 RECEPTION,  Response to a variety of

RESPONSE, stimuli
CORDINATION
 Responses can be grouped
 Sensitivity / irritability – according to the type of
it’s the ability to detect and stimuli. This may involve
respond to changes in the the movement of the whole
environment. organism or a part of it in
 Stimuli (singular stimulus – response to the stimuli. If
it’s a variation in condition the movement is towards
the stimuli, then it is called
which can produce a
a positive (-ve) response
change in activity in part or but if it’s away from it its
the whole organism. called negative
 Response - it’s a change in responseE.g.
activity by the organism  Taxis - this is a locomotory
 Receptors – the part of the response of a motile cell
body which receives stimuli e.g. gamete or a whole
organism in response to an
 Effectors – those parts of
external stimuli. The
the body that bring about stimuli is unidirectional i.e.
response. a stimuli from one
 In order for sensitivity and direction. The responses are
response to be effected grouped according to the
there must be receptors to stimuli which cause them.
 Phototaxis – this is a
receive the stimuli,
response to variation in
coordinators to integrate light intensity and direction
information received e.g. when Euglena,
transmission system to spirogyra and fruit flies
conduct the stimuli move towards light; wood
&effectors to respond to the lice, maggots and termites
stimuli e.g. usually move away from
the light.

Page 1 of 37
 Aerotaxis – this is response temperature (150c) to
to variation in oxygen moderate warmth (250c)
concentration e.g. amoeba  Survival value of tactic
moving from an area of low responses
oxygen concentration to  Enable organisms escape
high oxygen concentration. from harmful stimuli e.g.
 Osmotaxis – response to excessive heat, predators.
variation in osmotic  Organisms are able to seek
pressure as shown by favorable habitats and
marine crabs burrowing in acquire resources e.g.
the sand to avoid dilution of nutrients, mates e.t.c.
the body fluids.  Chemo taxis enables
 Rheotaxis – response to fertilization to take place
variation in direction of  Reception, response
water or air currents. coordination in plants
 Fishes and planarians move  The sensitivity of plants is
against currents in water brought about by responses
while butterflies and moths on part of the plant. This
fly into wind currents in response is in form of
order to detect the scent of growth movement or
flowers. tropisms.
 Chemotaxis – response to  Tropisms
variation in chemical  This is a growth movement
substance e.g. movement of of parts of plants in
male gametes towards the response to unidirectional
female gametes. Sperms external stimulus.
(antherozoids) of mosses  The growth movements are
and ferns are attracted to often slow because growth
move towards chemical rate is usually controlled by
produced by the ovum in plant hormones(auxins)
the archegonia. Mosquitoes  Types of Tropisms
will fly away from  Phototropism
insecticide repellants.  This is a growth curvature
 Thermotaxis – it is the in response to the direction
locomotory response o of intensity of light. Shoots
Page 2 of 37
 are positively phototropic  Survival value of tropic
while roots show negative responses
phototropism.  Phototropism exposes the
 Chemotropism leaves in position to
 This is a growth curvature maximize light absorption
in response to a gradient of thereby enhancing
chemical concentration e.g. photosynthesis.
pollen tubes grow towards  Hydrotropism enables the
chemicals secreted by the roots of the plant to seek
embryo sac. water.
 Geotropism  Haptotropism enables the
 This refers to the growth plant to obtain mechanical
curvature in response to support especially in those
gravity. Roots are plants lacking woody
positively geotropic while stems.
shoots are negatively  Geotropism enables plants
geotropic. roots to grow deeper into
 Hydrotropism the soil thus offering firm
 It refers to the curvature in anchorage to the plant.
response to water or  Chemotropism enables the
moisture. Plant roots are pollen tubes to grow
positively hydrotropic. towards the embryo sac
 Haptotropism/ thereby facilitating
Thigmotropism fertilization.
 This is growth curvature in  Comparison of tropic and
response to contact with a tactic responses.
solid object. It is shown by  Tropism and taxes are both
tendrils or climbing stems adaptive responses that
which twine around objects enable the organism to
e.g. branches or tree stems. survive better in their
 Root tips show negative environments.
thigmotropism when they  Both responses are due to
grow avoiding solid similar external stimuli
obstacles such as rocks. such as light, water
temperature.
Page 3 of 37
  Both responses are due to plants. At these bases there
unidirectional stimuli. are pressure sensitive
swellings called pulvini
Tropisms Taxes. which through loss or gain
i. Results in Results in of turgidity bring about
growth Locomotory these movements.
curvature responses which o Types of Nastisms
responses are temporary.  Nyctinasty (Sleep
which are movement)
more  These are movements in
permanent response to differences in
ii. Responses Reponses are light intensity and
are slow fast temperature changes of the
iii. Are Absence of day and night e.g.
brought about hormonal sunflower.
by influence of influence.  If the response is
growth specifically for light then it
hormones is called photonasty where
it opens in the presence of
 (b) Nastic responses light and close in its
 These are non-directional absence.
movements of parts of  If the response is
plants in response to diffuse specifically for temperature
stimuli. Such responses changes then it is called
include folding of leaves in thermonasty.
hot weather, opening and  Haptonasty
closing of flowers in  This is the response to
response to intensity of touch e.g.:-
light, closing of leaves of  (i)Mimosa pudica:- The
Mimosa pudica when leaves of this plant will
touched. close rapidly if they or their
 These movements are stem are touched. A sudden
brought about by turgor change of temperature will
pressure changes at the leaf initiate a response.
and petal bases of certain
Page 4 of 37
 (ii)Venus fly-trap release of digestive
(Dionaea)- This is an enzymes by the plant.
insectivorous plant that  Hydronasty.
grows in soil deficient in  This is a response to
Nitrogen so it gets its changes in humidity. This
Nitrogen by trapping and type of response is seen in
digesting insects. When the some flowers e.g.
sensitive (trigger) hairs on Dandelion genus which
the leaves are touched by a close when the air is moist.
landing insect, the mid-rib  Survival value of nastism
cells lose water rapidly  Protection of the inner
causing the trap to spring delicate parts of the
hence closing the leaf with flowers.
the spines interlocking.  Reduction of transpiration
o  Regulation of temperature
 A way of obtaining some
limited mineral nutrients
o Coordination in
plants
o Role of auxins in
Tropisms
 Chemonasty
 This is the response to the  Auxins are a group of plant
presence of specific growth hormones and one
chemical substances of of the commonest auxins is
nitrogenous compounds indole-acetic acid (IAA).
such as urea and Auxins are produced at the
ammonium compounds apical meristems of the
found in insectivorous shoots and roots.
plants e.g. sundew  IAA stimulates growth in
(Drosera) both shoots and roots at the
 When an insect is trapped region of elongation. Roots
by the tentacles of Drosera, are more sensitive to auxins
the insect provides the than shoot i.e. requires
chemical stimulus for the smaller concentration to

