MAGIC BULLET OR HYPODERMIC NEEDLE THEORY OF

COMMUNICATION
History :
In mid 1930’s media scholars found the first theory on Media Effects and the Media
Behaviors. During second world wars media plays a vital role in both United States and
Germany to made influence in the people’s mind. The Germany Hitler’s Nazi used film
industry for Propaganda and they produced lots of movies about their achievements which
made a great impact in Germans mind. Later the United States also used its own Hollywood
and produced films like “Its Happened one night”, “It’s a wonderful life” and Mr. Smith goes
to Washington” to portrait Germany as Evil force which also made impact in Americans
Mind. Here media audience accepts the messages directly without any rejection.

Theory :
The media (magic gun) fired the message directly into audience head without their own
knowledge. The message cause the instant reaction from the audience mind without any
hesitation is called “Magic Bullet Theory”. The media (needle) injects the message into
audience mind and it cause changes in audience behavior and psyche towards the message.
Audience are passive and they can’t resist the media message is called “Hypodermic Needle
Theory”.

Both theories are deals with impact of media messages in audience mind and how audience
reacts towards the message without any hesitation.

1. ‘Magic Bullet’/ ‘hypodermic needle’ theory – Almighty media.

• Uniform basic human nature
• Nonrational processes of stimulus and reaction (S-R)
• Social order as mass society (with psychologically isolated individuals)
• Linear communication from sender to receiver
• Absolute media power and direct, immediate effects of mass communication
(e.g. ‘contagion’ and collective reaction)

Example :
In 1930, Newly formed mercury theater and Orson Wells join together and created a fake
news bulletin about aliens invasion in american city called Grover’s Mill, New jersey. They
broadcast this news bulletin in between the radio program called “The War of the Worlds”.
The “Panic Broadcast” was reached merely 12 million American people and one million were
seriously believed. Due to this broadcast the whole country was in chaos.

Features of Hypodermic Needle Theory

 Humans are believed to act uniformly to their stimuli and instincts.
 Media injects or inserts messages into the people’s brain as propaganda and manipulation
like that by a bullet or syringe.
 Messages have their own intention and are sent to get desired outcomes.
 The effect of messages is supposed to be encompassing, strong, immediate and dangerous.
 Messages are supposed to create public opinion and change behaviour of the audiences.
 Mass of people is made to think in a similar way by the media.
 The audience is always thought to be vulnerable and passive.
Hypodermic needle theory, magic bullet or transmission belt theory is that media
message is very powerful and injects into minds of the audience in such a way as a bullet
acts rapidly on a body. So it assumes powerful media effects leading to the hypodermic
needle or magic bullet approach.

Criticisms of Hypodermic Needle Theory

 The message flow is always from sender to receiver or top to bottom.
 The audience is passive and susceptible and are easily influenced by the message which
might not be true every time. But the reactions of people differ. Some people can be
passive whereas some people might not believe in media.
 The theory has been proved to fail by many studies like “The People’s Choice” research
for voting pattern and political behavior during the time of Franklin D. Roosevelt. The
study showed that the pattern was affected by media in minimum amount but was more
affected by interpersonal communication. Studies show that media has selective influence
on mass.
 The theory is not taken as empirical (verifiable by observation or experience rather than
theory or pure logic).
 There are many media options with the growth of media outlets today. The theory is not
applicable in today’s world.

MORE ELABORATE BY YOUR SELF

 TWO STEP FLOW

The study revealed that informal social relationships had played a part in modifying the manner in
which individuals selected content from the media campaign. The study also indicated that ideas
often flowed from the radio and newspapers to opinion leaders and from them to the less active
sections of society. Thus, informal social groups have some degree of influence on people and
mould the way they select media content and act on it.

ONE STEP FLOW THEORY

This theory simply stated that mass communication media channels communicate directly
to the mass audience without the message being filtered by opinion leaders.

MULTI STEP FLOW THEORY

This was based on the idea that there are a number of relays in the communication flow
from a source to a large audience.

The Uses and Gratifications approach reminds us that people use media for many purposes. As
media users become increasingly confronted with choices, this approach should direct our attention
to the audience. Lull's television research found that families used television for
communication facilitation, relationship building, intimacy, and for structuring the day. In
general researchers have found four kinds of gratifications:

1. Information - we want to find out about society and the world- we want to satisfy our
curiosity. This would fit the news and documentaries which both give us a sense that we
are learning about the world.

2. Personal Identity - we may watch the television in order to look for models for our
behaviour. So, for example, we may identify with characters that we see in a daily soap.
The characters help us to decide what feel about ourselves and if we agree with their
actions and they succeed we feel better about ourselves.
3. Integration and Social Interaction - we use the media in order to find out more about the
circumstances of other people. Watching a show helps us to empathize and sympathize
with the lives of others so that we may even end up thinking of the characters in
programme as friends.

4. Entertainment - sometimes we simply use the media for enjoyment, relaxation or just to
fill time.

BUT WHO ARE OPINION LEADERS?

A study by Robert Merton revealed that opinion leaders are expects in their own field.
Opinion leadership is not general charactertics of a person rather limited to few. Individual
who act as opinion leaders on one issue may not consider influention in regard to other
issue. The opinion leaders seem to be evenly distributed among social, economical &
education within the community. They are indentifying as having the strongest interest in
their own area. They hold high position within their community.
FOR EXAMPLE- Panchayt’s head are opinion leaders in rural areas. They are able to tell
latest technique in farming to the villagers. A retired sports person will be an opinion
leader for sports lovers & film critics for the film lovers.

