Introduction to Linguistics

A Learning Module

Bonifacio T. Cunanan
Henrietta Miranda Mary Joy Yambao
 Preface

Introduction to Linguistics: A Learning Module is the result of the

collaborative efforts of Bonifacio T. Cunanan, Henrietta Miranda, and Mary Joy
Yambao.
This learning material consists of 20 basic lessons in the scientific and
philosophical study of language that are grouped in seven units.
Mary Joy Yambao, in Units 1 and 2, provides for the historical backdrop
of linguistics as a legitimate branch of social sciences. These preliminary parts
discuss the philosophical forces that pushed for the development of principles
and procedures in studying the nature of language, which in effect analyses
human nature. In doing so, language described in terms of its physical
features. These characteristics are material in the study of the building blocks
of language: sound system, vocabulary, and grammar. Lessons 7 and 8 were
completed with the help of Bonifacio T. Cunanan.
Henrietta Miranda elaborates the basic grammatical units of language.
In Units 3 and 4, she discusses how words are formed and combined. Initially,
she compares traditional and contemporary approaches of language
description. Going beyond grammar, she compares two of the most influential
theories of contemporary syntax: Transformational Generative and Systemic
Functional models of Chomsky and Halliday.
For the last part, Bonifacio T. Cunanan elucidates the two allied fields of
descriptive approaches to language analysis: psycholinguistics (the nature of
language within the framework of the mind) and sociolinguistics (the study of
language in relation to society). In Unit 5, he discusses the biological and
sociological dimensions of language development and language pedagogy. In
Unit 6, he addresses social issues like language change, language shift, and
language revitalization. Finally, in Unit 7, he demonstrates the practical uses
and applications of linguistics in promoting and sustaining scientific methods in
language teaching and language learning.
This learning module, though it appears encompassing, can be
compared to the tip of an iceberg. There are numerous topics that had been
left out in the interest of time. Some of which include writing system,
lexicography, translation, just to name a few. Indeed, linguistics is a broad field
of study.
The scope and sequence of the topics in this learning module are
intended primarily for tertiary students who wish to pursue teacher education
in English.
Much of the topics in this compilation can be enriched through selfstudy
inasmuch as online materials are provided by the contributors in all the
lessons.
The authors assure the readers that the materials included in this
module are the accumulation of ideas that they have gained through extensive
reading and
teaching
experiences
through the
years.

Republic of the Philippines

Bulacan State University
City of Malolos, Bulacan
Tel/Fax (044) 791 -0153
 COURSE SYLLABUS
Introduction to Linguistics
First Semester, AY 2020-21

COLLEGE : College of Arts and Letters

DEPARTMENT : Department of English
COURSE CODE : EL 102
COURSE TITLE : Introduction to Linguistics
FACULTY : Bonifacio T. Cunanan, Ph.D.

CONSULTATION HOURS: To be arranged.

COURSE DESCRIPTION: This three-unit undergraduate course is designed for

future teachers of English. It aims to provide the intended users with the depth and
extent of scientific procedures in describing the very structures and building blocks
of language. Further, it encompasses two major allied disciplines: the psychology
and the sociology of language. The course aims to provide the intended students
with the scientific and philosophical principles and procedures in studying language,
specifically the English language.

University Vision
Bulacan State University is a progressive knowledge-generating institution,
globally-recognized for excellent instruction, pioneering research, and responsive
community engagements.

University Mission
Bulacan State University exists to produce highly competent, ethical, and
service-oriented professionals that contribute to the sustainable socio-economic
growth and development of the nation

Core Values: SOAR BulSU!

Service to God and Community
Order and Peace
Assurance of Quality and Accountability
Respect and Responsibility

The BulSU Ideal Graduates Attributes (BIG A) reflect the graduate’s capacity as:
a. highly and globally competent,
b. ethical and service-oriented citizen,
c. analytical and critical thinker, and
d. reflective life-long learner.

Program Educational Objectives (PEO)

Program Educational Objectives (PEO) University Mission

AIG-a AIG-b AIG-c AIG-d

Equip students with strong foundation    

in the scientific and philosophical   
study of language.

Produce graduates who are imbued    

with the seal of excellence and
service.

Produce graduates who are catalysts for    

social transformation.
 Program Outcomes (PO)
On completion of the course, the student is expected to be able to do the following:
PROGRAM OUTCOMES Program Educational Objectives

PEO1 PEO2 PEO3

Provide an academic environment that   

promotes higher order thinking skills that are   
tempered with humanistic perspectives.

Promote an academic and liberal environment   

anchored on academic freedom and   
excellence.

Course Outcomes and Relationship to Program Outcomes

Course Outcomes Program Outcomes

After completing this course, the student must be a b c

able to:

Attributes of Upon completion of the course, the student is expected to

Ideal Graduate be able to do the following:
(AIG)

LO1. Highly 1. Have a thorough knowledge of I E D

competent the principles of the science and
philosophy of language

LO2. Ethical 2. Can close the gap between I E D

professional linguistic theory and language
pedagogy

LO3. 3. Can apply linguistic principles I E D

Serviceoriented and procedures in teaching the
different aspects of English

LO4. Contribute 4. Demonstrate familiarity with the I E D

to country’s technical and practical aspects
sustainable of linguistics
growth and
development

Note: (I) Introductory Course to an Outcome (E) Enabling Course to an Outcome (D)
Demonstrative Course to an Outcome

LEARNING EPISODES:
Learning TOPIC Week Learning Activities
Outcomes

Unit 1. Linguistics: The Scientific and Philosophical Study of Language

• Differentiate Lesson 1. The Historical • Virtual Lecture

language and Background of Linguistics Online Google
 others forms Lesson 2. Human Language Meet
of and Animal • Completion of
communicatio Communication Modular Learning
n. Lesson 3. The Subfields of Tasks
• Discuss the Linguistics • Online
philosophical Submission of
basis of Accomplished
language Worksheets
study.

Unit 2. Phonology and Phonetics

 Discuss the Lesson 4. The Human • Virtual Lecture

building Speech Apparatus Online Google
blocks Lesson 5. The International Meet
of meaning in Phonetic Alphabet • Completion of
language. Lesson 6. The Sounds of Modular Learning
English: Phonemes and Tasks
Allomorphs • Online
Lesson 7. Broad and Narrow Submission of
Transcriptions Accomplished
Lesson 8. The Great Vowel Shift Worksheets
in English

Unit 3. Morphology and Syntax

 Discuss the Lesson 9. Free, Bound, • Virtual Lecture

word Derivational, and Inflectional Online Google
formation Morphemes Meet
and basic units Lesson 10. Morphophonemic • Completion of
of grammar. Changes and Types of Modular Learning
Word Formation Tasks
Lesson 11. Prescriptive and • Online
Descriptive Grammars Submission of
Accomplished
Worksheets

Unit 4. Semantics

• Differentiate Lesson 12. Meaning: The • Virtual Lecture

two Transformational Generative Online Google
grammatical and The Systemic Meet
models. Functional Turns • Completion of
• Trace Lesson 13. Language Modular Learning
language Change: Semantic Change Tasks
change. and • Online
Semantic Broadening Submission of
Accomplished
Worksheets

Unit 5. Psycholinguistics and Neurolinguistics

• Explain the Lesson 14. Language and the • Virtual Lecture

psychological Brain: The Biological Online Google
dimensions of Dimension of Language Meet
language. Lesson 15. Language • Completion of
• Discuss the Development: The Behaviorist Modular Learning
developmen a Tasks
ta n • Online
l milestones of d Submission of
language. T Accomplished
h Worksheets
e
Cognitivist Perspectives

Unit 6. Sociolinguistics
  Discuss the Lesson 16. Language and • Virtual Lecture
social and Society: The Sociological Online Google
political Dimension of Language Meet
aspects of Lesson 17. Language • Completion of
language. Change : Dialect Modular Learning
and Register Tasks
Lesson 18. Language and • Online
Culture: Linguistic Submission of
Relativism Accomplished
Worksheets

Unit 7. Linguistics and Language Teaching

 Lesson 19. Applied Linguistics • Virtual Lecture

Conceptualiz Lesson 20. Educational Online Google
e the Linguistics Meet
importance • Completion of
of scientific Modular Learning
language Tasks
teaching. • Online
Submission of
Accomplished
Worksheets

FINAL COURSE OUTPUT:

The students are expected to write a 2000-word synthesis of the relevance of
linguistics in English language pedagogy.

RUBRIC FOR ASSESSMENT:

Rubrics for Short Research in Linguistics
Criteria Practically Perfect Solid Hovering around Not ready yet - 4 pts - 3 pts
acceptable - 1 pt
- 2 pts
Quality Practically Solid Hovering Not ready yet
of Perfect • Cited 3 • Cited 3 around
Resear or more sources sources • acceptable • Failed to cite
ch 50 • Sources Sources mostly • Failed to cite sources. • Source
reliable and reliable. Citation 3 sources. reliability
%
properly cited. errors minor. • Source questionable.
• All information • Most reliability Omitted
relevant to topic information questionable. information does
• Sufficient relevant to Omitted not interfere with
information thesis. ability of reader to
information
provided to • Sufficient find the
does not
support all information source.
interfere with
elements of provided. • Some information
ability of
topic. • Research of reader to relevant to thesis.
• Research sufficient depth. find the • Information
indepth and the provided to support
source.
beyond the some
obvious, • Some
elements of topic.
revealing new information
• Surface research.
insights gained. relevant to
thesis.
• Information
provided to
support some
elements of
topic
• Surface
research.
 Content Practically Solid Hovering Not ready yet
30 % Perfect • • Question around • Question too
Question somewhat acceptable broad or narrow
interesting, of broad or • Question too for length of paper
appropriate narrow for broad or and/or a poor
breadth for length of paper narrow for topic for research.
length of paper and/or a length of paper • Support for thesis
& an questionable and/or a poor barely sufficient,
appropriate topic for topic for and/or.
topic for research.
research. research. • Organization,
• Support for • Support for
• Support for transitions,
thesis thesis
thesis barely introduction, and
complex, sufficient but conclusion lacking
sufficient,
complete, & lacking in clarity and/or
and/or.
indepth. depth or appropriateness.
•
• Writer involved complexity.
• Organization,
with subject, not transitions,
merely doing an Organization
, transitions, introduction,
assignment. and conclusion
• Clear and introduction,
and conclusion lacking clarity
appropriate and/or
organization, slightly lacking
appropriatenes
with effective

clarity and/or
s.
appropriatenes
s.
transitions,
introduction, and
conclusion.
Works Practically Perfect Solid Hovering around Not ready yet Cited and  All sources  All
sources acceptable  Not all sources Bibliogra properly cited in properly cited properly cited in both
phy both paper and in both paper  Not all sources paper and
10 % bibliography. and properly cited bibliography.  No more errors in bibliography. in both paper 
More than 4 errors in format or  2 errors in and format or punctuation.
punctuation. format or bibliography.
punctuation.  More than 3 errors in format
or punctuation.
Voice
Grammar Practically Voice
Perfect
somewhat
Solid Hovering
Mechanic voice. appropriate consistent and
 Consistent and
mostly around
appropriate.
Not ready yet and appropriate.  Correct word
somewhat 
consistent acceptable
Fairly effective
 consistent and choice. Voice
and 10 %  s  No more  Correct word
Sophisticated  word than 2 spelling choice. spelling and precise
choice. appropriate. word errors. errors.  More than
choice. 3  More than 4
• No spelling Fewer than 1 spelling errors. in agreement,
tense. dents, or tense. agreement, error in More than 2 pronouns/antecede
errors.  More than 3 errors
• Nopronouns/ante
errors in  agreement,pronouns/antece agreement, errors in nts, or  More

No punctuation
 cedents, or pronouns/ante punctuation
• or or capitalization
 tense. Fewer than 2 tense. errors.
capitalization More than 3  punctuation or
cedents, or capitalization
errors. • Met all style capitalization
and min/max page 
punctuation or min/max and pagemin/max
errors. page  Failed to
requirements. requirements. meet style
Failed to meet
and/or style and/or
min/max pagerequirements. Met
requirements.
most style errors.