Page 5 of 37
 stimulate growth compared hence the positive
to shoots. phototropic response to
o Auxins and light in shoots e.g.
phototropism 
 Under uniform light
distribution auxins
produced from the shoot
apex are translocated
evenly down the shoot
therefore there is equal
growth rate in the height of o Auxins and
the shoot. E.g. geotropism
 If the seedling is placed in a
horizontal position in the
dark, it has greater
accumulation of auxins on
 When a shoot is exposed to the lower side.
unidirectional light, the  Gravity causes a greater
shoot tip bends towards the concentration of auxins to
light source. This is migrate and accumulate on
because light causes lateral the lower side of growing
migration of auxins from stems and roots. In the
the lit side of the shoot to stems such high auxins
the darker side. This leads concentration promotes
to higher concentration of faster growth but in roots it
the auxins on the darker inhibits growth. Therefore
side. This higher greater auxin concenntation
concentration of the auxins on the lower side in the
stimulates rapid cell shoot promotes faster
elongation and hence faster growth on the lower side
growth rate than the lit side. than on the upper side
Eventually the shoot curves causing the shoot to bend
towards the source of light upwards; while in the root

Page 6 of 37
 lower auxin concentration  Since the higher auxin
on the upper side promotes concentration promotes
faster growth on the upper faster growth in shoots, the
side than on the lower greater auxin concentration
hence the root bends in the outer part causes
downwards. Eg faster growth than the part
 in contact with the object
hence the shoot continues
to coil round the object.


Co-ordination in animals
o Auxins and
 Irritability in animals is
thigmotropism caused by the nervous
 In plants when climbing system.
stems or tendrils come into  In arthropods the nervous
contact with a suitable hard system consists of
object, the contact causes peripheral nerves and a
them to curve and coil ventral nerve cord.
round the hard object. The  In higher animals such as
part of he stem in contact vertebrates, irritability is
with the hard object has a brought about by a more
lower auxin concentratation elaborate nervous (neuro-
than the outer part. Contact sensory) system and the
causes lateral migration to endocrine (hormonal)
the outer side of the stem. system. The nervous

Page 7 of 37
 (neuro-sensory) system  The nerve cell (neurone) is
provides the quickest the basic functional unit of
means of communication in a nervous system. It’s a cell
animals. which is modified to
 transmit impulses
 A nerve impulse is an
electric signal that is
transmited along a nerve
fibre.
 The neorone consists of :
 The cell body (Centron)
o Nervous systems in  Extensions called dendrites
mammals.  In some neurons one of the
 It consists of: dendrites is elongated to
 Central Nervous System form an axon.
(CNS)  Each axon is filled with a
 It is made up of the brain specified cytoplasm called
and the spinal cord It axoplasm, which is usually
receives and integrates continous with the
impulses from the receptors cytoplasm of the cell body.
and then relays them to the
effector organs. It is the
centre of coordination
 Peripheral Nervous
System
 It is made up of sensory
nerves and transmits nerve
impulses from the receptors
in the sensory organs to the
CNS and motor nerves that
transmit impulses from the  The axon is enclosed by a
CNS to the effector organs. fatty sheath called myelin
 Structure and function of or medullated sheath. The
Nerve Cell myelin sheath is surrounded

Page 8 of 37
 by the neurilemma which is neighbouring neurones in
the membrane of the the CNS while the terminal
schwann cell. dendrites at the end of axon
 Myelin sheath is broken at make contact with effector
one millimeter intervals by organs.
constrictions called nodes  Types of Neurones
of ranvier.  There are three types of
 Nodes of ranvier help to neurones grouped
propagate the nerve according to the direction
impulse and speed up the of impulse conduction i.e.
transmission of an impulse.  Sensory Neurones
 Myelin sheath helps to (Afferent)
insulate the axon.  This nerve cell links the
 Neurones are described as sense organs such as the
unipolar, bipolar or ear, eye skin, nose and
multipolar according to tongue with the CNS.
how many dendrites project  Its cell body is situatsd off
from the cell body. Eg. the axon and outside the C
NS.
 Its receptor dendrites are
located in the sense organ
while the terminal dendrites
are located in the CNS
 Its function is to transmit
nerve impulse from sense
organs to the CNS

o Motor neurones
 The dendrites of the cell
 This nerve cell links the
body make contact with
CNS with the effectors
Page 9 of 37
 such as muscle fibres and 
glands.
 Its cell body is located at
one end of the axon with
the CNS
 its motor end plates
terminate in a muscle or
gland.
 It transmits nerve impulses
from the CNS to the
effectors.

