study, including the application of its results,
external and personal practical?
 Involves the following three stages:

Selecting a
research
problem
Selection of Identification Analysis of
problem area of the problem the problem

01 02 03

Each of these stages can be

divided further. They can’t be
skipped but can be hastened.
Any problem that is not significance to the nation or profession is not Selection of
worth consideration. A research problem can be sponsored by an agency
and can also be invented by the investigator himself/herself. problem area

It is helpful to keep in mind the following aspects while selecting the area of 01
problem for research:

a. Meaningful and of interest to the investigator

b. Have an alliance with the chain of thinking or research already in
existence.
c. Avoid ambitious problems covering a wide area of interest. A
problem of manageable size and limits should be taken up.
d. Feasibility in terms of application of scientific techniques, availability
of resources in terms of money, personnel and equipment
The researcher after having carefully understood the pattern of thinking in a
particular area of interest, seeks to consider the following aspects for the
selection of the problem for study: External Factors & Internal Factors
Identification
of the problem
a. External Factors: 02
• Novelty of the Problem
• Significance
• Source - know, explain and clearly understand the sources of problem.
• Techniques to be employed
• Sponsorship – e.g. an agency, specially when the scale is large.
• Working Conditions

b. Internal Factors:
• Interest
• Intellectual Curiosity
• Training
• Temperament and Personal Characteristics
The introductory explanation of the problem is usually followed by a detailed
definition and development of back-ground concerning sub-problems, scope,
the review of the related literature, sources of data, explanation of Analysis of
terminology used and assumptions etc. the problem
To analyze the problem in its proper perspective would be to ask five simple
questions to ourselves to ensure its feasibility: 03
A. What Do You Want to Know?
B. Where and How Will You Get the Information? This has two parts - where to get
the information and how to get it.
C. Who Will Collect the Information?
D. How Will the Information be Analyzed?
E. What Does It Mean? What are the applications of the results to the work you are
doing and to your profession. In what way these results can make your work better.
 What is a research problem statement?

Formulating A problem statement is a clear concise description of the

issue(s) that need(s) to be addressed. It is used to center

the Problem
and focus the study at the beginning. A functional research
problem helps close the gap in knowledge in a field that
can lead to more research. An accurate statement to the

Statement
problem helps you identify the motive of the research
project.
It has a specific form-
• Vision - what does the world look like if we solve the
problem?
• Issue Statement - one or two sentences that describe the
problem using specific issues.
• Method - the process that will get followed to solve the
problem.

The 5 ‘W’s - Who, What, Where, When

and Why - is a great tool that helps get
pertinent information out for discussion.
Each of the answers will help to zero in on the specific issue(s) and frame the ‘issue
statement’. Your problem statement should be solvable. That is, it should take a
reasonable amount of time to formulate, try and deploy a potential solution.
5 ‘W’s
1. Who: Who does the problem affect? Specific groups, organizations,
customers, etc.
2. What: What are the boundaries of the problem, e.g. organizational, work flow,
geographic, customer, segments, etc. - What is the issue? - What is the impact
of the issue? What impact is the issue causing? - What will happen when it is
fixed? - What would happen if we didn’t solve the problem?
3. When: When does the issue occur? - When does it need to be fixed?
4. Where: Where is the issue occurring? Only in certain locations, processes,
products, etc.
5. Why: Why is it important that we fix the problem? - What impact does it have
on the business or customer? - What impact does it have on all stakeholders
e.g. employees, suppliers, customers, shareholders, etc.
 Tips:
A good problem statement sets the tone for the rest of
your research. When formulating a research proposal in
science or for a school project, you can focus on four key
Examples aspects: context, issue, relevance, and objective.

Make sure the problem is:

• Straight to the point
• Narrow in scope
• Has no necessary jargon or highly technical language
• Has a logical argument that will convince the reader
• Emphasizes on the ‘why’ of the problem