Source: https://www.rcampus.com/rubricshowc.cfm?

code=W952CX&sp=yes& OTHER REQUIREMENTS AND ASSESSMENTS:

 Occasional papers may be required as additional assessment/evaluation procedures
in addition to active class participation and discussion.

GRADING SYSTEM:
Term Examinations 30%
Quizzes/Activities 20%
Project 30%
Participation/Recitation 10%
Attendance/ Promptness 10%
TOTAL 100%
Final Grade = Midterm Grade + Tentative Final Grade Period
2
Range Grade

97-100 1.00

94 – 96 1.25

91 – 93 1.50

88 – 90 1.75

85 – 87 2.00

82 – 84 2.25

79 – 81 2.50

76 – 78 2.75

75 3.00

74 and below 5.00

References:
Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., and Hyams, N. (2010). Introduction to Linguistics. Pasig
City: Cengage Learning Asia Pte. Ltd.

Online Resources:
Coulmas, F. (ed.). (1998). The handbook of sociolinguistics. Blackwell.
http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/tocnode?
id=g9780631211938_c hunck_g97806312119381

Required Readings:
Akmajian, A., Demers, R.A., Farmer, A.K., and Harnish, R.M. (2010). Linguistics: An
introduction to language and communication, 6th ed. London: MIT Press. Chapman,
S. & Routledge, C. (eds.). (2009). Key ideas in linguistics and the philosophy of
language. Edinburg: Edinburg University Press.
Collinge, N.E. (ed.). (1990). An encyclopaedia of language. London: Routledge.
Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of language learner: Individual differences in
second language acquisition. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
Incorporated.
Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., & Hyams, N. (2013). An introduction to language, 10th ed.
NY: Cencage Learning.
Llamas, C., Mullany, L., & Stockwell, P. (Eds.). (2007). The Routledge companion to
sociolinguistics. New York: Routledge.
Malmkjær, K. (ed.).(2005). The linguistic encyclopedia, 2nd ed. London: Routledge.
Pinker, S. (1997). How the mind works. London: Penguin Books. ZaoHong, H. &
Odlin, T. (eds.) (2006).Studies of fossilization in second language acquisition.
Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, Ltd.
Class Policies:
1. Students should read in advance the assigned text/s.
2. Students who incur absences more than 20% of the total number of class hour
shall be considered dropped.
3. Students are encouraged to use resources other than those available in the
University.
4. Schedules of oral presentations shall be followed as scheduled.
5. Course requirements should be free from any form of plagiarism.
6. Course requirements shall be submitted as scheduled.
7. Queries about grades shall be attended immediately upon posting on the
University portal.
8. Incomplete grades must be attended to as prescribed in the Student Handbook.

Note:
The subject teacher who prepared this syllabus reserves the right on the content of
this material. The Office of the Dean of Instruction can exercise possession of the
hardcopy of this syllabus only for administrative purposes.

Prepared: BONIFACIO T. CUNANAN, Ph.D.

Professor 6

Evaluated: ANALIZA VILLACORTE, Ph.D.

Program/Area Chair

Approved: MARIA BULAONG

Dean

Declaration
I have read and understood the above syllabus in full and in participating in this course I agree to
the above rules. I have a clear understanding of the policies and my responsibilities, and I have
discussed everything unclear to me with the instructor.
I will adhere to the academic integrity and policy and I will treat my fellow students and my
teacher with due respect.
I understand that this syllabus can be modified or overruled by announcements of the instructor
in class or on any social media site at any time
______________________________________ ____________________ _______________ Student’s
Printed name Signature Date

______________________________________ ____________________ _______________ Parent’s

Printed name Signature Date

Student’s Copy

-------------------------------------------------------Cut

here---------------------------------------------------------- Declaration

I have read and understood the above syllabus in full and in participating in this course I agree to
the above rules. I have a clear understanding of the policies and my responsibilities, and I have
discussed everything unclear to me with the instructor.
I will adhere to the academic integrity and policy and I will treat my fellow students and my
teacher with due respect.

I understand that this syllabus can be modified or overruled by announcements of the instructor
in class or on any social media site at any time
______________________________________ ____________________ _______________ Student’s
Printed name Signature Date
 ______________________________________ ____________________ _______________ Parent’s
Printed name Signature Date
Instructor's Copy

Table of Contents

Preface
Syllabus
Table of Contents

Unit 1. The Scientific and Philosophical Study of Language

Lesson 1.The Historical Background of Linguistics
Lesson 2.Human Language and Animal Communication
Lesson 3. The Subfields of Linguistics
Lesson 4. The Human speech Apparatus

Unit 2. Phonology and Phonetics

Lesson 5. The International Phonetic Alphabet
Lesson 6. The Sounds of English: Phonemes and Allomorphs
Lesson 7. Broad and Narrow Transcriptions
Lesson 8. The Great Vowel Shift in English

Unit 3. Morphology and Syntax

Lesson 9. Free, bound, Derivational, and Inflectional Morphemes
Lesson 10. Morphophonemic Changes and Types of Word
Formation
Lesson 11. Prescriptive and Descriptive Grammars
Unit 4. Semantics
Lesson 12. Lesson 12. Meaning: The Transformational
Generative and The Systemic Functional Turns
Lesson 13. Language Change: Semantic Change and Semantic
Broadening

Unit 5. Psycholinguistics and Neurolinguistics

Lesson 14. Language and the Brain: The Biological Dimension of
Language
Lesson 15. Language Development: The Behaviorist, The
Cognitivist, and The Constructivist Perspectives

Unit 6. Sociolinguistics
Lesson 16. Language and Society: The Sociological Dimension of
 Language
Lesson 17. Language Varieties : Dialect, Register, Sociolect,
Genderlect, and Idiolect
Lesson 18. Language and Culture: Linguistic Relativism

Unit 7. Linguistics and Language Teaching

Lesson 19. Applied Linguistics
Lesson 20. Educational Linguistics

UNIT 1. THE SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL STUDY

OF LANGUAGE

Lesson 1. The Historical Background of Linguistics

Duration: 3 hours

Introduction

The study of linguistics involves several components which are all leaning
to the study of morphology, syntax, phonetics, and semantics. This
scientific study aims to fully understand how words are produced and
combined to come up with fully understandable and comprehensible
communication among humans.

Also, this body of knowledge focuses on finding general properties

common to all languages or groups of languages that greatly impacts
different fields
such as education, anthropology, sociology, language teaching,
philosophy, and artificial intelligence.

Although linguistics plays an important role in understanding of how

language is being produced, how language affects cognition, and how
language is manifested in actions, its importance and significance to people
remain to be low. People do not have a strong idea how linguistics works
nor do they give attention to how it affects their daily life.

Linguists analyze human language and how it is being produced by

humans. It was Ferdinand de Saussure who pioneered the study of
linguistics through his idea of sign. From this concept, many thoughts
sprung that ignited the thoughts of other linguists to explore other ideas
concerning language.

In this lesson, you will learn how language and linguistics come hand in hand
and we will also learn how to identify their distinctions.

Objectives/Competencies
During the allotted time, you are expected to

1. articulate a comprehensive and contextualized understanding of importance

of signs through a reflective essay
2. Create a visual representation of how sign works in communication, and
3. Illustrate the importance of signs by defending points of view.

Pre-test
In order to check how much you have learned previously in your language
classes, here are some activities that we will work on.

Choose the correct word that may appropriately describe the picture in
column A from the words listed on column B. Write your answer on the
space provided.

Column A Column B
____1. a. dog
b. aso
c. perr
o

____2 a. table
b. lamesa
c. mesa

____3 a. red dot

b. Japanese flag
c. red moon

____4. a. life
b. go
c. nature
____5. a. tree
b. family
c. unity

Lesson Proper

From the activity that we have done in pre-test we can say that language
has a wide scope when it comes to meaning. A mere symbol or sound can
be interpreted in many different ways and still can be considered a possible
or right answer. As we have mentioned early, the study of linguistics was
fathered by Ferdinand de Saussure, a Swiss linguist whose idea of
language is more on the agreed signs and meanings.

Saussure contended that

meaning is derived from
the sign that is being
associated with it. He aimed to
find a bridge between the
psychic essence concept and
the concrete reality of word. He
therefore came up with the of
“sign” as an indivisible pair which is consisted of abstract concept
and concrete realization.

Ferdinand de Saussure was born on

November 26, 1857. He was considered to
be the Father of Linguistics.
Let us take the examples in the pre-test. All the pictures found on column A
can be interpreted using the words on column B. The words found on the
second column are correct interpretations of the signs on the first column.

Based on the idea of de Saussure, a representation of communication can

be interpreted by:
a. intentional – such as word uttered with specific meaning
b. unintentional – such as a symptom being a sign of a
particular medical condition

The “Sign” is the whole result from the association of the following
concepts:

1. Signifier= any material thing that signifies

e.g. word on a page, facial expression, image

2. Signified= the concept that a signifier refers to

Together, the signifier and the signified can create a sign which gives
the smallest unit of meaning that can be used to communicate. The
 relationship of the signifier and the signified is referred to as
“signification.”

Let us take these examples:

(SIGNIFIER)
CODE
D-O-G

T-A-B-L-E

(SIGNIFIED)
CONCEPT

four legs barks furry

not g-o-d
w
o
R-E-D D-O-T
o
danger
d
en flat surface
thin gs are on it dining place

blood anger love

G-R-E-E-N

life nature freshness

What is Signifier and Signified then?

Signifiers are the physical form of anything that are considered signs. They are something
that can be heard, touched, smelled, tasted, or seen. Based on the examples given the first
column which can be seen, touched, tasted, heard, or smelled are the physical forms of the
signs.

Signified on the other hand, are the mental concepts that are being referred to.

We must take note that the relationship of the signifier and the signified is arbitrary. In order
to understand a particular sign, we need to know the signifier and the signified.

It is also important to note that sign can only be understood when the relationship of the
signifier and the signified are agreed upon by the users.

Example:

dog = English
aso = Filipino
perro = Spanish

This sign can be referred to as dog, aso, perro or any kind of signifier that a
group of people will agree upon. All of the words that are used to describe
the said sign are correct. Depending on the group of people who are using
the said signifier, they will be able to understand each other if they are
referring to the same sign.

However, if a signifier is going to be used in a different group,

communication or understanding will be impossible. Let us take for
example the word “aso” when used to a group of Americans, they will
certainly not understand the signifier as this was not the agreed one.

It is important to note that signifier and signified should be agreed upon by

users to ensure understanding and eliminate confusion.

Confusion and misunderstanding can easily happen if the users of the sign do
not have the common background of the signifier and signified.
The illustration shows the connection of signifier and the signified in a
single sign. This only shows that language is mainly symbolic, since the
sequence and their meanings are conventional, arbitrary and have to be
learnt.

What is the main purpose of Linguistics then?

The focus of Linguistics as a body of knowledge is mainly on recognizing

how laws, processes and ways operate in languages. It aims to understand
how these laws apply universally in different languages. The way linguists
work on investigating phenomena common in language is the primary work
of linguistics.

Reminder:

Here are some points that we need to know about languages which were
discovered and generalized through the use of Linguistics

An American linguist named Charles Hockett has identified some properties

common to all languages. Here are his generalizations:

Features Common to all languages.

a) all languages have vowels and consonants;
b) all languages have words;
c) all languages can create new words when required and modify their
meanings;
d) all languages are open-ended in the sense that they can produce totally
new utterances which are understood by the users of the language; e) all
languages can form questions;
f) in all languages it is possible to talk about things and situations that
are removed from the immediate situation of the speaker (this is called
displacement);
g) in all languages we can use hypothetical, unreal, and fictional
utterances.
Activity

Let us try:

1. View this video about features of language

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SU7XcD9TIGY

2. Using the features that were given by Charles Hockett and the
video that you have watched, try to explain how language works
in a chosen advertisement through a caricature.
Analysis

Using the diagram below, explain how sign can be manipulated in

a conversation that will result into understanding among family
members.

