Linguistics Relativity:

Edward Sapir’s Perspective on Language, Culture, and Cognition

Ronald Maraden Parlindungan Silalahi

Bunda Mulia University

Abstract
Language is a sign system which is used by society to cooperate, interact, and
identify. Culture, Society, and Cognition is built based on human perception in
their world. It is reflected through linguistics element used by language users for
communication purposes. The idea about inter-relation of language and those
three elements (Culture, Society, and Cognition) is conducted by an
anthropologist and linguist, Edward Sapir. Sapir‟s perspective on culture is highly
influenced by some western linguist and philosopher (like Boas, Morris, and
Saussure). Sapir believes that language is cultural product. The linguistic
constructions in particular language are built from influence mechanisms. Each
language related to immeasurable variety of experiences and a limited array of
formal categories (both lexical and grammatical). These categories coherently
related to the interpretation of experience in the world. Whorf believes that the
system of categories in each language provides an unusual system to certain
language. Together with Whorf, Sapir conducted a hypothesis. The hypothesis
conducted is an idea of differentiating the way of language is encoded cognition
category and culture. Their existence in society influences the way of thinking. It
influences human thought and action. Language determines thought and
linguistics category determine cognitive category. Hypothesis which was
conducted by them is named Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.

Key Words
Edward Sapir, Relativity, Culture, Society, Cognition

1. Introduction
Language is an arbitrary sign system, which is used by society to cooperate,
interact, and identify. Such language sign form a mutually-dependent relationship
between concept and mental characteristic and acoustical picture. The use of

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language by speech and writing (parole1) and its relation with the sign system
(langue2) creates a sign system used in communication.
Basically, modern linguistics studies are focused on the function of
language as a medium of verbal communication. Initially, linguistics phenomenon
was analyzed by using formal3 approaches (internal structure of language) named
structuralism. In the next phase, the importance of culture, cognition4, and extra
linguistics5 (non-linguistics) aspect as part of communication influence linguistics
analysis.
Related to the importance of culture and cognition in the study of
linguistics; in this article, I will portray one of the most important and outstanding
figure that bridge those three fields, named Edward Sapir and his view concerning
culture, religion, and psychology. The last section will discuss about the Sapir-
Whorf Hypothesis with his student Benjamin Lee Whorf.

2. Edward Sapir
Edward Sapir is an anthropologist and linguist, which is considered genius by his
friends. Sapir‟s knowledge of language is phenomenal. His talent and bright idea
manifested in immeasurable area inspire the others. Edward Sapir was born in
Lauenburg, Germany on 26 January 1884, in a Jew family. His father who is a
cantor (song leader in Synagogue) brought Sapir together with his family to
America when he was five years old. His talent and astuteness can be seen when
he got a scholarship at Horace Mann School and Colombia College. In 1904, He

1
Parole is written in Saussure book “Cours de Linguistique generale (1916)”. Parole is the
actual use of a language in speech

2
Langue is written in Saussure book “Cours de Linguistique generale (1916)”. Langue is the
actual use of language.

3
Formal Approaches is an approaches used in the study of linguistic phenomenon based on
internal or structural element of language. In Psychology structuralism can be defined as a
method of interpretation and analysis of human cognition, behavior, culture, and experience,
which focuses on the relation of contrast between elements in a conceptual system.

4
Cognition is the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge through thought,
experience, and the senses (perception, sensation, or intuition.)

5
Extra linguistic is anon-linguistics element (not involving or beyond the bounds of language)

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finished his study in Columbia College and took his Master degree in Germanic
study. At that time, he came in contact with Franz Boas6 and Morris7 (experts in
linguistics and philosophy).

His curiosity in language and anthropology brought Sapir in the chain of

researches, which was finally decanted in his hypothesis. In a research of
American-Indian language, Sapir found that exotic Indian language have an
immeasurable difference with Indo-European language. Furthermore, he tried to
relate the difference among those cultures with social- cultural aspect of those
languages. Hereinafter, in a research of Tekelma language, he presented the
results of his research in his dissertation that was published when he was twenty
years old.
In 1907, Edward Sapir conducted a research on Yana language (an Indian
language) with a full support from the anthropological department of the
University of California. Along with the end of the research, Sapir decided to
move to the University of Pennsylvania and conducted a research about Ute
language. In 1909, Sapir was awarded a PhD title. At the University of Colombia,
Sapir set his mind to leave federal America and go to Ottawa, Canada in the year
1910. In Ottawa, Sapir formed an Anthropological division at the Geological
Survey Canadian National Museum. In the same year, he married Florence Selson
and had three children, Michael, Hellen, and Philp. In 1925, Sapir left Ottawa and
went back to Chicago after his wife died. He married Jean Mcclenaghan in 1926
and had a child from that marriage. In the end, he left Chicago, because the
University of Yale gave him an interesting offer which is impossible to refuse. He