In this theory, the audiences are passive and dormant in the sense that the opinion leaders
have some degree of influence on the audience and mold the way they select media content
and act on it. This happens when the information to be given to the audience gets to the
opinion leader, the message the opinion leader thinks should get to the audience is what he
delivers and even with that there is distortion of information from the opinion leader. Thus,
these opinion leaders who are frequent and heavy or higher end users of the media act as
gate-keepers – screening information and only passing on items that would help others share
their views. Lazarsfeld chose the term opinion leader to refer to these individuals. We can
describe them as people who are held in very high esteem by their followers. They can be
called in public relation terms as “thought leaders”. They normally engage in face –to- face
interaction with the audiences or the mass. He labeled the mass, wider population or those
who turned to opinion leaders for advice as opinion followers.
The theory calls for social influence and this is when the opinions, thoughts and behaviors of
persons are affected by others. Therefore, in regards to the theory, when the opinion leaders
influence the decisions and thoughts of opinion followers, we say a social influence has
occurred. Just as in disseminating information in the communication channel, which starts
from a sender to a receiver through a channel, the two step flow can be likened to that by
seeing the mass media as a sender who sends its information through a channel known as
opinion leaders to the receivers who are known to be opinion followers. We also know that
any mode or medium of channeling information can be described as a “gate-keeper”. And as
a gate-keeper, it is in control of messages or information. For that reason, he is capable of
distorting messages be it over-rating the message, under-rating message, adding, or
subtracting something from the message. This is the exact action of the opinion leaders in the
two step flow theory.

A vivid example to describe the concept of The Two Step Flow theory is the time of
presidential and parliamentary elections in Ghana. In certain constituencies, even the
president does not gain enough votes like as a parliamentary candidate. This is because, the
people know and trust the representatives all for the fact that, they live with them and they
 trust and hold them accountable for their duties. This makes the parliamentary candidates the
opinion leaders in this theory.

Criticism
Consequent studies disagreed with the original concept of the two-step flow theory. Findings
from Deutschman and Danielson assert, “We would urge that the Katz- Lazarsfeld two-step
flow hypothesis, as a description of the initial information process, be applied to mass
communication with caution”. With concrete evidence, they asserted that information flows
directly to the people on the whole without passing through opinion leaders.
Everette Rogers “Diffusion of innovations theory” cited a study in which two thirds of
respondents accredited their awareness to the mass media rather than face-to-face
communication.
However, the theory is enough description to understand the media’s influence on belief and
behavior. Findings also made it clear the decisive role of opinion leaders in balance theory
which suggests that people are motivated to keep consistency among their current beliefs and
opinions.
It furthermore stated that anyone exposed to new observations that are not in consistency with
his current beliefs, he or she is thrown into imbalance and that is where the opinion leader
comes in to provide advice and cognition.

Strength of two-step flow theory

1. Focuses attention on the environment in which effects can and can’t occur. By this we
mean media messages are based on the environments and what problems they face. It is a
socially based form of living with which the theory operated.
2. Stresses importance of opinion leaders in formation of public opinion. The theory sought to
basically base around the opinion leaders and that they are the major persons that determined
what the entire population is aware of, making them important personalities in the time.
3. Is based on inductive rather than deductive reasoning. Paul Felix Lazarsfeld said that theory
formation should be based on inductive approach. Inductive approach is gathering specific
information to reach a general conclusion. By basing this on his theory, media messages were
sifted through before delivered to the general public and this was done by the opinion leaders
after they got their messages from the mass media.
4. Effectively challenges simplistic notions of direct effects. This is actually true according to
his theory because this was the idea of the Hypodermic Theory which stated that the media
had direct effect on the mass media which he did not agree with hence his own theory the
Two Step Flow.

Weaknesses of two-step flow theory

1. Is limited to its time (1940s) and media environment (no television). The theory is of no use
to the present world.
2. Used reported behaviour (voting) as only test of media effects. The theory didn’t use other
approaches to test validity except for the voting era within the presidential election in 1944.
3. Later research demonstrates a multistep flow of influence.

http://felixscorner.blogspot.com/2013/03/the-two-step-flow-and-multi-step-flow.html

MORE ELABORATE BY YOUR SELF

 Multi-step flow theory/diffusion innovation theory

The Two Step Flow Theory gave way to the Multi Step Flow Theory. It was observed that the
influence from the media can be multi directional and it is not necessarily downwards but can
be upwards or even backwards to the media as well. The Two Step Flow led to the change in
name basically because of the opinion leaders who are more than just a second hand. This
caused the description “Multi Directional” because the multistep had to do with more than
one opinion leader, they could be two, three, four, five or even six people. Many a time, the
information reaching the audience is altogether different from the original piece of
information. That is, opinion leaders who pass the information add their own interpretation to
it giving it a new meaning and making the information distorted.
The audiences here are active because they send feedback to the media suggesting,
appreciating or criticizing things or events. There is peer to peer discussion as well, where the
audiences with similar opinion share insights with each other.
The multi-step flow is also called diffusion of innovations theory which gives it a new
dimension and understanding. This predicts that media and interpersonal contacts provide
information and influence opinion and judgment. Its focus is on the media letting out
information and in a point where the audience may be thrown in imbalance because the
message or information is not in consistency with their culture or beliefs. The role of the
opinion leaders come to play whereby they engage in face-to-face explanation with the
people either to advise them or help them get cognition.
In 1995, Everett Rogers studying how innovation occurs, argued that innovation consist of
four stages which are invention, diffusion (communication through social system), time and
consequences. Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through
certain channels over a period of time among the members of a social system. An innovation
is an idea, product or practice that is perceived to be new by an individual. Communication is
the process in which participants create and share information with one another to reach a
mutual understanding.

Strength of multi-step flow theory

1. Information travels fast and gets to everyone in the society.
2. Everyone participants actively in the communication process.