Abstraction

Imagine that you went on a cruise and along the trip your ship sank and
there were only 5 people who made it to a small island. Each of the
survivors can only speak 1 language: Filipino, Mandarin, German,
Japanese and Urdu. How would you manage to communicate with each
other given the language barrier that you have?

Application

As a future language teacher, how can the use of signs be beneficial in

teaching your students in order to ensure that you are being understood
completely?

Reflection and Insights

How important are signs in communication? What will happen if signs are
deliberately distorted?

Write your opinion of the space provided.

__________________________________________________________
 __________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

Post-test

To check your learning of the lesson, answer the questions below. Place a
cross mark () on the box of your choice.

No. Statement True False 1. Signs are agreed upon by the

users.
2. Language can change over time. 3. People speaking diverse
languages can
never understand each other 4. A single sign has only one
definite meaning
5. Linguistics helps understand all languages

Suggested References and Websites

https://tanvirdhaka.blogspot.com/2018/09/ferdinand-de-saussure
quickfacts.html

https://dirtyworkblog.wordpress.com/2012/12/14/ferdinand-de-saussurecourse
in-general-linguistics/
UNIT 1. THE SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL STUDY OF
LANGUAGE

Lesson 2. Human Language and Animal Communication

Duration: 3 hours
Introduction

Many scientists believe that all things on the face of the Earth came from
simpler life form that had started to stretch and expand causing the birth
and development of all living things. As such, animals and humans are said
to be coming from the same origin but a certain link that cannot be
explained by science is how humans developed extraordinary ways of
communicating with each other.

In this lesson, you will learn the characteristics of human language that
makes human beings superior compared to animals. You will also learn
features of language that are not present in the communication process of
animals.

Objectives/Competencies

During the 3 hour period, you are expected to

1. discuss the difference of human communication to animal communication,
2. compile examples that will show or illustrate the differences between
human and animal communication, and
3. compose a piece of literature that depicts a preferred feature of human
language

Pre-test
Determine whether the statement is attributed to all animal or only human
communication. Write AA if the statement is for all animals and OH for
humans. Write your answer on the space provided.

_____1. Heavily rely on instinct to understand a message.

_____2. Sounds are produced through a voice box

_____3. Can refer feelings in the past

_____4. Every sign has one meaning

_____5. Communication can be learned.

Lesson Proper

Photo credit: owlcation.com

 If you will be asked how a cat can
express its
feelings to its owner, what would you
possibly
tell? Do you think that pets can really
communicate what they want? Can
really humans communicate with
animals?
One of the many linguists who tried to
study
the difference of human
communication to animals is Charles
Hockett. He is a well-known linguist who Photo Credit:

made use of a comparative approach to https://alchetron.com/CharlesF Hockett

identify the difference of humans to animals in
terms of communication.

Features of Human Language

1. Vocal-auditory channel: sounds emitted from the mouth and perceived by
the auditory system.
2. Transitoriness (Rapid fading) : Signals last a short time. This is true of all
systems involving sound.
3.Interchangeability: All utterances that are understood can be produced.
4.Total feedback: The sender of a message also perceives the message.
That is, you hear what you say.
5.Specialization: The signal produced is specialized for communication and
is not the side effect of some other behavior.
6.Semanticity: There is a fixed relationship between a signal and a
meaning.
7. Arbitrariness: There is an arbitrary relationship between a signal and its
meaning. That is, the signal is related to the meaning by convention or by
instinct but has no inherent relationship with the meaning.
8.Discreteness: Language can be said to be built up from discrete units
(e.g., phonemes in human language). Exchanging such discrete units
causes a change in the meaning of a signal. This is an abrupt change,
rather than a continuous change of meaning.
9. Displacement: Communicating about things or events that are distant in
time or space.
10.Productivity: Language is an open system. We can produce potentially an
infinite number of different messages by combining the elements
differently.

11.Cultural transmission: Each generation needs to learn the system of

communication from the preceding generation.
12. Duality of patterning: Large numbers of meaningful signals (e.g.,
 morphemes or words) produced from a small number of meaningless units
(e.g., phonemes).
13. Prevarication: Linguistic messages can be false, deceptive, or
meaningless.
14. Reflexiveness: In a language, one can communicate about
communication. 15. Learnability: A speaker of a language can learn another
language.

Activity

1. Watch this video for additional understanding of the features of human

language. Then do the next step.
https://youtu.be/LEOPCEiigYQ

2. Compile pictures that will illustrate the features of human language. Be

sure to write a short explanation about the picture stating how helpful
those features are in communication.

Analysis
How does a baby communicate with its parents? Are the features of human
language present among babies? When do you think these features are
evident in human communication?

Abstraction

Given the different features of human language, can we safely say that
animal communication does not have these kinds of features? Or if there
are, can you identify what features are applicable for animal
communication?
Application

As a future language teacher, how can you show your students the difference
between animal language and human language?

Create a short acrostic poem that can remind you of the importance of
human language.

Your work will be evaluated using this checklist:

Each “Yes” is equivalent to 1 point and each “No” is equivalent to 0 point.

Criteria Yes No

The subject of the acrostic poem is written

vertically one letter at a time in a column.

Each vertical letter begins a word, a phrase, or

a sentence in each line of a poem.

No repetitive words in the poem.

Words are spelled correctly

 Is the poem linguistically correct?

Total

Reflection and Insights

Do you think that language is a gift from a divine entity? Does it mean that
humans are better in the eyes of the divine? How about the language used
by animals?

Write your reflection on the space provided below.

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

Post-test
Based on the discussion above, determine if the statements are true. Write
True or False on the space provided.

___1. Animals use language to communicate with each other.

___2. Instinct is the primary source of communication to animals.
___3. Cultural transmission is one feature of human language
___4. Human language is dormant and does not undergo change.
___5. Language is common to both humans and animals.

Suggested References and Websites

https://pages.uoregon.edu/redford/Courses/LING162/Handout_1.pdf
UNIT 1. THE SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL STUDY OF
LANGUAGE

Lesson 3. The Subfields of Linguistics

Duration: 3 hours

Introduction
Based on what you have learned from the first lesson in this unit, linguistics is
known to be the study of human language and what features may be present
and shared by different languages. You have learned that it tries to understand
how a person conceives ideas and how it is associated with a particular
concept in order to convey information to others.

Linguists use of different ways on how to examine the human language since
language is a vast area of knowledge to examine. Let us take for example a
linguist wants to study how an American pronounces the word “often” and
compare it on how a British or an Indonesian say that same word? There will
be notable differences on how they say it.

Another example is when a person wants to know how words are connected to
form a simple sentence and why some sentences are correct in grammar, but
we find it hilarious? These concepts that we want to understand are
investigated by subfields of linguistics.

In this lesson you will learn some of the subfields of linguistics which will help us
understand human language.

Objectives/Competencies

During the 3 hour period, you are expected to

1. familiarize with the subfields of Linguistics, and
2. be able to determine features of the different subfields of linguistics.
Pre-test

Determine whether the following statements are True or False _____1. There is
no difference when the word “often” is pronounced by either American or British.
_____2. The sentence, “The radio listens to a boy.” is wrong.
_____3. Meanings of statements depend on the speakers alone.

_____4. The sentence, “ The horse is owned by a small hotel owner.” can
possibly cause confusion.
_____5. There is no difference between: Why is there change? vs Why is there
change?

Lesson Proper

Phonetics is the study of the physical attributes of speech sounds and how
these sounds are produced. Phoneticians are the people study how
sounds are produced by the human speech system. The study of
phonetics is further divided into other subparts which are: Articulatory
Phonetics, Acoustic Phonetics, and Auditory Phonetics. Each of the
subfields has its own focus or specialization. The first subfield which is
articulatory is focused on studying how sounds are being produced. The
second part pertains to the study of the quality of the sound a human
produce such as the loudness, frequency, and timber. And the last subpart
explains how the brain perceives and processes the sound. Let us take the
example of the production of the sound [i] when heard by a person, his
brain knows its sounds because he can imagine that it is the sound that is
produced in the front of the mouth and when the tongue is tensed and the
lips are rounded.
Morphology is another subfield of linguistics that investigates the internal
structure of words, in which morphemes are the basic unit of a word. This
 subfield of linguistics delves deeper into some rules in word creation such
as when to use -ed or d in a making a past tense of a verb.
Lexicology refers to the study of how words are made through the use of
lexemes. Lexemes are the smallest unit of syntax. This subfield of
linguistics wants to account for the changes of how words change in form
using a lexeme. Let us take this example, the words ridden, rode, riding,
rides are all forms of the lexeme ‘ride’. The other words enumerated are in
similar form to the original lexeme which is ride and it is in verb form.
Another example in the study of lexeme is with the word the difference of
the nominal form of the word drink, drinks, drink’s and drinks’ would differ
from the verb form drink, drank, drunk and drinking. The lexeme of a word
does not change in grammatical form. The focus of lexeme is to further
increase the inventory of lexicon or in other words vocabulary. Lay people
may refer to lexicon as vocabulary.
Syntax is mostly known to people for the arrangement of words in a sentence.
This subfield of linguistics assesses and evaluates larger components
such as phrases and clauses. The people who specialize in syntax are
known to be syntacticians. They study how words and their functions in the
sentence complement each other. Most common area of interest of
syntacticians are subject- verb- object relationships. For people who may
have not known the idea of syntax, they normally refer it to grammar.
Semantics is the study of meaning. This subfield of Linguistics investigates the
words in a sentence and how they are related to each other to give
meaning. Linguists who focus on semantics are known to be semanticists.
The primary role of semantics is to explain the relationships of words to
their referent. Example we and us are pronouns that may indicate to the
same person who is speaking.
Pragmatics is the subfield of linguistics that explains how language is used in
context, status, and speaker. This subfield is also associated with a body
of knowledge called semiotics. Pragmatics considers outside factors that
may contribute to the meaning of an utterance or expression. The
importance of appropriate communication in social situations is one
important area in which pragmatics want to investigate. According to
pragmatists, meaning can differ among the interlocutors and the listeners.
The meaning being conveyed is sometimes changed because of context.
Figure 1.3 shows the different subfields of linguistics that branched out to
different areas of expertise. You will notice that language plays an
important role in daily communication. Can you tell how these subfields
depend and affect each other? We can say that linguistics and its subfields
are interrelated with each other. It means that at some point, a linguist may
 use a particular subfield when trying to explain another subfield. They
always come hand in hand with each other. One or more subfields can
help explain and shed light to a particular point of view.

Figure 1.3 is taken from: https://thehistoricallinguistchannel.com/

Activity

1. For your activity, please visit this video to further know what Linguistics is
and its subfields.

https://youtu.be/bzz1pFWAtMo

2. List down some other subfields of Linguistics which were not discussed in
this lesson. Discuss what these subfields focus on in terms of understanding
the nature of language.

Analysis

From the “mine,” try to explain how this word evolved into the social meaning,
“It is the practice of examining large databases in order to generate new
information.”

Abstraction
Using the lesson learned, illustrate the development language from Phonology to
Pragmatics. How does a simple sound develop into meaningful ideas?
Try to use a simple sound and show how it can turn into meaning that causes
conflict among interlocutors.

Application
As a future educator, how would you explain how word usage differs from being
a young learner to a full-fledged teacher within the next five years. Do you think
the words, phrases, or expressions that you currently use will be the same
words, phrases, or expressions when you are already a teacher?

