Lesson 3

Lesson 3
INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS AND SOCIETY
ln the study of the history of science and technology, another important area of interest
involves the various intellectual revolutions across time. ln this area, interest lies in how
intellectual revolutions emerged as a result of the interaction of science and technology and of
society. lt covers how intellectual revolutions altered the way modern science was understood
and approached.
For this discussion, intellectual revolutions should not be confused with the Greeks'
pre-Socratic speculations about the behavior of the universe. ln science and technology,
intellectual revolutions refer to the series of events that led to the emergence of modern
science and the progress of scientific thinking across critical periods in history. Although there
are many intellectual revolutions, this section focuses on three of the most important ones
that altered the way humans view science and its impacts on society: the Copernican,
Darwinian, and Freudian revolutions. ln the words of French astronomer, mathematician, and
freemason, Jean Sytvain Bailey (1976 in Cohen, 1976), their scientific revotutions involved a
two-stage process of sweeping away the old and establishing the new.
ln understanding intellectual revolutions, it is worth noting that these revolutions are, in

themselves, paradigm shifts. These shifts resulted from a renewed and enlightened
understanding of how the universe behaves and functions. They challenged long-held views
about the nature of the universe. Thus, these revolutions were often met with huge resistance
and controversy.
Copernican Revolutions
The Copernican Revolution refers to the '16th-century paradigm shift named after the Polish
mathematician and astronomer, Nicolaus Copernicus. Copernicus formulated the heliocentric
model of the universe. At the time, the belief was that the Earth was the center of the Sotar
System based on the geocentric model of Ptolemy (i.e., Ptolemaic model).
Copernicus introduced the heliocentric model in 40-page outline entitled Commentoriolus. He

formulated his model in the publication of his treatise, De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium
(The Revolution of Celestial Spheres) in '1543. ln his model, Copernicus repositioned the
Earth from the center of the Solar System and introduced the idea that the Earth rotates on its
own axis. The model illustrated the Earth, along with other heavenly bodies, to be rotating
around the Sun.
The idea that the Sun is at the center of the universe instead of doing Earth proved to be
unsettting to many when Copernicus first introduced his model. ln fact, the heliocentric model
was met with huge resistance, primarily from the Church, accusing Copernicus of heresy. At
the time, the idea that it was not the Earth, and, by extension, not man, that was at the center
of all creation was unthinkable. Copernicus faced persecution from the Church because of
this.
Moreover, although far more sensible than the Ptolemaic model, which as early as the 13th
century had been criticized for its shortcomings, the Copernican model also had multiple
inadequacies that were later fitted in by astronomers who participated in the revolution.
Nonetheless, despite problems with the model and the persecution of the Church, the
heliocentric model was soon accepted by other scientists of the time, most profoundly by
Galileo Galilei.
The contribution of the Copernican Revolution is far-reaching. lt served as a catalyst to sway

scientific thinking away from age-long views about the position of the Earth relative to an
enlightened understanding of the universe. This marked the beginning of modern astronomy.
Atthough very slowly, the heliocentric model eventually caught on among other astronomers
who further refined the model and contributed to the recognition of heliocentricism, This was
capped off by lsaac Newton's work a century later. Thus, the Copernican Revolution marked a
turning point in the study of cosmology and astronomy making it a truly important intellectuaI
revolution.
Darwinian Revolution
The English naturalist, geologist, and biologist, Charles Darwin, is credited for stirring another
important intellectual revolution in the mid 19th century. His treatise on the science of
evolution , On The Origin of Species, was published in 1859 and began a revolution that
brought humanity to a new era of intellectual discovery.
The Darwinian Revolution benefited from earlier intellectual revolutions especiatty those in the
16th and 17th centuries, such that it was guided by confidence in human reason's ability to
explain phenomena in the universe. For his part, Darwin gathered evidence pointing to what
is now known as natural selection, an evolutionary process by which organisms, including
humans, inherit, develop, and adopt traits that favored survival and reproduction. These traits
are manifested in offspring's that are more fit and well-suited to the challenges of survival and
reproduction.
Darwin's theory of evolution was, of course, met with resistance and considered to be
controversial. Critics accused the theory of being either short in accounting for the broad and
complex evolutionary process or dismissive of the idea that the functional design of
organisms was a manifestation of an omniscient God. The Darwinian Revolution can be
likened to the Copernican Revolution in its demonstration of the power of the laws of nature in
explaining biological phenomena of survival and reproduction.
The ptace of the Darwinian Revotution in modern science cannot be underestimated. Through
the Darwinian Revolution, the development of organisms and the origin of unique forms of tife
and humanity could be rationatized by a tawful system or an orderty process of change
underpinned by laws of nature.
Freudian Revolution
Austrian neurologist, Sigmund Freud, is credited for stirring a 20th'century intellectual

revolution named after him, the Freudian Revolution. Psychoanalysis as a school of thought
in psychology is at the center of this revolution' Freud developed psychoanalysis - a scientific
method of understanding inner and unconscious conflicts embedded within one's personality,
springing from free associations, dreams, and fantasies of the individual. Psychoanalysis
immediately shot into controversy for it emphasized the existence of the unconscious where
feelings, thoughts, urges'
emotions, and memories are contained outside of one's conscious mind. Psychoanalytic
concepts of psychosexual development, libido, and ego were met with both support and
resistance from many scholars. Freud suggested that humans are inherently
pleasure-seeking individuals. These notions were particularly caught in the crossfire of
whether Freud's psychoanalysis fit in the scientific study of the brain and mind.
Scientists working on a biological approach in studying human behavior criticized

psychoanalysis for lack of vitality and bordering on being unscientific as a theory. Particularty,
the notion that all humans are destined to exhibit Oedipus and Electra complexes (i.e., sexual
desire towards the parent of the opposite sex and exclusion of the parent of the same sex) did
not seem to be supported by empirical data. ln the same vein, it appeared to critics that
psychoanalysis, then, was more of an ideotogical stance than a scientific one.
Amidst controversy,Freud's psychoanalysis is widely credited for dominating

psychotherapeutic practice in the earty 20th century' psychodynamic therapies that treat a
myriad of psychological disorders still remain largely informed by Freud's work on
psychoanalysis' .
How well have you understood the lesson? Try to evaluate yourself by doing the
following activities:
Check on the classwork to answer the activity.

Lesson 3

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lesson 3

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lesson 3

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lesson 3

INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS AND SOCIETY

ln understanding intellectual revolutions, it is worth noting that these revolutions are, in

Copernicus introduced the heliocentric model in 40-page outline entitled Commentoriolus. He

The contribution of the Copernican Revolution is far-reaching. lt served as a catalyst to sway

Austrian neurologist, Sigmund Freud, is credited for stirring a 20th'century intellectual

Scientists working on a biological approach in studying human behavior criticized

Amidst controversy,Freud's psychoanalysis is widely credited for dominating

You might also like