Central Nervous System
(CNS)
 Its composed of:
 The brain
 It’s encased in a bony
structure called the skull or
cranium.
o Relay neurone  It is enveloped by a system
 This neurone links a of protective membranes
sensory nerve with a motor called meninges.
neurone through small gaps  The meninges consist of:
or neural junctions called  Dura matter.
synapses. It’s therefore a  It’s the tough outer
bipolar or multi-polar membrane covering the
nerve. brain and the spinal cord of
 The entire neurone is vertebrates.
located within the CNS.  It’s composed of
 They are non-myelinated. connective tissues and rich
 The main function of a network of capillaries.
relay neurone is to relay  Pia matter
nerve impulses between  It’s the inner most
sensory and motor neurone. membrane covering the
brain and the spinal cord.

Page 10 of 37
 It possesses many blood 
capillaries and lymph
vessels.
 Arachnoid layer
 It is a narrow space
between the dura and pia
matter.
 It is filled with
cerebrospinal fluid, from
which oxygen and nutrients
diffuse into the brain cells
 The brain is divided into
 Within the brain there is a
three major regions i.e.
system of cavities called
 Fore brain
ventricles which are filled
 Largest part of the brain
with cerebrospinal fluid.
about .⅔ of the brain
This fluid is continuous
 It consists of:
with the spinal fluid of the
 Cerebrum
central cord of the spinal
 Thalamus
cord. This fluid is similar to
 Hypothalamus
lymph.
 Pituitary gland
 It provides nourishment to
 Cerebrum
brain tissues
 It is a highly developed part
 Serves as a shock absorber
consisting of left and right
from mechanical damage.
cerebral hemispheres. It is
important for;
o Functions of major
 Integration of sensory
parts of the brain
impulses such as vision,
hearing and taste-
responsible for emotions
i.e. joy and sorrow
 It controls voluntary body
movements e.g. Limbs, lips
and neck.

Page 11 of 37
 It also controls learning,  It relays impulses between
memory and human nerves from the spinal cord
individuality, imagination and the fore brain
and intelligence, thoughts  Hind brain
and reasoning  The major parts of the hind
 NB Plasmodium may brain are:
enter the brain causing  Cerebellum
cerebral malaria leading  The main function is
to mental disorder. maintenance of body
 Thalamus – it contains posture and balance. This is
receptors for pain and achieved by controlling and
pleasure coordinating muscular
movement.
 The center for integration
 Dexterity in fine
of sensory information
movements.
 Hypothalamus – it is
 Medulla oblongata.
located below the thalamus.
 Controls involuntary
 It has receptors for
activities such as breathing,
homeostatic functions such
swallowing, salivation and
as thermoregulation and
vomiting.
osmoregulation.
 Controls dilation or
 It controls appetite, thirst
constriction of blood
and sleep.
vessels thereby influencing
 Pituitary gland – it is
blood pressure
attached to the
 Spinal cord.
hypothalamus and projects
 It is the posterior extension
downwards from it.
from the brain to the tail.
 It is the master endocrine
 It is enclosed in the
gland controlling the rest of
meninges and protected by
the endocrine glands.
the vertebral column.
 Mid Brain – (Corpora
 It’s made up of grey matter
quadrigemia)
and white matter.
 It is the connecting stalk
 The grey matter is H-
between the fore brain and
shaped and surrounds a
hind brain.
central canal which is filled
Page 12 of 37
 with cerebrospinal fluid. o PERIPHERAL
This grey matter relays NERVOUS
information between the SYSTEM
sensory & motor neurones.
 It consists of cell bodies &  It’s made of
dendrites of relay and  Cranial nerves
motor neurones which give  They arise from the brain
it its darker appearance and form part of peripheral
hence the term “grey” nervous system associated
matter. with receptors & effectors
 White matter- it in the head.
surrounds the grey matter  In human beings there are
and consists of the sensory 12 pairs of cranial nerves
& motor neurones. confined to the head and
 The myelin sheath of these neck. Examples of cranial
neurones gives this part its nerves are optic, auditory,
shiny white appearance. facial and olfactory nerves.
 Arising from the spinal  There are also sensory &
cord are dorsal and ventral motor nerves which
roots of spinal nerve. innervate the jaws and face.
 Transverse section of the  The 10th cranial nerves,
spinal cord vagus nerve, innervate the
heart, lungs, diaphragm and
the gut.
 Spinal nerves
 They innervate the skeletal
muscles of the limbs and
trunk.
 In association with cranial
nerves they control all the
organs of the body below
the head e.g. urinary
bladder, the gut, liver,
kidney and lungs.
 Reflex action

Page 13 of 37
 It’s a rapid automatic receptors with the effectors
response to a certain through the spinal cord.
stimulus. There are two  When somebody
types of reflex action accidentally touches a hot
o Simple reflex action object the pain receptor in
 In a simple reflex action the skin are stimulated.
there is a specific single This generates an impulse
automatic response to a which is conducted by a
particular stimulus. It is the sensory neurone to the
simplest form of reflex and spinal cord. Here the
does not depend on impulse is passed to the
learning motor neurones via the
 Examples relay neurones.
 Withdrawal of a finger  The impulse travels along
from the hot or sharp the motor neurones to the
object. biceps which contract
 Blinking of the eye when resulting in the withdrawal
an object passes close to it. of the hand from the painful
 Coughing stimulus.
 Sneezing  The sensory neurone is also
 Knee jerk reflex when the connected to an ascending
knee is tapped neurone (longitudinal inter-
 Salivation neurones) which transmits
 Secretion of tears when an impulse to the brain. This
onion is cut. makes one to become
 The structural basis of a aware of the pain a fraction
reflex action is called the of a second after
reflex arc, which is the withdrawal of the hand.
pathway followed by the
nerve impulse. The
simplest reflex arc is made
up of the 3 neurones; the
receptors (sensory), relay
and motor. They link the