Reflection and Insights

 What makes a person speak various ways and use different expressions
even in a recurring situation? How do you speak differently when you are
talking to your classmates, your parents, or your teacher?

Post-test

From what we have discussed, try to match the statement from column A to the
subfield of Linguistics in Column B

AB

_____1. “It is pronounced as mmmm… like man. a. pragmatics

_____2. “ Put the tip of your tongue in between b. morphology your upper
and lower front teeth
_____3. “ Can you pass the salt? “ c. phonology _____4. smallest

unit in morphology d. syntax _____5. Subject – Verb- Object f.

lexemes _____6. Horses ride men. vs. Men ride horses. g.

phonetics

_____7. change ‘y’ to ‘i” and add ‘es’ f. semantics .

_____8. act, acts, acting, acted vs acts, acts, h. morphemes

Suggested References and Websites

https://thehistoricallinguistchannel.com/too-much-linguistics-too-little-time/
UNIT 2. PHONOLOGY AND PHONETICS

Lesson 4. The Human Speech Apparatus

Duration: 3 hours

Introduction

You have already learned from the previous lesson that language is a human
phenomenon. It means that even if there are other creatures that are able to talk
such as parrots, seals and other animals which can be trained to utter few learnable
words, still there is no other animal which can communicate through words like man.

What makes man different from other animals? Based on the study conducted by
Jacob Dunn, a zoologist in University of Cambridge, humans have better working
vocal anatomy. Unlike the chimpanzees or monkeys which are considered to be near
like humans, these animals do not have functional larynx and vocal cords.

Humans use the communicative and informative signals to express how they feel.
What does it mean when we say signals? Let us take for example when you sneeze,
people may get the signal that you have either cough or colds. This situation is when
you unintentionally deliver a signal to others. This is considered to be a
communicative signal. One can send messages even he did not mean to.

But let us take for example you wanted to buy a new pair of sneakers and you wish
to ask money from your mother for it. You intentionally say this to your mother, “Mom,
may I ask for some money? I’d like to buy the blue sneakers we saw in the mall.”
These statements are intentionally given so as to express ideas. This example is a
way how humans deliver intentional signals.
What about animals? Many scientists and linguists believe that animals purely rely on
instinct for feelings and expressions, like how dogs snarl, squirm or wag their tails.

It is important to know what makes humans different from animals and know how
sounds are produced in order to make meaningful conversation. In this lesson you
will learn how humans create different sounds through their speech apparatus. You
will also learn the different parts and how they work together to create words.

Objectives/Competencies

During your study in this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Identify the different parts of the human vocal system used in speaking, 2.
Contrast the difference between the human speech apparatus to animals, and
3. Explain how sounds are produced by humans.

Pre-test

Let us try your knowledge about human speech. Determine whether the following
statements are True or False. Write True if the statement is correct, and then write
False if you think it is incorrect. Write your answer on the space provided.

______ 1. Humans alone can speak among primates.

______ 2. All animals rely on instinct as a means of expressing feelings.
______ 3. All animals have similar sound producing apparatus.
______ 4. Some sounds can be produced even if there is no active use of speech
organs.
______ 5. Humans alone can communicate.

Lesson Proper

You may wonder how humans speak and how words are being produced. Have you
tried checking out how you make sounds whenever you speak? Humans are gifted
with what we call speech organs. These parts of the human anatomy allow humans
to produce varieties of sounds, blend them together and create a distinct sound that
can be associated with meaning.

The organs that are used in producing sounds include: lips, teeth, tongue, etc. Below you
can find a diagram illustrating the human speech organs.
 Photo credit: https://giftofgab-fluentenglish

The diagram shows the different parts of the human speech organs. These parts are
also known as Place of Articulation. This means that humans can produce distinct
sound using the different places of the human speech organs.

But before you proceed with the different places of articulation, let us learn first what
are voiced and voiceless sounds.

Voice and Voiceless sounds

In phonetics, we learned that linguists investigate how words are formed and
classified.

Voiced speech sounds are produced when the vocal cords vibrate. Try to say the
sound, “a” as in albatross. When you produce the “a” sound you will notice that your
vocal cords vibrate.

Voiceless sounds on the other hand are produced when vocal cords do not vibrate. Let
us take for example when you say the sound “h” as in hat.

Places of Articulation

Bilabial
These are sounds that are created when both lips are used. “Bi” which means two
and “labia” which means lips. The sounds that are produced using both lips are
called bilabials such as [p], [b], and [m]. [p] sound is voiceless and the [b] and [m] are
voiced sounds.

Examples
[p] [b] [m]
pink bank mat
pants brick men
Labiodental
These are sounds that are produced with the combination of the upper teeth and the
lower lip. The sounds in this group are: [f] which is voiceless and [v] which is voiced.

Examples
[f] [v]
feet van
fist velvet
found volt

Dental
These sounds are formed with the tip of the tongue placed behind the upper front
teeth. “th” sounds are considered dentals, the [θ] is for voiceless and [ ð ] is for the
voiced.

Examples
[θ] [ ð ]
bath then
thumb feather
thin there

Alveolar
These sounds are formed when the front part of the tongue is placed on the alveolar
ridge, which is the rough and bony ridge right behind the upper front teeth. The [t],
and [s] are the voiceless sounds whereas the [d], [n] and [z] are the voice sounds.

[t] [s] [d] [n] [z] tank sip dug nun zap bat ticks feed den buzz tip seal
god net jazz
Other alveolar sounds are [l] as in lap and [r] as in right and wrong.

Palatal
Just next to your alveolar ridge is the doom of your mouth. It is hard and it is called
hard palate or just palate. The sounds that are formed in this section are called
palatals. Palatals are produced when your tongue and the palate are used. The
sounds that are created with these locations are: [ʃ], present in a word like sheep,
and [ʒ], found in a word like occasion and /ʧ/ as in church. [ʃ], and /ʧ/ are voiceless
but [ʒ] is voiced.

Examples
[ʃ] [ ʧ ] [ʒ]
sheep church treasure dish cheese pleasure
There is a special voice palatal which is [ʤ ] similar to gem and judge.

Velars
Even further back in the palate is a soft spot of your mouth. This is your soft palate
and known as velum. This place is also used in producing sounds. The velum can
come with your back part of your tongue to produce some sounds. These sounds
produced by your soft palate and the back of your tongue are called velars. The
sounds are: [ k ] which is a voiceless sound and [g] which is on the other hand a
voiced sound.

Examples

[ k ] [g]
kind guard
cool go
king bag
There is also another velar sound that is produced when your velar is lowered, and
the sound passes through your nose and that is the [ŋ]. This is also a voiced sound.
Examples to this sound are bang, sing, ring.

Glottals
Some sounds may be produced with no active use of the parts of the human speech
organs. This sound is known as glottal. The sound produced is normally called a
voiceless glottal which is represented by [ h ] such as in heart, house. Similarly the
sounds [w] and [j] are also considered to be glottal.

Manner of Articulation

You have already learned the places on which sounds specifically the consonants
are produced. Knowing where they are formed is not enough. You should also know
how they are produced. In this section, you will learn how sounds are formed.

Stops
These sounds are produced by stopping the airflow very briefly then releasing it
abruptly. These sounds are produced when there is sudden blocking and stopping of
the airstream. Stops are sometimes called plosives. The sounds that are produced by
plosives are: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k] and [g].

Fricatives
The sounds in this type are produced when air is blocked and is allowed to pass
through a small opening. The air is pushed through that produces some friction which
produces the sound. These sounds are produced through fricatives: [f], [v], [θ], [ð],
[s], [z], [ʃ] and [ʒ].
Affricates
These sounds are similar with stops as they require stopping but the difference with
stops is that affricate sounds are released with obstruction which causes friction. The
sounds that are formed in the manner are: [ ʧ ] and [ʤ ].
Nasals

Sounds that pass through the nasal cavity are called nasals. These sounds are all
voiced. The sounds are: [n], [m] and [ŋ].

Laterals
The [r] and [l] sounds are all lateral sounds or sometimes called liquids. These
sounds are formed by letting the air pass through the sides of the tongue.

Glides
The sounds [h], [w] and [j] are described as glides. The [h] sound is a voiceless glide,
but the two others are voiced and are typically formed with the tongue in motion
similar to producing a vowel.

Activity

After learning the lesson, you can try doing these tasks.
1. Read the poem below. Focus on the initial sounds of the short poem. Create a
tally board for each of the places of articulation.
 Poem by: J.R.R. Tolkien.

Roads go ever on and on

Roads go ever ever on.
Over rock and under tree,
By caves where never sun has shone,
By streams that never find the see;
Over snow by winter sown
And through the merry flowers of June,
Over grass and over stone,
And under mountains in the moon.

2. Here are some words, try to identify to which place of articulation does each word
belong. Focus on the italicized part of the word.

thud_______ wham _______ foot _______ hoping_______ who_______

cheery _______ calf _______ jolly _______ goat _______ drive _______

nap _______ chip _______

Analysis

Given the different parts of articulation, do you think that animals can develop a
means of way to communicate with each other? Do you think that animals can also
use the same parts so they can produce varieties of sounds and eventually mix and
match to come up with intelligible combinations?

Abstraction

Can you describe how Filipinos create sounds when they speak Tagalog? Do you
think that these places of articulation are similar in terms of Tagalog or Filipino
language? What differences do you notice in the places of articulation when you use
Tagalog?

Application

1. Using a dictionary, come up with a list of words for each of the type of sound
under each type of place of articulation. Make it 5 words each and highlight the
sound that you are focusing on.

2. Try to use the chart below and identify how each consonant is formed. The first
one is done for you.

Example: [b] = bilabial stop

Reflection and Insights

Answer the question below. Write your opinion on the space provided.

Can places of articulation be applicable in all types of languages?

Do you think that other languages will have a different way of describing how their
sounds are produced?

Post-test
I. From the topic that we have discussed, answer the following questions. Circle a
letter for your best answer.

1. Which of the following does not belong to the group?

a. [ŋ] b. [d] c. [k] d. [g]

2. This refers to the production of sound in which the air passes through the side of
the tongue.
a. affricates b. fricatives c. lateral d. glides 3. To produce the sound [ ð ] what will be
the combination of the place of articulation and manner of articulation?

a. bilabial- nasal b. dental-fricative c. velar- stop d. alveolar- fricative

4. What place of articulation is being used when we form the sound [w]? a.
none b. tongue only c. tongue and velar d. tongue and lips

5. Consonants are always voiced.

a. Maybe b. True c. False d. No idea

II. Identify what is being described in each of the following sentences below. Write
your answer on the space provided.

________1. This refers to the production of sounds that allow vocal cords to relax
resulting in no vibration during the passage of the air from the lungs. ________ 2.
This refers to the place of articulation that makes use of both the upper and lower
lips.
________3. [n], [m] and [ŋ] are the sounds that are produced with this manner of
articulation
________ 4. This refers to the place of articulation that is known to be the soft back
part of your mouth.
________ 5. This sound is produced with labiodental and it is voiced.

Suggested References and Websites http://giftofgab

fluentenglish.blogspot.com/2009/08/speech-organs-howimportant.html
UNIT 2. PHONOLOGY AND PHONETICS

Lesson 5. The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)

Duration: 3 hours

Introduction

Have you ever wondered how people learned to unify the pronunciation of certain
words? There are times when people do not agree on what is the correct
pronunciation of the word “minute.” Some say it is read as “mi-nut” others say “may
nut” and one may say “mɪnɪt.” Which one do you think is the correct way of
pronouncing the word minute?
The example scenario is quite common especially when people are learning or
studying a particular language. This is to ensure that common and uniform
pronunciation will be performed.

One aim of linguists is to come up with a good strategy to help people to uniquely
learn words and the symbols associated. This is also to ensure that these symbols
do not overlap with each other for distinction.