Weaknesses of multi-step flow theory

1. Misinterpretation and distortion of information or messages. Since messages gets to opinion
leaders first, they add, subtract and change the meaning of the intended message from the
media and send messages they deem important for consumption by the opinion followers.

MORE ELABORATE BY YOUR SELF

 Cognitive Theory

Cognitive dissonance refers to a situation involving conflicting attitudes, beliefs or behaviors.

This produces a feeling of discomfort leading to an alteration in one of the attitudes, beliefs
or behaviours to reduce the discomfort and restore balance etc.
For example, when people smoke (behaviour) and they know that smoking causes cancer
(cognition).
Festinger's (1957) cognitive dissonance theory suggests that we have an inner drive to hold
all our attitudes and beliefs in harmony and avoid disharmony (or dissonance).

What Is Cognitive Dissonance?

Psychologist Leon Festinger proposed a theory of cognitive dissonance centered on how
people try to reach internal consistency. He suggested that people have an inner need to
ensure that their beliefs and behaviours are consistent. Inconsistent or conflicting beliefs lead
to disharmony, which people strive to avoid.
In his book A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, Festinger explained, "Cognitive dissonance
can be seen as an antecedent condition which leads to activity oriented toward dissonance
reduction just as hunger leads toward activity oriented toward hunger reduction. It is a very
different motivation from what psychologists are used to dealing with but, as we shall see,
nonetheless powerful."
The degree of dissonance people experience can depend on a few different factors, including
how highly we value a particular belief and the degree to which our beliefs are inconsistent.

The overall strength of the dissonance can also be influenced by several factors.
 Cognitions that are more personal, such as beliefs about the self, tend to result in
greater dissonance.
 The importance of the cognitions also plays a role. Things that involve beliefs that are
highly valued typically result in stronger dissonance.
 The ratio between dissonant thoughts and consonant thoughts can also play a role in
how strong the feelings of dissonance are.
 The greater the strength of the dissonance, the more pressure there is to relieve the
feelings of discomfort.
Cognitive dissonance can often have a powerful influence on our behaviours and actions.
Let's start by looking at some examples of how this works.

Examples of Cognitive Dissonance

Cognitive dissonance can occur in many areas of life, but it is particularly evident in
situations where an individual's behaviour conflicts with beliefs that are integral to his or her
self-identity. For example, consider a situation in which a man who places a value on being
environmentally responsible just purchased a new car that he later discovers does not get
great gas mileage.

The conflict:
 It is important for the man to take care of the environment.
 He is driving a car that is not environmentally-friendly.
In order to reduce this dissonance between belief and behaviour, he has a few difference
choices.
He can sell the car and purchase another one that gets better gas mileage or he can reduce his
emphasis on environmental responsibility. In the case of the second option, his dissonance
could be further minimized by engaging in actions that reduce the impact of driving a gas
guzzling vehicle, such as utilizing public transportation more frequently or riding his bike to
work on occasion.
A more common example of cognitive dissonance occurs in the purchasing decisions we
make on a regular basis. Most people want to hold the belief that they make good choices.
When a product or item we purchase turns out badly, it conflicts with our previously existing
belief about our decision-making abilities.

How to Reduce Cognitive Dissonance

According to Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance, people try to seek consistency in
their thoughts, beliefs, and opinions. So when there are conflicts between cognitions, people
will take steps to reduce the dissonance and feelings of discomfort. They can go about doing
this a few different ways.There are three key strategies to reduce or minimize cognitive
dissonance:
1. Focus on more supportive beliefs that outweigh the dissonant belief or behavior- For
example, people who learn that greenhouse emissions result in global warming might
experience feelings of dissonance if they drive a gas-guzzling vehicle. In order to reduce
this dissonance, they might seek out new information that disputes the connection between
greenhouse gasses and global warming. This new information might serve to reduce the
discomfort and dissonance that the person experiences.
2. Reduce the importance of conflicting belief- For example, a man who cares about his
health might be disturbed to learn that sitting for long periods of time during the day are
linked to a shortened lifespan. Since he has to work all day in an office and spends a great
deal of time sitting, it is difficult to change his behavior in order to reduce his feelings of
dissonance. In order to deal with the feelings of discomfort, he might instead find some
way to justify his behavior by believing that his other healthy behaviors make up for his
largely sedentary lifestyle.
3. Change the conflicting belief so that it is consistent with other beliefs or behaviours
Changing the conflicting cognition is one of the most effective ways of dealing with
dissonance, but it is also one of the most difficult. Particularly in the case of deeply held
values and beliefs, change can be exceedingly difficult.

Why is Cognitive Dissonance Important?

Cognitive dissonance plays a role in many value judgments, decisions, and evaluations.
Becoming aware of how conflicting beliefs impact the decision-making process is a great
way to improve your ability to make faster and more accurate choices.
Observations
 "The basic hypothesis I wish to state are as follows: 1. The existence of dissonance,
being psychologically uncomfortable, will motivate the person to try to reduce the
dissonance and achieve consonance. 2. When dissonance is present, in addition to trying to
reduce it, the person will actively avoid situations and information which would likely
increase the dissonance."
 Example 1: Knowing that smoking is harmful (First cognition) while liking to smoke
(second cognition). The Cognitive dissonance theory's conditions were met because
those cognitions are dissonant
 Example 2: Believing that lying is bad (First cognition) and being forced to lie (second
cognition)
https://www.simplypsychology.org/cognitive-dissonance.html
https://www.simplypsychology.org/cognitive-dissonance.html
https://www.communicationstudies.com/communication-theories/cognitive-dissonance-theory

MORE ELABORATE BY YOUR SELF

 Uses and Gratifications Theory
Uses and gratification theory of communication explains how people use media to fulfill their
needs. Gratification of needs is the most important role of media for humans. People get
knowledge, interaction, relaxation, awareness, escape and entertainment through media
which they use for interpersonal communication as well.
The theory was introduced by Blumler and Katz in 1974 in the article “the Uses of Mass
Communications: Current Perspectives on Gratifications Research” and focuses its attention
on media users’ roles.
A concept in Uses and Gratification Theory- Uses and gratification theory focuses on free
will of audience and is deterministic as media can be used in different ways and for different
purposes. This theory assumes that there is nothing as an absolute truth. The audience is said
to have full control over the effect of media on them as the effect can be chosen by the
audience themselves. The theory is closely related to human psychology of needs, motives
and influence.