The best way to write a problem statement

is to start with a basic structure. This will
ensure that you hit on all the key points.
After exercising, the human body is depleted of hydration and 01
electrolytes from sweating. (Context)
The person then needs to decide how best to rehydrate the body
and replenish the lost electrolytes. (Issue)
Not all beverages are equally beneficial after exercise. The coach
must decide what drink to offer volleyball players during a game or
practice. (Relevance)
In this experiment, we will investigate the electrolyte content found in
standard sports drink compared to what is found in plain coconut
water. (Objective)
Kenyatta University Referral Hospital (where) operates 24 hours a day, 7
days a week. As such, patient needs must be addressed all around the
02
clock. For the overnight shift (when), there are currently no cardiology
technologists scheduled (what), which can create issues for emergency
staff (who).
Some patients wait for four hours or more for a medical laboratory assistant
to administer an electrocardiogram (ECG), a task better suited for a
cardiology technologist to perform and interpret. This results in poorer
patient care and worse health outcomes (why). The hospital should always
have a cardiology technologist available, even if they are only on call for
the overnight shift (how).
Providing context: Since the beginning of the Covid pandemic, most educational institutions around the world
have transitioned to a fully online study model. This transition has not been easy and even two years into the

03
pandemic, problems with online teaching and studying persist (reference needed). While the increasing gap
between those with access to technology and equipment and those without access has been determined to be
one of the main challenges (reference needed), others claim that online learning offers more opportunities for
many students by breaking down barriers of location and distance (reference needed).
Establishing relevance: Since teachers and students cannot wait for circumstances to go back to normal, the
measures that schools and universities have implemented during the last two years, their advantages and
disadvantages, and the impact of those measures on students’ progress, satisfaction, and well-being need to be
understood so that improvements can be made and demographics that have been left behind can receive the
support they need as soon as possible.

Defining aims and objectives: To identify what changes in the learning environment were
considered the most challenging and how those changes relate to a variety of student outcome
measures, we conducted surveys and interviews among teachers and students at ten institutions
of higher education in four different major cities, two in the US (New York and Chicago), one in
South Korea (Seoul), and one in the UK (London). Responses were analyzed with a focus on
different student demographics and how they might have been affected differently by the current
situation.
Problem: The use of hard drugs amongst teenagers in Juja Constituency has
increased significantly over the past decade.
Background: According to the NACADA, 23.3% of Kenyans are abusing at least
one drug. Youth in the Juja are 11.94% more likely to have used drugs in the last
04
month than the average Kenyan teen. Existing data shows that this is a significant
problem but fails to address the root causes of rising drug abuse in the constituency.
Therefore, more research is required to identify why Youth in Juja constituency
abuse drugs and proffer solutions to this menace.

Relevance: Young people who abuse drugs expose themselves to many risks,
including life-threatening conditions and mental health-related problems. Drug
abuse can impact the brain’s ability to function in the short term and prevent
proper growth and development in the long term. Data shows that teenagers who
use hard drugs are more likely to be disillusioned. Addressing this problem will
give concerned parties the much-needed insights to help them curtail drug abuse.

Objectives: This research aims to identify the root causes of drug abuse amongst
the youth and map out actionable solutions to address this.
OBJECTIVES,
QUESTIONS,
HYPOTHESES &
ASSUMPTIONS
The Introduction section of a research
report or proposal contains the
research problem as well as the
objectives, research questions,
hypotheses, assumptions and
limitations of the study.

All these are directly linked in a

logical progression.
 Definitions
Hypotheses
Hypothesis: a researcher’s proposition,
which is stated in terms of some
expected result or informal opinion about
the results of the study.
Research Questions Significance
Specific questions posed by a researcher and The practical application of the results in
based on his or her problem statement in order the real world.
to help narrow the research to the most critical
aspects of the research.

Objectives Assumptions & Limitations

Desired results or outcomes that the Assumptions: Any event, situation, condition or fact
researcher aims to obtain at the that a researcher takes to be true without actually
conclusion of the study. verifying it.
Limitations: A factor, condition or situation that may
negatively influence the results of the study, yet the
researcher has little or no control over them.
 OBJECTIVES
in research

Delineate the boundaries of the study, keep scope to manageable size

Guide researcher in defining important areas to focus on
Specify issues critical to the study for data collection in order to achieve
reliable and valid data
Guide researcher in formulating testable hypotheses

Desired results or outcomes that the

researcher aims to obtain at the
conclusion of the study.
…intended consequences of the study, which translate
into the solution to the research problem.
 Objectives should be closely related to the statement of the problem.

The objectives should also be based on the key assumptions made

by the researcher – if not, validity and reliability of the data are heavily
compromised.