Page 14 of 37
 several weeks and the dogs
learnt to associate bell
ringing with food.
 Later on he rang the bell in
the absence of food. He
found out that this
stimulated salivation in
dogs, thus the original
stimulus (sight or smell of
food) was replaced by a
different and unrelated
o CONDITIONED stimulus (Ringing the bell)
REFLEX through learning.
 This is as automatic  A conditioned reflex
response which can be usually weakens with time
evoked from an animal by therefore it must be
unrelated stimulus reinforced by repeated
substituted for one which stimulus. This forms the
normally elicits the basis of learned behaviour.
response.  Examples of conditioned
 The 1st experiments on reflex
conditioned reflex were  Walking
carried out by Russian  Playing
scientist Ivan Pavlov in  Cycling
1902 using dogs.  Writing
 Ordinarily the sight or  Swimming
smell of food initiates  Driving
salivation in dogs. This is a  Everyday practical
normal reflex action called applications of conditioned
the salivation reflex. reflex action include.
 In this experiments Pavlov Training of dogs, learning
rang a bell whenever he processes.
was feeding his dogs. He Differences between
continued doing this for conditioned and simple reflex

Page 15 of 37
Simple conditioned nerve fibre (axon or
reflex reflex action dendrite).
action  The ions involved in
i) single Repeated impulse transmission are
stimulus to stimulus to bring sodium ions (Na+) and
bring about about response potassium ions (K+)
response o Resting Potential
ii) Simplest Involves
 A non- conducting nerve
form of modification
fibre is described to be in a
behavior and of behaviors
resting potential. In this
is depending on
state there is more Na+
independent experience.
outside the axon membrane
of
than inside in relation to the
experience.
concentration of K+ which
iii) sensory Primary and
is higher within the
and motor sensory
axoplasm.
components components are
 There are also relatively
are the same replaced by a
more anions (negatively
at all times secondary
charged ions) within the
component but
axoplasm. The net effect of
the motor
this unequal distribution of
component
ions is that there is positive
remains
charge outside the
unchanged.
axoplasm and negative
charge inside the axoplasm
o Transmissions of
so that the membrane is
nerve impulse said to be polarised.
 A nerve impulse is an  During resting potential,
electrical charge or wave of Na+ are actively pumped
electrical disturbance out by a mechanism called
arising from changes in sodium pump e.g.
ionic concentrations across
the surface membrane of a

Page 16 of 37
 causing the k+ ions to
diffuse out.
 This localised charge
stimulates the
depolarisation of the
o Action potential membrane adjacent to it,
 It’s a localised change in thus propagating the
electrical potential between depolarisation process. This
the inside and the outside of is immediately followed by
the nerve fibre when the recovery to the
stimulated. The inside polarised state. The
becomes positively charged movement of this action
while the outside becomes potential along a nerve
negatively charged. This is fibre constitutes an
called depolarisation e.g. impulse.
 o Synapse/ Neuro-
junction
 A synapse is a point at
which two nerve cells come
into contact. At this point, a
dendrite from one of the
nerve cell forms an
enlargement called a
synaptic knob.
 The function of the synapse
 The membrane becomes is to allow the transmission
more permeable. The of nerve impulses from
sodium pump ceases neurone to neurone.
causing an influx by  The transmission of
diffusion of Na+ into impulses across a synapse
axoplasm. This raises the is a chemical process that is
concentration of Na+ ions mediated by chemical
within the axoplasm substances called neuro-
relative to the outside, transmitter substances.