Human needs and gratification can be divided into five broad categories. They are:
1. Affective needs- Affective needs talk about emotional fulfilment and pleasure people
get by watching soap operas, series on television and movies. People relate to the character
and feel the emotions the characters show. If they cry, the audience cry and if they laugh,
audience laugh along with them.
2. Cognitive needs- People use media to get information and fulfill their mental and
intellectual needs. People watch news mostly to gratify this need. Other examples can be quiz
programs, teaching programs, arts and crafts programs for children, documentaries, how-to
videos (DIYs), etc. Online media, Internet, is also being used to get information to get this
need fulfilled.
3. Social integrative needs- The need of each person to socialize with people like
family and friends is social integrative need. People use media to socialize and interact
through social networking sites like Facebook, My Space, Twitter, etc. People also use media
to increase their social interactions by getting topics to talk with the near and dear ones.
Media also helps by providing people with topics and ideas to talk/discuss with their friends
and near ones, increasing their social interaction skills.
4. Personal integrative needs- Personal integrative needs are the needs for self-esteem
and respect. People need reassurance to establish their status, credibility, strength, power, etc.
which is done with the use of media. They use media to watch advertisements and know
which products are in fashion and shop accordingly to change their lifestyle and fit in with
other people.
5. Tension free needs- People listen to songs and watch TV when they are in stress to
relieve their stress or when they are bored at times. People might have various tensions in life
which they do not want to face, so take help of media to escape from it.

The objectives of uses and gratification theory are:

 To show the relation of mass communication and how it is used to gratify needs
 To find out primary intentions of media use by people
 To know the positive and negative aspects of media use on the media users.
The goals of media use are:
 To be informed or educated
 To get entertained
 To develop social interaction
 To feel connected with the situations and characters emotionally
 To escape from real life situations
Other goals are affective disposition, psychological reassurance, fashion, status, access to
information, cognitive needs, etc.

Features of Uses and Gratification Theory

 Audience is taken as important and goal oriented.
 The source of media is chosen by audience as per their own needs.
 This theory gives alternative choices on media for the audience.
 Media is taken as a means to an end.
 Uses and functions of media are different from a person to another and from one
situation to other.
 Uses are also decided for groups, communities and societies.
 Both individual and group needs are fulfilled by media.
 When needs are gratified, people get satisfaction.
 People are not taken as helpless victims of media.
 Mobile phones, internet, social networking sites, etc. are new form of communication
tool used for uses and gratification.

Examples of Uses and Gratification Theory

In situations like watching movies and listening to the music of your own choice, this theory
is applicable. People choose from their own choices and moods. The needs of the particular
person are met through the media used.
Some people might watch news for information, some for entertainment, and some for self-
reassurance. Some watch according to their moods. There are various needs which gets
fulfilled by the media.
Similarly, internet and mobile phones have become a source of media that tries to fulfill not
only the mass communication needs, but also interpersonal needs like interaction and
emotional involvement. People can use internet, text, call, talk with photos or with videos. It
is portable and accessible. It has come to be useful for many and serve many purposes.

Criticisms of Uses and Gratification Theory

 The theory does not show media as important.
 The theory does not believe in the power of media and how media can influence
human needs and gratification unconsciously.
 The model is audience centered and shows audience as an active participant.
 Critics think that the theory does not meet the standards to be called a theory and can
only be taken as an approach to analyze as research relies on recollection of memory.
 The theory ignores the use of media in social structures.
 Audience might not always be active.

MORE ELABORATE BY YOUR SELF

 Cultivation Theory
George Gerbner developed this theory on the basis of his mid-60's research project on
'cultural indicators'. The research was conducted to find out how watching television affects
viewers' perception.

In 1976, Gerbner along with Gross expanded the theory and included media effects while
focusing on television. They published their research in Journal of Communication under the
title 'Living with television: the violence profile'.

The theory tried to understand how media affects people’s perception. According to the
research, media cultivates and shapes viewers perception of social reality.

Cultivation theory is different from other theories like agenda setting and framing. Agenda
setting and framing theories talk about media created behaviours. The focus of cultivation
theory is the spontaneous influence on the viewers.

Viewers are said to be cultivating behaviors by watching virtual and fictional things from
television.
People who watch television for less than 4 hours a day are light viewers. And, people who
watch television for 4 or more hours a day are heavy viewers.

According to this theory, television has long term effects. So it is regarded to be the most
used tool in this theory. It creates patterns and models on the fake realities of the world.

For example: - Educated people tend to watch less television and are less influenced by what
is shown on it. However, this does not apply on those who are heavy viewers.
Media is likely to expose people to violence and negativity. As a result, people become afraid
to face the world. They start developing a mental condition called Mean World Syndrome
and perceive the world to be mean to them.

Cultivation is divided into two parts:-

First Order: - It is an individual’s belief about the world in general.

Second Order: - It is an individual’s specific beliefs and attitudes towards other individual or
group of individual.