Two types of objectives:

1. General – broad goals to be achieved by accomplishing all
specific objectives
2. Specific – what the researcher expects to achieve by the study in
general terms. Breaking down the general objective into smaller
and logically connected parts gives us specific objectives.

EXAMPLE:
Problem – Increase in diarrhea cases in Nairobi Metropolitan
General objective: To determine the factors associated with increased number of diarrhea cases
among children in Nairobi Metropolitan
Specific Objectives:
• To find out the feeding habits of children under 5
• To find out methods used for excreta disposal
• To find out methods used for water treatment

SHOULD ADDRESS THE ORIGIN, PATTERN, EFFECT AND SOLUTION

Characteristics of research objectives

S M A R T
Specific Measurable Attainable Relevant Time-bound
Can be done
Addressing Can be Realistic given Can be
given the
one thing evaluated the local achieved in
resources
conditions the given time
available
Unambiguous Action verbs:
Determine,
Find out,
Identify
Content here

See Mugenda and Mugenda’s examples of research objectives…………

 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
in research
Specific questions posed by the researcher and based on
his or her problem statement in order to help narrow the
research to the most critical aspects of the research.
Usually brief and specific so as to seek clear answers and
provide solution to the research problem.
Data collected must directly answer every research
question posed.

A research question is a clear, focused,

concise, complex and arguable question
around which you center your research.
Developing Research questions
It is essential to develop questions that interest the researcher.

Tips:
Refer to the problem statement, especially the purpose of the study and then list several questions
that would be important to answer.

Qualities of a good research question:

• Relevant to current social issues
• Provocatively framed as a paradox
• Takes a distinctive approach
• Relevant to the topic
• Creates linkages and fills in missing pieces
• Clear and simple
• Grounded questions
• Limited variables

(Check Mugenda and Mugenda for more insights)

 HYPOTHESES
in research
It states in concrete terms what the researcher thinks
the outcome of the study will be. The researcher does
not set out to ‘prove’ the hypotheses rather sets out to
collect data that either supports or does not support
the hypothesis.
A study may have one or more hypotheses.

A tentative explanation of certain

behaviors, phenomena or events
that have occurred or will occur.
Characteristics of the hypothesis
• Based on sound rationale
• Provides a reasonable explanation
• States clearly and concisely the expected relationships between variables
• Well formulated, defined and stated.
• Testable

Types of the hypotheses

Research (or declarative) Hypothesis
Stated in declarative form. It is either directional or non-directional
Directional:
Adolescent boys with high IQ will exhibit low anxiety than adolescent boys with low IQ.
Non-directional:
There is a difference in the anxiety level of adolescent girls of high IQ and low IQ

Statistical Hypothesis
States that there is no relationship (or difference) between variables and that any relationship found will
be a chance relationship, not a true one. It is a statement about one or more parameters that are
measures of the population under study. Given in statistical terms.
Example:
The mean reading achievement of the population of 3rd grade students taught by method A equals the
mean reading achievement of the population taught by method B.
ASSUMPTIONS
in research

Beliefs and ideas that we hold to be true

Not statistically tested in research

They are beliefs about the variables

Facts that a researcher takes to

be true without verifying.
It puts a boundary around the study and provides the reader
with vital information, which influences the way the results of
the study are interpreted.
Types of assumptions
Universal Assumptions
Beliefs that are assumed to be true by a large part of society, but testing such assumptions is not
always possible.
Examples:
All human beings need love
Smoking is dangerous to your health
There is a supernatural power which governs this universe.

Study assumption
Basis for formulating hypotheses of the study. Serve as starting point from which the study proceeds
Examples:
Nursing care influences the recovery of the patient
Every Quantity Surveying student is taught about taking off during their undergraduate studies

Theory or research-based assumptions

Assumptions may be drawn from theories.
Examples:
Attitudes and behaviors of nurses are affected by the type of disease and severity of manifestations
felt by patients.
Roy’s adaptation model will use assumption of this particular theoretical model.
How to write assumptions
Conscientious writers try to avoid making unfair assumptions that stereotype or over-
generalize people or issues. At the same time, however, every argument conceals some implicit
assumption that can’t be helped.

Step 1
Locate the argument in the thesis. “ for example, in the claim “An umbrella provides the best
defense in wet weather,” the argument is that the umbrella is the best choice, in the opinion of the
writer. You can double-check if the thesis is arguable by determining if it offers a contrary
argument. In opposition to the above argument, one could claim that umbrellas do not provide the
best defense; this confirms that it is indeed the argument.

