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Definition of research

Different authors have defined research as follows:

 Research is carrying out a diligent inquiry or a critical examination of a given

phenomenon.

 Research involves a critical analysis of existing conclusions or theories with regard to

newly discovered facts i.e. it’s a continued search for new knowledge and

understanding of the world around us.

 Research is a process of arriving at effective solutions to problems through systematic

collection, analysis and interpretation of data.

What is Business Research?

It is a systematic inquiry whose objective is to provide information to solve

managerial problems (Cooper and Schindler, 2003).

Research and Scientific Method

The scientific method encourages a rigorous, impersonal mode of procedure dictated by

the demands of logic and objective procedure. It is based on the following basic

postulates:

 It relies on empirical evidence

 It utilizes relevant concepts

 It is committed to only objective considerations

 It presupposes ethical neutrality i.e. it aims at nothing but making only adequate and

correct statements about population objects

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 It results into probabilistic predictions

 Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny and for use in

testing the conclusions through replication.

 It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific

theories.

Purpose of Research

 To discover new knowledge

 To enable prediction.

 To enable control i.e. the ability to regulate the phenomenon under study.

 To enable explanation of a phenomenon i.e. accurate observation and measurement of

a given phenomenon.

 To enable theory development and validation of existing theories. Theory

development involves formulating concepts, laws and generalizations about a given

phenomenon.

 Research provides one with the knowledge and skills needed for the fast-paced

decision-making environment

Why Managers need Better Information

 Explosive growth and influence of the internet

 Stakeholders demanding greater influence: Workers, shareholders, customers and the

general public are demanding to be included in company decision-making.

 More vigorous competition – domestic and global

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 More government intervention

 More complex decisions: There are more variables to consider in every decision.

 Maturing of management as a group of disciplines

 Greater computing power and speed: The power and ease of use of today’s computers

to analyze data, which help in decision-making.

 New perspectives on established research methodologies

Sources of Knowledge

 Empirical Research

 Experience: researchers attempt to describe, explain, and make predictions through

observation.

 Tradition: Rationalists believe all knowledge can be deduced from known laws or

basic truths of nature

 Authority: They serve as important sources of knowledge, but should be judged on

integrity and willingness to present a balanced case.

 Intuition: it is the perception, explanation or insight into phenomena by instinct.

The Value of Acquiring Research Skills

 To gather more information before selecting a course of action

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 To do a high-level research study

 To understand research design

 To evaluate and resolve a current management dilemma

 To establish a career as a research specialist

Definition of basic terms used in research

 Population: it refers to an entire group of individuals, events or objects having a

common observable characteristic.

 Sample: It is a smaller group obtained from the accessible population.

 Sampling: It is the process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such a

way that the individuals selected represent the population.

 Variable: It is a measurable characteristic that assumes different values among the

subjects. They can be dependent, independent, intervening, confounding or

antecedent variables.

 Data: refers to all information a researcher gathers for his or her study. Can be

secondary data or primary data.

 Parameter: It is a characteristic that is measurable and can assume different values in

the population.

 Statistics: it is the science of organizing, describing and analyzing data. Descriptive

and inferential statistics.

 Objective: it refers to the specific aspects of the phenomenon under study that the

researcher desires to bring out at the end of the research study.

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 Literature review: It involves locating, reading and evaluating reports of previous

studies, observations and opinions related to the planned study.

 Hypothesis: It is a researcher’s anticipated explanation or opinion regarding the

result of the study.

 Theory: It is a set of concepts or constructs and the interrelations that are assumed to

exist among those concepts. It provides the basis for establishing the hypothesis to be

tested in the study.

 A construct is an image or idea specifically invented for a given research and/or

theory-building purpose

 A concept is a bundle of meanings or characteristics associated with certain events,

objects, conditions, situations, and behaviors. Concepts have been developed over

time through shared usage

Components of research

1. Identification of the research area and topic.

2. Statement of the problem.

3. Literature review.

4. Methodology design

5. Sampling frame and sampling techniques.

6. Data collection tools, design and techniques.

7. Data analysis methods.

8. Report writing techniques.

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TYPES OF EMPIRICAL RESEARCH

Different authors have classified research into various categories.

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Qualitative research

It includes designs, techniques and measures that do not produce discrete numerical data.

Qualitative data can be collected through direct observation, participant observation or

interview method. Qualitative research includes an “array of interpretive techniques

which seek to describe, decode, translate and otherwise come to terms with the meaning,

not the frequency, of certain more or less naturally occurring phenomena in the social

world. Qualitative research aims to achieve an in-depth understanding of a situation.

Qualitative research is designed to tell the researcher how (process) and why (meaning)

things happen as they do. Qualitative techniques are used at both the data collection and

data analysis stages of a research project. At the data collection stage, the array of

techniques includes focus groups, individual depth interviews, case studies, ethnography,

grounded theory, action research and observation. During analysis, the qualitative

researcher uses content analysis of written or recorded materials drawn from personal

expressions by participants and behavioural observations.

Qualitative Quantitative

Focus of research Understand and interpret Describe, explain and

predict

Researcher involvement High, researcher is Limited, controlled to

participant or catalyst prevent bias

Research purpose In-depth understanding : Describe or predict: Build

theory building and test theory

Sample design Non-probabilistic : Probabilistic

purposive

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Research design May evolve or adjust during Determined before

the course of the period commencing the project

Often uses multiple methods Uses single method or

simultaneously or mixed methods

sequentially Consistency is critical

Consistency is not expected Involves either a cross-

Involves longitudinal sectional or a longitudinal

approach approach

Participant preparation Pre-tasking is common No preparation desired to

avoid biasing the participant

Data type and preparation Verbal or pictorial Verbal descriptions

descriptions Reduced to numerical

Reduced to verbal codes codes for computerized

analysis

Data analysis Human analysis following Computerized analysis

computer or human coding

Quantitative research

It includes designs, techniques and measures that produce discreet numerical or

quantifiable data.

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Advantages of using both qualitative and quantitative methods

1. Since in many cases a researcher has several objectives, some of these objectives

are better assessed using quantitative methods.

2. Both methods supplement each other i.e. qualitative methods provide the in-depth

explanations while quantitative methods provide the data needed to test

hypotheses.

3. Since both methods have a bias, using both types of research helps to avoid such

bias in that each method can be used to check the other.

Disadvantages of using both qualitative and quantitative methods

1. It is expensive

2. Researchers may not have sufficient training in both methods to be able to use

them effectively.

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Classification by purpose

1. Basic / Pure / Fundamental Research

Basic researchers are interested in deriving scientific knowledge i.e. they are

motivated by intellectual curiosity and need to come up with a particular solution. It

focuses on generating new knowledge in order to refine or expand existing theories. It

does not consider the practical application of the findings to actual problems or

situations.

2. Applied research

It is conducted for the purpose of applying or testing theory and evaluating its

usefulness in solving problems. It provides data to support a theory, guide theory

revision or suggest the development of a new theory.

3. Action research

It is conducted with the primary intention of solving a specific, immediate and

concrete problem in a local setting e.g. investigating ways of overcoming water

shortage in a given area. It is not concerned with whether the results can be

generalized to any other setting.

4. Evaluation Research

It is the process of determining whether the intended results were realized.

Types of evaluation research

i. Needs assessment

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A need is a discrepancy between an existing set of conditions and a desired set of

conditions. The results of needs assessment study provide the foundation for

developing new programmes and for making changes in existing ones.

ii. Formative evaluation

Helps to collect data about a programme while it is still being developed e.g. an

educational programme, a marketing strategy etc.

iii. Summative evaluation

It is done after the programme has been fully developed. It is conducted to

evaluate how worthwhile the final programme has been especially compared to

similar programmes.

Classification by methods of analysis

1. Descriptive research

It is the process of collecting data in order to test hypotheses or to answer questions

concerning the current status of the subjects in the study. It determines and reports the

way things are. It attempts to describe such things as possible behaviour, attitudes,

values and characteristics.

Steps involved in descriptive research

 Formulating the objectives of a study

 Designing the methods of data collection

 Selecting the sample

 Data collection

 Analyzing the results

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2. Causal-comparative research

It is used to explore relationships between variables. It determines reasons or causes

for the current status of the phenomenon under study. The variables of interest cannot

be manipulated unlike in experimental research.

Steps in causal-comparative research

 Define the research question

 Select a group that possesses the characteristics, which the researcher wants to

study.

 Select a comparison group which does not display the characteristics under

study but which is similar to the group in other respects.

 Collect data on both the experimental and control groups

 Analyze the data

Advantages of causal-comparative study

 Allows a comparison of groups without having to manipulate the independent

variables

 It can be done solely to identify variables worthy of experimental investigation

 They are relatively cheap.

Disadvantages of causal-comparative study

 Interpretations are limited because the researcher does not know whether a

particular variable is a cause or result of a behaviour being studied.

 There may be a third variable which could be affecting the established

relationship but which may not be established in the study.

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3. Correlation Methods

It describes in quantitative terms the degree to which variables are related. It explores

relationships between variables and also tries to predict a subject’s score on one

variable given his or her score on another variable.

Steps in correlational research

 Problem statement

 Selection of subjects

 Data collection

 Data analysis

Advantages of the correlational method

 Permits one to analyze inter-relationships among a large number of variables in a

single study.

 Allows one to analyze how several variables either singly or in combination might

affect a particular phenomenon being studied.

 The method provides information concerning the degree of relationship between

variables being studied.

Disadvantages of the correlational method

 Correlation between two variables does not necessarily imply causation although

researchers often tend to interpret such a relationship to mean causation.

 Since the correlation coefficient is an index, any two variables will always show a

relationship even when commonsense dictates that such variables are not related.

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 The correlation coefficient is very sensitive to the size of the sample.

Classification by type of research

1. Survey Research

A survey is an attempt to collect data from members of a population in order to determine

the current status of that population with respect to one or more variables. Survey study is

therefore a self-report study, which requires the collection of quantifiable information

from the sample. It is a descriptive research.

Steps involved in Survey research

 Problem statement

 Defining Objectives

 Selecting a Sample

 Preparing the instruments

 Data analysis

Purpose of survey research

i. It seeks to obtain information that describes existing phenomena by asking

individuals about their perceptions, attitudes, behaviour or values.

ii. Can be used for explaining or exploring the existing status of two or more

variables, at a given point in time.

iii. It is the most appropriate to measure characteristics of large populations.

Limitations of Survey research

i. They are dependent on the cooperation of respondents.

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ii. Information unknown to the respondents cannot be tapped in a survey e.g.

amount saved per year

iii. Requesting information which is considered secret and personal, encourages

incorrect answers.

iv. Surveys cannot be aimed at obtaining forecasts of things to come.

2. Historical research

Involves the study of a problem that requires collecting information from the past

Purpose of Historical Research

 Aims at arriving at conclusions concerning causes, effects or trends of past

occurrences that may help explain present events and anticipate future events.

 Attempts to interpret ideas or events that had previously seemed unrelated.

 Synthesizes old data or merges old data with new historical facts that the

researcher or other researchers have discovered.

 To reinterpret past events that have been studied.

Steps involved in historical research

 Identifying and delineating the problem.

 Developing hypothesis or hypotheses that one is interested in testing.

 Collecting and classifying resource materials, determining facts by internal and

external criticism.

 Organizing facts into results

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 Interpreting data in terms of stated hypothesis or theory.

 Synthesizing and presenting the research in an organized form.

3. Observational Research

The current status of a phenomenon is determined not by asking but by observing.

This helps to collect objective information.

Steps

 Selection and definition of the problem.

 Sample selection.

 Definition of the observational information.

 Recording observational information

 Data analysis and interpretation.

Types of observational research

1. Non-participant observation

The observer is not directly involved in the situation to be observed.

2. Naturalistic Observation

Behaviour is studied and recorded as it normally occurs.

3. Simulation observation.

The researcher creates the situation to be observed and tells subjects to be observed

what activities they are to engage in. Disadvantage – the setting is not natural and the

behaviour exhibited by the subjects may not be the behaviour that would occur in a

natural setting.

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4. Participant observation

The observer becomes part of or a participant in the situation. May not be ethical

5. Case studies

A case study is an in-depth investigation of an individual, group, institution or

phenomenon. It aims to determine factors and relationships among the factors that

have resulted in the behaviour under study.

6. Content analysis

It involves observation and detailed description of objects, items or things that

comprise the sample. The purpose is to study existing documents such as books,

magazines in order to determine factors that explain a specific phenomenon.

Steps

 Decide on the unit of analysis

 Sample the content to be analyzed

 Coding

 Data analysis

 Compiling results and interpretations.

Advantages

 Researchers are able to economize in terms of time and money.

