Mrs.

Rajeshwari
Senior Assistant Professor
Department of Mechatronics
Engineering
 Robot Drives
•A robot will require a drive system for moving their arm, wrist, and body.

•The joints are moved by actuators powered by a particular form of drive system.

•A drive system can also be used to determine the capacity of a robot.

•There are three different types of drive systems available such as:
• Hydraulic drive system,
• Pneumatic drive system, and
• Electric drive system
Introduction to Hydraulic Power
Hydraulic system is the technology that deals with the generation, control, and transmission of

power, using pressurized liquid.

The word hydraulics is derived from the Greek word HYDRO and means Water.

Hydraulic systems use liquids such as petroleum oils, synthetic oils, and water. The first

hydraulic fluid to be used was water because it is readily available

 Hydraulic Drive Systems
A hydraulic drive system is a transmission system that uses pressurized hydraulic fluid to power hydraulic
machinery.

A hydraulic drive system consists of three parts:

– The generator (e.g., a hydraulic pump), driven by an electric motor;

– valves, filters, piping etc. (to guide and control the system);and

– The actuator (e.g., a hydraulic motor or hydraulic cylinder) to drive the machinery.
 How Does a Hydraulic System Work?
Hydraulic systems are made up of numerous parts:

•The reservoir holds hydraulic fluid.

•The hydraulic pump moves the liquid through the system and

converts mechanical energy and motion into hydraulic fluid

power.

•The electric motor powers the hydraulic pump.

•The valves control the flow of the liquid and relieve excessive

pressure from the system if needed.

•The hydraulic cylinder converts the hydraulic energy back into

mechanical energy.
 • Hydraulic systems use the pump to push hydraulic fluid through the system to create fluid power. The fluid passes through
the valves and flows to the cylinder where the hydraulic energy converts back into mechanical energy. The valves help to
direct the flow of the liquid and relieve pressure when needed.

An example for the hydraulic drive system is Unimate 2000 An example for the hydraulic actuation for linear movement:
series robot.
Advantages of Hydraulic System
1. Easy and accuracy of control (by the use of simple lever and push button)
2. Multiplication of force (without using cumbersome gears, pulleys and levers)
3. Constant force or torque (regardless of speed changes)
4. Simplicity, safety, economy (fewer moving parts compare to mechanical or electrical system)
5. High force density and compact construction
6. Long life-cycle
7. Easily automated
8. Easy reversal movement
Limitations of Hydraulic System
1. Hydraulic lines are messy, and leakage is impossible to eliminate completely.

2. Hydraulic lines can burst, possibly resulting in injuries to people.

3. Most hydraulic oils can cause fires if an oil leak occurs in an area of hot equipment.

4. Hydraulic oil always should be clean. Filtration is very critical

Components of Hydraulic System
1. A tank (reservoir) to hold the hydraulic oil.

2. A pump to force the oil through the system.

3. An electric motor to drive the pump.

4. Valves to control oil direction, pressure, and flow rate.

5. An actuator to convert the pressure of the oil into mechanical force or torque to do
useful work.

6. Piping which carries the oil from one location to another.

 Applications of Hydraulic System
Crop Harvesters
Hydraulic Jack
Hydraulic Press
Drives high over head trams

Machine Tools
Control submarines

Material handling equipment

Coal mines

Transportation
Earth Movers (Earth moving equipment like

excavators, bull dozers, borewell drills etc.,)

Construction
 Pneumatic Drive System
Pneumatic systems use air as the medium which is abundantly available and can be exhausted into the atmosphere after
completion of the assigned task

 The pneumatic drive systems are especially used for the small type robots, which have less than five degrees of freedom.

A pneumatic system is a system that uses compressed air to transmit and control energy. Pneumatic systems are used
extensively in various industries.

Most pneumatic systems rely on a constant supply of compressed air to make them work. This is provided by an air
compressor. The compressor sucks in air from the atmosphere and stores it in a high-pressure tank called a receiver.

This compressed air is then supplied to the system through a series of pipes and valves.
Components of Pneumatic Drive Systems
Air filters: These are used to filter out the contaminants
from the air.

Compressor: Compressed air is generated by using air

compressors. Air compressors are either diesel or
electrically operated. Based on the requirement of
compressed air, suitable capacity compressors may be
used.

Air cooler: During compression operation, air

temperature increases. Therefore, coolers are used to
reduce the temperature of the compressed air.
Components of Pneumatic Drive Systems
 Dryer: The water vapor or moisture in the air is
separated from the air by using a dryer.