Features of Cultivation Theory

 People believe whatever is shown in media unconsciously.
 Media is used to maintain status quo.
 Media influences attitudes, beliefs, meanings and perception in a society.
 Media has the most persuasive power in society.
 Television has long-term indirect but significant effects.
 Media shapes what people think.
 Mean World Syndrome is the result of televisions’ portrayal of violence.

Examples of Cultivation Theory-

Harry Potter, Alliance of Potter-heads can also be taken as an example of cultivation theory.
People know that Harry Potter world does not exist but they still root for it. They relate to the
characters and take that world as a part of their reality. There are millions of people who
follow every new happenings related to Harry Potter.

OTHER Examples -
 Television has created a mindset in people that females are supposed to be pretty and
with lots of make-up. This has encouraged teens and young girls to follow what they
see.

 Patriotism promoted by television has caused many wars within and among countries.
Marginalization and discrimination is also promoted by media.

Criticisms of Cultivation Theory-

 The theory is criticized for being oversimplified as social relationships are complex.
 The theory focuses on television only and have not considered effects of other media
and human experiences.
 There is no mention of social situations affecting media portrayal of images.
 More fearful people can be watching more television and not the opposite.
 Other studies have shown that change in variables like age, location, education and
sex could have removed cultivation effects.
 People rarely compare others in social situations with people on television.
 It is also criticized on being entirely about the US and not getting similar results in
Britain.
 Most people do not believe what they see on television.
 Content and choice of programs also change cultivation in people.

MORE ELABORATE BY YOUR SELF

 Authoritarian Theory

Authoritarian theory of mass communication originated from the philosophy of Plato (407-
327 B.C.). The English monarchs used this approach when the printing press was invented by
censoring, licensing, taxation and making laws. It is a normative theory of mass
communication where mass media is influenced and overpowered by power and authority in
the nations. Media must respect what authorities want and work according to the wishes of
the authorities though, not under direct control of the state or ruling classes. The press and
media cannot work independently and their works are suspected to censorship.

Concepts of Authoritarian Theory of Mass Communication –

Authoritarian theory is taken as a theory used by the dictatorship governments, but can also
be seen in democratic as well as dictatorial nations. Here, the media cannot offend or go
against the majority or dominant groups. Media must remain subordinate to the authorities in
authoritarian theory.

It is believed that state information, when distributed, might put security at risk and cause to
be a national threat. Thus, the theory is justified by saying that state is greater than individual
rights where state controls the media, especially in the time of emergencies like wars and
conflicts. These situations might be internal or external. Democratic governments also use
this approach as the only option in these types of conditions. They also justify the process as
to preserve social order and harmony but minority views are not censored unless the
authorities do not take it as a threat to their power.

Press is taken as a weapon of the powerful. It is used to increase the power of the rulers. The
authorities control media by providing rights and license to some media and not to some.
Ambiguous rights are given to media and harm journalists if they do not agree to the
understood censorship rules. The authorities can also cancel the license. Sensitive issues are
mostly not published or are published through press releases. There are many kinds of
censorship like political censorship, military censorship, religious censorship, economic
censorship, etc. Having said, the theory does not encourage homogeneous and national
culture like Totalitarianism.

Major Features of Authoritarian Theory

 Direct control of the media by government and authorities
 Power exercised to control media
 Control by the powerful ruling minorities or a group of ruling majorities
 Media has no power to criticize the government, its work, decisions and policies
 Media can not offend the ruling parties in any way
 Punishment and threats are given to the people who try to offend the government and
the powerful
 Licensing of media by the state and giving limited rights (registration)
 Cancelation of license if the media does anything wrong to the government
 Clear limits on what media can publish
 Ownership is mostly private
 Concept of propaganda

 Control might be on all issues or just some particular issues

 Media is used as a weapon or an instrument to strengthen the power of the
government
Examples of Authoritarian Theory
During the world war II Hitler and Mussolini are the two major authorities who controlled the
press in Germany and Italy. Press was under the control of the authority and No press can’t
question against or publish against these two dictators.

Many writers have been imprisoned and published books have been banned like Salman
Rushdie’s Satanic Verses due to censorship, showing Authoritarianism.
There are still several countries who follow Authoritarianism in media today which are Israel,
Bahrain, Qatar, Syria, Uzbekistan, Belarus, Zimbabwe, China, North Korea, Iran, etc.

Few countries blocked wiki leaks website from its country to maintain the internal security
because the wiki leaks are not ready to compromise with government censorship and
realising classified documents against the government.

Strengths of Authoritarian Theory of Mass Communication

 This approach is sometimes better for resolving social and cultural conflicts.
 It is also better sometimes because it motivates people to work for the country and its
people.
 This theory can act as a gatekeeper and prevent the media that act irresponsibly.
 The theory can be used for establishing propaganda.

Weaknesses of Authoritarian Theory of Mass Communication

 Common people are taken as less intelligent and as an easy target to manipulate.
 The ruling class uses the media only for their own benefits.
 The freedom of expression and information of normal people is attacked.

MORE ELABORATE BY YOUR SELF

 Libertarian Theory of Mass Communication

"The basis of our government being the opinion of the people, the very first object should be
to keep that right; and where it left to me to decide whether we should have a government
without newspapers or newspapers without a government, I should not hesitate a moment to
prefer the latter." -Thomas Jefferson, the third president of United States (1787)

Libertarian theory or the Free Press Theory is one of the Normative Theories of mass
communication where media or press is given absolute freedom to publish anything at any
time and acts as a watchdog. The theory came from the libertarian thoughts of Europe during
the 16th century after the invention of printing press and after the press movement.

The libertarian theory is just the opposite of the Authoritarian theory of mass media where
information is controlled by the state or the authorities. In libertarian theory, media is
supposed to be privately owned.