 Errors that arise during the study are easier to detect and correct.

 The method has no effect on what is being studied.

Disadvantages

 It is limited to recorded communication.

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 It is difficult to ascertain the validity of the data.

Characteristics of a Good Research

Following the standards of the scientific method

 Purpose clearly defined: Researcher distinguishes between symptoms of

organizations problem, the managers perception of the problem and the research

problem

 Research process detailed: Researcher provides complete research proposal

 Research design thoroughly planned: Exploratory procedures are outlined with

constructs defined, sample unit is clearly described along with sampling

methodology, data collection procedures are selected and designed

 Limitations frankly revealed: Desired procedure is compared with actual procedure

in report, desired sample is compared with actual sample in the report, impact on

findings and conclusions is detailed.

 High ethical standards applied: Safeguards are in place to protect study

participants, organizations, clients and researchers. Recommendations do not

exceed the scope of the study. The study’s methodology and limitations sections

reflect researcher’s restraint and concern for accuracy

 Findings presented unambiguously: Findings are clearly presented in words, tables

and graphs. Findings are logically organized to facilitate reaching a decision about

the managers problem. Executive summary of conclusions is outlined. Detailed

table of contents is tied to the conclusions and findings presentation

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 Conclusions justified: Decision based conclusions are matched with detailed

findings

 Researcher’s experience reflected: Researcher provides experience / credentials

with report

 Adequate analysis for decision-maker’s needs: sufficiently detailed findings are

tied to collection instruments.

IDENTIFICATION OF RESEARCH AREA

The research process starts by formulating a research problem that can be investigated

through research procedures.

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Identifying a research problem

The first step in selecting a research problem is to identify the broad area that one is

interested in. Such an area should be related to the professional interests and goals of the

researcher e.g. low-cost housing, productivity of workers, small-scale businesses etc.

The second step is to identify a specific problem within it that will form the basis of the

research study. The research problem should be an important one i.e. it should

 Lead to findings that have widespread implications in a particular area

 Challenge some commonly held truism

 Review the inadequacies of existing laws, views or policies

 Cover a reasonable scope e.g. not too narrow or too general.

Defining the research problem

A research problem refers to some difficulty which the researcher experiences in the

context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the

same. A research problem exists if the following conditions are met:-

 There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem.

 There must be some objective(s) to be attained.

 There must be alternative means or courses of action for obtaining the objective(s)

one wishes to attain.

 There must be some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the selection of

alternatives.

 There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.

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Selecting the problem

The following points must be observed by a researcher in selecting a research problem or

a subject of study:

 Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult

task to throw any new light in such a case.

 Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher.

 Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.

 The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related

research material or sources of research are within one’s reach.

 The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a researcher, the

costs involved and the time factor must be considered.

 The selection of a study must be preceded by a preliminary study.

Defining the problem

It involves the task of laying down boundaries within which a researcher shall study the

problem with a predetermined objective in view. The following steps can be followed:-

 Statement of the problem in a general way

 Understanding the nature of the problem: Understand the origin and nature of the

problem e.g. by discussing it with those who raised it in order to find out how the

problem originally came about. The researcher should keep in view the environment

within which the problem is to be studied and understood.

 Surveying the available literature: the researcher must be well conversant with

relevant theories in the field, reports and records as also all other relevant literature.

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 Developing ideas through discussions:

 Rephrasing the research problem: Its putting the research problem in as specific

terms as possible so that it may become operationally viable and may help in the

development of working hypotheses.

The following should also be observed when defining a research problem:

 Technical terms and words or phrases with special meanings used in the statement

of the problem, should be clearly defined.

 Basic assumptions or postulates if any relating to the research problem should be

clearly stated.

 A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation should be provided.

 The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available must also be

considered by the researcher in defining the problem.

 The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be

studied must be mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem.

Ways of identifying a specific research problem from the broad area.

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(a) Existing theories

(b) Existing literature

(c) Discussions with experts

(d) Previous research studies

(e) Replication

(f) The media

(g) Personal experiences.

STATING THE PROBLEM

A research study starts with a brief introductory section. The researcher introduces briefly

the general area of study, and then narrows down to the specific problem to be studied.

Characteristics of a good problem statement

 It should be written clearly and in such a way that the reader’s interest is captured

immediately.

 The specific problem identified in the problem statement should be objectively

researchable

 The scope of the specific research problem should be indicated

 The importance of the study in adding new knowledge should be stated clearly

 The problem statement must give the purpose of the research.

STATING THE PURPOSE

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The purpose of a study crystallizes the researcher’s inquiry into a particular area of

knowledge in a given field. If the purpose is accurately expressed, the research process

will be carried out with ease. The purpose of the study should meet the following criteria:

 It must be indicated clearly, unambiguously and in a declarative manner.

 The purpose should indicate the concepts or variables in the study.

 Where possible, the relationships among the variables should be stated.

 The purpose should state the target population.

 The variables and target population given in the purpose should be consistent with

the variables and target population operationalised in the methods section of the

study.

In stating the purpose of the study, the researcher should choose the right words to

convey the focus of the study effectively. Use of subjective or biased words or sentences

should be avoided.

Examples

Biased Neutral

To show To determine

To prove To compare

To confirm To investigate

To verify To differentiate

To check To explore

To demonstrate To find out

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To indicate To examine

To validate To inquire

To explain To establish

To illustrate To test

Stating the Objectives

Research objectives are those specific issues within the scope of the stated purpose that

the researcher wants to focus upon and examine in the study.

Characteristics of a good objective

 Specific:

 Measurable

 Achievable

 Reliable

 Time bound

Objectives guide the researcher in formulating testable hypotheses.

In stating the objectives of the study, the researcher should choose the right words to

convey the focus of the study effectively. Use of subjective or biased words or sentences

should be avoided.

Assumptions and Limitations

 An assumption is any fact that a researcher takes to be true without actually

verifying it. It puts some boundary around the study and provides the reader with

vital information, which influences the way results of the study are interpreted.

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 A limitation is an aspect of a research that may influence the results negatively but

over which the researcher has no control. A common limitation in social science

studies is the scope of the study, which sometimes may not allow generalizations.

Sample size may also be another limitation.

LITERATURE REVIEW

The review of literature involves the systematic identification, location and analysis of

documents containing information related to the research problem being investigated. It

should be extensive and thorough because it is aimed at obtaining detailed knowledge of

the topic being studied.

Purpose of literature review

 To determine what has already been done related to the research problem being

studied. This will help the researcher to:

- Avoid unnecessary and unintentional duplication.

- Form the framework within which the research findings are to be

interpreted.

- Demonstrate his or her familiarity with the existing body of knowledge.

 Helps reveal the strategies, procedures and measuring instruments that have been

found useful in investigating the problem in question. This will help the researcher

to:

- Avoid mistakes that have been made by other researchers

- Benefit from other researcher’s experiences

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- Clarify how to use certain procedures, which one may only have learned in

theory.

 Helps to suggest other procedures and approaches, which will help, improve the

research study.

 Familiarizes the researcher with previous studies, which facilitates interpretation of

the results of the study. If there is a contradiction, the literature review might

provide rationale for the discrepancy.

 It helps the researcher to limit the research problem and to define it better.

 Helps to determine new approaches and stimulates new ideas. The researcher may

be alerted to research possibilities, which have been overlooked in the past.

 Approaches that have been proved to be futile will be revealed through literature

review.

 Specific suggestions and recommendations for further research can be found by

reviewing literature.

 It pulls together, integrates and summarizes what is known in an area. Thus helping

to reveal gaps in information and areas where major questions still remain.

Steps in carrying out literature review.

1. Familiarize yourself with the library before beginning the literature review.

2. Make a list of key words or phrases to guide your literature search.

3. With the key words and phrases related to the study, one should go to the source of

literature.

4. Summarize the references on cards for easy organisation of the literature.

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5. Once collected, the literature should be analyzed, organized and reported in an

orderly manner.

6. Make an outline of the main topics or themes in order of presentation.

7. Analyze each reference in terms of the outline made and establish where it will be

most relevant.

8. The literature should be organized in such a way that the more general is covered first

before the researcher narrows down to that which is more specific to the research

problem.

Sources of literature

(a) Primary sources: are direct descriptions of any occurrence by an individual who

actually observed or witnessed the occurrence.

(b) Secondary source: they include any publications written by an author who was not

a direct observer or participant in the events described.

Examples

 Scholarly journals

 Theses and dissertations

 Government documents

 Papers presented at conferences

 Books

 References quoted in books

 International indices

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 Abstracts

 Periodicals

 The Africana section of the library

 Reference section of the library

 Grey literature

 Inter-library loan

 The British lending library

 The internet

 Microfilm

Evaluating information sources

Researchers evaluate and select information sources based on five factors that can be

applied to any type of source, whether printed or electronic. These are:-

(a)Purpose: The purpose is what the author is trying to accomplish e.g. to enlighten, to

define terms, to entertain etc.

(b)Scope: what is the date of publication? What time period does this source cover?

How much of the topic is covered and to what depth? Is the material covered local,

regional or international?

(c) Authority: The author and the author’s credentials should be given both in printed

and electronic sources.

(d)Audience: When evaluating the plausible audience of a source, look for key

indicators including vocabulary, types of information and questions or directions that

guide the search.

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(e) Format: It relates to how the information is presented and how easy it is to find a

specific piece of information.

Tips on good review of literature

 Do not conduct a hurried review for fear of overlooking important studies.

 Do not rely too heavily on secondary sources.

 Check daily newspapers as they contain very educative, current information.

 Copy the references correctly in the first place so as to avoid the frustration of trying

to retrace a reference later.

 Do not only concentrate on findings, check on methodology and measurement of

variables.

ETHICS IN RESEARCH

Ethics are norms or standards of behaviour that guide moral choices about our behaviour

and our relationship with others. Ethics differ from legal constraints, in which generally

accepted standards have defined penalties that are universally enforced. The goal of

ethics in research is to ensure that no one is harmed or suffers adverse consequences from

research activities.

As the research is designed, several ethical considerations must be balanced e.g.

 Protect the rights of the participant or subject.

 Ensure the sponsor receives ethically conducted and reported research.

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 Follow ethical standards when designing research

 Protect the safety of the researcher and team

 Ensure the research team follows the design

1. Ethical treatment of participants

In general, the research must be designed in such a manner that the respondent does not

suffer physical harm, discomfort, pain, embarrassment or loss to privacy. To safeguard

against these, the researcher should follow the following guidelines:

 Explain the study benefits

 Obtain informed consent

 Explain respondents rights and protection

(a) Benefits

Whenever direct contact is made with a respondent, the researcher should discuss the

study benefits, being careful to neither overstate nor understate the benefits. An

interviewer should begin an introduction with his or her name, the name of the research

organisation and a brief description of the purpose and benefits of the research. This puts

the respondent at ease, lets them know to whom they are speaking and motivates them to

answer questions truthfully. Inducements to participate, financial or otherwise, should

not be disproportionate to the task or presented in a fashion that results in coercion.

Deception occurs when the respondents are told only part of the truth or when the truth is

fully compromised. The benefits to be gained by deception should be balanced against

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the risks to the respondents. When possible, an experiment or interview should be

designed to reduce reliance on deception. In addition, the respondent’s rights and well-

being must be adequately protected. In instances where deception in an experiment could

produce anxiety, a subject’s medical condition should be checked to ensure that no

adverse physical harm follows.

(b) Informed consent

Securing informed consent from respondents is a matter of fully disclosing the

procedures of the proposed survey or other research design before requesting permission

to proceed with the study. There are exemptions that argue for a signed consent form.

When dealing with children, it is wise to have a parent or other person with legal standing

sign a consent form. If the researchers offer only limited protection of confidentiality, a

signed form detailing the types of limits should be obtained. For most business research,

oral consent is sufficient.

In situations where respondents are intentionally or accidentally deceived, they should be

debriefed once the research is complete. Debriefing involves several activities following

the collection of data e.g.

 Explanation of any deception.

 Description of the hypothesis, goal or purpose of the study.

 Post study sharing of results.

 Post study follow-up medical or psychological attention.

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According to Neuman and Wiegand (2000), a full blown consent statement would

contain the following: -

 A brief description of the purpose and procedure of the research, including the

expected duration.

 A statement of any risks, discomforts or inconveniences associated with

participation.

 A guarantee of anonymity or at least confidentiality, and an explanation of both.

 The identification, affiliation and sponsorship of the research as well as contact

information.

 A statement that participation is completely voluntary and can be terminated at any

time without penalty.

 A statement of any procedures that may be used.

 A statement of any benefits to the class of subjects involved.

 An offer to provide a free copy of a summary of the findings.