Objectives/Competencies

During the 3 hour period, you are expected to:

1. Use IPA symbols in transcribing words,

2. Write short sentences using IPA symbols to illustrate proper pronunciation, and
3. Come up with guidelines on how to use IPA in transcribing or reading words

Pre-test

Determine what words are provided. Write the words on the space provided.

1. kʌmˌbæk =____________________

2. prəˈvaɪd ðɛm ðɪs ˈsɜrvəs = ______________________________

3. pɑsəˈbɪləti = _____________________________

4. aɪ æm ˈtaɪərd = ___________________________

5. haʊ ɑr ju = ______________________________

Lesson Proper
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is a chart that is used in the English
language. The symbols that we have in IPA charts are drawn from the study of
Phonetics. You were already introduced with the different ways of articulation and
places of articulation.

In this lesson, we will learn what IPA is and how it is used in reading.

Vowel
When we were in the lower years, we learned that vowels are just simply a, e, i , o
and u. Based on some linguists, vowels are formed with free movement of air in the
mouth. All of the vowels are voiced. In American English, there are a lot of vowel
sounds. When we try to learn about vowels, we need to take note that these
sounds
are associated with the place they are produced. Just like consonants, they too are
described in place and manner they are formed. Let us check the diagram below.

The American English vowel sounds are described in terms of height (high, middle,
low); backness (front, central, back); lip position (rounded, spread, or unrounded);
length (short, long, complex); and tenseness (lax, tense). Study this list.

[ I ] eat, bead, bee [ u ] boot, two, tube [ ɪ ] id, bid, pit [ o ] location
[e ] eight, wade, bay [ ʊ ] foot, should, put [ɛ ] bet, fed [ ɔ ] caught,
paw, port [ æ ] ask, bat, glad [ ɚ ] merge, bird, further [ ʌ ] under, putt,
bud [ ɝ ] surfer
[ ɑ ] cot, bomb [ ə ] above

The vowels in English language are remarkably diverse. There are many types of
vowels in order to fully illustrate the different sounds produced and their
distinctions from each other.
 Activity

Can you try transforming these words into IPA symbols?

1. back _______________ 6. cloak _______________ 2. bought

_______________ 7. who _______________ 3. face
_______________ 8. bed _______________ 4. how
_______________ 9. chip _______________ 5. hoping
_______________ 10. gem _______________
Analysis

Why do you think linguists have developed the International Phonetic Alphabet? Do
you think that this chart is helpful? If so, how? If not, why?

Abstraction

How can IPA help an English language learner in his learning experience? As a
future teacher of English language, how would you use the chart in teaching
students with difficulty in pronouncing words? Can this chart help people with
language defects to speak properly?

Application

List down 20 words composed of Filipino languages that you know. Try to
transcribe those words using the IPA.

Reflection and Insights

Would spelling be a reliable source of pronunciation? Why?

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________
Post-test

Complete the IPA transcription by providing the missing vowel sounds of each word listed
below.

1. great = gre_t 6. blood = bl__d

2. road = ro__d 7. key = k__

3. myth = m__θ 8. could = k__d

4. laugh = l__f 9. ball = b__l

5. move = m__v 10. support = s__ˈpɔrt

Suggested References and Websites

http://ingles-americano.blogspot.com/2011/07/vowel-sounds.html UNIT 2. PHONOLOGY

AND PHONETICS
Lesson 6. The Sounds of English: Phonemes and Allomorphs
Duration: 3 hours

Introduction

In the previous lesson you were able to learn how sounds are being produced. It
was also discussed that consonants and vowels have distinct places and manners
of how they are formed by the human speech organs. It is therefore safe to
generalize that all humans share the same process and organs to produce
particular sounds. All humans share the same characteristics.

However, individuals will have different qualities of producing a particular sound

due to physical differences such as size and shape of vocal tracts. Because of
these physical differences, people invariably pronounce the word “we.”

Similarly, people will have different sounds of the word “we” in given situations.
Example, during suffering from bad colds, scared, or even shouting.

In this lesson you will learn how to recognize the different variations of the word
“we” to other words such as see, me, tea and so many more. How do people
manage to constantly recognize the word? In order to understand how people do
recognition of sounds, it is the work of phonology.

You have already learned that phonology is a branch of linguistics that focuses on
describing the system and patterns of speech sounds in a particular language.

Objectives/Competencies

During the 3 hour period, you are expected to:

1. Articulate features of sounds by listing them,

2. Describe how changes in sounds happen through analysis of a diagram, and
3. Be able to describe features of different phonemes by giving examples.
Pre-test

On the space provided, transcribe the following words. Show the allomorphs or
variants for /p/, /t/, /s/, /n/, /m/, and /z/.
1. people 6. measure

2. potato 7. pressure

3. letter 8. incorrect

4. water 9. computer

5. batman 10. boxes

Lesson Proper

Phonemes
Phonemes are the smallest unit of sound in a word which is perceived to be
distinct in a language. Examples: the word “pad” has three (3) phonemes which
are: /p/- /a/ and /d/.

The slash marks are used to indicate that it is a phoneme. One property of
phonemes is contrastive. The contrastive property of phonemes is the basic test
used in determining phonemes in a language. It allows people to differentiate each
phoneme from the other. A mere single substitution of a phoneme can lead to a
different meaning.

Examples of contrastive phonemes are /f/ and /v/. We can determine the change
between fat and vat or with fine and vine.

In knowing the features of phonemes, we make use of the plus sign (+ ) if the
feature is available, then we use the minus sign ( - ). Let us take this example: the
phoneme / f / -voice, +labiodental, + fricative.

Another example is with /h/ -voice, +glottal, +glides. You must identify if each
phoneme is voiced, the place of articulation and the manner of articulation.

Allomorphs

You already know that phonemes have distinct sounds and they can be readily
distinguished from other phonemes. However, each phoneme can have a variation
on how it is produced by the mouth.

Phones are the phonetic units produced by the mouth and the word allo- means
closely related to or variant. Therefore, the word allophones mean, phonetic
sounds closely related to a particular phoneme.

Let us take this example: /t/ sound

In the word “tar” /t/ is pronounced as regular /t/
“star” /t/ is pronounced as /th/
“writer” /t/ sound is produced as /d/

The sounds /th/ and /d/ which correspond to the /t/ sounds on the given examples
are what you call allophones.

The distinction of phoneme to allophones is that; when we replace a phoneme and

the meaning of the word changes therefore it is a phoneme. When the change in
sound production does not make any change in meaning, it is an allophone.

Activity

Research from different references on what allophones do the following sounds

have. Cite examples on how these phonemes change.

1. /p/

2. /k/
Analysis

A good example of allophone is the /s/ sound.

Study the /s/ sound and its allophones. Discuss what the table means and give
some examples on each allophone.

Abstraction

Since you have already learned how to identify the features of a phoneme, can
you explain what rule there may be in combining consonants?

Why do you think we have the combination of /p/ + /r/ as a common combination but
not /r/ + /p/?
Why do you think we do not see combinations like:

1. /l/ +/s/ = ls
2. /h/ +/s/ = hs

Application

List down some words in your mother tongue that have allophones. Tell how the
changes happen.

Reflection and Insights

What do you think is the impact of allophones to the daily conversations of

humans? Do you think allophones can cause misunderstanding during
conversations?
_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

Post-test
On the space provided, transcribe the following words. Show the allomorphs or
variants for /p/, /t/, /s/, /n/, /m/, and /z/.
1. tomato 6. leisure

2. bitter 7. assurance

3. legacy 8. indecent

4. girls 9. writer

5. plants 10. rider

Suggested References and Websites

Source: https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf
UNIT 2. PHONOLOGY AND PHONETICS

Lesson 7. Broad and Narrow Transcriptions

Introduction

In narrow transcription, you will learn the detailed descriptions of phones in terms of
their physical attributes. Compared to broad transcription, it provides explanations
how phonemes behave in different phonological environments. These changes
manifest in terms of phonetic differentiation.

Objectives/Competencies
During the three-hour period, you are expected to
1. Differentiate long and short vowels through narrow transcription,
2. Illustrate finer phonetic features through narrow transcription, and
3. Transcribe selected words in narrow transcription.

Pre-test

Group the words below in two columns: A for short vowels and B for long vowels.

deal feel deep fill dill heat dip ____________ 5. B- Long /i/
hit ____________ ___________
___________
___________
Lesson Proper ___________
A- Short /I/ meal mill ___________
1. ____________ 2. peak pick
____________ 3. seal ship
____________ 4. seat sick seek sill sheep sit

As explained in the previous lessons, no two languages are the same. Each language
is unique and has peculiarities. In comparing languages on the phonological level,
you will notice that there are some phonological features that are not shared by two
languages. One of which is the difference between long and short vowels. Failure to
recognize the differences between short and long vowels results in the inability to
perceive their differences both in receptive and productive skills, listening and
speaking, respectively. Surprisingly, the same difficulty may occur in writing and
reading as well. Hence, it is very important to get yourself familiar with both broad and
narrow transcriptions.

In this lesson, you learn to read words as they are transcribed in two ways. Broad
transcription is also known as phonemic transcription. It uses slashes. Narrow
transcription, which is also known as phonemic transcription, used square brackets.
Narrow transcription is more detailed because it considers the physical properties of
every speech sound or phone.

Aspirated Stops
Stops are consonant sounds which are produced with the complete impedance or
obstruction of the flow of speech air through the closure of the upper and the lower
lips which is immediately followed by a sudden release. Hence, stops are identified
with the final position in a word like top, put, book. However, stops become aspirated
when they are in initial position. In the case of /t/, it is aspirated both in the initial
position or middle position provided that it is part of the stressed or accented syllable.
In the final position, stops are unreleased or unaspirated. In narrow transcription, a
superscript of /h/ is used. In the case of ‘cook’, only the initial /k/ is aspirated. See the
examples below.

Unreleased Stops
To indicate that the stop is unreleased, a superscript of /o/ is used. Unreleased
indicates that the speech air is not allowed to pass through even a small passage
between the lips of teeth.

Flaps
When the phoneme /t/ is between two vowels, it is in an intervocalic position. Because
it is between two vowels, the unvoiced /t/ becomes similar to /d/. Hence, we use [D] in
narrow transcription. Below are examples of flaps.
Dental Consonants
Consonants which are placed in close proximity tend to affect each other. The
interdental /Ɵ/, for example, assimilates the lateral /l/ such that it becomes dentalized,
that is, it is produced by placing the tip of the tongue between the upper and the lower
teeth. Observe the symbol used beneath /l/, /n/, and /t/. The symbol stands for
dentalization.

Velarized / ɫ /

The lateral / ɫ / behaves differently in different phonemic environments. If a word ends

win a / ɫ /, the sound of the consonant manifests a backward movement of the tip of
the tongue. Velarization is represented by a small bar placed across / ɫ /. Compare
the examples below.

Voiceless Liquids and Glides

Liquids and glides are voiced, but they become voiceless when placed near voiceless
consonants like /p/, /s/, and /k/. A small zero is placed beneath a liquid or a glide to
indicate that it is voiceless. See the examples below.

Lengthened Vowels
Length is phonemic. The meaning of a word changes significantly when the sound of
a vowel is lengthened. The symbol for vowel length is a colon [:]. Imagine the
communication breakdown if you miss to use a lengthened vowel when you ask a
friend, Do you enjoy going to the beach?

Nasalized Vowels
 Nasalization means letting the air pass through the nasal cavity. When a vowel is
near to a nasal consonant, that vowel also becomes nasalized as well. To indicate a
nasalized vowel, we use a tilde, a small diacritic in niño, the Spanish word for boy.

Activity

Give four examples for every type of phonetic or narrow transcription and have them
transcribed using appropriate phonetic characters and square brackets.