The theory believes in freedom of thought and individualism. There is no control of authority
and everybody has the right to voice their opinion. There is also no censorship and
government must not hold any power to control and suppress media.

There is a flow of all kinds of information. All of the people are subjected to interpret and
decide which information they need and the authenticity of the information. Rationality of
human beings makes them able to do so. The press should not restrict any information, even
criticizing the policies. Though media has enormous power, abuse of power can be dealt
legally.

Major Features of Libertarian Theory of Mass Communication

 There is absolute freedom to media; media plays the role of a watchdog.
 In libertarian theory, there is freedom of thought and expression.
 There is also freedom of information and individualism.
 No censorship of any kind is to be done.
 There is high competition among alternative ideas and thoughts.
 The government does not own the media and media is a different body in the
functioning of the state.
 Media is accountable to the law of the country.
 Media must follow a code of conduct.
 Media encourages pluralist truths like both side of the same story.
 The media accepts a Laissez-faire approach in which there are not many set rules that
they have to follow. They can work as they want.

Example of Libertarian Theory of Mass Communication

Wiki leaks website published all sorts of confidential or restricted files in public space and
especially classified documents. These articles are providing brief knowledge about the
government and its activities which helps people to identify what is happening in the society
and its gives great choices to elect a better president in future.

Sometimes these documents may work against the government and its authority that is why
most of the country is not willing to allow libertarian thoughts because it may affect their
power and kingdom.
Strengths of Libertarian Theory of Mass Communication

 Media can give true information without any control.

 There is no censorship.
 All individuals can express their opinions and thoughts in the media openly.
 The theory encourages healthy competition among the thoughts and ideas.
 Every work will be transparent to all.
 It checks the government and the state authorities and also prevents corruption.
 It functions with democracy.

Weaknesses of Libertarian Theory of Mass Communication

 Media might not always act responsibly.

 Individuals might not always have good intentions and ethics.
 People cannot always make rational judgments.
 Freedom of different type of people, their ideas, opinions, school of thoughts, and
group objectives can be in a conflict.
 Media can misuse its power and harm other people’s privacy and dignity.
 Media might defame, cause sedition, libel or slander, be immodest, publish obscenity
and cause trouble.
 Media might challenge the security of the state.

MORE ELABORATE BY YOUR SELF

 Soviet Communist Theory of Mass Communication

The communist theory of mass media came into being along with the concept of communism.
George W. F. Hegel and later, Karl Marx with Engels were the people who thought of the
theory in the 19th century. Mass media in the view of Karl Marx was supposed to be
responsible for socialist system of governance and communist media was supposed to help in
implementing social policies. The communist and Marxist government rule and communist
theory of mass communication was practically used by the then Soviet Union (Russia) in
1917. Thus, the theory is also known as Soviet Theory of Mass Communication, is also
known as “The Communist Media Theory”. The government controlled all the media
according to this theory and had absolute power. The theory was implemented to help in
achieving the communist objectives for the benefits of the people.

Media is taken as a part of the state in Communist Theory. The ownership of media is with
the state and the country runs the media as per their wishes to fulfill their propaganda of
control. The communist party owns all the media of the country. Media is supposed to work
for the betterment of the state, communism and whatever the elite of the communist party
tells them to do. Deterring the growth of communism is taken as a crime.

Criticism of small parts of the government work is accepted but criticizing the state as a
whole is prohibited in communist theory of mass media. Citizens are taken to be irrational
and stupid and masses are kept away from the government. They are just provided with
propaganda and basic knowledge. Government activities are not to be known to general
public. Whatever rulers said becomes the ruling idea.

The difference between Authoritarian theory and the communist theory is that in
authoritarian, there is private ownership of media but in soviet communist theory, the control
lies in very small number of leaders in soviet communist theory. Government is taken as the
most superior, powerful and important than all including media.

In Soviet Union, media was used to educate the workers to their develop skills and tried to
show the problems of the working class to the leaders by taking feedbacks from the citizens.
New technologies of mass media were controlled to control the mass.

Features of Communist Theory of Mass Communication

 Media followed communist ideology of governance and political system
 Media was used to transmit propaganda and for transmission of social policies
 Media was taken as government instrument
 Media was owned by the state
 Criticism of communist ideology was taken as a crime
 It helped the working class to work better and highlighting their problems and it made
people aware about communism
 The theory was a positive one as it tried to ensure truthful information and not let the
information get manipulated by private media houses
 Feedback was accepted
Example of Communist Theory of Mass Communication

The then Soviet Union controlled the media totally by publishing all the good things about
their country and governance while not showing anything that could make the people feel
agitated about their own nation. They promoted their own culture and traditions as the best.
They also did not give out news about disasters and accidents.

On the other hand, they showed every bad aspect of culture and social systems of other
democratic countries like US. They also told their government system was better than
democracy. That is how propaganda was bestowed upon all. These techniques were solely
based on their communist ideologies representing the Communist Theory in full.

Criticisms of Communist Theory of Mass Communication

 Propaganda based information is only delivered. The information might be false.

 No media can criticize the government and the government will not get the chance to
improve.
 Authoritative obstruction can be found for every type of media.
 There can be many restrictions and there is a concept of punishment.
 Leader is taken as the greatest and citizens are not given importance.
 The media cannot play the role of the watchdog.
 The development of the nation depends on the characteristics of the leader.