(c) Rights to privacy

All individuals have a right to privacy and researchers must respect that right. The

privacy guarantee is important not only to retain validity of the research but also to

protect respondents. Once the guarantee of confidentiality is given, protecting that

confidentiality is essential. The researcher can protect respondent’s confidentiality in

several ways, which include: -

 Obtaining signed nondisclosure documents

 Restricting access to respondent identification.

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 Revealing respondent information only with written consent.

 Restricting access to data instruments where the respondent is identified.

 Nondisclosure of data subsets.

Researchers should restrict access to information that reveals names, telephone numbers,

address or other identifying features. Only researchers who have signed nondisclosure,

confidentiality forms should be allowed access to the data. Links between the data or

database and the identifying information file should be weakened. Individual interview

response sheets should be inaccessible to everyone except the editors and data entry

personnel.

Occasionally, data collection instruments should be destroyed once the data are in a data

file. Data files that make it easy to reconstruct the profiles or identification of individual

respondents should be carefully controlled. For very small groups, data should not be

made available because it is often easy to pinpoint a person within the group. Employee-

satisfaction survey feedback in small units can be easily used to identify an individual

through descriptive statistics.

Privacy is more than confidentiality. A right to privacy means one has the right to refuse

to be interviewed or to refuse to answer any question in an interview. Potential

participants have a right to privacy in their own homes, including not admitting

researchers and not answering telephones. They have the right to engage in private

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behaviour in private places without fear of observation. To address these rights, ethical

researchers can do the following:-

 Inform respondents of their right to refuse to answer any questions or participate in

the study.

 Obtain permission to interview respondents

 Schedule field and phone interviews.

 Limit the time required for participation.

 Restrict observation to public behaviour only.

2. Ethics and the sponsor

There are ethical considerations to keep in mind when dealing with the research client or

sponsor. Whether undertaking product, market, personnel, financial or other research, a

sponsor has the right to receive ethically conducted research.

(a) Confidentiality

Sponsors have a right to several types of confidentiality including sponsor nondisclosure,

purpose nondisclosure and findings nondisclosure.

 Sponsor nondisclosure: Companies have a right to dissociate themselves from the

sponsorship of a research project. Due to the sensitive nature of the management

dilemma or the research question, sponsors may hire an outside consulting or

research firm to complete research projects. this is often done when a company is

testing a new product idea, to avoid potential consumers from being influenced by

the company’s current image or industry standing. If a company is contemplating

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entering a new market, it may not wish to reveal its plans to competitors. In such

cases, it is the responsibility of the researcher to respect this desire and device a

plan to safeguard the identity of the sponsor.

 Purpose nondisclosure: It involves protecting the purpose of the study or its

details. A research sponsor may be testing a new idea that is not yet patented and

may not want the competitor to know his plans. It may be investigating employee

complaints and may not want to spark union activity. The sponsor might also be

contemplating a new public stock offering, where advance disclosure would spark

the interest of authorities or cost the firm thousands of shillings.

 Findings nondisclosure: If a sponsor feels no need to hide its identity or the

study’s purpose, most sponsors want research data and findings to be confidential,

at least until the management decision is made.

(b) Right to quality research

An important ethical consideration for the researcher and the sponsor is the sponsor’s

right to quality research. The right entails:

 Providing a research design appropriate for the research question.

 Maximizing the sponsor’s value for the resources expended

 Providing data handling and reporting techniques appropriate for the data

collected.

From the proposal through the design to data analysis and the final report, the researcher

guides the sponsor on the proper techniques and interpretations. Often sponsors would

have heard about sophisticated data handling technique and will want it used even when

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it is inappropriate for the problem at hand. The researcher should propose the design most

suitable for the problem. The researcher should not propose activities designed to

maximize researcher revenue or minimize researcher effort at the sponsor’s expense. The

ethical researcher should report findings in ways that minimize the drawing of false

conclusions. He should also use charts, graphs and tables to show the data objectively,

despite the sponsor’s preferred outcomes.

(c) Sponsor’s Ethics

Occasionally, research specialists may be asked by sponsors to participate in unethical

behaviour. Compliance by the researcher would be a breach of ethical standards. Some

examples to be avoided are:

 Violating respondent confidentiality

 Changing data or creating false data to meet a desired objective

 Changing data presentations or interpretations.

 Interpreting data from a biased perspective.

 Omitting sections of data analysis and conclusions.

 Making recommendations beyond the scope of the data collected.

The ethical course often requires confronting the sponsor’s demand and taking the

following actions: -

 Educating the sponsor on the purpose of research

 Explain the researcher’s role in fact finding versus the sponsor’s role in decision-

making.

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 Explain how distorting the truth or breaking faith with respondents leads to future

problems

 Failing moral suasion, terminate the relationship with the sponsor.

3. Researchers and team members

Researchers have an ethical responsibility to their team’s safety as well as their own and

also protecting the anonymity of both the sponsor and the respondent.

(a) Safety

It is the researcher’s responsibility to design a project so the safety of all interviewers,

surveyors, experimenters, or observers is protected. Several factors may be important to

consider in ensuring a researcher’s right to safety e.g. some urban areas and undeveloped

rural areas may be unsafe for research assistants, therefore a team member can

accompany the researcher. It is unethical to require staff members to enter an

environment where they feel physically threatened. Researchers who are insensitive to

these concerns face both research and legal risks.

(b) Ethical behaviour of assistants

Researchers should require ethical compliance from team members just as sponsors

expect ethical behaviour from the researcher. Assistants are expected to carry out the

sampling plan, to interview or observe respondents without bias and to accurately record

all necessary data. Unethical behaviour such as filling in an interview sheet without

having asked the respondent the questions cannot be tolerated. The behaviour of the

assistants is under the direct control of the responsible researcher or field supervisor. If an

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assistant behaves improperly in an interview or shares a respondents interview sheet with

unauthorized person, it is the researcher’s responsibility. All researchers’ assistants

should be well trained and supervised.

(c) Protection of anonymity

Researchers and assistants protect the confidentiality of the sponsor’s information and the

anonymity of the respondents. Each researcher handling data should be required to sign a

confidentiality and nondisclosure statement.

RESEARCH DESIGN

Definition of research design

Kerlinger, N.F (1986) defines research design as

“ The plan and structure of investigation so conceived as to obtain answers to

research questions. The plan is overall scheme or program of the research. It

includes an outline of what the investigator will do from writing hypotheses and

their operational implications to the final analysis of data….a research design

expresses both the structure of the research problem and the plan of investigation

used to obtain empirical evidence on relations of the problem”

Therefore a research design is the strategy for a study and the plan by which the strategy

is to be carried out. It specifies the methods and procedures for the collection,

measurement, and analysis of data.

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ESSENTIALS OF RESEARCH DESIGN

The design:

 Is an activity and time based plan

 Is always based on the research question

 Guides the selection of sources and types of information

 Is a framework for specifying the relationships among the study’s variables

 Outlines procedures for every research activity.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF DESIGNS

Research can be classified using eight different descriptors as shown in the table below:

Category Options

The degree to which the research  Exploratory study

questions has been crystallized  Formal study

The method of data collection  Monitoring

 Interrogation / communication

The power of the researcher to  Experimental

produce effects in the variables  Ex post facto

under study

The purpose of the study  Descriptive

 Causal

The time dimension  Cross-sectional

 Longitudinal

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The topical scope – breath and depth  Case

of the study  Statistical study

The research environment  Field setting

 Laboratory research

 Simulation

The participants perceptions of  Actual routine

research activity  Modified routine

1. Degree to which the research questions has been crystallized

A study may be viewed as exploratory study or formal study. The essential distinctions

between these two options are the degree of structure and the immediate objective of the

study.

 Exploratory studies tend toward loose structures with the objective of discovering

future research tasks. Its immediate purpose is to develop hypotheses or questions for

further study.

 Formal study begins where the exploration leaves off- it begins with a hypothesis or

research question and involves precise procedures and data source specifications. Its

goal is to test the hypotheses or answer the research questions posed.

2. Method of data collection

 Monitoring: It includes studies in which the researcher inspects the activities of a

subject or the nature of some material without attempting to elicit responses from

anyone e.g. an observation of the actions of a group of decision makers.

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 Interrogation / communication: the researcher questions the subjects and collects

their responses by personal or impersonal means. The collected data may result from

i. Interview or telephone conversations

ii. Self-administered or self-reported instruments sent through the mail, left in

convenient locations, or transmitted electronically or by other means

iii. Instruments presented before and / or after a treatment or stimulus

condition in an experiment.

3. Researcher control of variables

 Experimental: the researcher attempts to control and / or manipulate the variables in

the study. It is appropriate when one wishes to discover whether certain variables

produce effects in other variables. Experimentation provides the most powerful

support for a hypothesis of causation.

 Ex post facto: Investigators have no control over the variables in the sense of being

able to manipulate them. They can only report what has happened or what is

happening. It is important that the researcher’s using this design do not influence the

variables since doing so will introduce bias. The researcher is limited to holding

factors constant by judicious selection of subjects according to strict sampling

procedures and by statistical manipulation of findings.

4. Purpose of the study

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 Descriptive study: it is a research that is concerned with finding out who, what,

where, when, or how much.

 Causal study: It is concerned with learning why i.e. how one variable produces

changes in another. It tries to explain the relationships among variables.

5. The time dimension

 Cross-sectional studies: they are carried out once and represent a snapshot of one

point in time.

 Longitudinal studies: are repeated over an extended period. It tracks changes over

time.

6. The topical scope

 Statistical studies: they are designated for breadth rather than depth. They attempt

to capture a population’s characteristics by making inferences from a sample’s

characteristics. Hypotheses are tested quantitatively. Generalizations about

findings are presented based on the representativeness of the sample and the

validity of the design.

 Case studies: they place more emphasis on a full contextual analysis of fewer

events or conditions and their interrelations. Although hypotheses are often used,

the reliance on qualitative data makes support or rejection more difficult. An

emphasis on detail provides valuable insight for problem solving, evaluation and

strategy. This detail is secured from multiple sources of information. It allows

evidence to be verified and avoids missing data.

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7. The research environment

 Field setting: it is where the research occurs under actual environmental conditions

 Laboratory research: it is where the research occurs under staged or manipulated

conditions

 Simulation: To simulate is to replicate the essence of a system or process.

Simulations are increasingly used in operations research. The major characteristics of

various conditions and relationships in actual situations are often represented in

mathematical models. Role-playing and other behavioural activities may also be

viewed as simulations.

8. Participants’ perceptions

The usefulness of a design may be reduced when people in a disguised study perceive

that research is being conducted. Participants’ perceptions influence the outcomes of the

research in subtle ways. There are three levels of perception:

 Participants perceive no deviations from everyday routines

 Participants perceive deviations, but as unrelated to the researcher.

 Participants perceive deviations as researcher-induced.

In all research environments and control situations, researchers need to be vigilant to

effects that may alter their conclusions. Participant’s perceptions serve as a reminder to

classify one’s study by type, to examine validation strengths and weaknesses and to be

prepared to qualify results accordingly.

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MAJOR TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

(a) Exploratory studies

Exploration is particularly useful when researchers lack a clear idea of the problems they

will meet during the study. Through exploration researchers develop concepts more

clearly, establish priorities, develop operational definitions and improve the final research

design. Other factors that necessitate the use of exploration are

 To save time and money

 If the area of investigation is new

 Important variables may not be known or thoroughly defined

 Hypothesis for the research may be needed

 A researcher can explore to be sure if it is practical to do a formal study in the area.

Despite its obvious value, researchers and managers give exploration less attention that it

deserves. Exploration is sometimes linked to old biases about qualitative research i.e.

subjective ness, non-representativeness and non-systematic design.

When we consider the scope of qualitative research, several approaches are adaptable for

exploratory investigations of management questions:

 In-depth interviewing – usually conversational rather than structured.

 Participant observation – to perceive first hand what participants in the setting

experience

 Films, photographs and videotapes – to capture the life of the group under study.

 Case studies – for an in-depth contextual analysis of a few events or conditions

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 Document analysis – to evaluate historical or contemporary confidential or public

records, reports, government documents and opinions.

Where these approaches are combined, four exploratory techniques emerge with wide

applicability for the management researcher: -

i. Secondary data analysis

ii. Experience surveys

iii. Focus groups

iv. Two-stage designs

An exploratory research is finished when the researchers have achieved the following:

 Established the major dimensions of the research task

 Defined a set of subsidiary investigative questions that can be used as a guide to a

detailed research design.

 Developed several hypotheses about possible causes of a management dilemma.

Learned that certain other hypotheses are such remote possibilities that they can be

safely ignored in any subsequent study.

 Concluded additional research is not needed or is not feasible.