Page 17 of 37
 The synaptic knob contains move towards the pre-
numerous sac-like synaptic membrane
structures called synaptic releasing neuro-transmitter
vesicles and mitochondria. substances (acetylcholine).
The vesicles contain neuro- Acetylcholine makes the
transmitter substances. membrane permeable.
 Mitochondria supply the  Acetylcholine diffuses
energy necessary for across the synaptic cleft to
continuous synthesis of the post-synaptic
neuro-transmitter membrane which then
substances. becomes depolarized.
 The terminal part of the  Na+ ions from the cleft
synaptic knob is called pre- then flow through the post-
synaptic membrane. synaptic knob causing an
 The membrane of the action potential here.
adjoining nerve cell is  The action potential is then
called the post-synaptic transmitted as a nerve
membrane. impulse along the neurone.
 Between the two  Immediately afterwards
membranes is a gap called acetylcholine liberated in
the synaptic cleft. the synaptic cleft is
destroyed by an enzyme
called cholinesterase into
inactive end products
(choline and acetic acid
(ethanoic acid).
 These are then reabsorbed
by the axon terminals and
reconstituted into
acetylcholine using energy
o Transmission of an in the form of ATP
impulse provided by mitochondria.
 When an impulse reaches  The rapid breakdown of
the synaptic knob, it acetylcholine is necessary
stimulates the vesicles to to repolarise the pre-
Page 18 of 37
 synaptic membrane for the  Atropine and curare block
next nerve impulse the post-synaptic
propagation so that there is membrane preventing it
no merging of successive from being stimulated by
nerve impulses from neuro-transmitter
neurone to neurone. substances
o Accommodation of  Organophosphates e.g.
synapses malathion inhibit enzyme
 If a synapse is stimulated cholinesterase. This
continuously for a long prevents the destruction of
time, a point comes when acetylcholine leading to
no impulses are transmitted overstimulation of the post-
in the post-synaptic synaptic membrane
neurone.  Endocrine system
 The synapse is then said to  The system comprises of
accommodate or adapt to endocrine glands that are
the stimulus e.g. ductless and secrete
 When one wears a rough hormones.
shirt, an unpleasant  Hormones are organic
sensation is initially felt. compounds which are
After sometime the either protein or steroids in
sensation is not felt any nature. They are produced
more. in minute quantities in cells
 Accommodation is thought in one part of the body and
to result from exhaustion of transported by blood stream
the neuro-transmitter to the other parts of the
substance which cannot be same organism where they
synthesized as fast as it is produce the response.
required.  Those parts of an organism
o Synaptic inhibitors that respond are called
 These are the substances target organs.
that interfere with  Hormonal feedback
transmission of nerve mechanism
impulses across the synapse  e.g. if thyroid gland is
e.g. producing too much
Page 19 of 37
 thyroxine hormone, the  It leads to insufficient
signal level will be sent to iodine in the diet or
the pituitary gland to defective enzymatic
secrete less thyroid reaction concerned with its
stimulating hormone (TSH) formation.
also called thyrotrophin.  It leads to:
The amount of thyroxine  Cretinism in children
therefore falls.  -The children have
 This coordination is called deformed legs
negative feedback  -Dry leathery skin
mechanism.  -Large tongue
 The hormones produced by  -General body sluggishness
the human body are:  -Poor mental development
 Thyroxine resulting in low intelligence
 It is produced by the  Myxoedema in adults
thyroid gland found at the  -Swelling of the thyroid
neck region. It is a gland called goitre. This is
compound of iodine. due to overworking of the
 Functions thyroid gland in an attempt
 Controls basal metabolic to synthesize enough
activities by increasing thyroxine
glucose oxidation  -Due to the low thyroxine
 Enhances the effect of concentration, individuals
growth hormone have low metabolic rate as
(Somatotrophin). This shown by reduced heart
ensures normal growth and beat, breathing rate and
mental development. body temperature.
 It also works in conjunction  -They are mentally and
with adrenaline to enhance physically sluggish
involuntary activities such  -The low physical activity
as increased circulatory results into weight gain
rates. (obesity), retention of
 Effects of under – excess fluid (oedema)
secretion hence swollen feet and
(Hypothyroidism) puffy face.
Page 20 of 37
 NB. Hypothyroidism can  Adrenaline
be controlled by use of  Produced by medulla part
balanced diet supplemented of the adrenal glands
by iodized table salt and located above the kidney.
administration of iodine  It prepares the body for
tablets. emergency – fight or flight
 Effects of overproduction e.g.
of  -The heart beat increases
thyroxine(hyperthyroidis hence increasing rate of
m) circulation.
 Hyperthyroidism is due to  -Increases metabolic rate.
the presence of plasma  -Arterioles of the skin and
proteins that stimulate the digestive system constrict.
thyroid activity i.e.  -In the liver, glycogen is
defective enzymatic converted into glucose.
reactions.  -Skeletal muscles contract
 Leads to increased and relax which can allow
metabolic rate resulting in movement.
increased heart beat,  -Breathing rate becomes
breathing rate and high faster and deeper.
temperatures.  -Fats are converted to fatty
acids which are available in
 Individual show
the blood for muscle
nervousness, restlessness
contraction
and are easily irritable
 NB over secretion can be
 Extreme hyperthyroidism
brought about by growth of
can lead to heart failure, a
tumour in the medulla of
condition known as
adrenal glands. Symptoms
thyrotoxicosis.
are:
 Can be controlled by
 High blood pressure
treatment with radioactive
 Severe headache
iodine.
 Racing heart
 Surgical removal of parts of
 Sweating
the thyroid gland can also
 Faintness
be done.