Category of Phonetic Transcription Examples

1. Aspirated Stops _______________ _______________

_______________ _______________

2. Unreleased Stops _______________ _______________

_______________ _______________

3. Flaps _______________ _______________ _______________

_______________

4. Dental Consonant _______________ _______________

_______________ _______________

5. Velarization _______________ _______________

_______________ _______________

6. Voiceless Liquids and Glides _______________ _______________

_______________ _______________
7. Lengthened Vowels _______________ _______________
_______________ _______________

8. Nasalized Vowels _______________ _______________

_______________ _______________

Abstraction

Explain how phonemes behave differently in different phonological environments. You

may go back to the preliminary parts of this lesson to support your answer. Write your
explanation below.
_________________________________________________________________
_
_________________________________________________________________
_
_________________________________________________________________
_
_________________________________________________________________
_
 _________________________________________________________________
_
_________________________________________________________________
_
_________________________________________________________________
_
_________________________________________________________________
_
_________________________________________________________________
_
_________________________________________________________________
_
_________________________________________________________________
_
_________________________________________________________________
_
_________________________________________________________________
_

Application

Using your output above, write the words in narrow transcription.

Category of Phonetic Transcription Narrow Transcription

1. Aspirated Stops _______________ _______________

_______________ _______________

2. Unreleased Stops _______________ _______________

_______________ _______________

3. Flaps _______________ _______________ _______________

_______________

4. Dental Consonant _______________ _______________

_______________ _______________

5. Velarization _______________ _______________

6. Voiceless Liquids and Glides _______________ _______________

_______________ _______________ _______________ _______________

7. Lengthened Vowels _______________ _______________

_______________ _______________

8. Nasalized Vowels _______________ _______________

_______________ _______________

Reflection and Insights

 Which of the phonetic changes do you find most challenging? Do you consider this as
a challenge or potential problem area in teaching English to speakers of other
languages?
_________________________________________________________________
_
_________________________________________________________________
_
_________________________________________________________________
_
_________________________________________________________________
_
_________________________________________________________________
_
_________________________________________________________________
_
_________________________________________________________________
_
_________________________________________________________________
_
_________________________________________________________________
_
_________________________________________________________________
_
_________________________________________________________________
_
_________________________________________________________________
_

Post-test

Transcribe ‘The Lord’s Prayer” in the space below using narrow transcription.
Disregard here the use of square brackets. Make the transcriptions linear.

The Lord’s Prayer _______________________________

_______________________________
Our Father, who art in
And forgive us our trespasses, as we
heaven, hallowed be thy name;
forgive those who trespass against
thy kingdom come; thy will be
us.
done; on earth as it is in heaven.
And lead us not into temptation; but
Give us this day our daily bread.
_______________________________ deliver us from evil.
_______________________________
For thine is the kingdom,
_______________________________
the power and the glory,
_______________________________ for ever and ever.
_______________________________
Amen.
_______________________________
_______________________________
Suggested References and Websites _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________

The examples in the above narrow transcriptions are accessed from Crabtree, M.
& Powers, J. (Comp.) (1991). Language Files, 5th ed. Columbus: Ohio State
University Press.
UNIT 2. PHONOLOGY AND PHONETICS

Lesson 8. The Great Vowel Shift in English

Duration: 3 hours

Introduction

Every language is dynamic. As such, every language changes. If a language does

not change or the rules are fixed and no new words are added to that language, it is
a dead language. Linguists consider English as a living language as it permits
changes and accommodates new words.

You have known in your previous lessons in English that this language belongs to
Indo-European family of languages and its transition from the original structure to
its divergent form is attributed to change.

Objectives/Competencies

During the 3 hour period, you are expected to:

1. Discuss how pronunciation changes and what factors affect it,
2. Provide examples of pronunciation changes, and
3. Propose possible new sound combinations or word pronunciation

Pre-test

Determine what is the correct pronunciation of the words; put a check mark on the
space provided.

1. bagel ____bay-gull vs ____ bah-gull

2. caramel ____ car-ml vs ____ car-a-mel
3. syrup ____ seer-up vs ____ sirr-up
4. almond ____ ahl-mend vs ____ am-end
5. salmon ____ sahmon vs ____ sahlmon
Lesson Proper
During the travel or the migration of the known ancestors of English, known as the
Anglo-Saxon, various but related languages emerged. Many proofs can relate the
modern English language to other languages that are drawn from the same source.
English language loaned words from different groups of people either their
conquerors or the people they have conquered. Some of the words that have been
borrowed are from government, nobility, military, food, and art. Definitely, these
words originally had their own form and due to borrowing and time, change
occurred. We sometimes refer to the older version of English as Middle English,
which was believed to be the type of English language spoken in the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries.

One prominent feature of change that distinguishes Modern English to Middle

English is the so-called Great Vowel Shift (GVS). This refers to the changes of
pronunciation that happened in English language. The shift has heavily influenced
other types of Englishes.

You already have an idea on how language has changed and from the article you
will read below, you will find out that there are many factors which can contribute to
the gradual change of language.

Read the article and try to check how changes happened in the English language

GVS can be manifested in many examples, this is due to the different mouth
and tongue positioning of speakers. A good example of sound that
underwent change is the word “hoose” which originally meant dwelling. This
word has changed now to “house.”

Another example is the word “coo” which refers to cows nowadays. Many
people are still trying to make changes in pronunciation and linguists believe
that GVS will still continue to happen as English varieties prosper and many
regional dialects of English emerge.

One manifestation of GVS is the emergence of new sound combinations

which are mostly turning to new types of diphthongs.

In the illustration below, the process of combination of sounds is explained.

This process also happens in GVS

Activity
To understand more about GVS, try to check this video

https://youtu.be/zyhZ8NQOZeo

Analysis

Investigate about the Push Theory and Pull Theory that affected the Great
Vowel Shift.

Application
Do you consider the phonological differences between British and American
varieties of English a consequence of the Great Vowel Shift? Write your
explanation below.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_
____________________________________________________________
_ Reflection and Insights

What do you think are the common reasons why languages change?
____________________________________________________________
_
 _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Post-test

Below is the passage from Matthew 6:9-13 in Anglo-Saxon language ( 410 to

1066 CE) and New International Version of the Bible (21st Century).
Fæder ure þu þe eart on heofonum, Our Father in heaven, hallowed
Si þin nama gehalgod. To becume be your name, your kingdom
þin rice, gewurþe ðin willa, on come, your will be done, on earth
eorðan swa swa on heofonum. urne as it is in heaven. Give us today
our daily bread. And forgive us
gedæghwamlican hlaf syle us todæg,
our debts, as we also have
and forgyf us ure gyltas, swa swa we forgiven our debtors. And lead us
forgyfað urum gyltendum. and ne not into temptation but deliver us
gelæd þu us on costnunge, ac alys us from the evil one.
of yfele. soþlice.

List down some words that have persisted from the Anglo-Saxon Period to
the 21st century. Discuss how these words have changed over the last 1,500
years.

____________________________________________________________
_
____________________________________________________________
_
____________________________________________________________
_
____________________________________________________________
_
_____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_
____________________________________________________________
_ Suggested References and Websites

https://www.slideshare.net/mlmohlere/great-vowel-shift-64524575

https://www.larapedia.com/english_the_english_language/
 the_english_langu age.html
UNIT 3. MORPHOLOGY AND SYNTAX

Lesson 9. Free, Bound, Derivational, and Inflectional

Morphemes

Duration: 3 hours

Introduction
Morphemes are the smallest units of language that have described into
categories. As a future educator, you need to figure-out the different
functions of morphemes or words according to its categories. Moreover, as
you study morphemes, you will identify the different kinds of morphemes and
their own uses in language.

Objectives/Competencies
1. Identify the different types of morphemes
2. Analyze the different usage of the categories of morphemes.
3. Differentiate the different categories of morphemes.

Pre-test
This first part of your module will not only test your prior knowledge but will
also introduce you to the next lesson. Check the box of your choice.

YES MAYBE NO
1. Morphemes only deals with words.
◻◻◻
2. Free morphemes are words that can stand or an article.
alone.
◻◻◻
3. Bound morphemes are divided in three Lesson Proper
categories which are lexical, derivational, and
inflectional. ◻◻◻

4. Lexical morphemes refers to bases of the

words.

5. Morphemes can be a conjunction, a verb, ◻ ◻ ◻ ◻ ◻ ◻

Morphemes are the smallest grammatical units of language. They can be

classified as free morphemes, which can stand alone as words, or bound
morphemes, which must be combined with another morpheme to form a
complete word. In the English language, bound morphemes naturally appear
as affixes.

Free morphemes are also called the root words. These words are can stand
alone (such as "bag") and cannot be divided into smaller meaning units. Most
free morphemes can be improved by affixes to form complex words and
compound words through combining two free morphemes like bookmark,
while free morphemes modified by affixes are complex words like beginner.

Free morphemes are divided in two categories which called as lexical

morphemes and functional morphemes.

Lexical Morphemes are words that make the main meaning of a sentence.
These includes nouns, verbs, and adjectives.

Examples
Noun: bag, book, pencil
Verbs: run, seek, walk, dance
Adjectives: kind, fast, sad, quick

These words are vital parts of a sentence. The gist and meaning of these
words might change when joined with other morphemes, but their free
morphemes will still make up the content of the sentence.
Functional morphemes consist of articles, auxiliaries, prepositions,
demonstratives, quantifiers, pronouns, and conjunctions.

Examples of free morphemes as functional morphemes

• Articles: the, a, an
• Auxiliary Verbs: will, is, must, does
• Quantifiers: some, many, few
• Demonstratives: this, that, those, these
• Prepositions: under, over, to, by
• Pronouns: he, she, his, her
• Conjunctions: for, and, but, or

Functional morphemes serve as a grammatical connection between

lexical morphemes. They are not usually added or connected with affixes
that change their meaning.
Bound morphemes are morphemes which cannot stand alone. It has no
linguistic meaning unless they are combined and united to a root word, or
even in another bound morphemes.

These morphemes have no linguistic meaning unless they are linked or

connected to a root word, or other bound morpheme. Bound morphemes can
be clustered and grouped into two categories: inflectional morphemes and
derivational morphemes.

Inflectional morphemes alter the grammatical function of a word whether

mood, verb tense, or another language inflection. These morphemes cannot
change the meaning, but the suffixes can change the word condition. The
eight inflectional morphemes are organized by which part of speech they
modify:

 Modify a Noun: -s (or -es), -'s (or s')

 Modify an Adjective: -er, -est
 Modify a Verb: -ed, -ing, -en

Derivational Morphemes alters and changes the semantic meaning of a

word. Most derivational morphemes have roots in Greek or Latin. These
morphemes can change a word's part of speech.
Prefixes: pre-, un-, non-, anti-, dis
Suffixes: -ize, -ine, -ary, -ate, -ion

Activity
Analyze the given word in each number and identify the free and bound
morphemes. Use the table below.
WORD FREE MORPHEME BOUND MORPHEME ex. beautiful beauty -
ful

1. singing
2. refrigerator
3. assignment
4. cheaply
5. separation
6. unbreakable
7. employment
8. hunter
9. generosity
10. steadfastness

Analysis
The components of the morphologically complex words below have been
separated by a hyphen (-). Indicate which of these morphemes are bound
and which is free, and which bound morphemes are inflectional and
derivational.

Ex. Care-ful care (free), -ful (bound, inflectional)

1. kind-ness
2. dance-ing
3. teach-er
4. fright-en
5. understand-able
6. king-dom
7. favorite-ism
8. speak-s
9. award-ed
10. achieve-ment

Abstraction
Using the free morphemes below add a bound morpheme and write the new
meaning of the word.
OLD WORD NEW WORD MEANING ex. use useful valuable or
productive in kind

1. coordinate
2. tremendous
3. suffocate
4. product
5. possible
6. learn
7. book
8. collect
9. phone
10. paint
11. comfortable
12. wash
13. happy
14. marine
15. acid
Application
Create ten sentences and label and underline four words that has different
types of morphemes. L for lexical morpheme, F for functional, I for
inflectional and D for derivational. ex. The businesswoman is selling goods
online strategically.
F L I D 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Reflection and Insights
Reflect on what have you learned about morphemes. What are the
implications of the way you learned in teaching new generation of 21 st century
learners? Write your insights on the lines provided below.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Post-test

Answer the following questions to assess your understanding on the lesson.