Step 2
Find the assumption inherent in the thesis. The assumption is the starting point of the thesis, or
what it bases itself on. After taking out the argument, the assumption is what remains. After
removing the argument. “An umbrella provides the best,” you are left with “defense against wet
weather,” which the writer assumes is a desirable thing.

Step 3
Write the assumption in the thesis in your own words: “The thesis assumes everyone would want
to stay dry in wet weather.”
Examples
Some common assumptions to consider
• The participants will answer the interview questions in an honest and candid manner.
• The inclusion criteria of the sample are appropriate and therefore, assures that the
participants have all experienced the same or similar phenomenon of the study.
• Participants have a sincere interest in participating in your research and do not any
other motives, such as getting a better grade in a course if they are college students or
impressing their job supervisor because they agreed to be in your study.

There may be other assumptions that are unique to your research design.

1. The various employees of commercial banks have undergone different levels of

training.
2. Employee performance at various workstations affects the University’s performance
3. It is assumed that the research model which is based on work in Europe is applicable to
the Kenyan context.
4. The primary assumption in this study is that work and family domains were the most
central realms for working women.
 Note that….

However, it is not sufficient just to assume what cannot be proven. You

need to justify that each assumption will likely be met (in the proposal)
and was probably true (in the dissertation); otherwise, the study is of no
value.
To assume, for example, that participants will respond honestly, you can
explain how identities of participants will be (or were) concealed and their
confidentiality preserved. Assuring study participants that their responses
are confidential and kept secure makes it much more likely that they will
respond honestly.
LIMITATIONS
in research

Perceived weakness of the study which are

identified discussed and reported.

Limitations are usually areas

over which you have no control.
Some typical limitations are sample size,
methodology constraints, length of the study, and
response rate.
• A common limitation in social science is the scope of the study, which limits the level
of generalization.
• The degree of randomness is a common limitation in many studies i.e. assuming the
sample is a representative of the population.
• Other limitations are brought about by the intrusion of other factors into the study
e.g. age consideration in causes of accidents as age affects eyesight.

NB: factors which can be controlled by the researcher should not be

included as assumptions or limitations unless a good rationale is provided.
Such factors should be built into the study as control variables.
Examples
• There may be unknown conditions or factors at the facility where the participants
reside, work, or study that could bias the responses of the participants.
• If you are collecting data from the elderly, if is possible that some of their recollections
of events, situations, and feelings could be questionable.
• The number of participants or subjects is enough from which to adequately draw
conclusions.
• In qualitative methods, you will want the numbers of participants to reach a level at
which saturation of the data is achieved; no new data or meaningful units are being
discovered.

Suggestion: define and cite two or three sources regarding assumptions

and limitations before including the specific ones relevant to
your study. Show that you know the literature you consulted in
understanding your specific assumptions and limitations.
 SIGNIFICANCE
of the research

 Include the extent to which the results support or refute

existing theories or findings and hence add new knowledge
or bridge existing knowledge gaps in the subject area.

State the significance of the study in

terms of the practical application of the
results in the real world.
Types:

Contribution of research findings to practice:

Example: This study provides the organization with an understanding of
work-family conflict and its consequences, particularly the negative
spillover effects on emotional exhaustion, job satisfaction and job
performance.

Contribution of research to findings to theory:

Example: Enhancing the theoretical framework of work-family conflict by
integrating other related concepts such as emotional exhaustion, job
satisfaction and job performance to enable the inter-relationships be more
fully understood.
 Assignments
Watch: How to Choose a Dissertation Topic | The Research
Process Beginners Guide By Dr, Amina Yonis
https://youtu.be/pUPR8maqk1Q

Download and come with a physical copy to next class

A journal paper from an area of interest to you in the construction industry.
OR
Chapter one and two of a thesis from an area of interest to you in the
construction industry.

Individual Writing Assignment due in two weeks (typed, 1 A4 sheet)

Identify an area of interest to you and then write a problem statement focusing on a real
problem faced in your 2 years in JKUAT.
Remember to state objectives, assumptions you have made and its significance. Write
hypothesis

Research Methods by Mugenda and Mugenda

Chapter 5: Review of Literature
Chapter 6: Conceptual Framework classification and measurement of variables
END