(b) Descriptive Studies

It is the process of collecting data in order to test hypotheses or to answer questions

concerning the current status of the subjects in the study. It determines and reports the

way things are. Provides answers to questions like Who? What? When? Where? How? It

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attempts to describe such things as possible behaviour, attitudes, values and

characteristics.

(c) Causal Research

It is used to explore relationships between variables. It determines reasons or causes for

the current status of the phenomenon under study. The variables of interest cannot be

manipulated unlike in experimental research.

Advantages of causal study

 Allows a comparison of groups without having to manipulate the independent

variables

 It can be done solely to identify variables worthy of experimental investigation

 They are relatively cheap.

Disadvantages of causal study

 Interpretations are limited because the researcher does not know whether a

particular variable is a cause or result of a behaviour being studied.

 There may be a third variable which could be affecting the established relationship

but which may not be established in the study.

(d) Correlation Methods

It describes in quantitative terms the degree to which variables are related. It explores

relationships between variables and also tries to predict a subject’s score on one variable

given his or her score on another variable.

Advantages of the correlational method

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 Permits one to analyze inter-relationships among a large number of variables in a

single study.

 Allows one to analyze how several variables either singly or in combination might

affect a particular phenomenon being studied.

 The method provides information concerning the degree of relationship between

variables being studied.

Disadvantages of the correlational method

 Correlation between two variables does not necessarily imply causation although

researchers often tend to interpret such a relationship to mean causation.

 Since the correlation coefficient is an index, any two variables will always show a

relationship even when commonsense dictates that such variables are not related.

 The correlation coefficient is very sensitive to the size of the sample.

THE SAMPLE DESIGN

It refers to the techniques of the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items

for the sample.

Factors to consider in developing a sample design

1. Type of universe; finite or infinite

2. Sampling unit; geographic: state, district or village, construction unit: house, flat.

Social unit: family, club, school or individual.

3. Source list: sampling frame- contains all the names of all items of a universe. The list

should be comprehensive, correct, reliable and appropriate.

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4. The size of the sample. Should be efficient, representative, reliable and flexible.

5. Parameters of interest

6. Budgetary constraint

7. Sampling procedure.

Criteria for selecting a sampling procedure

Two costs are involved in a sampling analysis i.e. the cost of collecting the data and the

cost of an incorrect inference resulting from the data. Two causes of incorrect inferences

are systematic bias and sampling error. A systematic bias results from errors in the

sampling procedures and it cannot be reduced or eliminated by increasing the sample

size. Systematic bias is the result of the following factors:-

 Inappropriate sampling frame

 Defective measuring device

 Non-respondents

 Indeterminancy principle – individuals act differently when kept under observation.

 Natural bias in reporting data e.g. government tax – downward bias, social

organizations – upward bias.

Sampling errors are the random variations in the sample estimates around a true

population parameter. It decreases with the increase in the size of the sample and it

happens to be of a smaller magnitude in case of a homogenous population. While

selecting a sampling procedure, the researcher must ensure that the procedure causes a

relatively small sampling error and helps to control the systematic bias in a better way.

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Steps in sampling design

Identification of the: -

 Relevant population

 Type of universe i.e. finite or infinite

 Parameters of interest

 Sampling frame

 Type of sample i.e. probabilistic or non-probabilistic

 Size of the sample needed

Characteristics of a good sample design

 Must result in a truly representative sample

 Must result in a small sampling error

 Must be viable in the context of funds available for the research study

 Must ensure that systematic bias is controlled in a better way

 Must be such that the results of the sample study can be applied in general for the

universe with a reasonable level of confidence.

The methodology section of a research study describes the procedures that are to be

followed in conducting the study. The techniques of obtaining data are developed.

Population: It’s a complete set of individuals, cases or objects with some observable

characteristics.

A census is a count of all the elements in a population.

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Sample: A sample is a subset of a particular population. The target population is that

population to which a researcher wants to generalize the results of the study. There must

be a rationale for defining and identifying the accessible population from the target

population.

Sampling; It’s the process of selecting a sample from a population.

Reasons for sampling

 Cost

 Time: Greater speed of data collection

 Destructive nature of certain tests

 Greater accuracy of results

 Physical impossibility of checking all items in the population.

 Availability of population elements.

Characteristics of a good sample

 Accuracy: It’s the degree to which bias is absent from the sample. An unbiased

sample is the one in which the underestimators and the overestimators are

balanced among the members of the sample.

 Precision of estimate: Precision is measured by the standard error of estimate a

type of standard deviation measurement. The smaller error of estimate, the higher

is the preciseness of the sample.

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Factors that influence the sample size

 Dispersion / variance: The greater the dispersion or variance within the population,

the larger the sample must be to provide estimation precision.

 Precision of the estimate: the greater the desired precision of the estimate, the larger

the sample must be.

 Interval range: The narrower the interval range, the larger the sample must be.

 Confidence level: The higher the confidence level in the estimate, the larger the

sample must be.

 Number of subgroups: The greater the number of subgroups of interest within a

sample, the greater the sample size must be, as each subgroup must meet minimum

sample size requirements.

 If the calculated sample size exceeds 5% of the population, sample size may be

reduced without sacrificing precision.

Sampling procedures:

There are two major ways of selecting samples;

 Probability sampling methods

 Non - Probability sampling methods

1. Probability Sampling Methods

Samples are selected in such a way that each item or person in the population has a

known (Nonzero) likelihood of being included in the sample.

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Types of Probability sampling methods

a) Simple Random Sampling:

A sample is selected so that each item or person in the population has the same

chance of being included.

Advantages

 Easy to implement with automatic dialing and with computerized voice

response systems.

Disadvantages

 Requires a listing of population elements.

 Takes more time to implement

 Uses larger sample sizes

 Produces larger errors

 Expensive

b) Systematic Random Sampling:

The items or individuals of the population are arranged in some manner. A random

starting point is selected and then every kth member of the population is selected for

the sample.

Advantages

 Simple to design

 Easier to use than the simple random.

 Easy to determine sampling distribution of mean or proportion.

 Less expensive than simple random.

Disadvantages

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 Periodicity within the population may skew the sample and results.

 If the population list has a monotonic trend, a biased estimate will result based

on the start point.

c) Stratified Random Sampling:

A population is divided into subgroups called strata and a sample is selected from

each stratum. After the population is divided into strata, either a proportional or a

non-proportional sample can be selected. In a proportional sample, the number of

items in each stratum is in the same proportion as in the population while in a non-

proportional sample, the number of items chosen in each stratum is disproportionate

to the respective numbers in the population.

Advantages

 Researcher controls sample size in strata

 Increased statistical efficiency

 Provides data to represent and analyze subgroups.

 Enables use of different methods in strata.

Disadvantages

 Increased error will result if subgroups are selected at different rates

 Expensive especially if strata on the population have to be created.

d) Cluster Sampling:

The population is divided into internally heterogeneous subgroups and some are

randomly selected for further study. It is used when it is not possible to obtain a

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sampling frame because the population is either very large or scattered over a large

geographical area. A multi-stage cluster sampling method can also be used.

Advantages

 Provides an unbiased estimate of population parameters if properly done.

 Economically more efficient than simple random.

 Lowest cost per sample, especially with geographic clusters.

 Easy to do without a population list.

Disadvantages

 More error (Lower statistical efficiency) due to subgroups being homogeneous

rather the heterogeneous.

2. Non - Probability Sampling Methods

It is used when a researcher is not interested in selecting a sample that is representative of

the population.

a) Convenience or Accidental Sampling

It involves selecting cases or units of observation as they become available to the

researcher e.g. asking a question to the radio listeners, roommates or neighbours.

b) Purposive Sampling: There are two main types; judgmental and quota

i. Judgement Sampling: Occurs when a researcher selects sample members to conform to

some criterion. It allows the researcher to use cases that have the required information

with respect to the objectives of his or her study e.g. educational level, age group,

religious sect etc.

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ii. Quota Sampling

The researcher purposively selects subjects to fit the quotas identified e.g.

 Gender: Male or Female.

 Class Level: Graduate or Undergraduate

 School: Humanities, Science or human resource development.

 Religion: Muslim, Protestant, catholic, Jewish.

 Fraternal affiliation: member or nonmember.

 Social economic class: Upper, middle or lower.

Advantage

Widely used by pollsters, marketers and other researchers.

Disadvantages

 It gives no assurance that the sample is representative of the variables being studied.

 The data used to provide controls may be outdated or inaccurate.

 There is a practical limit on the number of simultaneous controls that can be applied

to ensure precision.

 Since the choice of subjects is left to field workers, they may choose only friendly

looking people.

c) Snow ball sampling

It is used when the population that possesses the characteristics under study is not well

known and can be best located through referral networks. Initial subjects are identified

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who in turn identify others. Commonly used in drug cultures, teenage gang activities,

Mungiki sect, insider trading, Mau Mau etc.

Sampling error

It’s the difference between a sample statistic and its corresponding population parameter.

The sampling distribution of the sample means is a probability distribution of possible

sample means of a given sample size.

Statistical Inference

Sample information is used to shade some light on the population characteristics i.e. we

infer population properties based on findings on the sample. Statistical inference falls into

two main areas i.e. statistical estimation and hypothesis testing.

Statistical Estimation: The characteristics of the sample (sample statistic) are used to

estimate or approximate some unknown population characteristics.

Hypothesis testing: The population characteristics are known or assumed. The sample

characteristics are used to verify or ascertain this assumed or known population

characteristic. The assignment of values to a population parameter is based on a sample is

called estimation. The values assigned to a population parameter based on the value of a

sample statistic is called an estimate of the population parameter. The sample statistic

used to estimate a population parameter is called an estimator. Estimation can be

undertaken in two forms namely, Point estimation or Interval estimation

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MEASUREMENT

Introduction

While people measure things casually in daily life, research measurement is more precise

and controlled. In measurement, one settles for measuring properties of the objects rather

than the objects themselves. An event is measured in terms of its duration i.e. what

happened during it, who was involved, where it occurred etc. Measurement is the basis

for all systematic inquiry because it provides us with the tools for recording differences in

the outcome of variable change.

Definition of Measurement

Measurement is the procedure by which we assign numerals, numbers, or other

distinguishing values to variables according to rules.  These rules help us determine the

kinds of values we will assign to certain observable phenomena or variables.  They also

determine the quality of measurement.   Precision and exactness in measurement are

vitally important. The measures are what are actually used to test the hypotheses. A

researcher needs good measures for both independent and dependent variables. 

Measurement is a three – part process that includes:-

i. Selecting observable empirical events

ii. Developing a set of mapping rules: a scheme for assigning numbers or symbols to

represent aspects of the event being measured.

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iii. Applying the mapping rules to each observation of that event

Mapping rules have four characteristics:-

1. Classification: Numbers are used to group or sort responses. No order exists.

2. Order: Numbers are ordered. One number is greater than, less than or equal to

another number.

3. Distance: Differences between numbers are ordered. The difference between any

pair of numbers is greater than, less than or equal to the difference between any

other pair of numbers.

4. Origin: The number series has a unique origin indicated by the number

zero. This is an absolute and meaningful zero point.

Measurement consists of two basic processes called conceptualization and

Operationalization, then an advanced process called determining the levels of

measurement, and then even more advanced methods of measuring reliability and

validity.

Conceptualization is the process of taking a construct or concept and refining it by

giving it a conceptual or theoretical definition. Ordinary dictionary definitions will not

do. Instead, the researcher takes keywords in their research question or hypothesis and

finds a clear and consistent definition that is agreed-upon by others in the scientific

community. Conceptualization is often guided by the theoretical framework, perspective,

or approach the researcher is committed to.

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Operationalization is the process of taking a conceptual definition and making it more

precise by linking it to one or more specific, concrete indicators or operational

definitions. These are usually things with numbers in them that reflect empirical or

observable reality. For example, if the type of crime one has chosen to study is theft (as

representative of crime in general), creating an operational definition for it means at least

choosing between petty theft and grand theft (false taking of less or more than $150).

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

A level of measurement is a scale by which a variable is measured. For 50 years, with

few detractors, science has used the Stevens (1951) typology of measurement levels

(scales). There are three things to remember about this typology:

 Anything that can be measured falls into one of the four types;

 The higher the level of measurement, the more precision in measurement; and

 Every level up contains all the properties of the previous level.

The four levels of measurement, from lowest to highest, are:

(a) Nominal level. The observations are classified under a common characteristic e.g.

sex, race, marital status, employment status, language, religion etc. helps in

sampling.

(b) Ordinal level: items or subjects are not only grouped into categories, but they are

ranked into some order e.g. greater than, less than, superior, happier than, poorer,

above etc. helps in developing a likert scale.

