Business Research Method

Unit 4

By
Dr. Anand Vyas
Sampling: Basic Concepts: Defining the Universe,
• Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a
predetermined number of observations are taken from a larger
population. The methodology used to sample from a larger
population depends on the type of analysis being performed, but it
may include simple random sampling or systematic sampling.
• The universe consists of all survey elements that qualify for inclusion
in the research study. The precise definition of the universe for a
particular study is set by the research question, which specifies who
or what is of interest. The universe may be individuals, groups of
people, organizations, or even objects.
Concepts of Statistical Population, Sample,
• A population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions
about. A sample is the specific group that you will collect data from.
The size of the sample is always less than the total size of the
population. In research, a population doesn't always refer to people.
Characteristics of a good sample.
• (1) Goal-oriented: A sample design should be goal oriented. It is means and should be oriented to the
research objectives and fitted to the survey conditions.
• (2) Accurate representative of the universe: A sample should be an accurate representative of the universe
from which it is taken. There are different methods for selecting a sample. It will be truly representative only
when it represents all types of units or groups in the total population in fair proportions. In brief sample
should be selected carefully as improper sampling is a source of error in the survey.
• (3) Proportional: A sample should be proportional. It should be large enough to represent the universe
properly. The sample size should be sufficiently large to provide statistical stability or reliability. The sample
size should give accuracy required for the purpose of particular study.
• (4) Random selection: A sample should be selected at random. This means that any item in the group has a
full and equal chance of being selected and included in the sample. This makes the selected sample truly
representative in character.
• (5) Economical: A sample should be economical. The objectives of the survey should be achieved with
minimum cost and effort.
• (6) Practical: A sample design should be practical. The sample design should be simple i.e. it should be
capable of being understood and followed in the fieldwork.
• (7) Actual information provider: A sample should be designed so as to provide actual information required
for the study and also provide an adequate basis for the measurement of its own reliability.
Sampling Frame (practical approach for
determining the sample frame expected),
• Qualities of a Good Sampling Frame
• You can’t just use any list you come across! Care must be taken to
make sure your sampling frame is adequate for your needs.

• Include all individuals in the target population.

• Exclude all individuals not in the target population.
• Includes accurate information that can be used to contact selected
individuals.
• a sampling frame is the source material or device from which a
sample is drawn.
Sampling errors, Non Sampling errors,
• A Sampling error is a statistical error that occurs when an analyst does not
select a sample that represents the entire population of data and the
results found in the sample do not represent the results that would be
obtained from the entire population. Sampling is an analysis performed by
selecting a number of observations from a larger population, and the
selection can produce both sampling errors and non-sampling errors.

• A non-sampling error is an error that results during data collection, causing

the data to differ from the true values. Non-sampling error differs from
sampling error. A sampling error is limited to any differences between
sample values and universe values that arise because the entire universe
was not sampled
Methods to reduce the errors,
1. Increase the sample size.
2. Divide the population into groups.
3. Know your population.
4. Thoroughly Pretest your Survey Mediums
5. Avoid Rushed or Short Data Collection Periods
6. Send Reminders to Potential Respondents
7. Ensure Confidentiality
8. Use Incentives
Sample Size constraints, Non Response.
• Effects of Small Sample Size
• In short, when researchers are constrained to a small sample size for economic or
logistical reasons, they may have to settle for less conclusive results. Whether or not
this is an important issue depends ultimately on the size of the effect they are
studying.
• Effect of Large Sample Size
• There is a widespread belief that large samples are ideal for research or statistical
analysis. However, this is not always true. Using the above example as a case study,
very large samples that exceed the value estimated by sample size calculation
present different hurdle.
• One of the most important problems is non-response. It is the phenomenon that
the required information is not obtained from the persons selected in the sample.
• The consequences of non-response
• One effect of non-response is that is reduces the sample size. This does not lead to
wrong conclusions. Due to the smaller sample size, the precision of estimators will
be smaller. The margins of error will be larger
Probability Sample: Simple Random Sample,
• Simple random sampling as the name suggests is a completely
random method of selecting the sample. This sampling method is as
easy as assigning numbers to the individuals (sample) and then
randomly choosing from those numbers through an automated
process. Finally, the numbers that are chosen are the members that
are included in the sample.
Systematic Sample,
• Systematic Sampling is when you choose every “nth” individual to be
a part of the sample. For example, you can choose every 5th person
to be in the sample. Systematic sampling is an extended
implementation of the same old probability technique in which each
member of the group is selected at regular periods to form a sample.
Stratified Random Sample,
• Stratified Random sampling involves a method where a larger
population can be divided into smaller groups that usually don’t
overlap but represent the entire population together. While sampling
these groups can be organized and then draw a sample from each
group separately.
•
Area Sampling & Cluster Sampling.
• Area sampling is a method of sampling used when no complete frame
of reference is available. The total area under investigation is divided
into small sub-areas which are sampled at random or according to a
restricted process (stratification of sampling). Each of the chosen sub-
areas is then fully inspected and enumerated, and may form the basis
for further sampling if desired.
• There are two ways to classify cluster sampling. The first way is based
on the number of stages followed to obtain the cluster sample and
the second way is the representation of the groups in the entire
cluster.
Non Probability Sample:
• Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique in which the
researcher selects samples based on the subjective judgment of the
researcher rather than random selection.
• In non-probability sampling, not all members of the population have a
chance of participating in the study unlike probability sampling,
where each member of the population has a known chance of being
selected.
• Non-probability sampling is most useful for exploratory studies like
pilot survey (a survey that is deployed to a smaller sample compared
to pre-determined sample size).
Judgment Sampling, Convenience Sampling,
Quota Sampling
• In judgmental sampling, the samples are selected based purely on researcher’s
knowledge and credibility. In other words, researchers choose only those who he
feels are a right fit (with respect to attributes and representation of a population)
to participate in research study
• Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where samples
are selected from the population only because they are conveniently available to
researcher. These samples are selected only because they are easy to recruit and
researcher did not consider selecting sample that represents the entire
population.
• Quota Sampling
• For studying the career goals of 500 employees, technically the sample selected
should have proportionate numbers of males and females. Which means there
should be 250 males and 250 females. Since, this is unlikely, the groups or strata
is selected using quota sampling.
Snowballing Sampling methods & Consecutive Sampling

• Snowballing Sampling methods

• For example, this type of sampling can be used to conduct research
involving a particular illness in patients or a rare disease. Researchers can
seek help from subjects to refer other subjects suffering from the same
ailment to form a subjective sample to carry out the study.

• Consecutive Sampling
• This non-probability sampling technique is very similar to convenience
sampling, with a slight variation. Here, the researcher picks a single
person or a group of sample, conducts research over a period of time,
analyzes the results and then moves on to another subject or group of
subject if needed.
Determining size of the sample
• Determining sample size is a very important issue because samples that are too large
may waste time, resources and money, while samples that are too small may lead to
inaccurate results. In many cases, we can easily determine the minimum sample size
needed to estimate a process parameter, such as the population mean.
• Determining sample size is a very important issue because samples that are too large
may waste time, resources and money, while samples that are too small may lead to
inaccurate results. In many cases, we can easily determine the minimum sample size
needed to estimate a process parameter, such as the population mean.

• learn how to determine the sample size using a sample calculation formula known as the
Andrew Fisher’s Formula.

1. Determine the population size (if known).

2. Determine the confidence interval. ± 5%
3. Determine the confidence level. 95%
4. Determine the standard deviation (a standard deviation of 0.5 is a safe choice where
the figure is unknown)
5. Convert the confidence level into a Z-Score.