PROJECT

PROJECT

Name: Rahul
Mohammed
Subject: physics Abraar M
Topic: research
Topic:To Research and
AC discover novelhelp
To DC with electricity
of
methods
half-wave and full- wave resistor
Name: Harish Balaji.B
Class:XII
Class: XII

Guided by Prepared by
Jagadesh.N Mohammed Abraar
Jagadesh N HRahul V .B M
arish Balaji
 VIDHYALAKSHMI SCHOOL

Department of Physics

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr.Mohammed Abraar M, a student of class

XII-B has successfully completed the research on the below
mentioned project under the guidance of Mr.JAGADESH (Subject
Teacher) during the year 2023-24 in partial fulfillment of physics
practical examination conducted by CBSE, New Delhi.

Signature of external examiner Signature of physics teacher

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank my Principal Mrs. UMA A E and school

management for providing me with the facilities required to do
my
project.
I am highly indebted to my physics teacher Mr.JAGADESH N
their able guidance which has sustained my efforts in all the stages
of this project work.
I would also like to thank my parents for their continuous support
and encouragement. My thanks and appreciation also go to my
fellow classmates and the librarian in developing the project and
to the others who have willingly helped me out with their abilities.
Date: Name of the student:

Contents
•
Introduction on half wave and full wave rectifier

•
Advantages

•
Types

•
Abstract

•
Background study

•
Idea and methodology

•
Basic principles

•
Rectification
•
Creating PCB layout

•
Total cost
 Study of AC to DC Converter

In a half-wave rectifier, one half of each a.c input cycle is rectified.

When the p-n junction diode is forward biased, it gives little resistance
and when it is reversed biased it provides high resistance. During one-
half cycles, the diode is forward biased when the input voltage is
applied and in the opposite half cycle, it is reverse biased. During
alternate half-cycles, the optimum result can be obtained.

Working of Half Wave Rectifier

The half-wave rectifier has both positive and negative cycles. During
the positive half of the input, the current will flow from positive to
negative which will generate only a positive half cycle of the a.c
supply. When a.c supply is applied to the transformer, the voltage will
be decreasing at the secondary winding of the diode. All the variations
in the a.c supply will reduce, and we will get the pulsating d.c voltage
to the load resistor.

Half Wave Rectifier

In the second half cycle, the current will flow from negative to positive
and the diode will be reverse biased. Thus, at the output side, there will
be no current generated, and we cannot get power at the load
resistance. A small amount of reverse current will flow during reverse
bias due to minority carriers.

Read More: Half-wave Rectifier

Characteristics of Half Wave Rectifier

Following are the characteristics of half-wave rectifier:

Ripple Factor

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 Ripples are the oscillations that are obtained in DC which are corrected
by using filters such as inductors and capacitors. These ripples are
measured with the help of the ripple factor and are denoted by γ. Ripple
factor tells us the number of ripples presents in the output DC. Higher
the ripple factor, more is the oscillation at the output DC and lower is
the ripple factor, less is the oscillation at the output DC.

Ripple factor is the ratio of RMS value of the AC component of the

output voltage to the DC component of the output voltage.

DC Current
DC current is given as:

Where,

Imax is the maximum DC load current

DC Output Voltage
The output DC voltage appears at the load resistor RL which is
obtained by multiplying output DC voltage with the load resistor RL.
The output DC voltage is given as:

Where,

VSmax is the maximum secondary voltage

Form Factor
The form factor is the ratio of RMS value to the DC value. For a half-
wave rectifier, the form factor is 1.57.

Rectifier Efficiency

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 Rectifier efficiency is the ratio of output DC power to the input AC
power. For a half-wave rectifier, rectifier efficiency is 40.6%.

Advantages of Half Wave Rectifier

Affordable
Simple connections
Easy to use as the connections are simple
Number of components used are less
Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier
Ripple production is more
Harmonics are generated
Utilization of the transformer is very low
The efficiency of rectification is low
Applications of Half Wave Rectifier
Following are the uses of half-wave rectification:

Power rectification: Half wave rectifier is used along with a

transformer for power rectification as powering equipment.
Signal demodulation: Half wave rectifiers are used for demodulating
the AM signals.
Signal peak detector: Half wave rectifier is used for detecting the peak
of the incoming waveform.
What Is Full Wave Rectifier?
Full-wave rectifier circuits are used for producing an output voltage or
output current which is purely DC. The main advantage of a full- wave
rectifier over half-wave rectifier is that such as the average output
voltage is higher in full-wave rectifier, there is less ripple produced in
full-wave rectifier when compared to the half-wave rectifier.