Page 21 of 37
  The resultant effect is aging effects are long effects are
of major body organs such lasting rapid and short
as kidney, heart and liver. – lived
 Comparison between responses take takes place
endocrine and nervous place voluntarily
system involuntarily and
 Both provide a means of involuntarily
communication within the
body of an organism. o Effects of Drug
 Both involve transmission abuse on human
of a message triggered by a Health.
stimulus and a response
 The target organs of  Drug-Its any chemical
hormones are like effector substance which when
organs taken into the body has
 Both involve chemical psychological and
transmission. physiological effects.
 Both bring about survival  Drug abuse- It’s the
response. indiscriminate use of drug
 Differences between with no regard to their side
endocrine and nervous effects
system  Commonly abused drugs
include:
Endocrine Nervous  Khat (miraa)
system system  Nicotine
Chemical Nerve impulse  Cannabis Sativa
substance to to evoke  Alcohol
evoke reaction response  Prolonged abuse of drugs
chemical impulse only can cause addiction (drug
transmitted through nerve dependence)
through blood fibre o Effects of Drug
response slow responses abuse
but affect quick, specific
several parts of and localized
the body
Page 22 of 37
 Depressed appetite and deliriums, hallucination and
poor feeding habits leading mental illness (madness)
to emaciation  In women, drug abuse may
 Interference with lead to poor foetal
absorption of vital vitamins development and
such as vitamin K, E which pregnancy complication.
may lead to sterility and  Irreversible damage to vital
blindness. body tissues and organs
 Lowers nervous and may eventually lead to
coordination leading to loss death.
of posture and balance.  Addicted persons have an
This decrease performance impaired judgment which
in sports and manual may predispose them to
activity. accidents and infections
 Irritation of the lungs and such as HIV\AIDS.
the respiratory tract leading  SENSE ORGANS
to frequent coughing and  In mammals, the main
infections. organs of special sense are:
 May lead to cancer of the  Eye for sight
lungs, throat and that of  Ear for hearing
urinary bladder.  Tongue for taste
 May also cause stomach  Nose for smell
ulcers.  Skin for pressure, pain and
 Damage too many tissues temperature.
of the heart and liver  The Eye
leading to heart attack and  The function is to receive
liver cirrhosis respectively. light by which an animal
 Interference of temperature perceives and distinguishes
regulation leading to objects in its immediate
excessive heat loss. environment.
 Damage caused to brain  The eye is located in a
may lead to socket in the skull called
sleeplessness(insomnia) , orbit, which offers
loss of memory (amnesia), protection against physical
damage.
Page 23 of 37
 Within the orbit there is a  Eye brows – they are raised
fatty layer lining which portions of the skin above
provides further protection the eye, thickly covered
as a shock absorber against with hair whose function is
mechanical damage. to prevent sweat and dust
 In the socket the eye is from entering the eye.
suspended by sets of  In land vertebrates there is
muscles which move the a lachrymal (tear) gland
eye i.e. that continuously secretes
watery, saline & antiseptic
fluid called tears.
 The tears moisten the
cornea and wash foreign
particles out of the eye. The
fluid drains through the
lachrymal duct into the
nose.
 Lateral rectus muscles-  In mammals, the lachrymal
They move the eye left and gland is beneath the upper
right. eyelid, while in other
 Superior and inferior rectos animals it is located
muscles –Move the eye up beneath the lower eyelid.
and down.  In amphibians, birds,
 Oblique muscles – Steady reptiles, some fish and
the eye in it’s up and down some mammals, e.g. cat,
movement. there is a transparent
 In the front of the eyeball, membrane called nictitating
there are two thin folds of membrane which is drawn
skin, the eyelids which across the eye to clean it.
protect the eye.  The mammalian eye is
 From the edge of the spherical, fluid filled
eyelids, there are many structure whose walls
hairs called eyelashes consist of three layers i.e.
which protect the eye from  Sclerotic (outer layer) /
entry of small particles. sclera
Page 24 of 37
 Choroid (middle layer  Absorbs stray light hence
 Retina (inner layer) prevents internal reflection
within the eye.
 Provides nourishment to the
eye due to presence of
numerous blood vessels.
 At the front of the eye, the
choroid extends and forms
ciliary body and iris
 Iris – it is a thin round sheet
 Sclera / sclerotic / outer of muscular muscles
layer (circular and radial) which
 This is a white fibrous layer controls the diameter of the
which protects the delicate pupil.
inner part of the eyeball and  Its pigmented giving the
helps in maintaining its eye its colour i.e. black,
shape. brown or blue
 The sclera forms cornea at  Pupil – it’s the opening in
the front of the eye. the iris which allows the
o Cornea – it’s a light to enter the eye. In
transparent layer some vertebrates e.g. cats
 It allows the light to enter the pupil is narrow and slit
the eye – like while in most
 It aids in reflecting the light vertebrates it appears
entering the eye. round.
 Ciliary body – it’s an
 Conjunctiva:- It’s a extension of choroid, iris
protective thin transparent and suspensory ligaments
membrane covering the attached to it.
front portion at the cornea.  It contains circular and
 Choroid/ middle layer smooth muscles which
 It’s a dark-pigment, contract and relax to alter
membranous layer. It has the shape of the lens.
numerous blood vessels.-  Ciliary body secretes the
aqueous humour.
Page 25 of 37
 Lens – it is a transparent  a middle region of
biconvex structure located photoreceptors consisting
immediately behind the of cones & rods.
pupil of the vertebrate eye  An innermost region of
 It’s held in position by neurones. These neurones
suspensory ligaments run over the surface of the
which become tight or retina and join to form the
loose to alter the shape of optic nerve which transmits
the lens. nerve impulses from the
 The lens divides the eyeball retina to the brain for
into anterior & posterior interpretation.
chambers 
 The anterior chamber i.e.
the part behind the cornea
is filled with a watery fluid
called aqueous humour.
 The posterior chamber i.e.
the part between the lens &
retina is filled with a
denser, jelly – like
transparent material called
vitreous humour.
 This fluid helps to maintain
the spherical shape of the  Cones
eyeball and refracts  Cones – they are densely
incoming light towards the packed together in a certain
retina. region of the retina called
 Retina fovea or yellow spot. They
contain the light sensitive
 It is the light sensitive layer
pigment called iodopsin.
composed of 3 regions i.e.
 Iodopsin is adapted for:-
 an outer pigmented region
 Bright light vision
in contact with the choroid
 Perception of fine details
 For colour vision

Page 26 of 37
 When one looks at an o -Equal stimulation of
object directly, light rays all 3 types of cones
from it falls on the fovea. produces the colour
This enables the object to sensation of white.
be observed in detail.
 In the presence of light,  Rods
iodopsin breaks down to  Rods contain a
iodine & opsin. Each cone photochemical pigment
has its own bipolar neurone called rhodopsin (visual
which in turn links it with purple) which perceives
an optic nerve i.e. it lacks light of low intensity but is
retinal convergence. not sensitive to colour.
 This property of the cones  The rods have retinal
enables them to have high convergence, therefore
visual acuity (ability of the they have low visual acuity
eye to distinguish objects hence cannot distinguish
clearly) fine details
 In higher vertebrates there  Rhodopsin degenerates to
are 3 types of cones cells opsin and retinal
which enable them to ( derivative of vitamin A)
differentiate the different to bring about
colours they perceive i.e. depolarization of the cell
blue, green & red. membrane, and then
 The trichromatic theory triggers off an impulse i.e.
which suggests that the Rhodopsin light opsin
simultaneous stimulation of + Retinal
the 3 types of cones at  The amount of rhodopsin in
different degrees brings the eye is increased in the
about colour perception e.g. dark, raising the sensitivity
of the rods to dim light.
o -Equal stimulation of  Resynthesis of rhodopsin
red and green types of occurs slowly in the dark
cones cells is for continued
perceived as yellow photochemical reaction in
colour. the rods.

Page 27 of 37
 Rods are in greater the fovea centralis on the
concentration round the retina.
periphery of the retina and  The image is recorded as
are absent in fovea real, inverted and small e.g.
centralis. Because of this, 
one can see an object better
in dim light if he looks at it
from the corner of the eye.
This way, the image falls
on the rods.
 Diurnal animals (that
operate during the day) like
man have large number of  The photoreceptor cell
cones in their retina. becomes stimulated and
 Nocturnal animals (those nerve impulse is generated
that operate during the and transmitted by the optic
night like bats have large nerve to the cerebrum part
numbers of rods in their of the brain for
retina. interpretation. In the brain
 In the retina there is an area the impulses are interpreted
where the optic nerves and the object appears real,
enter the eyeball. This is upright and normal.
called blind spot. This area  The images from the left
has neither rods nor cones, eye are interpreted by the
so images from objects right cerebral hemisphere
falling on the blind spot and those from the right eye
cannot be perceived. by the left cerebral
 Image formation and hemisphere.
interpretation  Binocular vision /
 Light from the object is stereoscopic vision
reflected by cornea,  Binocular vision refers to
aqueous humour and lens the ability of the right eye
through the vitreous to provide a three
humour and focused on to dimensional view and a