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(c) Interval level: numerals are assigned to each measure and ranked. The intervals

between numerals are equal. The numerals used represent meaningful quantities but

the zero point is not meaningful e.g. test scores, temperature.

(d) Ratio level: has all the characteristics of the other levels and in addition the zero

point is meaningful. Mathematical operations can be applied to yield meaningful

values e.g. height, weight, distance, age, area etc.

Sources of measurement differences

The ideal study should be designed and controlled for precise and unambiguous

measurement of the variables. Since 100% control is unattainable, error occurs. Much

potential error is systematic (results from a bias) while the remainder is random (occurs

erratically). Some of the major sources of error are:

(a) The respondent: opinion differences that affect measurement come from relatively

stable characteristics of the respondent e.g. employee status, ethnic group and

social class. Temporary factors like fatigue, boredom, anxiety and other distractions

also limit the ability to respond accurately and fully. Hunger, impatience or general

variations in mood will also have an impact.

(b) The situational factors: any condition that places a strain on the interview or

measurement session can have serious effects on the interviewer – respondent

rapport. If another person is present, that person can distort responses by joining in,

by distracting or by merely being present. If the respondents believe anonymity is

not ensured, they may be reluctant to express certain feelings.

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(c) The measurer: the interviewer can distort responses by re-wording, paraphrasing,

or re-ordering questions. Stereotypes in appearance and action introduce bias.

Inflections of voice or unconscious prompting with smiles and nods may encourage

or discourage certain replies. Incorrect coding, careless tabulation and faulty

statistical calculation may introduce further errors in data analysis.

(d) The data collection instrument: a defective instrument can cause distortion in two

major ways:

 It can be too confusing and ambiguous e.g. the use of complex words,

leading questions, ambiguous meanings, multiple questions.

 Leads to poor selection from the universe of content items. Seldom does

the instrument explore all the potentially important issues.

TYPES OF VARIABLES

A variable is a measurable characteristic that assumes different values among the

subjects. According to Mugenda and Mugenda (2003), variables can be classified into the

following categories: -

1. Independent variables / Predictor variables

It is a variable that a researcher manipulates in order to determine its effect or influence

on another variable. They predict the amount of variation that occurs in another variables.

Types of independent variables

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i. Experimental variables: They are variables which the researcher has

manipulative control over them. Are commonly used in biological and physical

sciences e.g. influence of amount of fertilizer on the yield of wheat, influence of

alcohol on reaction time.

ii. Measurement types of independent variables: Are variables, which have

already occurred. They have fixed manipulative and uninfluenceable properties.

Most of the variables are either environmental or personalogical e.g. age, gender,

marital status, race, colour, geographical location, nationality, soil type, altitude

etc. (e.g. influence of nationality on choice of food).

2. Dependent variables / criterion variables

It is the variable that is measured, predicted or monitored and is expected to be affected

by manipulation of an independent variable. They attempt to indicate the total influence

arising from the effects of the independent variable. It varies as a function of the

independent variable e.g. influence of hours studied on performance in a statistical test,

influence of distance from the supply center on cost of building materials.

3. Extraneous variables

They are those variables that affect the outcome of a research study either because the

researcher is not aware of their existence or if the researcher is aware, she or he has no

control over them.

Extraneous variables are often classified into three types:

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1. Subject variables, which are the characteristics of the individuals being studied

that might affect their actions. These variables include age, gender, health status,

mood, background, etc.

2. Experimental variables are characteristics of the persons conducting the

experiment which might influence how a person behaves. Gender, the presence of

racial discrimination, language, or other factors may qualify as such variables.

3. Situational variables are features of the environment in which the study or

research was conducted, which have a bearing on the outcome of the experiment

in a negative way. Included are the air temperature, level of activity, lighting, and

the time of day.

4. Control variables / concomitant / covariate or blocking variables

They are extraneous variables that are built into the study. Extraneous variables are

variables, which influence the results of a study when they are not controlled.

Reasons for introducing control variables:

 It increases the validity of the data.

 It leads to more convincing generalizations.

Since absolute control of extraneous variables is not possible in any study, results are

interpreted on the basis of degrees of confidence rather than certainty.

Once the major extraneous variables are identified, the researcher can control them by:-

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i. Building the extraneous variable into the study: i.e. including it as an independent

variable. E.g. in determining the effect of alcohol on reaction time, sex may

influence reaction time. Therefore, sex can be introduced as an independent

variable. Using regression, one can measure the effect of alcohol on reaction time,

controlling sex.

ii. Include them in the study but only at one level e.g. time is the dependent variable,

alcohol level - the independent and sex the extraneous variable. Sex can be

controlled by sampling only females or males of a given age. The disadvantage of

this method is that generalizations are limited to a smaller population.

iii. By removing the effects of the extraneous variables by statistical procedures i.e.

by siphoning its effects on the dependent variable. This can be done by:

 Analysis of co-variance

 Partial correlation.

5. Intervening variables

They are a special case of extraneous variables. The difference between the intervening

and extraneous variables is in the assumed relationship among the variables. An

intervening variable is a hypothetical internal state that is used to explain relationships

between observed variables, such as independent and dependent variables, in empirical

research. With an extraneous variable, there is no causal link between the independent

and dependent variable, but they are independently associated with a third variable – the

extraneous variable. An intervening variable is recognized as being caused by the

independent variable and as being a determinant of the dependent variable.

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Independent intervening dependent

The total effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable can be subdivided

into direct and indirect effects.

 Indirect effects are those effects of an intervening variable.

 Direct effects are not transmitted through another variable.

The choice of the right intervening variables helps one not only to determine accurately

the total effects of an independent variable on the dependent variable but also partition

the total effects into direct and indirect.

Examples of intervening variables include: motivation, intelligence, intention, and

expectation.

6. Antecedent variables

They do not interfere with the established relationship between an independent and

dependent variable but clarifies the influence that precedes such a relationship.

Antecedent independent dependent

Conditions that must hold for a variable to be classified as a antecedent variable:-

 The variables including the antecedent variable must be related in some logical

sequence.

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 When the antecedent variable is controlled for, the relationship between the

independent and the dependent variables should not disappear. Rather it should be

enhanced.

 When the independent variable is controlled for or its influence removed, there

should not be any relationship between the antecedent variable and the dependent

variable.

e.g. political stability – attracts investors – increased job opportunities – high standards of

living – reduction of poverty.

7. Suppressor variables

It is an extraneous variable which when not controlled for, removes a relationship

between the two variables. When a suppressor variable is introduced in the study as a

control variable, a true relationship emerges.

8. Distorter variables

It is a variable that converts what was thought of as a positive relationship into a negative

relationship and vice-versa. Its effects lead a researcher into drawing erroneous

conclusions from the data. When the distorter variable is controlled, a true relationship is

obtained. Consideration of distorter variables in a study reduces the chances of making a

type I (rejecting a true null hypothesis) or type two error (accepting a false null

hypothesis).

9. Exogenous and endogenous variables

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They are commonly used in testing hypothesized causal models. Path analysis ( a

procedure that tests causal links among several variables) is often used in testing the

validity of causal relationships in a theory or model.

A C

B D

C and D are called endogenous variables. Each endogenous variable is caused or

explained by the variable that precedes it. E.g. D is caused by A, B and C.

A and B are called exogenous variables. They lack hypothesized causes in the model.

Validity and Reliability in Research

The quality of a research study depends to a large extent on the accuracy of the data

collection procedures. Reliability and validity measures the relevance and correctness of

the data.

Reliability

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Reliability is the extent to which an experiment, test, or any measuring procedure yields

the same result on repeated trials. Without the agreement of independent observers able

to replicate research procedures, or the ability to use research tools and procedures that

yield consistent measurements, researchers would be unable to satisfactorily draw

conclusions, formulate theories, or make claims about the generalizability of their

research. In addition to its important role in research, reliability is critical for many parts

of our lives, including manufacturing, medicine and sports. Reliability is such an

important concept that it has been defined in terms of its application to a wide range of

activities.

Reliability is influenced by random error. Random error is the deviation from a true

measurement due to factors that have not effectively been addressed by the researcher. As

random error increases, reliability decreases.

Causes of random error

 Inaccurate coding

 Ambiguous instruction to the subjects

 Interviewer’s fatigue

 Interviewee’s fatigue

 Interviewer’s bias

Research instruments yield data that have two components; the true value or score and an

error component. The error component of the data reflects the limitations of the

instrument. There are three types of errors that arise at the time of data collection;

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 Error due to the inaccuracy of the instrument

 Error due to the inaccuracy of scoring by the researcher

 Unexplained error

Ways of Assessing Reliability

 Test-Retest

 Equivalent form

 Internal consistency

 Interrater reliability

1. The Test-Retest technique

It involves administering the same instruments twice to the same group of subjects, but

after some time. Stability reliability (sometimes called test, re-test reliability) is the

agreement of measuring instruments over time. To determine stability, a measure or test

is repeated on the same subjects at a future date. Results are compared and correlated

with the initial test to give a measure of stability.

An example of stability reliability would be the method of maintaining weights used by

the Kenya Bureau of Standards. Platinum objects of fixed weight (one kilogram, half

kilogram, etc...) are kept locked away. Once a year they are taken out and weighed,

allowing scales to be reset so they are "weighing" accurately. Keeping track of how much

the scales are off from year to year establishes stability reliability for these instruments.

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In this instance, the platinum weights themselves are assumed to have a perfectly fixed

stability reliability

Disadvantages

 Subjects may be sensitized by the first testing hence will do better in the second test

 Difficulty in establishing a reasonable period between the two testing sessions.

2. Equivalent form

Equivalent reliability is the extent to which two items measure identical concepts at an

identical level of difficulty. Equivalency reliability is determined by relating two sets of

test scores to one another to highlight the degree of relationship or association. In

quantitative studies and particularly in experimental studies, a correlation coefficient,

statistically referred to as r, is used to show the strength of the correlation between a

dependent variable (the subject under study), and one or more independent variable,

which are manipulated to determine effects on the dependent variable. An important

consideration is that equivalency reliability is concerned with correlational, not causal,

relationships.

For example, a researcher studying university Bachelor of commerce students happened

to notice that when some students were studying for finals, their holiday shopping began.

Intrigued by this, the researcher attempted to observe how often, or to what degree, these

two behaviors co-occurred throughout the academic year. The researcher used the results

of the observations to assess the correlation between studying throughout the academic

year and shopping for gifts. The researcher concluded there was poor equivalency

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reliability between the two actions. In other words, studying was not a reliable predictor

of shopping for gifts.

Two instruments are used. Specific items in each form are different but they are designed

to measure the same concept. They are the same in number, structure and level of

difficulty e.g. TOEFL, GRE

Advantages

 Estimates the stability of the data as well as the equivalence of the items in the two

forms

Disadvantages

 Difficulty in constructing two tests, which measure the same concept (time and

resources).

3. Internal consistency technique

Internal consistency is the extent to which tests or procedures assess the same

characteristic, skill or quality. It is a measure of the precision between the observers or of

the measuring instruments used in a study. This type of reliability often helps researchers

interpret data and predict the value of scores and the limits of the relationship among

variables.

For example, a researcher designs a questionnaire to find out about college students'

dissatisfaction with a particular textbook. Analyzing the internal consistency of the

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survey items dealing with dissatisfaction will reveal the extent to which items on the

questionnaire focus on the notion of dissatisfaction.

4. Interrater reliability

Interrater reliability is the extent to which two or more individuals (coders or raters)

agree. Interrater reliability addresses the consistency of the implementation of a rating

system.

A test of interrater reliability would be the following scenario: Two or more researchers

are observing a high school classroom. The class is discussing a movie that they have just

viewed as a group. The researchers have a sliding rating scale (1 being most positive, 5

being most negative) with which they are rating the student's oral responses. Interrater

reliability assesses the consistency of how the rating system is implemented. For

example, if one researcher gives a "1" to a student response, while another researcher

gives a "5," obviously the interrater reliability would be inconsistent. Interrater reliability

is dependent upon the ability of two or more individuals to be consistent. Training,

education and monitoring skills can enhance interrater reliability.

Ways of improving reliability

 Minimize external sources of variation

 Standardize conditions under which measurements occurs

 Improve investigator consistency by using only well trained, supervised and

motivated persons to conduct the research

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 Broaden the sample of measurement questions by adding similar questions to the data

collection instrument or adding more observers or occasions to an observation study.

 Improve internal consistency of an instrument by excluding data from analysis drawn

from measurement questions eliciting extreme responses.