Read More: Full-wave Rectifier

Working of Full Wave Rectifier

The full-wave rectifier utilizes both halves of each a.c input. When the
p-n junction is forward biased, the diode offers low resistance and
when it is reverse biased it gives high resistance. The circuit is
designed in such a manner that in the first half cycle if the diode is
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 forward biased then in the second half cycle it is reverse biased and so
on.

Full Wave Rectifier

Characteristics of Full Wave Rectifier

Following are the characteristics of full-wave rectifier:

Ripple Factor
Ripple factor for a full-wave rectifier is given as:

DC Current
Currents from both the diodes D1 and D2 are in the same direction
when they flow towards load resistor RL. The current produced by
both the diodes is the ratio of Imax to π, therefore the DC current is
given as:

Where,

Imax is the maximum DC load current

DC Output Voltage
DC output voltage is obtained at the load resistor RL and is given as:

Where,

Vmax is the maximum secondary voltage

Form Factor
The form factor is the ratio of RMS value of current to the output DC
voltage. The form factor of a full-wave rectifier is given as 1.11
Rectifier Efficiency

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 Rectifier efficiency is used as a parameter to determine the efficiency
of the rectifier to convert AC into DC. It is the ratio of DC output
power to the AC input power. The rectifier efficiency of a full-wave
rectifier is 81.2%.

Types of Full Wave Rectifier

There are two main types of full-wave rectifiers, and they are:

Two diodes full-wave rectifier circuit (requires a center-tapped

transformer and is used in vacuum tubes)
Bridge rectifier circuit (doesn’t require a centre-tapped transformer
and is used along with transformers for efficient usage)
Advantages of Full Wave Rectifier
The rectifier efficiency of a full-wave rectifier is high
The power loss is very low
Number of ripples generated are less
Disadvantages of Full Wave Rectifier
Very expensive
Applications of Full Wave Rectifier
Following are the uses of full-wave rectifier:

Full-wave rectifiers are used for supplying polarized voltage in

welding and for this bridge rectifiers are used.
Full-wave rectifiers are used for detecting the amplitude of modulated
radio signals.
Difference between Half Wave Rectifier and Full Wave Rectifier
Parameter Half Wave Rectifier Full Wave Rectifier
Definition The half-wave rectifier is a rectifier which is used for
converting the one-half cycle of AC input to DC output A full- wave
rectifier is a rectifier which is used for converting both the half cycles
of AC input into DC output
No. of diodes used 1 2 or 4 depending on the type of circuit Form factor
1.57 1.11
Rectifier efficiency 40.6% 81.2%

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 Ripple factor Ripple factor of a half-wave rectifier is
more Ripple factor of a full-wave rectifier is less

Abstract:

Modern electrical equipment has a low DC output voltage. The alternating

current utility supply must be converted and stepped down to a sufficient DC
voltage. Previously, converters were enormous in size and cost a lot of money.
The discovery of the switch mode power supply enabled a significant decrease
in size and cost. This aim is achieved via increasing power density, which is
accomplished by reducing the size of passive/energy storage components such
as inductors, capacitors, and transformers. For better usage of existing electric
energy, the complete power system should be run at high efficiency, which is
why numerous types of converters are currently used. The research of AC-DC
converters is carried out in this thesis, together with necessary simulations, to
achieve a greater grasp of the issue. As a result, the primary goal of this
research is to thoroughly investigate the working principles and applications of
linear power supply in ac to dc converters.

Keywords: Ac to Dc converter, Full wave rectifier, transformer, PCB layout

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I. Introduction

At present time there is an increasing demand for efficient systems every

time we communicate approximately electricity consumptions and so as to
keep up with those needs engineers were coming forward growing
efficient conversion strategies and additionally been capable of design
circuits with excessive performance. Nevertheless, technology on this
discipline remains improving with facing new demanding situations.
Converter in power electronics converts power from one type to another
by means of various the voltage or frequency. Power conversion is based
on kind of the input and output power. Converter driven programs are
broadly used. The electrical power conversion is an exceptional field of
electrical engineering. The Power electronics is the utilization of solidstate
gadgets to control of electric power and transformation of electric power.
It is also restrictive as it excludes rotating machines (electrical motor and
generator) [1]. Converter may do one or more functions and give an output
that varies from the input. The converters are used to increase or decrease
the magnitude of the input voltage, invert polarity or produce several
output voltages of either the same polarity with the input, different polarity,
or mixed polarities. The converters are used in nonlinear components. For
example, the semiconductor switches, and linear reactive components.
There are different types of linear components such as the inductors,
transformers and capacitors for intermediate energy storage as well as
current and voltage filtering. The size, weight and cost of the converter are
mainly determined by these components. However, power conversion
systems can be classified according to whether the input and output are
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 alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) [2,3]. Alternative current
(AC) to Direct current (DC) is one of those heavily used conversion in
power electronics system. For instance, a laptop battery adapter is the
example of the AC to DC conversion. Here, adapter ‘s input current is AC
and output current is DC. The reason behind for using the

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constant DC voltage is that it is free of ripples or unwanted frequencies.