6
Franz Boas is (July 9, 1858 – December 21, 1942) was a German American anthropologist a
pioneer of modern anthropology who has been called the "Father of American Anthropology”.
Boas once summed up his approach to anthropology and folklore by saying: "In the course of
time I became convinced that a materialistic point of view, for a physicist a very real one, was
untenable.

7
Charles Morris is an expert in semiotics fields. Morris's development of a behavioral theory of
signs (semiotics) is partly due to his desire to unify logical positivism with behavioral
empiricism and pragmatism. Morris's union of these three philosophical perspectives
eventuated in his claim that symbols have three types of relations: 1) to objects, 2) to persons,
and 3) to other symbols. He later called these relations "semantics", "pragmatics", and
"syntactic".

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believed that his dream to form an anthropological and linguistics center can be
reached in Yale University. After a chain of heart attacks in 1937, Sapir‟s
condition progressively deteriorated and in 1939 he passed away.

3. Genuine Culture and Empty Throne

Sapir‟s views about language are different from people at his time. At that time,
anthropologists tried to keep the studies from culture, but Sapir tried to formulate
an idea about culture which is considered good and real (Genuine Culture).
Through his knowledge which is obtained from a serial of anthropological study
in primitive culture; Sapir tried to propagate his formulation about real and good
culture (Genuine Culture) to be understood and applied in society at that time in
an article entitled "Culture, Genuine and Spurious". This article is considered
unfinished finely because it does not express an overall ideas of Sapir.
In "Culture, Genuine and Spurious" Sapir portrays the condition of society
at that time. The article starts with the description of society faction in certain
culture. Basically, the culture becomes the base of life and the perspective of
society. Every people assess from culture perspective. There is no personal
discretion to individual choice. It can be seen clearly in the word crime and
nobility. Everyone who lives in certain culture assign different value about those
two words. Every undesirable and evil thing is classified in crime category and
every admirable action is classified in nobility. The classification is relied on the
values embraced by society with certain culture. This statement is an indication
that every regulation is peremptory and convention has an absolute truth. In the
end, that condition forces people to do action, which is suitable with culture. For
example, if convention states "we hate art work", hence all convention members
will assume that the art work is not good for them. Sapir states that condition as
the empty throne. The empty throne is the enemy of mankind. Through this
statement, Sapir tries to formulate a good and real culture, which is named
Genuine Culture by him.
Before entering into the article (Genuine Culture), Sapir describes some
variants of meaning related to the concept of culture. He expresses that the word
culture is generally used in three variants of meaning

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 1. The first definition is technically used by all culture historian and
ethnologist. The definition implies that culture represents endowed
element in the life of human being, material, and spiritual
2. The second definition refers to a conventional idea. The definition
expresses that culture comes from individual omission or repair. The
culture is an empirical assimilation of knowledge. In the end, the
assimilation creates a numbers of sanction and rule
3. The third definition related spiritual aspect owned by certain group.

Sapir believes that those three variant are built throughout history. The way of
thinking and reacting is highly affected by the development of culture in human
history.

According to Sapir, the Genuine Culture can be compiled in each level or

type of civilization. Genuine Culture is harmony, balance, and self-satisfaction. It
is the expression of action in the life of human being. Furthermore, he expresses
that empty culture is the spiritually-meaningless culture. It finally brings the men
to a wrong end. I believe that Sapir's interpretation is the reflection of his social
critics to American society at that time (which is well known as the Jazz Age or
Roaring Twenty). At that time, people were living in frustration. They were
trying to find the meaning of life by satisfying their earthly ambition, but in the
end, they obtain the meaningless meaning of life. The statement is the indication
that they have been damned before they are born (F.S Fitzgerald 8in “The
Beautiful and Damned”).