Validity

Validity refers to the degree to which a study accurately reflects or assesses the specific

concept that the researcher is attempting to measure. It is the degree to which results

obtained from the analysis of data actually represent the phenomenon under study. It is

the accuracy and meaningfulness of inferences, which are based on the research results. It

has to do with how accurately the data obtained in the study represents the variables of

the study. If such data is a true reflection of the variables, then inferences based on such

data will be accurate and meaningful. Validity is largely determined by the presence or

absence of systematic error in the data e.g. using a faulty scale to measure.

Types of validity

(a) Construct validity

Construct validity seeks agreement between a theoretical concept and a specific

measuring device or procedure. For example, a researcher inventing a new IQ test might

spend a great deal of time attempting to "define" intelligence in order to reach an

acceptable level of construct validity.

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Construct validity can be broken down into two sub-categories: Convergent validity and

discriminate validity. Convergent validity is the actual general agreement among ratings,

gathered independently of one another, where measures should be theoretically related.

Discriminate validity is the lack of a relationship among measures which theoretically

should not be related.

To understand whether a piece of research has construct validity, three steps should be

followed. First, the theoretical relationships must be specified. Second, the empirical

relationships between the measures of the concepts must be examined. Third, the

empirical evidence must be interpreted in terms of how it clarifies the construct validity

of the particular measure being tested.

(b) Content validity

Content Validity is based on the extent to which a measurement reflects the specific

intended domain of content.

Content validity can be illustrated using the following examples: Researchers aim to

study mathematical learning and create a survey to test for mathematical skill. If these

researchers only tested for multiplication and then drew conclusions from that survey,

their study would not show content validity because it excludes other mathematical

functions. Although the establishment of content validity for placement-type exams

seems relatively straight-forward, the process becomes more complex as it moves into the

more abstract domain of socio-cultural studies. For example, a researcher needing to

measure an attitude like self-esteem must decide what constitutes a relevant domain of

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content for that attitude. For socio-cultural studies, content validity forces the researchers

to define the very domains they are attempting to study.

The usual procedure in assessing the content validity of a measure is to use professional

or experts in the particular field. The instrument is given to two groups of experts, one

group is requested to assess what concept the instrument is trying to measure. The other

group is asked to determine whether the set of items or checklist accurately represents the

concept under study.

(c) Criterion related validity

Criterion related validity, also referred to as instrumental validity, is used to demonstrate

the accuracy of a measure or procedure by comparing it with another measure or

procedure which has been demonstrated to be valid. For example, imagine a hands-on

driving test has been shown to be an accurate test of driving skills. By comparing the

scores on the written driving test with the scores from the hands-on driving test, the

written test can be validated by using a criterion related strategy in which the hands-on

driving test is compared to the written test.

Types

 Predictive validity – refers to the degree to which obtained data predicts the future

behaviour of subjects e.g. B. Com graduates

 Concurrent validity- refers to the degree to which data are able to predict the

behaviour of subjects in the present and not in the future e.g. psychiatry

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Internal and external validity

Researchers should be concerned with both external and internal validity.

 External validity refers to the extent to which the results of a study are

generalizable or transferable. External validity is the degree to which research

findings can be generalized to populations and environments outside the

experimental setting. It has to do with representativeness of the sample with regard

to the target population.

 Internal validity refers to (1) the rigor with which the study was conducted (e.g.,

the study's design, the care taken to conduct measurements, and decisions

concerning what was and wasn't measured) and (2) the extent to which the

designers of a study have taken into account alternative explanations for any

causal relationships they explore. In studies that do not explore causal

relationships, only the first of these definitions should be considered when

assessing internal validity. Internal validity depends on the degree to which

extraneous variables have been controlled for in the study

Internal and external validity are inversely related to each other.

Threats to internal validity

 History – refers to occurrence of events that influence experimental units during t

he course of the study

 Maturation – refers to the biological or psychological processes which occur among

the subjects in a relatively short time and which influence research findings

 Instrumentation -

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 Pre-testing – solution – use equivalent form tests

 Statistical regression

 Attrition- subjects dropping out of the study before completion- leads to error,

biasness in the sample

 Differential selection – occurs when subjects are systematically selected for a study -

volunteers and non-volunteers – biasness leads error

 Selection – maturation interaction

 Ambiguity - when correlation is taken for causation

 Apprehension - when people are scared to respond to your study

 Demoralization - when people get bored with your measurements

 Diffusion - when people figure out your test and start mimicking symptoms

Threats to external validity

 Accessible and target population

 Control of extraneous variables

 Pre-test treatment interaction

 Explicit description of the sample

 Multi-treatment interference

RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

The research instruments that are widely used include

 Questionnaires

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 Interviews

 Observations

QUESTIONNAIRES

Each item in the questionnaire is developed to address a specific objective, research

question or hypothesis of the study. The researcher must also know how information

obtained from each questionnaire item will be analysed.

Types of questions used in questionnaires

1 Structured or closed-ended questions

They are questions, which are accompanied by a list of possible alternatives from which

respondents select the answer that best describes their situation.

Advantages of Structured or closed-ended questions

 They are easier to analyse since they are in an immediate usable form

 They are easier to administer

 They are economical to use in terms of time and money

Disadvantages of Structured or closed-ended questions

 They are more difficult to construct

 Responses are limited and the respondent is compelled to answer questions according

to the researcher’s choices

2 Unstructured or open – ended questions

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They refer to questions, which give the respondent complete freedom of response. The

amount of space provided is always an indicator of whether a brief or lengthy answer is

desired.

Advantages of Unstructured or open – ended questions

 They permit a greater depth of response

 They are simple to formulate

 The respondent’s responses may give an insight into his feelings, background, hidden

motives, interest and decisions.

Disadvantages of Unstructured or open – ended questions

 There is a tendency of the respondents providing information, which does not answer

the stipulated research questions or objectives.

 The responses given may be difficult to categorize and hence difficult to analyze

quantitatively

 Responding to open ended questions is time consuming, which may put some

respondent off.

3 Contingency questions

In particular cases, certain questions are applicable to certain groups of respondents. In

such cases, follow-up questions are needed to get further information from the relevant

sub-group only. These subsequent questions, which are asked after the initial questions,

are called ‘contingency questions’ or ‘ filter questions’. The purpose of these kinds of

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questions is to probe for more information. They also simplify the respondent’s task, in

that they will not be required to answer questions that are not relevant to them.

4 Matrix questions

These are questions, which share the same set of response categories. They are used

whenever scales like likert scale are being used.

Advantages of matrix questions

 When questions or items are presented in matrix form, they are easier to complete and

hence the respondent is unlikely not to be put off.

 Space is used efficiently

 It is easy to compare responses given to different items.

Disadvantages of matrix questions

 Some respondents, especially the ones that may not be too keen to give right

responses, might form a pattern of agreeing or disagreeing with statements.

 Some researchers use them when in fact the kind of information being sought could

better be obtained in another format.

Rules for constructing questionnaires and questionnaire items

1. List the objectives that you want the questionnaire to accomplish before

constructing the questionnaire.

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2. Determine how information obtained from each questionnaire item will be

analyzed.

3. Ensure clarity and avoid ambiguity.

4. If a concept has several meanings and that concept must be used in a question, the

intended meaning must be defined.

5. Construct short questions.

6. Items should be stated positively as possible.

7. Double-barreled items should be avoided.

8. Leading and biased questions should be avoided.

9. Very personal and sensitive questions should be avoided.

10. Simple words that are easily understandable should be used.

11. Questions that assume facts with no evidence should be avoided.

12. Avoid psychologically threatening questions.

13. Include enough information in each item so that it is meaningful to the

respondent.

Tips on how to organize or order items in a questionnaire

1. Begin with non-threatening, interesting items.

2. It is not advisable to put important questions at the end of a long questionnaire.

3. Have some logical order when putting items together.

4. Arrange the questions according to themes being studied.

5. If the questionnaire is arranged into content sub-sections, each section should be

introduced with a short statement concerning its content and purpose.

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6. Socio-economic questions should be asked at the end because respondents may be

put off by personal questions at the beginning of the questionnaire.

Presentation of the questionnaire

1. Make the questionnaire attractive by using quality paper. It increases the response

rate.

2. Organize and lay out the questions so that the questionnaire is easy to complete.

3. All the pages and items in a questionnaire should be numbered.

4. Brief but clear instruction must be included.

5. Make your questionnaire short.

Pretesting the questionnaire

The questionnaire should be pretested to a selected sample, which is similar to the actual

sample, which the researcher plans to study. This is important because:-

 Questions that are vague will be revealed in the sense that the respondents will

interpret them differently.

 Comments and suggestions made by respondents during pretesting should be

seriously considered and incorporated.

 Pretesting will reveal deficiencies in the questionnaire.

 It helps to test whether the methods of analysis are appropriate.

Ways of administering questionnaires

Questionnaires are mainly administered using three methods:

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i. Self administered questionnaires

Questionnaires are send to the respondents through mail or hand-delivery, and they

complete on their own.

ii. Researcher administered questionnaires

The researcher can decide to use the questionnaire to interview the respondents. This

is mostly done when the subjects may not have the ability to easily interpret the

questions probably because of their educational level.

iii. Use of the internet

The people sampled for the research receive and respond to the questionnaires

through their web sites or e-mail addresses.

The letter of transmittal / Cover letter

The letter of transmittal / Cover letter should accompany every questionnaire.

Contents of a letter of transmittal

 It should explain the purpose of the study.

 It should explain the importance and significance of the stuidy.

 A brief assurance of confidentiality should be included in the letter.

 If the study is affiliated to a certain institution or organisation, it is advisable to have

an endorsement from such an institution or organisation.

 In a sensitive research, it may be necessary to assure the anonymity of respondents.

 The letter should contain specific deadline dates by which the completed

questionnaire is to be returned.

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Follow-up techniques

 Sending a follow-up letter which should be polite, and asking the subjects to

respond

 A questionnaire and a follow-up letter.

Response rate

It refers to the percentage of subjects who respond to questionnaires. Many authors

believe that a response rate of 50% is adequate for analysis and reporting. If the response

rate is low, the researcher must question the representativeness of the sample.

INTERVIEWS

An interview is an oral (face to face) administration of a questionnaire or an interview

schedule. To obtain accurate information through interviews, a researcher needs to obtain

the maximum co-operation from respondents. Interviews are particularly useful for

getting the story behind a participant's experiences. The interviewer can pursue in-depth

information around a topic. Interviews may be useful as follow-up to certain respondents

to questionnaires, e.g., to further investigate their responses. Usually open-ended

questions are asked during interviews.

Guidelines for preparation for Interview

1. Choose a setting with little distraction. Avoid loud lights or noises, ensure the

interviewee is comfortable (you might ask them if they are), etc. Often, they may feel

more comfortable at their own places of work or homes.

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2. Explain the purpose of the interview.

3. Address terms of confidentiality. Note any terms of confidentiality. (Be careful here.

Rarely can you absolutely promise anything. Courts may get access to information, in

certain circumstances.) Explain who will get access to their answers and how their

answers will be analyzed. If their comments are to be used as quotes, get their written

permission to do so.

4. Explain the format of the interview. Explain the type of interview you are conducting

and its nature. If you want them to ask questions, specify if they're to do so as they

have them or wait until the end of the interview.

5. Indicate how long the interview usually takes.

6. Tell them how to get in touch with you later if they want to.

7. Ask them if they have any questions before you both get started with the interview.

8. Don't count on your memory to recall their answers. Ask for permission to record the

interview or bring along someone to take notes.

Types of Interviews approaches

(a) Informal, conversational interview - no predetermined questions are asked, in

order to remain as open and adaptable as possible to the interviewee's nature and

priorities; during the interview, the interviewer "goes with the flow".

(b) General interview guide approach - the guide approach is intended to ensure

that the same general areas of information are collected from each interviewee;

this provides more focus than the conversational approach, but still allows a

degree of freedom and adaptability in getting information from the interviewee.

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(c) Standardized, open-ended interview - here, the same open-ended questions are

asked to all interviewees (an open-ended question is where respondents are free

to choose how to answer the question, i.e., they don't select "yes" or "no" or

provide a numeric rating, etc.); this approach facilitates faster interviews that can

be more easily analyzed and compared

(d) Closed, fixed-response interview - where all interviewees are asked the same

questions and asked to choose answers from among the same set of alternatives.

This format is useful for those not practiced in interviewing.

Sequence of Questions

1. Get the respondents involved in the interview as soon as possible.

2. Before asking about controversial matters (such as feelings and conclusions), first

ask about some facts. With this approach, respondents can more easily engage in

the interview before warming up to more personal matters.

3. Intersperse fact-based questions throughout the interview to avoid long lists of

fact-based questions, which tends to leave respondents disengaged.

4. Ask questions about the present before questions about the past or future. It's

usually easier for them to talk about the present and then work into the past or

future.