Control Valves: Control valves are used to regulate,

control and monitor for control of direction flow,
pressure etc.

Air Actuator: Air cylinders and motors are used to

obtain the required movements of mechanical elements
of pneumatic system.

Electric Motor: Transforms electrical energy into

mechanical energy. It is used to drive the compressor.

Receiver tank: The compressed air coming from the

compressor is stored in the air receiver.
Pneumatic systems Examples
 Electric Drive Systems
Example
The electric drive systems are capable of

moving robots with high power or speed.

The actuation of this type of robot can be

done by either DC servo motors or DC

stepping motors.
The following are the main parts of these drive systems:
1.Incoming AC switch. Incoming AC Switchgear: It
consists a switch fuse unit and AC
2.Power converter and inverter assembly.
power contractor which have
3.Outgoing DC and AC Switchgear ranges up to 660V, 800A.The
switch gear replaces the normal
4.Control Logic contractor by the bar mounted
contractor and also used air circuit
5.Motor and the Associated Load.
breaker as an incoming switch. The
bar mounted contractor increase
the range up to 1000V, 1200A.

Power Converter/ or Inverter Assembly – This assembly has

two major blocks – power and control electronics. The power
electronics blocks consist of semiconductor devices, heat sinks,
semiconductor fuses, surge suppressors, cooling fans. Control
electronics consist of triggering circuit, its own regulated power
supply and driving and the isolation circuit. The driving and
isolation circuit controls and regulates the power flow to the
motor.
Line Surge Suppressors – It protects the semiconductor converter
against voltage spikes produce in the line due to on and off
switching of the load connecting on the same line. The line surge
suppressor along with the inductance suppress the voltage spikes.

Control Logic – It is used for interlocking and sequencing of various

operations of the drive system under normal, fault and emergency
condition. The interlocking protects the system against abnormal and unsafe
operations. The sequencing protects the various drive operations, such as
starting, braking, reversing, jogging, etc., which are carried out in a pre-
planned sequence. For complex interlocking and sequence operations, the
programmable logic controller is used.
 Actuators
An actuator is a component of a machine that is responsible for moving and controlling a mechanism or

system, for example by opening a valve. In simple terms, it is a "mover". An actuator requires a control

signal and a source of energy. Actuators can be categorized by the energy source they require to generate

motion. For example:

Hydraulic actuators use liquid to generate motion.

Pneumatic actuators use compressed air to generate motion.

Electric actuators use an external power source, such as a battery, to generate motion.
Hydraulic Actuators
Advantages
 Hydraulic actuators are rugged and suited for high-force applications.
They can produce forces 25 times greater than pneumatic cylinders of
equal size. They also operate in pressures of up to 4,000 psi.
 Hydraulic motors have high horsepower-to-weight ratio by 1 to 2
hp/lb greater than a pneumatic motor.
 A hydraulic actuator can hold force and torque constant without the
Examples : pump supplying more fluid or pressure due to the incompressibility of
(1) Cylinders or jacks. fluids.
(2) Hydraulic Motors.  Hydraulic actuators can have their pumps and motors located a
(3) Rotary actuators. considerable distance away with minimal loss of power.
Disadvantages

• Hydraulics will leak fluid. Like pneumatic actuators, loss of

fluid leads to less efficiency.
• However, hydraulic fluid leaks lead to cleanliness problems
and potential damage to surrounding components and
areas.
• Hydraulic actuators require many companion parts,
including a fluid reservoir, motors, pumps, release valves,
and heat exchangers, along with noise-reduction
equipment. This makes for linear motions systems that are
large and difficult to accommodate.
Pneumatic Actuator
• Pneumatic actuators are the devices used for converting pressure energy of compressed air into the mechanical
energy to perform useful work.