1. Identify the two types of morphemes?

_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

2. Differentiate lexical morphemes to functional morphemes?

_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

3. How does inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes

dissimilar from each other?
_____________________________________________________
 _____________________________________________________
Suggested References and Websites
To enrich your understanding in the given lesson you may read relevant
article on the website below.

http://punjabirevolution.com/index.php/morphology/

UNIT 3. MORPHOLOGY AND SYNTAX

Lesson 10. Morphophonemic Changes and Types of

Word Formation
Introduction
Language is a vital aspect in the life of every human being. We use it to
express emotions and thoughts, make sense of abstract and complex ideas,
and also to learn how to communicate with others. When we communicate
with native speaker, we need a speak with good language and proper
pronunciation. Therefore, in English we know about linguistics and its
process of learning. Morphology is the study of word structure. It seeks to
describe the system of rules and categories involved in word formation and
interpretation. Morphology is related with morphophonology, the aspect of
linguistics which studies about the phonological structure of morphemes, the
alternative series which serve a morphological function and the combinatory
phonic modifications of morphemes which occur when they are combined.
Morphophonemic change occurs when some phonological features change
as a corollary of their phonological environments.

Objectives/Competencies
a. Identify the different types of word formations.
b. Explain the different types of word formations.
c. Discuss the process of morphophonemic changes.
d. Create a digital organizer containing different word formation and
morphophonemic changes.

Pre-test
This first part of your module will not only test your prior knowledge but will
also introduce you to the next lesson. Check the box of your choice. YES
MAYBE NO
1. Morphophonemic changes can be morphemes
classified in different processes.
◻◻◻◻◻◻
2. Compounding forms a word out of two or
 3. Assimilation is a type of word formation.
◻◻◻
4. A fusion of two phonemes can brought 5. Morphophonemic changes can change the
together by combining morphemes into a form of the word.
single phoneme. Lesson Proper
◻◻◻◻◻◻

1. Loss of phoneme - The loss of phoneme /t/ w word class (adjective to a

noun)
e.g. different → difference; democrat → democracy
2. Addition of phonemes- The addition of “s” in a word to change it. sword →
swordsman; sale → salesgirl; craft → craftsman 3. Simple change of phonemes -
The change from singular to plural like the example above.
e.g. dog → dogs
4. Assimilation – Dissimilation
Assimilation is the process of substituting a sound by another sound
under the effect of a third sound which is near to it in the word or
sentence.
5. Synthesis- There is the combination of the two phonemes brought
together by morpheme combination into a single new phoneme. 6.
Stress shift, gradation- The addition of an affix to a word is together
with a shift in stress called stress shift
7. Suppletion- This type of morphophonemic change is the incidence of the
allomorph totally different in phonemic construction from the normal
form.

Such are some common change of morphophonemic in English. If we can

guess the rule behind the different kind of pronunciation or monomorphemic
that occurred, it will make it cooler and easier for us to learn English.

Types of Word Formation

Compounding pertains to forming a word out of two or more root
morphemes. These are called compounds or compound words. It can be
either native or borrowed. Native English roots are commonly free
morphemes, meaning to say native compounds are made out of independent
words that can arise by themselves.
Examples: mailman, mail carrier, doghouse, fireplace, fire hydrant, dry run,
cupcake, cup holder, email, e-ticket

Some compounds have a preposition as one of the component words like

pick-up truck and talking-to
Roots do not typically stand alone in Greek and Latin, in contrast to English.
Therefore, compounds are composed of bound roots. Compound words
shaped in English from derived Latin and Greek morphemes preserve this
distinctive. Some examples are photograph, iatrogenic, and many thousands
of other conventional words.
Note that compounds are written in various ways in English: with a space
between the elements; with a hyphen between the elements; or only with the
two roots run together with no separation. Words written in this way do not
affect its status as a compound. Later on, the way for writing compounds can
also change, such as the word email used to be written with a hyphen before.
In the 19th century, today and tomorrow were occasionally still written to-day
and to-morrow. The particle to formerly was the preposition to with an older
meaning 'at [a specific period of time]'. Clock work changed to clock-work
and finally to one word with no break, clockwork. Some compound words in
earlier literature are now written as one word appearing with unfamiliar
spaces or hyphens between the components.
Another thing to note about compound words is how different parts of speech
can be combined with each other. Some common examples are the
nounnoun combination, yet, there are others, like adjective-noun (dry run,
blackbird, hard drive), verb-noun (pick-pocket, cut-purse, lick-spittle) and
even verb-particle (where 'particle' means a word mostly entitling spatial
expression that means to complete a literal or metaphorical path), such as
run-through, or hold-over. Occasionally, these compounds are different in the
part of speech of the whole compound vs. the part of speech of its
components. Remember that the last two are nouns, despite their
components.
Some compounds have more than two component words. These are formed
by sequentially combining words into compounds, such as pick-up truck,
formed from pick-up and truck, where the first component, pick-up is itself a
compound formed from pick and up. Additional examples are no-fault
insurance, ice-cream cone, and even more complex compounds like top-rack
dishwasher safe.
There are a number of subtypes of compounds that do not relate with part of
speech, yet the sound characteristics of the words. These subtypes are not
commonly exclusive.

Rhyming compounds (subtype of compounds)

These words are formed or compounded from two rhyming words.
Examples: Lovey-dovey, chiller-killer
There are words that are very alike to rhyming compounds but are not quite
compounds in English for the reason that the second component is not really
a word--it is only a nonsense item added to a root word to form a rhyme.
Examples: higgledy-piggledy tootsie-wootsie

This formation process is connected in English with child talk precisely called
hypocoristic language. Examples: bunnie-wunnie, Henny Penny,
snugglywuggly, Georgie Porgie, Piggie-Wiggie

Another word type that similar a bit to rhyming compounds includes words
that are formed of two components that almost match but differ in their
vowels. The second element is naturally a nonsense form Examples:
pitterpatter, zigzag, tick-tock, riffraff, flipflop

Derivation is the creation of words by alteration of a root without the addition

of other roots. Frequently the effect is a change in part of speech.
Affixation (Subtype of Derivation)
Affixation is the addition of one or more affixes to a root, as in the word
derivation itself. A term which shelters both prefixation and suffixation and
this process is called affixation.

Blending is of word formation processes in English that loved almost by

everyone. Speakers take two words and merge them based not on
morpheme structure but on sound structure. The result is called blends.

Commonly in word formation we join or combine roots or affixes along their

boundaries: one morpheme comes to an end before the next one starts. Like,
when we form derivation out of the sequence of morphemes de+riv+at(e)
+ion. One morpheme follows the next and each one has recognizable
boundaries.

But in blending, part of one word is stitched onto one more word, without any
regard for where one morpheme ends, and another begins. Examples
include glitterati=glitter+literati mean 'Hollywood social set', mockumentary=
mock+documentary means 'spoof documentary'.

These are some common blends that we usually use.

1. brunch (breakfast and lunch)
2. motel (motor hotel)
3. electrocute (electric and execute)
4. smog (smoke and fog)
5. cheeseburger (cheese and hamburger)
6. stagflation (stagnation and inflation)
7. spork (spoon and fork)
8. carjacking (car and hijacking)

Here are some more recent blends.

1. mocktail (mock and cocktail) 'cocktail with no alcohol'
2. splog (spam and blog) 'fake blog designed to attract hits and raise Google-
ranking'
3. Britpoperati (Britpop and literati) 'those knowledgeable about current
British pop music'

Clipping is a kind of abbreviation of a word in which one part is 'clipped' off

from the whole word, and the remaining word now means fundamentally the
equivalent thing as what the whole word means or meant. Example rifle=rifle
gun (means having a spiral groove causing the bullet to spin, and thus
making it more accurate)
Burger=hamburger (This could only come about once hamburg+er was
reanalyzed as ham+burger.)

Acronyms are formed by getting the initial or first letters of a phrase and
making a word out of it. Acronyms turned a phrase into a word. The usual
acronym is also pronounced as a word.
Examples:
Scuba(Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus
Snafu (Situation Normal All Fucked Up)
Sometimes an acronym uses also the first syllable of a component word.
Examples
Radar-RAdio Detection And Ranging Sonar
SOund Navigation and Ranging.

Initialisms include words made out from the first letters of a phrase yet NOT
pronounced as a normal word – instead, it is pronounced as a string of
letters. Organization names are some initialisms Examples: NOW (National
Organization of Women)
US or U.S., USA or U.S.A. (United States)
UN or U.N. (United Nations)
IMF (International Monetary Fund)
Some organizations ARE pronounced as a word:
UNICEF
MADD (Mothers Against Drunk Driving)

The last example integrates a meaning into the word that turns the nature of
the organization. This type is called a Backronym OR Reverse Acronym.

Some example of special case of acronyms.

Memos, email, and text messaging are manners of communication that give
rise to both clippings and acronyms, since these word formation methods are
designed to abbreviate.
Some acronyms:
NB - Nota bene, literally 'note well'. Used by intellectuals making notes on
texts.
BRB - be right back (from 1980s, 90s)
FYI - for your information (from mid-20th century)
LOL - laughing out loud (early 21st century) - now pronounced either /lol/
or /el o el/; has spawned compounds like Lolcats).
ROFL - rolling on the floor laughing
ROFLMAO - rolling on the floor laughing my ass off

Reanalysis
Sometimes speakers create a new morph or making an old one
unrecognizable that happen unconsciously when change they morphological
boundaries of a word. This occurred in hamburger, which was initially
Hamburger steak 'chopped and formed steak in the Hamburg style, then
hamburger (hamburg + er), then ham + burger

Folk etymology
A common and popular idea of a word's etymology or origin that is not in
harmony with its real etymology. Some cases of reanalysis of many folk
etymologies are which the word is not only reanalysis, but it deviates under
the effect of the new understanding of its morphemes. The outcome is that
speakers think it has a different origin than it does.

Analogy
Speakers in analogy take an existing word as a model and create other
words using some of its morphemes as a fixed part, with an analogically
similar meaning they will change the other one to something new. An
example is the word cheeseburger it was formed on the analogy of
hamburger, substituting apparent morpheme ham with cheese. carjack and
skyjack were also formed by analogy.

Novel creation
In novel creation, a writer or speaker forms a word without beginning from
other morphemes. It is as if the word if formed out of 'whole cloth', without
reusing any parts.

Examples
Blimp, googol (the mathematical term), bling, which appeared in the last 200
years with no clear etymology.

Some novel creations likely to show 'sound symbolism', in which a word's

phonological form recommends its meaning in some way. Like the sound of
the word bling appears to evoke heavy jewelry making noise. Another novel
creation whose sound seems to tell its meaning is badonkadonk, 'female rear
end', a copied word which can remind English speakers of the monotonous
movement of the rear end while walking.

Creative respelling
Sometimes words are formed by changing the spelling of a word that the
speaker wants to create to a new word. Product names often involve creative
respelling, like the brand Mr. Kleen.