Page 28 of 37
 depth perception of an can be demonstrated
object under observation. by looking at an
 It’s seen in man and other object & pressing the
primates all of whom have eye to the side with a
two eyes placed in front of finger.
the head. This way, both o Accommodation of
eyes can be focused on the the eye
same object. Each eye
forms its own image of the  This refers to the ability of
object under the the eye to focus for both far
observation. and near objects. It is
 Both images are sent to the accomplished through a
brain which combines them change in the shape of the
to give a single impression lens.
of the object, since each o Accommodation of a
eye “sees” a slightly close object
different aspect of the same
 The ciliary muscles
object, a combination of the
contract thereby relaxing
two images provides a 3
the tension on suspensory
dimensional view and depth
ligaments.
perception.
 The curvature of the lens
 Binocular vision helps to
increases i.e. the close
accurately judge the
object are gently refracted
distance as when monkeys
by the lens focusing them
leap on trees or when a man
onto the retina e.g.
is driving.
 If the two eyes are not well
aligned or if the visual
cortex is intoxicated e.g. by
alcohol the object under
observation appears double
& blurred.
o NB Improper
o Accommodation of a
alignment of the eye
distant object
Page 29 of 37
 The ciliary muscles relax  In dim light the radial
thereby increasing the muscles of the iris contract
tension of the suspensory and the circular muscles
ligaments. This stretches relax, the pupil enlarges.
the lens decreasing its  This allows in enough light
curvature i.e. the lens to stimulate photoreceptors
become thinner. Light rays on the retina.
from a far object are less 
refracted and hence focused
onto the retina e.g.

 Defects of the eye.

 During the accommodation,
o Short sightedness
the iris regulates the
(Myopia)
amount of light entering the
eye.  It is also called near sighted
 In bright light, the circular and individuals with this
muscles of the iris contract defect have a longer than
while the radial muscles normal eye ball. Light rays
relax and the pupil becomes from distant objects are
smaller. This prevents focused at point in front of
damage of the retina by the retina.
excessive light.  As a result distant objects
 appear blurred.
 This defect can be
corrected by wearing
glasses with concave
(diverging) lenses. These
bend light rays outwards
before they reach the eyes

Page 30 of 37
 enabling them to be (converging) lenses. The
focused on the retina. lenses bend the light rays
inwards before they reach
the eyes enabling them to
be focused on the retina

 Astigmatism
 This is a condition in which
light rays from an object
are brought to focus in
o Long-sightedness different planes. This is
(Hypermetropia) caused by unequal
curvature of the cornea or
 Long sighted or far sighted
lens which produces
individuals have a shorter
unequal refraction of light
than normal eyeball or
entering the eye.
weak lenses. Light rays
 It’s corrected by wearing a
from a near object are
special cylindrical lens in
focused at a point behind
front of the eye which
the retina. As a result near
corrects the focus in the
objects appear blurred
defective planes.
 Light rays from distant
 Squintedness
objects are focused
 This is where the extrinsic
normally on the retina e.g.
muscle of the eye that
control the turning of the
eye ball do not co-ordinate
above on stimulation.
 The defect affects the
paired rectus muscle which
turn the eye up and down
and lateral rectus which
move the eye left and right.
 This defect can be  In this condition, the eye
corrected by wearing ball face different direction
glasses with convex hence focusing and
Page 31 of 37
 accommodation are  NB. Currently there’s no
achieved with difficulty cure for colorblindness.
 NB.Its difficult to correct  Cataracts
this defect  This is an eye defect
 Old sight (Presbyopia) associated with old age. It
 This is a condition in which may also be caused by eye
the light rays from an injury due to a blow or by
object are brought to focus complications of diabetes
behind the retina, while mellitus.
rays from a distant object is  The eye lens become
sharply focused. This is by cloudy or opaque hence
hardening (loss of blocking the transmission
elasticity)of the lens and of light rays. The
weakening of the ciliary transparent protein fibres in
muscles due to old age the lens are denatured and
 The defect is corrected by coagulated forming the
wearing a concave or opaqueness in the lens.
convent lens or one pair of  The defect can be corrected
glasses with two different surgically by replacing the
lenses called bifocal lenses. diffective lens with a good
 Colorblindness one from a donor or an
 This is a genetic defect in artificial lens.
which certain colours can
not be distinguished by
human beings and other
animals.e.g Red-green  THE HUMAN EAR
colour blindness in which  The mammalian ear
an individual is unable to performs two main
distinguish between red and functions i.e.
green.  -Hearing
 The retina of the affected  -Maintenance of balance
individual lacks cones with  The ear can be divided into
pigments that normally 3 main parts i.e.
respond to red – green
colors.
Page 32 of 37
  The tube is lined with hairs
which help to trap solid
particles that may enter the
ear.
 It’s also lined by wax
secreting cells whose
function is to secrete wax
that traps dust and prevents
entry of solid particles.
Wax also maintains the
flexibility of the ear drum.
 The middle ear
 The outer ear  It’s an air –filled cavity
 It consists of; consisting of;
 -pinna  -Eardrum (Tympanic
 -External auditory meatus membrane)
 The pinna  -Ear ossicles
 It’s a flap of skin and  -Eustachian tube
cartilage which partially  -Oval window
covers the opening to  -Round window
external auditory  Eardrum (Tympanic
meatus.Some animals e.g. membrane)
cattle are able to rotate their  It’s taut but pliable like the
pinna in order to locate the skin of a drum which
direction of sound. enables it to vibrate.
 It collects and concentrates  When it is hit by sound
sound waves into the waves from outside, it
external auditory meatus. It vibrates and transforms
leads into external auditory sound waves into
meatus. vibrations. It then transmits
 External auditory meatus the vibrations to the Ear
 It’s a tube or passage that ossicles.
directs sound waves to the  (ii) Ear ossicles
ear drum.  These are 3 bones namely;
 -Malleus (hammer)
Page 33 of 37
 -Incus (anvil) or swallowing which opens
 -Stapes (stirrup) the Eustachian tube to
equalize the pressure on
 They are suspended by
both sides of the Eardrum.
muscles i.e. tensor tympani
 NB Eustachian tube can
and stapedius.These
provide a passage for entry
muscles also prevent
of pathogenic microbes
excessive vibrations which
from the pharynx to the
could damage the inner
middle ear causing ear
delicate membraneous
infection.
labyrinth.
 Oval window
 The 3 Ear ossicles form a
 It’s a membrane that covers
system of levers which
a small hole leading to the
amplifies and transmits the
semi-circular canals
vibrations from Eardrum
 Round window
(Tympanic membrane) to
 It’s a membrane that covers
the Oval window.
a small hole leading to the
 Eustachian tube
cochlea.
 It’s a tube connecting the
 The Inner Ear
middle ear with the
 It’s a fluid-filled cavity. It
pharynx.
consists of;
 Its function is to equalize
 -Cochlea-Involved with
the air pressure between the
hearing
middle ear and the outer ear
 -Vestibular apparatus –
to prevent the distortion of
Composed of vestibule and
the Eardrum (Tympanic
semi-circular canals which
membrane).e.g. if you go
are involved in balance.
higher up in an aeroplane,
 The cavities in the inner ear
the atmospheric air pressure
are filled with fluids called
outside falls below that of
perilymph and endolymph.
the middle ear. This results
The fluids conduct sound
in the Eardrum (Tympanic
vibrations transmitted from
membrane) bulging
the middle ear to the
outwards and the condition
cochlea for hearing.
can be rectified by yawning