Types Of Pneumatic Actuators

There are three types of pneumatic actuator:
• Linear Actuator or Pneumatic cylinders
• Rotary Actuator or Air motors
• Limited angle Actuators
Advantages Disadvantages
The benefits of pneumatic actuators come from • Pressure losses and air’s compressibility make pneumatics less
their simplicity. efficient than other linear-motion methods. Compressor and
• Pneumatic actuators generate precise linear air delivery limitations mean that operations at lower
motion by providing accuracy, for example, within pressures will have lower forces and slower speeds. A
0.1 inches and repeatability within .001 inches. compressor must run continually at operating pressure even if
• Pneumatic actuators typical applications involve nothing is moving.
areas of extreme temperatures. • To be truly efficient, pneumatic actuators must be sized for a
• In terms of safety and inspection, by using air, specific job. Hence, they cannot be used for other
pneumatic actuators avoid using hazardous applications. Accurate control and efficiency requires
materials. They meet explosion protection and proportional regulators and valves, but this raises the costs
machine safety requirements because they create and complexity.
no magnetic interference due to their lack of • Even though the air is easily available, it can be contaminated
motors. by oil or lubrication, leading to downtime and maintenance.
 Electric Actuators
Electric Actuators are devices powered by motor that converts electrical energy to
mechanical torque

Types Of Electric Actuators

There are three types of electric actuator on broad classification which are widely
used in robots:
 DC Motors- is an electric motor that runs on direct current (DC) electricity.

 AC Motors - is an electric motor driven by an alternating current.

 Stepper Motors- (or step motor) is a brushless DC electric motor that divides a
full rotation into a number of equal steps.
 Advantages Disadvantages
Electrical actuators offer the highest precision-control • The initial unit cost of an electrical actuator is higher than that
positioning. of pneumatic and hydraulic actuators.
• Their setups are scalable for any purpose or force • Electrical actuators are not suited for all environments, unlike
requirement, and are quiet, smooth, and repeatable. pneumatic actuators, which are safe in hazardous and
• Electric actuators can be networked and reprogrammed
flammable areas
quickly. They offer immediate feedback for diagnostics and
• A continuously running motor will overheat, increasing wear
maintenance.
and tear on the reduction gear.
• They provide complete control of motion profiles and can
• The motor can also be large and create installation problems.
include encoders to control velocity, position, torque, and
applied force.
• In terms of noise, they are quieter than pneumatic and
hydraulic actuators
• Because there are no fluids leaks, environmental hazards
are eliminated.
Determination of Horse Power
• Horsepower (hp) is a unit of measurement of power (the

rate at which work is done). There are many different

standards and types of horsepower.

• Two common definitions being used today are the

mechanical horsepower (or imperial horsepower), which is

about 745.7 watts, and the metric horsepower, which is

approximately 735.5 watts.

• A mechanical horsepower (hp) is a unit of measurement of power, the rate at which work is done or energy is used or
transformed. By definition, 1 hp = 33,000 ft·lbf/min
• If torque and rotational speed are expressed in coherent SI units, the power is calculated as

P= τ ω

where P is power in watts when τ is torque in newton-meters, and ω is angular speed in radians per second.

When using other units, a conversion factor has to be included.

• When torque T is in pound-foot units, rotational speed N is in rpm, the resulting power in horsepower is
Calculation of 5252
 OK, if HP = RPM x TORQUE ÷ 5252, then where does the 5252 come from?"
 Consider, Constant tangential force of 100 pounds was applied to the 12" handle
rotating at 2000 RPM, (Refer Figure)
• By definition, POWER = FORCE x DISTANCE ÷ TIME
• DISTANCE per revolution = 2 x π x radius
• DISTANCE per revolution. = 2 x 3.1416 x 1 ft = 6.283 ft.
 Now we know how far the crank moves in one revolution. How far does the crank
move in one minute?
• DISTANCE per min. = 6.283 ft .per rev. x 2000 rev. per min. = 12,566 feet
per minute
• Power = 100 pounds x distance per minute
• Power = 100 lb x 12,566 ft. per minute = 1,256,600 ft-lb per minute
 Remember that one HORSEPOWER is defined as 33000 foot-pounds of work per minute. Therefore HP = POWER (ft-lb
per min) ÷ 33,000. We have already calculated that the power being applied to the crank-wheel is 1,256,600 ft-lb per
minute. How many HP is that?

 HP = (1,256,600 ÷ 33,000) = 38.1 HP.

 Now we combine some stuff we already know to produce the number 5252.
We already know that: TORQUE = FORCE x RADIUS.