Sapir expresses that the Genuine Culture is not a kind of spiritual patching
from small element from men consciousness that avoids a harmonious blend in
human life. The human consciousness is analogized as water-tight compartment in

8
Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald was an American author of novels and short stories. His works
are the paradigm writings of the Jazz Age. The term is coined himself. Fitzgerald is
considered a member of the "Lost Generation" of the 1920s. He finished four novels, This
Side of Paradise, The Beautiful and Damned, Tender Is the Night and his most famous, the
celebrated classic, The Great Gatsby.

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a ship. Genuine Cultures is not a small element in human consciousness. It is the
consciousness of men.

In his three article, entitled “Group", “Custom", and “Fashion"; Sapir

relates anthropology with sociology. Through those three articles; Sapir
communicates his idea about the demeanor pattern brought by tradition and lives
in a social group. An old established demeanor pattern can change, which is
resulted by the appearance of new demeanor pattern. In the end, it forms the ethics
and the law in society.

4. Religion

In his article entitled “The Meaning of Religion (1928)" Sapir discusses about
religion issues and interfaith-religion relationship. Initially, the article is presented
as one issue in his lectures in University of Northwester. All issues discussed in
those lectures are collected into a volume entitled "Man and His World".

In “The Meaning of Religion (1928)"; Sapir tries to clarify the definition

of religion by his own perspective. Sapir looks religion as a never-ending effort
conducted by human to find a spiritual peace. Sapir's perspective on religion is the
representation of American during 1920's. At that time, the American experienced
of vagueness of life, because target of their life is ill defined. The vagueness
brings the American into the course of seeking for peace.

Sapir perspective on religion is not limited in the forms of trust and

compliance to the creator; or a group of individual who trust the existence of God
(who own an absolute power); or even the group of human, which is gathered in a
religious service building to express their love and compliance to God. According
to Sapir religion can be defined as.

1. A never ending effort conducted by human to find spiritual peace in

their life
2. Religion do not signify a definite trust to God, deity, or soul

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 3. Religion is not a religious concept but scientific and erudite concept
4. Religion is not ethics, science, and art. However, religion do not close
any possibilities to relate to those three elements
5. The manifestation of religion can be found in social organization at
one particular tribe.
According to Sapir, the existence of religion influences society. He expresses that
the existence of religion in society can form reality to entire aspect of life, such as
art, ethics, and science.

5. Language

The idea concerning the relationship between cognition and language has been
debated by American and European philosopher throughout history. St. Augustine
expressed that language is the label for the existing concepts in human mind.
Immanuel Kant believes that Language is the tool to experience the world.

According to Sapir, Issues related to language and cultural phenomenons

are interesting to be analyzed. His desire to analyze language and anthropology
brings him to a serial of research about language and culture. Sapir's view about
language and culture is highly influenced by the so called Germany philosopher,
Wilhelm Von Humboldt9. Humboldt is philosopher and thinker who often used
the functional principal in his writings. By using the one-on-one relation;
Humboldt analyzes the relation between form and meaning. Humboldt states that
way of human look into their world are determined by the language used by them.
Therefore, language influences men‟s perspective about their world.

9
Friedrich Wilhelm Christian Karl Ferdinand Freiherr von Humboldt (22 June 1767 – 8 April
1835) was a German philosopher, government functionary, diplomat, and founder of
Humboldt Universität. He is especially remembered as a linguist who made important
contributions to the philosophy of language and to the theory and practice of education.
Wilhelm Von Humboldt is Humboldt was a philosopher of note and wrote On the Limits of
State Action in 1791-2 (though it was not published until 1850, after Humboldt's death), one
of the boldest defenses of the liberties of the Enlightenment.

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 In 1820 Wilhelm von Humboldt expressed that language is a mind factory
that yielding thought. Thought is produced as a kind of internal dialogue in human
mind by using a similar grammatical category. Von Humboldt believes that the
cultural perspective (Weltanschauung) is reflected by the language used. In 1820
Wilhelm Von Humboldt expresses that the differences among languages are not
related to the difference among sign system. The difference among language is the
reflection of the difference perspective of people about the world. This statement
implies that world view owned by language users is highly related to the language
used for communication purposes.

In the early year of 1920, Von Humboldt Wilhelm refused the idea of a
linguist named William Dwight Whitney10, who explains that some languages are
naturally more superior to other languages. The superiorities is owned by the
nations, which lives in civilization. The rejection of this idea is also submitted by
Franz Boas. Boas believes that every language equally has the same repertoire.
The repertoire manifests the meaning equally.