5. The last questions might be to allow respondents to provide any other information

they prefer to add and their impressions of the interview.

Wording of Questions

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 Wording should be open-ended. Respondents should be able to choose their own

terms when answering questions.

 Questions should be as neutral as possible. Avoid wording that might influence

answers, e.g., evocative, judgmental wording.

 Questions should be asked one at a time.

 Questions should be worded clearly. This includes knowing any terms particular to

the program or the respondents' culture.

 Be careful asking "why" questions. This type of question infers a cause-effect

relationship that may not truly exist. These questions may also cause respondents

to feel defensive, e.g., that they have to justify their response, which may inhibit

their responses to this and future questions.

 While Carrying Out Interview

 Occasionally verify the tape recorder (if used) is working.

 Ask one question at a time.

 Attempt to remain as neutral as possible. That is, don't show strong emotional

reactions to their responses. Patton suggests to act as if "you've heard it all before."

 Encourage responses with occasional nods of the head, "uh huh"s, etc.

 Be careful about the appearance when note taking. That is, if you jump to take a

note, it may appear as if you're surprised or very pleased about an answer, which

may influence answers to future questions.

 Provide transition between major topics, e.g., "we've been talking about (some

topic) and now I'd like to move on to (another topic)."

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 Don't lose control of the interview. This can occur when respondents stray to

another topic, take so long to answer a question that times begins to run out, or

even begin asking questions to the interviewer.

Immediately After Interview

 Verify if the tape recorder, if used, worked throughout the interview.

 Make any notes on your written notes, e.g., to clarify any scratchings, ensure pages

are numbered, fill out any notes that don't make senses, etc.

 Write down any observations made during the interview. For example, where did

the interview occur and when, was the respondent particularly nervous at any

time? Were there any surprises during the interview? Did the tape recorder break?

Personal interviews

People selected to be part of the sample are interviewed in person by a trained

interviewer.

Requirements for success

Three broad conditions must be met in order to have a successful personal interview:

 The participant must possess the information being targeted by the investigative

questions

 The participant must understand his or her role in the interview as the provider of

accurate information

 The participant must perceive adequate motivation to cooperate

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Increasing the participant’s receptiveness

The first goal in an interview is to establish a friendly relationship with the participant.

Three factors will help increase participant receptiveness. The participant must:

 Believe that the experience will be pleasant and satisfying

 Believe that answering the survey is an important and worthwhile use of his or her

time

 Dismiss any mental reservations that he or she might have about participation.

The technique of stimulating participants to answer more fully and relevantly is termed

probing. Since it presents a great potential for bias, a probe should be neutral and appear

as a natural part of the conversation. Appropriate probes should be specified by the

designer of the data collection instrument. There are several probing styles e.g.

 A brief assertion of understanding and interest e.g. comments such as “I see” “yes”.

 An expectant pause

 Repeating the question

 Repeating the participant’s reply

 A neutral question or comment

 Question clarification.

Problems likely to be encountered during personal interviews

In personal interviews, the researcher must deal with bias and cost.

Biased results is as a result of three types of errors:

(a) Sampling error

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It’s the difference between a sample statistic and its corresponding population

parameter. The sampling distribution of the sample means is a probability distribution

of possible sample means of a given sample size.

(b) Non-response error

This occurs when the responses of participants differ in some systematic way from the

responses of non-participants. It occurs when the researcher:

 Cannot locate the person to be studied

 Is unsuccessful in encouraging that person to participate

Solutions to reduce errors of non-response are

 Establishing and implementing callback procedures

 Creating a non response sample and weighting results from this sample

 Substituting another individual for the missing non-participant.

(c) Response error

Occurs when the data reported differ from the actual data. It can occur during the

interview or during preparation of data analysis.

 Participant-initiated error occurs when the participant fails to answer fully and

accurately either by choice or because of inaccurate or incomplete knowledge. Can be

solved by using trained interviewers who are knowledgeable about such problems.

 Interviewer error can be caused by:-

- Failure to secure full participant cooperation

- Failure to consistently execute interview procedures

- Failure to establish appropriate interview environment

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- Falsification of individual answers or whole interviews

- Inappropriate influencing behaviour

- Failure to record answers accurately and completely

- Physical presence bias.

Advantages of Personal interviews

 Good cooperation from the respondents

 Interviewer can answer questions about survey, probe for answers, use follow-up

questions and gather information by observation.

 Special visual aids and scoring devices can be used.

 Illiterate and functionally illiterate respondents can be reached

 Interviewer can prescreen respondent to ensure he / she fits the population profile.

 Responses can be entered directly into a portable microcomputer to reduce error

and cost when using computer assisted personal interviewing.

Disadvantages of Personal interviews

 High costs

 Need for highly trained interviewers

 Longer period needed in the field collecting data

 May be wide geographic dispersion

 Follow-up is labour intensive

 Not all respondents are available or accessible

 Some respondents are unwilling to talk to strangers in their homes

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 Some neighbourhoods are difficult to visit

 Questions may be altered or respondent coached by interviewers.

Telephone interviews

People selected to be part of the sample are interviewed on the telephone by a trained

interviewer.

Advantages of Telephone interviews

 Lower costs than personal interviews

 Expanded geographic coverage without dramatic increase in costs

 Uses fewer, more highly skilled interviewers

 Reduced interview bias

 Fates completion time

 Better access to hard-to-reach respondents through repeated callbacks

 Can use computerized random digit dialing

 Responses can be entered directly into a computer file to reduce error and cost when

using computer assisted telephone interviewing.

Disadvantages of Telephone interviews

 Response rate is lower than for personal interview

 Higher costs if interviewing geographically dispersed sample

 Interview sample must be limited

 Many phone numbers are unlisted or not working, making directory listings

unreliable

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 Some target groups are not available by phone

 Responses may be less complete

 Illustrations cannot be used.

 Respondents may not be honest with their responses since it is not a face to face

situation

Rules pertaining to interviews

The interviewer must

 Be pleasant

 Show genuine interest in getting to know respondents without appearing like spies.

 Be relaxed and friendly.

 Be very familiar with the questionnaire or the interview guide.

 Have a guide which indicates what questions are to be asked and in what order.

 Interact with the respondent as an equal.

 Pretest the interview guide before using it to check for vocabulary, language level

and how well the questions will be understood.

 Inform the respondent about the confidentiality of the information given.

 Not ask leading questions

 Remain neutral in an interview situation in order to be as objective as possible.

An interview schedule

It’s a set of questions that the interviewer asks when interviewing. It makes it possible

to obtain data required to meet specific objectives of the study.

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Note taking during interviews

It refers to the method of recording in which the interviewer records the respondent’s

responses during the interview.

Advantages

 It facilitates data analysis since the information is readily accessible and already

classified into appropriate categories.

 If taken well, no information is left out.

Disadvantages of note taking

 It may interfere with the communication between the respondent and the

interviewer.

 It might upset the respondent if the answers are personal and sensitive.

 If it is delayed, important details may be forgotten.

 It makes the interview lengthy and boring.

Tape recording

The interviewer’s questions and the respondent’s answers are recorded either using a tape

recorder or a video tape.

Advantages

 It reduces the tendency for the interviewer to make unconscious selection of data in

the course of the recording.

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 The tape can be played back and studied more thoroughly.

 A person other than the interviewer can evaluate and categorize responses.

 It speeds up the interview.

 Communication is not interrupted.

Disadvantages

 It changes the interview situation since respondents get nervous.

 Respondents may be reluctant to give sensitive information if they know they are

being taped.

 Transcribing the tapes before analysis is time consuming and tedious.

Advantages of interviews

 It provides in-depth data, which is not possible to get using a questionnaire.

 It makes it possible to obtain data required to meet specific objectives of the study.

 Are more flexible than questionnaires because the interviewer can adapt to the

situation and get as much information as possible.

 Very sensitive and personal information can be extracted from the respondent.

 The interviewer can clarify and elaborate the purpose of the research and effectively

convince respondents about the importance of the research.

 They yield higher response rates

Disadvantages of interviews

 They are expensive – traveling costs

 It requires a higher level of skill

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 Interviewers need to be trained to avoid bias

 Not appropriate for large samples

 Responses may be influenced by the respondent’s reaction to the interviewer.

OBSERVATION

Observation is one of the few options available for studying records, mechanical

processes, small children and complex interactive processes. Data can be gathered as

the event occurs. Observation includes a variety of monitoring situations that cover non-

behavioural and behavioural activities.

The observer-participant relationship

Interrogation presents a clear opportunity for interviewer bias. The problem is less

pronounced with observation but is still real. The relationship between observer and

participant may be viewed from three perspectives:

 Whether the observation is direct or indirect

 Whether the observer’s presence is known or unknown to the participant

 What role the observer plays

Guidelines for the qualification and selection of observers

 Concentration: Ability to function in a setting full of distractions

 Detail-oriented: Ability to remember details of an experience

 Unobtrusive: Ability to blend with the setting and not be distinctive

 Experience level: Ability to extract the most from an observation study

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Advantages of observation

Enables one to:

 Secure information about people or activities that cannot be derived from

experiment or surveys

 Reduces obtrusiveness

 Avoid participant filtering and forgetfulness

 Secure environmental context information

 Optimize the naturalness of the research setting

Limitations of observation

 Difficulty of waiting for long periods to capture the relevant phenomena

 The expense of observer costs and equipment

 Reliability of inferences from surface indicators

 The problem of quantification and disproportionately large records

Observation forms, schedules or checklists

The researcher must define the behaviours to be observed and then develop a detailed list

of behaviours. During data collection, the researcher checks off each as it occurs. This

permits the observer to spend time thinking about what is occurring rather than on how to

record it and this enhances the accuracy of the study.

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DATA ANALYSIS

DATA PREPARATION AND DESCRIPTION

Once the data begins to flow in, attention turns to data analysis. If the project has been

done correctly, the analysis planning is already done.

Data preparation

This includes editing, coding and data entry. These activities ensure the accuracy of the

data and their conversion from raw form to reduced and classified forms that are more

appropriate for analysis.

Editing

Editing detects errors and omissions, corrects them when possible and certifies that

minimum data quality standards have been achieved. The editor’s purpose is to

guarantee that data are:

 Accurate

 Consistent with intent of the question and other information in the survey

 Uniformly entered

 Complete

 Arranged to simplify coding and tabulation

Field editing

In large projects, field editing review is a responsibility of the field supervisor. It should

be done soon after the data have been gathered. During the stress of data collection, the

researcher often uses ad hoc abbreviations and special symbols. Soon after the interview,

experiment or observation, the investigator should review the reporting forms. It is

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difficult to complete what was abbreviated or written in shorthand or noted illegibly if the

entry is not caught that day. When entry gaps are present from interviews, a call back

should be made rather than guessing what the respondent ‘probably would have said’.

Self-interviewing has no place in quality research.

Central editing

For a small study, the use of a single editor produces maximum consistency. In large

studies, the tasks may be broken down so that each editor can deal with one entire

section. This approach will not identify inconsistencies between answers in different

sections. However, this problem can be handled by identifying points of possible

inconsistency and having one editor check specifically for them.

Rules to guide editors in their work

 Be familiar with instructions given to interviewers and coders

 Do not destroy, erase or make illegible the original entry by the interviewer, original

entries should be crossed out with a single line to remain legible.

 Make all entries on an instrument in some distinctive colour and in a standardized

form.

 Initial all answers changed or supplied.

 Place initials and date of editing on each instrument completed.

Coding

Coding involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers so the responses can be

grouped into a limited number of classes or categories. The classifying of data into

limited categories sacrifices some data detail but is necessary for efficient analysis.

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Coding helps the researcher to reduce several thousand replies to a few categories

containing the critical information needed for analysis. In coding, categories are the

partitioning of a set and categorization is the process of using rules to partition a body of

data.

Coding rules

The categories should be:

 Appropriate to the research problem and purpose: Categories must provide the best

partitioning of data for testing hypotheses and showing relationships.

 Exhaustive

 Mutually exclusive

 Derived from one classification principle

Coding closed questions

The responses to closed questions include scaled items and others for which answers can

be anticipated. When codes are established early in the research process, it is possible to

pre-code the questionnaire. Pre-coding is particularly helpful for data entry because it

makes the intermediate step of completing a coding sheet unnecessary. The data are

accessible directly from the questionnaire. A respondent, interviewer, field supervisor or

researcher is able to assign an appropriate numerical response on the instrument by

checking, circling or printing it in the proper coding location.

Coding open-ended questions

Open-ended questions are always used where insufficient information or lack of a

hypothesis prohibits preparing response categories in advance, need to measure sensitive

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or disapproved behaviour, discover salience or encouraging natural modes of expressions.