MORE ELABORATE BY YOUR SELF

 Social Responsibility Theory

Social responsibility is ethics that guide any action, be it in media or other organizations that
put an obligation towards environment, society, culture and economy. The media like any
other sector should not harm, but should promote environment and socio-cultural aspects in
relation to the economy of the place.
Social Responsibility theory of mass media is relatively a new concept which started in the
mid-20th century and is used mostly by developing and least developed countries. The theory
started from Europe and took a shape with the Commission on the Freedom of Press that
happened in United States in 1949. The model was designed formally by Siebert, Peterson
and Schramm in 1956 in their book. It encourages total freedom to press and no censorship,
but it should be regulated according to social responsibilities and external controls. Content is
also filtered through public obligation and interference.
The theory replaced libertarian theory with the view that libertarianism was outdated. The
theory also incorporates some aspects of authoritarian theory. After the emergence of this
theory, professionalism in media started to be taken seriously.
“Freedom of expression under the social responsibility theory is not an absolute right,
as under pure libertarian theory. One’s right to free expression must be balanced
against the private rights of others and against vital society interest. - Siebert, Peterson,
and Schramm
The social responsibility theory of mass media changed the way press published news from
objective reporting to interpretative reporting. Before this theory, facts were presented
without any interpretation. The audience interpreted it the way they wanted to. This caused
problems as interpretation was not based on reality and it affected the social order.
Interpretative reporting and investigative reporting started to uncover the reality behind every
case.
In Social Responsibility Theory, the press is taken to be for the people and society. The tasks
of the press is to make a code of conduct and follow it, to develop a standard in journalism, to
make journalism better, to protect journalists and to have penalties if any journalist violates
the code of conduct. This way, the facts provided by the press are analyzed and interpreted so
that the people get true information and understandable news. This helps maintain social
harmony by revealing social evils like corruption and discouraging other bad conducts.
The media is taken as a place for the voiceless to have a voice and develop public opinions
where each and every person has the right to speak, express and publish. . It is considered not
an end but a tool for social development. Therefore, the objectives of media are stated to
inform, document, analyze, interpret, mediate and mobilize by creating and finding solutions.

Major Features of Social Responsibility Theory

 Private press ownership- Press is supposed to be owned privately. The government does
not own the press. The private owners should publish within the ethical guidelines and in a
responsible way.
 Helps democracy prosper- Media helps in maintaining democracy and does not
encourage authoritarianism or communism.
 Media as a democratic institution- Media is not a part of the government and it must
work on its own. It has the freedom to do anything they want, just not work out of the
ethical standards.
 Public participation- Public must get to participate through comments, response, write
and get involved in all aspects of media's work.
 Emphasis on social responsibility- The media must be responsible towards the society.
 Self-regulation in media- The media must have some boundaries within itself to be
ethical. The regulations are to be followed by all the media professionals involved in the
particular institution.
 Code of ethics- All the media institutions must have a written or unwritten code of ethics
which should be the standard followed by all.
 Professional standards- The quality of the publishing should be maintained, false
interpretation of any information should be avoided.
 Media role of criticizing government- Media is allowed to criticize the government
roles, works and policies. It is done to help the government get better.
 Helping eradicate social problems- Media must speak against and aware people about
social problems as it is media's responsibility to work for the betterment of the society.
 Pluralistic media (including ideas and people from different groups)- Media must
write the views of different groups of people and not only about a single group. It must
never be biased.
 Social benefit- Media must work for the society and only do the things that are beneficial
to the society. It should not write about the things that are ambiguous or contradictory as
those messages might cause conflict in the society.

Examples of Social Responsibility Theory- Reports of health news in the media can be
taken as media acting socially responsible. The media gives information and awareness on
health problems. It also provides awareness on some basic health problems like diarrhea
and how to cure them. The media gives information about epidemics and health hazards.
Here, acting responsibly is by not spreading wrong news and panic. There have been
instances of mass panic among the people because of some misunderstood news on health
published by various media. Also, advertisements of harmful substances like cigarettes
and alcohol are considered to be wrong according to the social responsibility theory.
Reporting on the performance of government institutions and unveil tyranny and corruption
by the media is also an example of socially responsible media as Media acts like a critic of
the government. But, there are times when the media has severely damaged the reputation
of some politicians and political parties through irresponsible journalism, leading to major
conflicts in the society.

Strengths of Social Responsibility Theory

 It helps in avoiding conflicts during wars and conflicts.
 It accepts public opinion and works for the citizens.
 Press and media houses do not have monopoly as rules and ethics guide them.
 The media publishes truth due to regulatory activities and their moral obligation to do so.
 Yellow journalism decreases as media can be questioned by the law and public.
 There is pluralism and diversification on news and people involved.
 The voiceless and marginalized people are able to raise their voice.

Weaknesses of Social Responsibility Theory

 Ethics are always vague, ambiguous and differs from case to case.
 It is difficult to determine who sets clear principles and standards.
 Social responsibility and ethics are morally obligatory things. Any form of legal
limitations should not be imposed if media is just working in the principle of
responsibility. Laws are authoritative and not democratic concepts.
MORE ELABORATE BY YOUR SELF
 Development Communication Theory
The main idea behind development communication theory is media for development
of people in a nation or to help the target population. Communication seeks to serve the
people without manipulation and encourage genuine response. There is no propaganda as
ulterior motive of communication. Communication is to develop Conscientization or critical
consciousness which can be about self-responsibility, social conscience and self-
determination for right judgments and for social communication. The theory was used for
social change.

Development used to be taken as bridging the disparity between the so-called 1st world and
the 3rd world countries before the 20th century. Development was believed to be the process
which made the third world countries follow the first world countries/ western countries,
which were considered to be fully developed. The under-developed countries had to follow
their kind of political and economic systems, like heavy industries, capital intensive
technology, etc. All other countries had to replicate a single form of development process
which was practiced in some specific countries. Thus, development was linked with
Westernization. Development communication was at first based on the developmental theory
of westernization but later had its own basis in the developmental theory of modernization
(1950s).