 If we divide both sides of that equation by RADIUS, we get:

a) FORCE = TORQUE ÷ RADIUS, Now, if DISTANCE per revolution = RADIUS x 2 x π, then
b) DISTANCE per minute = RADIUS x 2 x π x RPM, We already know
c) POWER = FORCE x DISTANCE per minute
 So, if we plug the equivalent for FORCE from equation (a) and distance per minute from equation (b) into
equation (c), we get:
POWER = (TORQUE ÷ RADIUS) x (RPM x RADIUS x 2 x π)

 Dividing both sides by 33,000 to find HP,

HP = (TORQUE ÷ RADIUS) x (RPM x RADIUS x 2 x π) ÷ 33,000

 By reducing, we get
HP = TORQUE x RPM x 6.28 ÷ 33,000

 Since 33,000 ÷ 6.2832 = 5252, Therefore

HP = TORQUE x RPM ÷ 5252
 Variable Speed Arrangements
 In most of the practical systems it is required to operate the motor at different speed as per the requirements

 This is achieved by the implementation of Gears in conventional systems or by a variable speed device

1. Gears

A gear or cogwheel is a rotating

machine part having cut teeth, or in the
case of a cogwheel, inserted teeth (called
cogs), which mesh with another toothed
part to transmit torque
Calculation of Gearing Ratio:
• To be able to determine a gear ratio, you must
have at least two gears engaged with each
other — this is called a "gear train."
• Usually, the first gear is a "drive gear" attached
to the motor shaft and the second is a "driven
gear" attached to the load shaft.
• There may also be any number of gears
between these two to transmit power from the
drive gear to the driven gear: these are called
"idler gears”.
Calculation of Gearing Ratio:
• One simple way to find the gear ratio between two
interlocking gears is to compare the number of teeth that they
both have. Start by determining how many teeth are on the
drive gear. You can do this by counting manually or,
sometimes, by checking for this information labeled on the
gear itself.
• Next, determine how many teeth are on the driven gear.
• Now that you know how many teeth are on each gear, you can
find the gear ratio relatively simply. Divide the driven gear
teeth by the drive gear teeth. (ie., 30/20 = 1.5)
Calculation of Gearing Ratio for
more than Two Gears :
• As its name suggests, a "gear train" can also be made from a long
sequence of gears — not just a single driver gear and a single
driven gear. In these cases, the first gear remains the driver gear,
the last gear remains the driven gear, and the ones in the middle
become "idler gears."
• These are often used to change the direction of rotation or to
connect two gears when direct gearing would make them unwieldy
or not readily available.
• Let's say for example purposes that the two-gear train described is
now driven by a small seven-toothed gear. In this case, the 30-
toothed gear remains the driven gear and the 20-toothed gear
(which was the driver before) is now an idler gear.
Calculation of Gearing Ratio for
more than Two Gears :
• In our example, we would find the gear ratio by dividing the thirty
teeth of the driven gear by the seven teeth of our new driver. 30/7 =
about 4.3 (or 4.3 : 1, etc.) This means that the driver gear has to turn
about 4.3 times to get the much larger driven gear to turn once.
• You can find the gear ratios involving the idler gears as well, and you
may want to in certain situations. In our example, the intermediate
gear ratios are 20/7 = 2.9 and 30/20 = 1.5. Note that neither of
these are equal to the gear ratio for the entire train, 4.3.
• However, note also that (20/7) × (30/20) = 4.3. In general, the
intermediate gear ratios of a gear train will multiply together to equal
the overall gear ratio.
Variable Speed Device
What types of variable speed reducers are there?

A) Mechanical adjustable speed drives

 Variable pitch drive. This type of variable speed drive uses belts and pulleys. The diameter of at least one of
them can be exchanged to obtain the most efficient ratio.

 Traction drive. Power is transferred through the metal rollers in this type of speed controller.

Refer:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O4h-Me5lSOY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r5noJwqB6Hw
B) Electric-electronic adjustable speed drives
• Variable frequency drives or alternating current (AC) motor adjustable speed drives. They are used in synchronous motors
and both in wound-rotor and in squirrel-cage rotor asynchronous induction motors. For synchronous motors, the adjustment is
achieved by adjusting the motor’s input power frequency.
• Direct current (DC) motor adjustable speed drives. These types of adjustable speed drives are composed of an electric
motor and a controller. These devices can control de speed of serial direct current motors, permanent magnet motors, shunt
motors and compound motors.

VFD Schematic
• Eddy current adjustable speed drives. This type of variable speed drive is composed of a fixed-speed motor and an Eddy current clutch.
The clutch is composed of two rotors – a fixed-speed rotor added to the motor and a variable speed rotor. It works through the regulated
activation of a field coil, which generates a magnetic field that is transmitted to the input rotor, which in turn transmits it to the output rotor.
The higher the intensity of the magnetic field, the higher the speed and torque that are transmitted. An AC tachometer is used to control the
output speed.