In his research and article, Sapir describes the relation between language
and the world view. Language is not a limited appliance of communications.
Language system creates scheme (schemata) to analyze the world. His view about
the scheme is based on Bartlett‟s analysis. Bartlett views scheme as a chain of
organizing knowledge that is related to certain element in world. The definition is
similar to all language users in every culture. For example, every language has
different words to describe the meaning of the word house, but the encyclopedic
knowledge about house is similar in each language. Every house has room, roof
and door, and even every house can be rented or made as residence. The example
implies that the scheme has a similar elementary element for every language.

During 1917-1923; through his four books ("Ace Trait personality

Speech"; " Personality And Symbolism"; " Why Cultural Anthropology needs
psychiatrist"; and " Understanding Behavior in Society"), Sapir tried to relate the

10
William Dwight Whitney (1827–1894) was an American linguist, philologist, and
lexicographer who edited The Century Dictionary

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ideas proposed by Freud11, Rivers12, and Jung13 with his own idea. In his book;
Sapir tries to link psychological with anthropological aspects. I believe Sapir is
one of the pioneers in the study of social-psychology science.

Conservative study of psychology positions psychology as the

interpersonal study. They believe that psychological aspect of human can be
studied from one perspective (individual human perspective). Sapir believes this
perspective is a great mistake. Sapir believes the existence of men relates to an
extra-personal relation. The extra personal relationship can influence
psychological aspect of society and its environment. This statement triggers the
change of conservative psychology into a modern perspective of social
psychology. Modern psychology believes that every man influences the world and
society. It is caused by the social interaction between each perpetrator in society.

Sapir believes that every language represents an implicit classification of

experience that varies across languages. The variation has little effect on thought
or culture. Edward Sapir (1884-1939) accepted the idea proposed by Boas 14.
According to Boas, certain categories in one particular language enchain
experience, the way of thinking, and the way of interpreting social phenomenon in
the world. Gestalt15, psychoanalytic theory, and Sapir‟s literary knowledge play

11
Sigmund Freud (Sigismund Schlomo Freud (6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939), was a Jewish
Austrian neurologist who founded the psychoanalytic school of psychiatry. Freud is best
known for his theories of the unconscious mind and the defense mechanism of repression, and
for creating the clinical practice of psychoanalysis for treating psychopathology through
dialogue between a patient.

12
William Halse Rivers (12 March 1864 - 4 June 1922) was an English anthropologist,
neurologist, ethnologist and psychiatrist, best known for his work with shell-shocked soldiers
during World War I.

13
Carl Gustav Jung (26 July 1875 – 6 June 1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist, an influential thinker
and the founder of analytical psychology. Jung is often considered the first modern
psychologist to state that the human psyche is "by nature religious" and to explore it in depth.
Though not the first to analyze dreams, he has become perhaps one of the most well known
pioneers in the field of dream analysis.

14
Franz Boas (1858-1942) American anthropologist conducted an investigation of the native
North American languages.

15
Gestalt „psychology‟ an organized whole that is perceived as more than the sum of its parts)

Journal of English Language and Culture – Vol. 1 No.1 Jan. 2011 83

an important role to develop his idea about to this issue. Sapir in his article does
not focus on linguistics form or content, but rather at the formal organizational
characteristic, meaning, intention, and the way language is built.

6. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

One of the so called Sapir's students, Benjamin Lee Whorf, a chemical

engineering who worked as an expert of fire effect damage, made a research on a
number of world language in the world, like Hebrew and Indian. In his research,
he finds that language influences the world view of its users.

Language

Language
Users

World View

Figure 6.1 Whorf‟s Perspective on World View

(The Figure is pictured by the Writer)

The first arrow (A) portrays the relation between language and its users. Language
builds human perspective about his world (B).

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 Initially, his view emerges when he inspected an oil company. In the
inspection, he found that the fire was set by the employees who threw a match
into an empty oil drum. The employees did not realize that the empty drum
contained the flammable materials (vapors). Basically, the empty drum represents
certain language or special perception. The residue (vapor) inside the drum can
influence the world which is represented by the burnt oil company.

In his research, Whorf analyzed the linguistic constructions in a particular

language. He believes in the existence of influence mechanisms and demonstrates
that relation of a particular belief and behavior of language users. In one of his
articles, Whorf stated that each language is related to an immeasurable variety of
experiences and a limited array of formal categories (both lexical and
grammatical). These categories are coherently related to the interpretation of
experience in the world.