The definition of development communication has been evolving with time from considering
people as audiences who were to be influenced (one way) and the process rooted in the
SMCR model. The unilateral communication flow was criticized for cultural imperialism.
The socially engineered messages were disseminated for a propaganda to control the culture
of the poor countries by glorifying the conditions of the rich nations. The theory focused on
passive audience which was not participatory. This gave the nation that development was
being, like the developed countries, one way influence. After that, the aspect of feedback was
added.

Then, communication was said to be horizontal. Today, development communication is about

working for local development and creating opportunities. Its objective is to uplift the quality
of life of people not only economically but also socially, culturally, politically, etc. by using
the tools of development communication. The theory later became known for its use in the
developing and under developed countries. The concept of participation was later added
which paved the way for model to be used for social change, development communication
and democratic-participant communication theory.

Development communications process can be adjusted according to the needs, which

improves the program as a learning process, as the concept of development communication is
continuously evolving. Development of different digital technologies has made the concept
broader and more participatory. The implementation of this theory plays an important role in
the overall development of a country.
Major Features of Development Communication Theory

 Development roles and objectives

 To help people
 No manipulation or propaganda
 Generates genuine response from the audience
 Used to develop critical consciousness
 Self-responsibility and self-determination
 Two way communication flow
 Uses development communication tools

Examples of Development Communication Theory

The reports and brochures of international development projects along with the Information
Education Communication and Behavioral Change Communication materials can be taken as
the examples of development communication tools. The posters, brochures, documentaries,
etc. used for development projects like awareness in rural areas are development
communication tools.

Strengths of Development Communication Theory

 A specified tool for communication makes communication effective.

 Helps in international development projects.
 Participation in communication media makes it inclusive.

Weaknesses of Development Communication Theory

 It enforces westernization more than modernization.

 Cultural hegemony is occurred through development communication implementation.

MORE ELABORATE BY YOUR SELF

 Democratic-participant Theory of Mass Communication

The idea of Democratic participant Theory was started by grass-root level media in 1960s. It
emerged because of the dissatisfaction with other models such as Libertarian theory, social
responsibility theory, etc. The democratic-participant theory believes there is democratic and
professional hegemony in the media today and the media is totally commercial. All these ill
practices should be removed for the media to be democratic and be easily accessible or
participatory. It considers there should not be monopolization (public/private), centralization
of press and top down approach in the media. The press should be pluralistic, decentralized,
bottom-up or horizontal and must have equality. The major concept is participation and full
circular communication.

The theory places greater importance to the receivers. There are no political regulations but
some legal regulations. The theory is also known as Democratization theory.

Media is said to be important in rural settings and in the cultures that are degrading with time.
The theory is believed to conserve and revive local cultures by promoting the right to
information (global and local), right to express (feedback), right to use new technologies
(means of communication), freedom to local data, freedom to take part in social action, etc.
In the process, it expects the government to provide funds, trainings and subsidies after
identification if they have financial or technical difficulties.

The democratic-participant theory is more relevant in liberal democratic developed countries

than developing and least developed countries because the countries in transition from
underdevelopment and non-democracy are alleged to lack the infrastructures and professional
skills needed for free media in democracy.

The theory considers local information, feedbacks and social action in community level to be
the roles of media. It discourages uniform, monopolized and commercialized media culture.
Rather, it wants local non-institutionalized media to provide the information relevant to small
groups of population.

This theory makes interaction between the media and the audience possible as the population
is less. It also encourages feedback which is only possible in small groups and communities.
The model is completely non-political and does not bolster political control; its main
objectives being encouraging national development, supporting local culture and maintaining
a good relation with other countries.

It also promotes equality between various genders, classes, castes, races, etc. controlled by
the group. This focus on equality is known as association mode which is the opposite of
command mode (sender superior to receiver).

Major Features of Democratic-participant Theory of Mass Communication

 Encourages horizontal and bottom up approach in media
 Supports democracy, existing political rule, national socio-economic development
efforts and to implement policies
 Media has supportive rather than critical role
 Government controls some aspects if media does not act as it should by the process of
registration, licensing, censorship, by preparing guidelines for media, monitoring, etc.
 Self regulation of media is also encouraged
  More applicable to new media
 Development of creativity and innovation in small media
 Replacement of media from big media houses to small media
 Participation and interaction of media and audience (as both are from the same group
of population)
 Different communities, groups and organizations possessing their own media

Examples of Democratic-participant Theory of Mass Communication

The examples of democratic-participant theory are the present concepts of community
newspapers, community radios and televisions. Another examples are the trend of social
action through social media and language programs through phone apps. Even, underground
and alternative press are examples of this theory.
The theory is in use in Western Europe which can be seen by the cultural and ethnic revival
through media. Many countries have started following the theory in mass media such
as Yugoslavia, Kosovo, Ghana, Bangladesh, Nepal, India, US, UK, etc. Community radio is
mostly popular in South East Asian countries.

Strengths of Democratic-participant Theory of Mass Communication

 The audience can participate and get alternatives if not satisfied with one media.
 The theory is stricter than libertarian and social responsibility which makes it more
responsible towards the needs of the audience.
 The community can work for themselves as social action.
 The theory is not very authoritative unless the press hinders the work of the
government.
 There are the concepts of equality; inclusion and equal access which makes it
eliminate marginalization.
 Democracy becomes strong with the application of this theory.
 Small media gets the chance to work for local people.

Weaknesses of Democratic-participant Theory of Mass Communication

 Criticizing the government is not considered to be productive role of media.
 Local level media might lack professionalism and skills.
 The small local media might not be able to compete with media giants.

MORE ELABORATE BY YOUR SELF