The DC circuit is formed in such a way that the rectification and filtering
process will be carried out properly. If the supply of DC voltage is not
constant, a laptop cannot be charged properly. The main feature of the
rectifier is it must handle the output current (load). After that, we connect
the output of rectifier to the filter. As we know, filter is nothing but a
device, which filters out the ripples in the unidirectional ac voltage and
converts it back to pure dc voltage. There are two kinds of filter used in
the circuit, inductor and capacitor. Capacitors are the widely used filters.
But instead of giving less value if we increase the value of capacitor some
circuit, we can get voltage greater than or equal to the dc output voltage
(that must be same of transformer output voltage) so that you'll get a pure
dc output without any ripples. Theoretically, it is recommended to use a
high voltage capacitor (like 150% of output voltage) to get less ripple and
a smooth graph. We try to add a couple of capacitors to get our desired
output dc voltage lesser than the transformer output voltage, that is why
we will connect a voltage regulator next to the capacitor [3]. We are using
230V/50Hz AC supply which connect to step-down transformer which
will step down and give a DC voltage depending on transformer rating that
connect rectifier circuit, which converts from AC to pulsating DC after
that connect Capacitor (filter). Afterwards it converts pulsating AC to pure
DC. In order to get constant DC, we need to connect regulator IC -
LM7812 that maintains the output voltage at a constant value. We are
using LM7812 IC, which provides +12 volts regulated power supply. In
addition, we try to collect the different changing value for changing the
AC voltage and will try to simulate the output waveform. For this purpose,
we will use PROTEUS software to get our desired result and waveform.

Background Study

10
 The transmission of electric power is in an alternating current (AC) system,
with a few exceptions. With the advancement of alternating to direct current
converters, they are becoming a recognized and
widely used application. As a result, ac dc converter has recently framed a
functional research domain. The need for DC power might be supplemental,
such as in electronic controls, or critical, such as the DC connection of a
motor.
Meanwhile, governing authorities, such as IEC 1000, Std 500, and others,
maintain rigorous harmonics guidelines. This is due to the requirement for a
strong factor and minimal line
current harmonics distortion. To change line frequency from
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ac to dc, a line frequency diode bridge rectifier is utilized. A large filter

capacitor is utilized at the rectifier Background Study

The transmission of electric power is in an alternating current (AC) system, with

a few exceptions. With the
advancement of alternating to direct current converters, they are becoming a
recognized and widely used application.
As a result, ac dc converter has recently framed a functional research domain.
The need for DC power might be
supplemental, such as in electronic controls,

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12
 or critical, such as the DC connection of a motor. Meanwhile, governing
authorities, such as IEC 1000, Std 500,
and others, maintain rigorous
harmonics guidelines. This is due to the requirement for a strong factor and
minimal line current harmonics
distortion. To change line frequency from ac to dc, a line frequency diode bridge
rectifier is utilized. A large filter capacitor is utilized at the rectifier output to
diminish the ripple in the output voltage. In any case, current drawn by this
converter is peaky by characteristics for the larger capacitor. This input current
is high in low order harmonics and because of the existence of these harmonics,
the aggregate harmonic distortion is high and the input control factor is denied.
Issues related with these low power factors also, harmonics, utilities will
authorize harmonic standards and rules which will constrain the measure of
current distortion permitted into the utility. It is greatly required to
accomplishing rectification at near utility power factor and low input current
distortion [4].

II.Theory & Methodology

AC-DC converters are electrical circuits that transform alternating current
(AC) input into direct current (DC) output. They are used in power electronic
applications where the power input a 50Hz or 60Hz sine- wave AC voltage
that requires power conversion for a DC output. We utilize control electronic
converters in our day-byday life at home, business work places or in a
mechanical situation. Converters have become an integrated part of industrial
electric drives, power supplies and other automobile equipment’s due to high
power handling capability with higher efficiency. Power electronic
components such as, Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs) [or Thyristor],
Triode for Alternating Current (TRIACs), Insulated Gate Bi- polar Transistor
(IGBT) are used for power electronic converters to control and change over
electric power. The principle point of the converter is to deliver moulding
power regarding a specific application [5].

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 Fig.1: Block diagram of a power electronic converter.