Page 34 of 37
 In the vestibule and semi- the ear ossicles in the
circular canals the middle ear.
displacement of the fluids  The first ossicle, Malleus
leads to the restoration of picks the vibrations, and
the body balance. The then transmits to Incus then
fluids absorb mechanical to stapes. The stapes passes
shock hence protect the the vibrations to the Oval
delicate sensory structures. window from where the
 Mechanism of hearing vibrations are transmitted to
 Cochlea is spirally shaped the perilymph of the
tube consisting of a system cochlea.
of canals, membranes and  The 3 Ear ossicles are
sensory cells. The canals specially arranged to
are filled with amplify the vibrations as
endolymph.and they transmit the to the
perilymph.The coiling of Oval window (amplifies 22
the cochlea offers a large times)
surface area for attachment  In the cochlea the
of the sensory cells vibrations stimulate the
responsible for hearing. sensory cells hairs to
generate nerve impulses
which are transmitted to the
brain via the auditory nerve
for interpretation. The
intensity of stimulus
transmitted to the brain
enables the brain to
 The pinna concentrates interprete the impulses as
sound waves into the sound of specific pitch and
External auditory loudness.
meatus.The sound waves  Meanwhile the vibrations in
strike the Eardrum and the fluid of the inner ear are
cause it to vibrate. The dissipated back into the
vibrations are transmitted to middle ear through the
Round window.
Page 35 of 37
 The direction of sound is relation to movement of the
detected accurately as a head e.g. when one spins
result of both ears and then stops suddenly,
functioning together. When one feels dizzy. This is
sound waves come from the because the fluid is still in
front, both ears pick the motion and stimulating
waves at the same time. sensory cells in the
 If the sound is from the ampulla. The movement of
sides, one ear will pick the the fluid stimulates the
waves earlier than the sensory cells which trigger
other. The time lapse of off nerve impulses which
impulses to the brain allows are transmitted via the
for the determination of auditory nerve to the brain
direction and distance. for interpretation.
 Maintenance of body  In the brain the information
balance and posture is relayed to the motor
 Balance is brought about by neourone to the muscles of
the semi-circular canals and the body to restore the
the vestibule correct posture.
 Semi-circular canals
 These are 3 tubular cavities
containing
endolymph.These canals lie
mutually at right angles to
each other and occupy the 3
planes of space. They
contain receptors that
respond to rotation of head
in any of the 3 planes. o Vestibule
 Each semi-circular canal  It consists of utriculus and
has a swelling called succulus which contain
ampulla at one end sensory cells. They
containing sensory cells. maintain posture and
 The semi-circular canals
maintain body posture in
Page 36 of 37
 balance in relation to vibrations to the cochlea
gravity. e.g. ear drum and ear
 When the body balance is ossicles.
shifted the fluid disturbs  Ear ossicles. - Can be
sensory cells. This triggers impaired due to abnormal
a nerve impulse to the brain growth of the connective
via the auditory nerve. The tissue(fibrosis) in the
brain interprets the impulse middle ear or by
according to the position of calcification of ear canals.
the body in relation to  Ear drum- Can be
gravity. The brain relays a damaged by;
nerve impulse through the  -Infection
motor neourone to the  -Physical blow
muscles of the body to  -Production of too much
restore the correct posture.. wax which hardens hence
 Defects of the Ear blocking the external
 Deafness-This is a hearing auditory meatus.
defect which makes an  -Partial deafness can be
individual unable to corrected by surgery or by
perceive sound. There are using a hearing aid.
two categories i.e.
 Permanent deafness-This
is due to damage of the
cochlea or auditory nerve.
It is caused by;
 -Prolonged exposure to
loud sounds.
 -When the cochlea is
sensitive to certain drugs
e.g. some antibiotics
 NB It’s difficult to correct
 (ii) Partial deafness-It’s
brought about by
impairment of the
structures that conduct
Page 37 of 37