Activity
Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the word at the end of each
sentence.
1. When my cellphone was kept on lagging, I realized that I needed to
_____________ it with a new one. (PLACE)
2. He has an _____________ resume, I will hire him. (IMPRESS) 3. He
has achieved recognition and respect as a _____________.
(SCIENTIST)
4. Life is just like a painting. Many things make it colorful and
_____________. (MEANING)
5. Do not worry it is safe. The helmet and _____________ chambers will
protect you. (INFLATE)
6. Mrs. Villegas is really _____________. She did not remember when she
placed her wedding ring. (FORGET)
7. A _____________ is a must. When you want to dine-in in that restaurant.
(SERVE)
8. Joanna changes her _____________ settings in Facebook for safety
purposes. (PRIVATE)
9. The _____________ in paying in the cashier was too slow. 10. The
President’s _____________ about lockdown is to prevent the spread of
virus. (ANNOUNCE)

Analysis
Change the following words according to the given parts of speech.
1. fortunate (adverb) 11. happy (noun)
2. satisfy (noun) 12. invite (noun)
3. necessary (noun) 13. regular (adverb)
4. mountain (adjective) 14. expense (adjective)
5. entertain (noun) 15. success (adjective)
6. energy (adjective) 16. globe (adjective)
7. believe (noun) 17. grace (adverb)
8. direct (adverb) 18. frequent (adverb)
9. envy (adjective) 19. argue (noun)
10. free (noun) 20. reason (adjective)

Abstraction
Give five examples of the following in each type of word formation.
CLIPPING COMPOUND WORD ACRONYMS BLENDING 1. 1. 1. 1.

2. 2. 2. 2.

3. 3. 3. 3.

4. 4. 4. 4.

5. 5. 5. 5.
Application
Research about different examples of word formation. Create your own
inforgraph or digital graphic organizer that you can use as a future educator.
Use the rubric below as your guide.

Reflection and Insights

Reflect on what you have learned about morphophonemic changes and
types of word formation. What are the implications of the way you learned in
teaching the new generation of 21 st century learners? How will you make the
lesson creative and meaningful?

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Post-test
This checklist will assess your total understanding of the concepts and
competency level for Introduction to Linguistics. You will rate yourself based
on overall evaluation as illustrated in the table.
 Identify the different types of word
Performance Standards Yes No
formation Explain the different types of word formation.
◻◻ ◻◻

Differentiate the different characteristics of

word ◻ ◻
formation.

Explain the process of morphophonemic changes

◻ ◻ List down the

types of word formation ◻ ◻

Give different examples of word formation according to its ◻ ◻ type.

Integrating different types of word formation in creating ◻ ◻ graphic

organizer

Suggested References and Websites

Sabtu. (2013). Morphonemic Process. Retrieved from:
http://aridewi13.blogspot.com/2013/11/morphophonemic-proccess.html
UNIT 3. MORPHOLOGY AND SYNTAX

Lesson 11. Prescriptive and Descriptive Grammars

Introduction
Grammar means different things to different people. It may refer to set of
rules to regulate certain aspects of use. Generally, grammar can be
prescriptive or descriptive.

Objectives/Competencies

1. Explain the usage of descriptive and prescriptive grammar.

2. Differentiate descriptive grammar from prescriptive grammar.

Pre-test
This checklist will assess your understanding of the concepts of language.
You will rate yourself based on overall evaluation as illustrated in the table.

Identify the different types of word formation

Performance Standards Yes No ◻
Explain the different types of word formation. Differentiate the different
◻ ◻◻
characteristics of word formation. Explain the process of morphophonemic
◻◻
changes List down the types of word formation Give different examples of
◻◻ ◻◻
word formation according to its type.
◻◻
Integrating different types of word formation in
◻◻
creating graphic organizer
Lesson Proper

Descriptive Grammar
Descriptive grammar stresses the style how either native or non-native
speakers use the language on their daily lives. Therefore, the set of rules
about the language is according on how the language is spoken or used and
not how the language should be spoken or used. Descriptive approach is
usually followed by the linguists, where they can study the patterns and rules
on words and sentences used by the speakers.

Descriptive grammar does not explicate or explain which grammar is correct

or not. In this means, this approach is defined as ‘objective description of the
grammatical constructions of the language’. The principles and patterns that
underlie the use of words, phrases, and clauses, and sentences of the
specific users and speakers of the language was studied and examined by
descriptive grammarians.
According to Greenbaum and Quirk (1990), “A descriptive grammar is a
study of a language, its structure, and its rules as they are used in daily life
by its speakers from all walks of life, including standard and nonstandard
varieties.”
Additionally, based on the definition provided by Edwin L. Battistella
“Descriptive grammar is the basis for dictionaries, which record changes in
vocabulary and usage, and for the field of linguistics, which aims at
describing languages and investigating the nature of language.”

Prescriptive Grammar
Prescriptive grammar views and asserts what language use ought to be by
setting some parameters on how language have to be used. In this means,
this approach has set of rules that impart and teach the speaker the most
precise and the correct way to use the language. The grammar and the
language standard can be achieved by letting the speakers learn what
should be used and what should be avoided.

The use of prescriptive grammar started in the 18th century, in which the
social elites desired to prescribe the standard form of language. This
approach attempts to impose and enforce rules regarding the “correct” usage
of a language. In addition, prescriptive grammar requires how aspects of
language should be used. This employs for teaching those who use
nonnative or nonstandard language forms. “Prescriptivism” and “normative
grammar” also denote this feature of grammar.

The prescriptivists’ view of language infers the difference between “good

grammar” and “bad grammar”. This approach of grammar usually
incorporates many opinions, ideas, and judgments about when and how
grammar rules ought to be used (Greenbaum, 1996).

According to Ilse Depraetere and Chad Langford (2012), “A prescriptive

grammar is one that gives hard and fast rules about what is right (or
grammatical) and what is wrong (or ungrammatical), often with advice about
what not to say but with little explanation.”

For instance, if someone says; “She and me were arguing about the
performance”. A descriptive grammarian will clarify this sentence as
grammatical while a prescriptive grammarian will tell this sentence is
incorrect since it has violated the standard rules of grammar with the
improper usage of ‘me’ with “She” (where it should be She and I).

Activity
Talk with one of your classmates, list information about descriptive and
prescriptive grammar. List all the information that you have and create a
Venn diagram comparing and contrasting the approaches of grammar.
Analysis
Based on your answers above, how do you come up with those answers?
Which do you think is often used and why?

Abstraction
Which do you think is more important approach in grammar? Which do you
think is the best to be learn by a future educator like you?

Application
As a future educator, how does descriptive and prescriptive grammar help
you to become an effective educator? Elaborate your answer.

Reflection and Insights

Write your key take away about the lesson prescriptive and descriptive
grammar.

Post-test
 Identify the statement if it is about descriptive grammar and prescriptive
grammar. Check the box of your answer.

Statement Descriptive Prescriptive

Grammar Grammar
1. It usually avoids clichés such phrases with
◻◻
no longer interesting.

2. It usually omits contractions.

◻ ◻ 3. The verb should always

agree with subjects ◻ ◻

4. Using split infinitives is prohibited.

◻◻
5. It is allowed to start a sentence with Suggested References and Websites
because
◻◻

https://pediaa.com/difference-between-descriptive-and-prescriptive-grammar/
UNIT 4. SEMANTICS

Lesson 12. Meaning: The Transformational

Generative and The Systemic Functional
Turns

Introduction
Transformational generative grammar (TGG) and systemic functional
grammar (SFG) are two of the most significant contemporary schools of
thought theoretical linguistic. Previous literature has mostly taken the two
models as two contrastive perspectives to language. These two grammatical
models focused on how they could be assured together to complement each
other in terms of linguistic competence, syntax, and pragmatics, thus creating
a more comprehensive and inclusive picture of language. This module tends
to discuss on the application of these two grammars models. SFG and TGG
complement each other and together present us a more rounded and holistic
picture of language with their own definition and meaning.

Objectives/Competencies

During the three-hour period you are expected to

1. Identify the Transformational Generative Grammar and The
Systemic Functional Turns
2. Differentiate the two grammatical models
3. Explain the impact of the grammatical model in English
Pre-test
Identify the following terms. Write your answer on the space provided.
______________ 1. It is a system of language analysis that recognizes the
relationship among the various elements of a sentence and among the
possible sentences of a language and uses processes or rules.
______________ 2. He is the one who established and developed systemic
functional grammar.
______________ 3. It categorizes our perceptive on the basis of our
experience.
______________ 4. It relates to a text’s aspects of tenor or interactivity.
______________ 5. It systematizes our understanding and experience of the
world.

Lesson Proper Transformational Generative Grammar Noam Chomsky

is one of the most influential linguists of the second half of the 20 th century
and beyond. His seminal work Syntactic Structures (1957) has initiated
reconceptualization in contemporary linguistics. It challenged the norms set
by his predecessors, the so-called American Structuralism.
This new approach would put syntax at the center of the theory of language
and disregard empiricist and discovery actions put forth by recognized
structuralists.

The existence of some underlying transformational rules was advocated by

Chomsky, together with the morphophonemic rules and phrase structure,
that let us speakers of language to produce different kinds of sentences,
differing from the standard-kernel-sentence, which is simple, declarative, and
active.

BACKGROUND

Ferdinand de Saussure’s Structuralism and American Structuralism

(20th century)
Before the Chomskyan revolt struck, the linguistic theory that was mostly
acknowledged was Structuralism. The beliefs of structuralisms revolved
around the study of languages from scratch, by recognizing the smallest
linguistic units: phonemes, morphemes, phrases, clauses, sentences and so
on. As defined by Bloomfield, the practice employed was named ‘discovery
procedures. Hence, higher linguistic levels -sentences- were appealed to be
built out of lower linguistic levels.

The objective of the empiricists about the scientific approach of languages is

based on study of languages which constructed on a corpus of actual
utterances without appeal to meaning (semantic criteria). Additional condition
was the avoidance of mixing linguistic levels, e.g., not resorting to
morphology to explain a syntactic phenomenon, or else the study of any
language would be rejected and thus flawed.

At the level of science, many of their approaches were unsuccessful to

deliver a thorough study of languages, as they manifestly had to resort to
different linguistic levels and semantic standards to account for certain
phenomena. If we take the proposition that morphemes are made of
phonemes, as in the case of the past simple of look –> look-ed (/lʊkt/) , how
could we go about explaining the construction of irregular past forms such as
went? Where is the phoneme /d/, /Id/ or /t/ in that word? Here we have one of
the inconsistencies and conflicts that Structuralists had to discourse
somehow, and therefore failing in their methods and beliefs.
Syntactic Structures (1957) by Noam Chomsky
The preliminary point of this new era in linguistics was released by the
publication of this book, a linguistic current that has been painstakingly
examined and modified, though only an account of the first TGG principles
and beliefs will be provided.
• The fundamental goals in the linguistic analysis of a language L will be to
distinct the grammatical sentences from the ungrammatical ones and
study those grammatical sentences. The grammar of the language is said
to create an infinite number of grammatical sentences, excluding the
ungrammatical ones.
• One of the perplexing points at issue is to discuss what grammaticality
means and what it does not mean. The grammaticality of the sentence
centers upon the native speakers’ acceptability, i.e., their intuition, though
we should not be tricked into thinking that non-sensical sentences must
be exempted of the grammatical ones. In fact, nonsensical sentences can
be structural insofar as these sentences are suitable in grammatical terms
and adequacy. Contemplate on the following example, taken from
Chomsky’s book:
e.g. Colorless green ideas sleep furiously
e.g. Furiously sleeps ideas green colorless

The first sentence, regardless of not making any meaning, it is grammatically

correct and the second one is totally ungrammatical. Semantics must be
disconnected from syntax and considered as an autonomous and
independent field.
• The grammar of any given i-language is finite i.e. involves of limited number
of phonemes, morphemes, and words- thus far these, once joint, may
generate an unlimited number of sentences.
• A theory of any i-language must account not only for the sentences that
have been said and registered in a body, but also for an infinite number of
sentences that have not been said yet.
•A kernel (or standard) sentence is painstaking a simple, declarative, active
sentence. (e.g. The boy broke the window).
• The example sentence is expected to go through several stages:
phrasestructure rules, transformational rules, and morphophonemic rules.