The block diagram of a power electronic converter shows that it contains an

electrical energy source, power electronic circuit, a control circuit and a load
circuit.
This converter changes one form of electrical energy to another. Commercially
available voltages are time varying voltages used in large quantities.
Alternating current (AC) is the electric current which periodically reverses the
flow of direction. Commercially a variable AC wave forms are Sinusoidal,
Square wave, Complex wave form and Triangular wave [6].

Fig.2: Alternating waveforms.

We are interested in Sinusoidal ac voltage since it is encountered and utilized

all over the world. The process of converting AC current to DC current is also
known as rectification. We utilize alternating current in our house, but we
cannot always use alternating current everywhere. Sometimes we need to
convert this to a direct current source. That is why correction is required. The
term "rectifier" refers to an AC to DC converter. The circuit converts an
alternating current signal to a direct current signal by allowing the signal to
flow in just one direction [7]. Filters are used to smooth down the output even
further.
Some examples of AC-DC converters are:

1) AC/DC converters (off-line) 3ph- Input/3KW

2) AC/DC converter (off-line) as insert unit 3) AC/DC converters (off-line) with
3 outputs, pen frame

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 4) AC/DC converters (off-line) as Build-In- Unit 6HE
5) AC/DC converters (rectifier) for Telecom
Application

Basic Principles The block diagram of a basic AC-DC

converter is given below.

Fig.3: Block diagram of an AC-to- DC converter.

To bias all electronic circuits, a DC power source is necessary. Depending on the

electronic application, the DC output Vo will typically be in the 3- 24V range.
The diode is highly beneficial in this case since the properties of a silicon diode
are non- linear, which means that current occurs for one voltage polarity but is
zero for the opposite polarity.
There are several methods for correction. We'll go through them all afterwards.
The simplest power electronics circuit used in radios for low-cost power supply
is the halfwave rectifier. However, for most power applications, half wave
rectification is inadequate. Because the waveform's harmonic richness is so high,
filtering the output is extremely challenging. The essential ideas of this rectifier
are fairly simple to grasp. Let's look at the fundamentals of a half-wave rectifier.

Half Wave Rectifier

During each positive half cycle of the sine wave, the diode is forward biased as
the anode is positive so the current flows through the diode. The diode is in
reverse biased during the negative half cycle which blocks the current flow. This
way all positive half cycle waveforms are made unidirectional. Using a capacitor
parallel to the load the amount of ripple voltage can be reduced and a steady
current is produced.

Full Wave Rectification

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 The full wave rectification uses both positive and negative half cycles of the
sine wave. In case of full wave rectification, two diodes are used of which one
conducts during the positive half cycle and the other conducts during the
negative half cycle. The important point is that the current through the load
flows in the same direction thus the output is unidirectional. Turning on a
diode depends on the polarity of the cathode voltage and turning it off depends
on the device current. Three terminal devices such as Thyristor, BJT and
MOSFET etc. can be used to control the output voltage. The conversion of
AC-DC will take place when input is an AC supply and the output is a DC
load for example battery charging, DC motor, electrolysis, electromagnets etc.
In designing a rectifier, two important parameters must be specified: the
current handling capability and the Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) the diode must
withstand without breakdown. PIV is specified by the manufacturer [8].

I. Layout Design
Software: Proteus 8 Professional

There is various way of getting AC to DC voltage converter. We can use power

electronic converters such as step-down converter, step-up converter, voltage
stabilizer, AC to DC converter, DC to DC converter, DC to AC converter. Here,
we are doing analysis by using Single Phase Transformer with Full Bridge
Rectifier.

Fig.4: Circuit Diagram of AC voltage as input with output of Full

Bridge rectifier.

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 Fig.5: PCB Layout of the circuit
I.CREATING THE PCB LAYOUT

Open your PCB Layout in the top icon section, and click on the PCB Layout
button:

Fig.6: Creating PCB layout interface

The footprints associated with each schematic symbol will be automatically

transferred to the PCB editor using auto placer option:

Fig.7: PCB layout Manual Routing

Notice the thin blue lines connecting the components. These are called
ratsnest lines. Ratsnest lines are virtual wires that represent the connections

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 between components. They show you where you need to route the traces
according to the wiring connections you created in your schematic:

Fig.8: PCB layout Ratsnest Lines

Now we can start arranging the components, keeping in mind the design tips
mentioned above. We might want to do some research to find out if there are
any special design requirements for our circuit. Some circuits perform better
with certain components in specific locations. For example, in an LM7812
amplifier circuit the power supply decoupling capacitors need to be placed
close to the chip to reduce noise.
After we’ve arranged all of the components, it’s time to start drawing the
traces. Use the ratsnest wires as a rough guide for routing each trace. However,
they won’t always show the best way to route the traces, so it’s a good idea to
refer back to your schematic to verify the correct connections. Traces can also
be routed automatically using the software’s auto-router. For complicated
circuits, it’s generally better to route traces manually, but try the auto-router on
simpler designs and see what it comes up with. We can always adjust individual
traces later.