Experience Experience
World

A B

Human

Language

Figure 2 Whorf‟s Perspective on the Relation of World View and Language Categories
(The Figure is pictured by the Writer)

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The arrows (A and B) portray the relation between human experiences in the
world and human perspective about his world. That perspective is reflected
through the language used for communication purposes (B).

The variation of languages is recognized based on the distinction of

language and the usage of these categories (see p.10) as a system of reference.
Whorf believes that the system of categories in each language provides an unusual
system to certain language. Usually, the native speaker assumes that the
categories and distinctions in their own language are natural. When speaker
interprets an experience by using certain category of language; automatically, they
will entangle other intentions that are hidden in certain category. The hearer
defines this as a matter which is implicitly owned by language. The knowledge
about how to interpret the meaning (implicitly and explicitly) is built based on the
agreement which is not realized by the users of language. For examples, to
express his anger, A will use certain linguistics category (suprasegmental features:
stress or tone). Those categories are communicated to B. B receives those features
and try to comprehend it. B defines this as matter which is implicitly owned by
A’s language based on B‟s experience in the world.

Together with Whorf, Sapir conducted a hypothesis which gives a deep

impact to language studies and discourse. The hypothesis conducted by Sapir and
Whorf is an idea of differentiating the way language encodes cognition category
and culture. Their existence in society influences the way of thinking. It
influences human thought and action. Language determines thought and
linguistics category determine cognitive category. The hypothesis which was
conducted by them is named Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis generated quarrel among the experts at that time,

because the relationship of language and the world view is unacceptable and ill
defined. There are three important points in The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis that are
considered unclear, unacceptable, and ill defined, that requires clarification.

1. The interpretation of the term language from Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.

Basically, it is acceptable that language has variants of word for each

Journal of English Language and Culture – Vol. 1 No.1 Jan. 2011 86

 object, however it is not precise to classify all objects in one word. For
example, some languages have some different word to define the word
ship 'sea transportation appliance'. However, the speaker of a language that
has one word to define the word ship, can differentiate the object Vessel
and coaster „small ship operated in the sea shore'.
2. The meaning of world view offered need to be clarified. Do world view
relate to the way of thinking and perception of reality? Do the word world
view relate to the way we used to remember something? Do the world
views represent action, belief, or behavior? The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
followers relate world view with action. However, the relation between
those things requires verification.
3. The meaning of word relation in Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. Sapir-Whorf
defines relation as impact, but the word assessed is imprecise, because
relation imply a causal relationship. Some experts reject Sapir-Whorf
definition on relationship, because the term relationship offered is not
related to non-causal relation.

Eric Lenneberg16 published an erudite criticism to the idea proposed by

Whorf and Sapir. He expressed that the examples proposed by Whorf (from
language user view) are unacceptable in the real world. When Whorf tries to
present an event from the native language perspective by using English; he is
translating the native language in English. It is unacceptable for every language,
since every language has different concepts. Whorf is assumed try to comprehend
a language without comprehending the thought of its users. Lundeberg believes
that Whorf does not show the existence of causal relation among linguistic
phenomenon, behavior, and reality.

16
Eric Heinz Lenneberg (1921–1975) was a linguist and neurologist who pioneered ideas on
language acquisition and cognitive psychology, particularly in terms of the concept of
innateness.

Journal of English Language and Culture – Vol. 1 No.1 Jan. 2011 87

 Together with Roger Brown 17, Lenneberg stated that Sapir and Whorf
cannot directly relate the linguistic symptom with behavior. Sapir and Whorf
Hypothesis didn't portray a real hypothesis. Brown & Lenneberg formulated two
rationale principles about the relation of linguistics symptom and behavior.

1. World is differently accepted in language community

2. Language causes and builds cognitive structure.

These two principles are developed into two formulations by Roger Brown.

1. Structural difference between language systems interact with one another

through nonlinguistic element in native language

2. The structure of native language influences and determines the world view. It is
built in the process of studying language.

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis is not accepted by experts. Among the core

hypothesis, the parallel relation between language structure and the construction
of reality is accepted by all experts. This is the reason why Sapir-Whorf
Hypothesis is named as "linguistic relatively principle". This statement implies
that the linguistics picture of meaning about reality is considered relative.
However, the idea that language reflects the way reality is looked upon incites the
study of language and culture.

17
Roger William Brown (April 14, 1925 – December 11, 1997) was an American social
psychologist.

Journal of English Language and Culture – Vol. 1 No.1 Jan. 2011 88

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