• Slip-controlled adjustable speed drive. This type of variable

frequency drive currently has few applications since it has been
bested by others in terms of efficiency. Nowadays, slip-
controlled adjustable speed drives may be used for wound-
rotor induction motors.
C) Hydraulic adjustable speed drives
 Hydrodynamic drive: The hydrodynamic drive, also known as variable speed fluid coupler transmits torque to an output rotor
from an input drive using hydraulic oil. The input drive needs to be on a constant speed shaft, while the output rotor will work
on an adjustable speed shaft.
 Hydrostatic drive: The hydrostatic drive allows speed to be controlled by using a control valve. It consists of a hydraulic motor
accompanied by a hydraulic pump, both of them having a positive displacement. It has a predetermined ratio between each
motor or pump revolution and the fluid flow in use at any given moment. Another way to adjust the revolutions in this device is
by changing the motor’s or the pump’s displacement.
Refer: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qxZFSNITK-c
 Hydro viscous drive: These variable speed drives use both input and output discs that are separated by an oil layer. They
mate, and torque is transmitted through the oil layer. In this way, the resulting torque that is transmitted is known and
foreseeable, since it proportionally responds to the pressure exerted by the hydraulic cylinder on the discs.
 Path determination
Path planning for industrial robots is an essential aspect of

the overall performance of automation systems.

Essentially, path planning algorithms determine how an

industrial robot arm should approach a part, how it should

process a part, and how it should orient itself for optimal

productivity and to avoid collisions.

Path-planning requires a map of the environment and the

robot to be aware of its location with respect to the map.

 The Role of Proper Robot Path
Planning in Production
Robot Accuracy: a robot’s path needs to be meticulously planned in order

for it to productively process a part with little or no error.

Task Repeatability: once a robot’s path is well-defined it can repeat the

same task thousands of times without variation to help accelerate throughput.

Product Quality: when products are created with a high degree of

accuracy and repeatability, there are fewer mistakes and higher consistency,

leading to higher overall quality products.

 Classification of Robots based
on Path Control
Commercially available industrial robots can be classified into three categories:

Limited – Sequence Robots

Playback robots with point-to-point control

Playback robots with continuous path control

Intelligent Robots
Limited Sequence Robots;

 They do not use feedback to indicate relative positions of the joints.

 They are controlled by limit switches and/or mechanical stops to establish the

endpoints of travel for each of their joints.

 To establish the positions and sequences, mechanical set up is done rather than robot

programming.

 The individual joints are moved to the extreme positions.

 The main purpose of the controller is to send the signals in a particular sequence.

 Used for pick and place operations.

 The main disadvantage is there is no feedback to indicate desired point is reached.

 Playback robots use a more sophisticated control.

 The robot is taught a series of positions or motions, recorded into memory and then

repeated under its own control.

 The procedure of teaching and recording into memory is called as programming the

robot.

 Playback robots have a feedback to ensure the robot has reached the positions that

have been taught.

 Playback robots are classified into two categories: Point-to-Point Control (PTP) and

Continuous Path Control (CP).

 Playback robots with point-to-point control; a type of robot programming that makes the

manipulator reach a set point, stop, complete its task, and then move to the next set point.

 The robot is taught each point, and these points are recorded into the robot’s control unit.

 Path in between the points is not controlled.

 Used in machine loading and unloading applications and spot welding .

 Each axis or joint has many stoppable positions However, trajectory is not controllable at will,

although it may be roughly deterministic.

 One joint at a time: Joints can not move simultaneously. Rather, one moves after another,

in some sequence.

 Slew motion: All joints that require motion start simultaneously at default joint speeds

 (linear) Joint interpolation: All joints that require movement start simultaneously and

stop simultaneously.
 Playback robots with Continuous – path control are capable of performing motion cycles in

which the path followed by robot is controlled.

 Controller must be capable of storing large number of position locations that define the curve

path.

 Ex : Arc welding

 Several joints can move simultaneously in some user-specified trajectory. The most useful ones

are linear and circular interpolations.

 Linear interpolation: Regardless of robot configuration, the robot attempts to achieve a

linear line while maintaining the tool orientation.

 Circular interpolation: In circular interpolation, robot will achieve a circular motion while

maintain the tool orientation.

Speed of Response and Stability

 They are two important characteristics of dynamic performance related to control system

design.

 The speed of response refers to the capability of robot to move to the next position in a short

amount of time.

 The response time is related to robot’s motion speed and is a function of the control system.

 Stability is defined as the measure of oscillations which occur in the arm during movement from

one position to next.