Now we have to Click on Output To get the Top Silk

& Bottom Copper Layout print

Fig.9: PCB layout Printing options in Proteus

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 Fig.10: PCB layout (Top Silk)

Fig.11: PCB layout (Bottom Copper)

I. Hardware Preparation

i. Component Selection
1. Transformer with 1A 12V Rating
2. 4 pcs 1N4007 Diodes
3. 470uF & 220uF Electrolytic capacitor.
4. LDO or a Linear Voltage Regulator as per specification (Here LM7812
used).
5. A multi meter to measure the voltage.

ii. Complete Hardware

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 Fig.12: Complete Hardware Visuals (Ac to Dc Converter) II. Results
From the circuit diagram shown in Fig 4, we give an AC source where AC
voltage is given 220V and Frequency is 50Hz. Here, a transformer is attached
with AC source which will transform 220v and make it a low voltage AC wave
as AC voltage has positive (+Ve) and negative (-Ve) terminals. Here, after step
down to a smaller voltage we need to stop polarity changes. To make electrons
pass only in one direction we need diodes. Here we are using 4 diodes as a
bridge so that a positive and negative cycle will convert into a positive cycle
where lower waves are lifted and make the wave as one directional. From Fig
14 we can see the output result of the sinusoidal wave when attached with a
Full Bridge Rectifier.

Fig.13: Simulation Graph of AC voltage as input with output of Full

Bridge rectifier.

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 Fig.14: Circuit Diagram of AC voltage as input with output of
DC voltage

Now, adding capacitor of higher value so that it can store charge. Here we are
using Capacitors C1=470 µF and C2=220 µF. We can see that AC voltage come
from the transformer as a sinusoidal wave, after that rectifier flips the negative
half cycle into positive. Then with the help of capacitor the become smoother.
Adding more capacitor, we can get smoother DC voltage. From Fig 15. We can
see the DC output which is almost straight with the help of capacitors. From the
circuit diagram, we can see the input from AC voltage coming from transformer
and the output is from DC voltage source. A capacitor C3= 470 µF is attached
to store charge. Here we use
oscilloscope for measuring the graph of AC input and DC output. We get output
of DC voltage= +12V.

Fig.15: Simulation Graph of AC voltage as input with output

of DC voltage.

Actually, line voltage is always presented. Filter capacitor fills those gaps as
they don't get discharge very fast. It’s smoothly generating DC. When the
first DC wave comes up capacitor get charged and wave comes to zero
instantly but capacitor discharge slowly, then output line voltage is seen. As
the capacitors don't get discharge very fast so capacitor fills those gaps which
smoothly generates DC. Now if we want to make it straighter then we have
to add more voltage regulator. This can be done by a zener diode also. Zener
diode act as same as diode but it has a condition, limitation at a specific
voltage. Here we are changing ac voltage to get our desired output. We get
our dc voltage 11.95V when ac voltage is 220V.

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 Table.1: Practical result

Fig.16: Hardware AC to Dc Converter Output Voltage

Here, we can see that we get almost our desired 12V output voltage. So, we
can claim that our project is running properly.

Total Cost

[Estimated total cost associated with this project is around

600 Taka]

Timeline

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 I. Discussion and Conclusion
AC to DC convert by using full bridge rectifier with different combination
of load and observed the DC outcomes through simulations. We also studied
about different types and application of AC-DC converters, keeping our
main focus on single phase with full bridge rectifier converter circuits. We
gained vast knowledge about PROTEUS software during the project, where
we carried out all our circuit construction and simulation respectively. The
main function is to have a good conversion voltage from AC to DC, for that
reason where we are using full bridge

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View publication stats rectifier instead of normal diodes attaching or

Zener diode. As we know Zener diode have limitation so when it reaches to
that limitation it become bi- directional although it doesn’t need voltage
regulator but it will make bi- directional wave up to a limit. That is why we
used full bridge rectifier and a voltage regulator to make a simple
conversion. Besides, for better results we can use a voltage regulator chip or
U0001f3a9 like 7805, 7812, 7905, 7912 to obtain a constant voltage (both
positive and negative are possible). In Bangladesh the supply is 220Volts
in 50Hz for households. We get 11.94V as DC output when we apply 220V
as AC input.

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