Content analysis is always used to analyse open-ended questions. Converse and Presser

(1986) define content analysis as a research technique for the objective, systematic and

quantitative description of the manifest content of a communication.

Content analysis follows a systematic process i.e.

 Selection of a unitization scheme. The units may be syntactical, referential,

prepositional or thematic

 Selection of a sampling plan

 Development of recording and coding instructions

 Data reduction

 Inferences about the context

 Statistical analysis

Content analysis guards against selective perception of the content, provides for the

rigorous application of reliability and validity criteria and is amenable to

computerization.

“Don’t know” replies

“Don’t know” replies are evaluated in light of the questions nature and the respondent.

While many don’t know are legitimate, some result from questions that are ambiguous or

from an interviewing situation that is not motivating. It is better to report don’t knows as

a separate category unless there are compelling reasons to treat them otherwise.

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Data entry

Data entry converts information gathered by secondary or primary methods to a medium

for viewing and manipulation. Data entry is accomplished by keyboard entry from pre-

coded instruments, optical scanning, real time keyboarding, telephone pad data entry, bar

codes, voice recognition, optical mark recognition (OMR) and data transfers from

electronic notebooks and laptop computers. Database programs, spreadsheets and editors

in statistical software programs e.g. SPSS and SAS offer flexibility for entering,

manipulating and transferring data for analysis, warehousing and mining.

Data description

The objective of descriptive statistical analysis is to develop sufficient knowledge to

describe a body of data. This is accomplished by understanding the data levels for the

measurements we choose, their distributions and characteristics of location, spread and

shape. The discovery of miscoded values, missing data and other problems in the data set

is enhanced with descriptive statistics

There are three general areas that make up the field of statistics: descriptive statistics,

relational statistics, and inferential statistics:

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DATA ANALYSIS

Data is analysed through

 Descriptive statistics

 Inferential statistics

 Relational statistics

Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics fall into one of two categories: measures of central tendency (mean,

median, and mode) or measures of dispersion (standard deviation and variance). Their

purpose is to explore hunches that may have come up during the course of the research

process, but most people compute them to look at the normality of their numbers.

Examples include descriptive analysis of sex, age, race, social class, and so forth. 

Inferential statistics

Hypothesis testing: It’s a procedure based on sample evidence and probability theory to

determine whether the hypothesis is a reasonable statement.

State the null hypothesis (HO) and alternate hypothesis (HA)

 The null hypothesis is a statement about the value of a population parameter. It

should be stated as “There is no significant difference between ……………”. It

should always contain an equal sign.

 The alternate hypothesis is a statement that is accepted if sample data provide

enough evidence that the null hypothesis is false.

Relational statistics

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Relational statistics fall into one of three categories: univariate, bivariate, and

multivariate analysis. Univariate analysis is the study of one variable for a sub-

population. Bivariate analysis is the study of a relationship between two variables.

Multivariate analysis is the study of relationship between three or more variables. The

relational statistics include correlation, regression, discriminant analysis, conjoint

analysis, factor analysis and cluster analysis

REPORT WRITING TECHNIQUES

Writing a research proposal and research reports

A proposal is a document, which details an intended activity. The formats for writing

proposals differ from institution to institution or from department to department.

Generally, a research proposal should include the following prefatory items; the title

page, declaration, table of contents, list of figures and tables, list of acronyms and

abbreviations and an abstract. It will also have chapter one: Introduction, Chapter Two:

Literature review and Chapter Three: Methodology. In addition it will also have the

references, time schedule, budget and any appendices.

The final research report will have what is contained in the proposal (apart from the time

schedule and budget) and in addition dedication, acknowledgement, chapter four: Data

analysis and findings and chapter five: Summary, conclusions and recommendations.

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Prefatory items

Prefatory items do not have a direct bearing on the research itself. They assist the reader

in using the research report. They can include: -

Title page:

The title page should include the title of the report, the date and for whom and by whom

it was prepared. The title should be brief but should include the variables included in the

study, the type of relationship among the variables and the population to which the results

may be applied.

Declaration

This is whereby the researcher declares that the work s his/her original work.

Dedication

Some researchers would always wish to dedicate their work to a person or persons they

deem special in their lives.

Acknowledgements

During the research process, the researcher may require help from other individuals or

organisations. It would be necessary if the researcher acknowledged received from these

individuals and organisations.

Table of contents and list of figures and tables

Any report with several sections that total more than six to ten pages should have a table

of contents. If there are many tables, charts or other exhibits, they should also be listed

after the table of contents in a separate list of tables or list of figures.

List of abbreviations and acronyms

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All abbreviations and acronyms used in report should be explained. An abbreviation is a

short form of a word while an acronym is a contraction formed by taking the first letter of

several words.

Abstract

A proposal abstract is a summary of what the researcher intends to do. It should be brief,

precise and to the point.

Chapter One

1.0 Introduction

The introduction prepares the reader for the report by describing the parts of the report.

1.1 Background to the problem

In the background, the researcher should broadly introduce the topic under investigation.

The researcher introduces briefly the general area of study, and then narrows down to the

specific problem to be studied. The background enables the reader to have an idea of

what is happening regarding the area under investigation.

1.2 The problem Statement

The researcher states the problem under investigation. The researcher should describe the

factors that make the stated problem a critical issue to warrant the study. Relevant

literature can be referred to. It should be brief and precise.

1.3 The objectives of the study

Research objectives are those specific issues within the scope of the stated purpose that

the researcher wants to focus upon and examine in the study. The objectives should be

specific, measurable, achievable, reliable and time bound. Objectives guide the researcher

in formulating testable hypotheses.

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1.4 Research questions

These are the questions, which the researcher would like to be answered by undertaking

the study. They should be formulated from the objectives of the study.

1.5 Research Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a researchers prediction regarding the outcome of the study. It states

possible differences, relationships or causes between two variables or concepts.

Hypothesis are derived from or based on existing theories, previous research, personal

observations or experiences. The test of a hypothesis involves collection and analysis of

data that may either support or fail to support the hypothesis. If the results fail to support

a stated hypothesis, it does not mean that the study has failed but it implies that the

existing theories or principles need to be revised or retested under various situations.

1.6 Scope of the study

This section indicates the boundary of the study

1.7 Significance / Justification of the study

The justification helps to answer the following questions. Why is this work important?

What are the implications of doing it? How does it link to other knowledge? How does it

stand to inform policy making? The significance must be strong enough to warrant the

use of time, energy and money in carrying out the research.

1.8 Assumptions and limitations of the study

An assumption is any fact that a researcher takes to be true without actually verifying it.

It puts some boundary around the study and provides the reader with vital information,

which influences the way results of the study are interpreted. A limitation is an aspect of

a research that may influence the results negatively but over which the researcher has no

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control. A common limitation in social science studies is the scope of the study, which

sometimes may not allow generalizations. Sample size may also be another limitation.

Chapter Two

2.0 Literature Review

The purpose of the literature review is to situate your research in the context of what is

already known about a topic. It need not be exhaustive, it needs to show how your work

will benefit the whole. It should provide the theoretical basis for your work, show what

has been done in the area by others, and set the stage for your work.

In a literature review you should give the reader enough ties to the literature that they feel

confident that you have found, read, and assimilated the literature in the field. It should

probably move from the more general to the more focused studies, but need not be

exhaustive, only relevant.

The literature review should clearly present the holes in the knowledge that need to be

plugged and by so doing, situate your work. It is the place where you establish that your

work will fit in and be significant to the discipline.

Chapter Three

1.0 Research Methodology

This section should make clear to the reader the way that you intend to approach the

research question and the techniques and logic that you will use to address it.

1.1 Research design

The coverage of the design must be adapted to the purpose. In an experimental study, the

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materials, tests, equipment, control conditions and other devices should be described. In

descriptive or ex post facto designs, it may be sufficient to cover the rationale for using

one design instead of competing alternatives. The strengths and weaknesses of the design

can be identified and the instrumentation and materials discussed.

1.2 The target population

The researcher should explicitly define the target population being studied

1.3 Sampling strategy

Explanations of the sampling methods, uniqueness of the chosen parameters or other

points that need explanation should be covered with brevity.

1.4 Data Collection Tools and Techniques

This part of the report describes the specifics of gathering the data. Its contents depend on

the design. This might include the data that you anticipate collecting and a description of

the instruments you will use. Detailed copies of the data collection tools e.g.

questionnaires, interview schedule or observation schedule should be attached as an

appendix.

1.5 Data Analysis

This section summarizes the methods used to analyze the data. It describes data handling,

preliminary analysis, statistical tests, computer programs and other technical information.

The rationale for the choice of analysis approaches should be clear. A brief commentary

on assumptions and appropriateness of use should be presented.

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Chapter Four

1.0 Data analysis and Findings

The objective is to explain the data rather than draw interpretations or conclusions. When

quantitative data can be presented, it should be done as simply as possible with charts,

graphics and tables. The data need not include everything collected. Only material

important to the reader’s understanding of the problem and the findings should be

included. Both findings that support or do not support the hypothesis should be included.

Chapter Five

5.0 Summary and Conclusions

The summary is a brief statement of the essential findings. Sectional summaries may be

used if there are many specific findings. These may be combined into an overall

summary. Conclusions represent inferences drawn from the findings. Conclusions may

be presented in a tabular form for easy reading and reference. Summary findings may be

subordinated under the related conclusion statement.

Recommendations

There are usually a few ideas about corrective actions. In academic research, the

recommendations are often further study suggestions that broaden or test understanding

of the subject area. In applied research, the recommendations will usually be for

managerial action rather than research action. The writer may offer several alternatives

with justifications.

References

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The use of secondary data requires a reference or a bibliography. Proper citation, style

and formats are unique to the purpose of the report. The

Appendixes

The appendixes are the place for complex tables, statistical tests, supporting documents,

copies of forms and questionnaires, detailed descriptions of the methodology, instructions

to field workers and other evidence important for later support. The reader who wishes to

learn about technical aspects of the study and to look at statistical breakdowns will want a

complete appendix.

Time schedule

It is a listing of the major activities and the corresponding anticipated time period it will

take to accomplish that activity. The time is usually given in months. Activities to be

undertaken can always overlap.

Budget

A budget is a list of items that will be required to carry out the research and their

approximate cost. It should be detailed enough and precise on items needed, prices per

unit and total cost. Details of requirements in each budget will be governed by the type of

research.

Characteristics of a Good Proposal:

 The need for the proposed activity is clearly established, preferably with data.

 The most important ideas are highlighted and repeated in several places.

 The objectives of the project are given in detail.

 There is a detailed schedule of activities for the project, or at least sample portions of

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such a complete project schedule.

 Collaboration with all interested groups in planning of the proposed project is

evident in the proposal.

 The commitment of all involved parties is evident, e.g., letters of commitment in the

appendix and cost sharing stated in both the narrative of the proposal and the budget.

 The budget and the proposal narrative are consistent.

 The uses of money are clearly indicated in the proposal narrative as well as in the

budget.

 All of the major matters indicated in the proposal guidelines are clearly addressed in

the proposal.

 The agreement of all project staff and consultants to participate in the project was

acquired and is so indicated in the proposal.

 All governmental procedures have been followed with regard to matters such as civil

rights compliance and protection of human subjects.

 Appropriate detail is provided in all portions of the proposal.

 All of the directions given in the proposal guidelines have been followed carefully.

 Appendices have been used appropriately for detailed and lengthy materials which

the reviewers may not want to read but are useful as evidence of careful planning,

previous experience, etc.

 The length is consistent with the proposal guidelines and/or funding agency

expectations.

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 The budget explanations provide an adequate basis for the figures used in building

the budget.

 If appropriate, there is a clear statement of commitment to continue the project after

external funding ends.

 The qualifications of project personnel are clearly communicated.

 The writing style is clear and concise. It speaks to the reader, helping the reader

understand the problems and proposal. Summarizing statements and headings are

used to lead the reader.

Guidelines for writing a good research report

 Break large units of text into smaller units with headings to show organisation of the

topics

 Relieve difficult text with visual aids when possible

 Emphasize important material and de-emphasize secondary material through sentence

construction and judicious use of italising, underlining, capitalizing and parentheses.

 Use ample space and wide margins to create a positive psychological effect on the

reader.

 Choose words carefully, opting for the known and short rather than the unknown and

long.

 Repeat and summarize critical and difficult ideas so readers can have time to absorb

them.

 Review the writing to ensure the tone is appropriate

 Proof read the final document to correct any errors.

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 Use short paragraphs

 Indent parts of text that represent listings, long quotations or examples.

 Use headings and subheadings to divide the report and its major sections into

homogeneous topical parts.

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