 A robot with good stability will exhibit little or no oscillations during the termination of arm

movement.

 Poor stability would be indicated by large amount of oscillations.

Sensors
U S E S O F S E N S O R S : S AF E T Y M O NI TO RI N G, I NT E RLO CK S A N D WO RK CE L L CO N T RO L,
PA RT I N S P E CT I O N F O R Q U A LI T Y CO NT R O L , D E T E RM I N IN G P O S IT IO N A N D R E L AT E D
I N F O R M AT I O N A B O U T O B J E C T S I N R O B O T C E L L
 Machine Vision
To become familiar with technologies used for machine vision as a
sensor for robots.
Camera and lighting technology (obtaining a digital representation of an image)

Software (computational techniques to process or modify the image data)

Analysis/decisions: using the results of the processing in robot control

Reference: Industrial Robotics, Technology, Programming and

Applications, Mikell P Groover
Machine Vision in Automation
Use a camera to inspect parts to:
 Guide a robot or control automated equipment
 Support statistical analysis in a computer-assisted manufacturing (CAM) system
 Ensure quality in manufacturing process:
◦ dimensions/alignment
◦ Determine if all components are present
◦ Other quality issues: color, placement, …
 Why use Vision?
• Dynamic Range
• Can be remotely situated
• Passive
– emits no energy (cf. Laser, sonar, IR)
– no contact required
• Flexibility
• Affordable
Why avoid Vision?
• Computation
– must process images
– data = information
/ Because the lighting is different, these 3 images appear
substantially different to a computer – to a human we easily adapt
• Calibration our perception for variations in illumination and recognize that all
three images are of the same object.
• Sensitivity to lighting conditions

Images (arrays of pixel data) must be processed to

provide information
 Example Application: Micro-manipulation
Micro Object handling with Micro gripper

Micro gripper
Microscope Table
 A Machine Vision System Often
Includes The Following Elements:
Image Acquisition (generally from a camera placed above the production line),

Image Pre-Processing (e.g., increasing the contrast, motion de-blur, etc),

Feature Extraction (e.g., measuring a distance, checking a screw is in place etc),

Decisions (i.e., is the part OK to a tolerance, is a label in the correct position), and,

Control (e.g., give the result to a Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) or robot

controller).
Functions of Machine Vision
 PROXIMITY & RANGE SENSORS
It is a technique of detecting the presence or absence of an object with electronic noncontact sensors.

Typical application of proximity sensors includes:

 Object detection
 Collision avoidance
 Object verification & counting

Commonly available proximity sensors are:

1. Photoelectric/optical sensors
2. Inductive proximity sensors
3. Capacitive proximity sensors
4. Ultrasonic proximity sensors
58
 Range Finder (Ultrasonic, Laser)
Time of Flight:

The measured pulses typically come form ultrasonic, RF and optical energy sources.
◦ D=v*t

◦ D = round-trip distance

◦ v = speed of wave propagation

◦ t = elapsed time

Sound = 0.34 meters/msec

RF/light = 0.3 meters / ns (Very difficult to measure short distances 1-100 meters)
 Ultrasonic Sensors
Basic principle of operation:
◦ Emit a quick burst of ultrasound (50kHz), (human hearing: 20Hz to 20kHz)
◦ Measure the elapsed time until the receiver indicates that an echo is detected.
◦ Determine how far away the nearest object is from the sensor

D =v*t
D = round-trip distance
v = speed of propagation(340 m/s)
t = elapsed time

Bat…
 Ultrasonic Sensors
Ranging is accurate but bearing has
a 30-degree uncertainty. The object
can be located anywhere in the arc.

Typical ranges are of the order of

several centimeters to 30 meters.

Another problem is the propagation

time. The ultrasonic signal will take
200 msec to travel 60 meters. ( 30
meters roundtrip @ 340 m/s )
Ultrasonic Sensors Ultrasonic
transducer

Polaroid ultrasonic ranging system

◦ It was developed for auto-focus of cameras.
◦ Range: 6 inches to 35 feet (420 inches)
Electronic board
Transducer Ringing:
 transmitter + receiver @ 50
KHz
 Residual vibrations or ringing
may be interpreted as the
echo signal
 Blanking signal to block any
return signals for the first
2.38ms after transmission
Ultrasonic Sensors
Applications:
◦ Distance Measurement
◦ Mapping: Rotating proximity scans (maps the proximity of objects surrounding the robot)

Doorway

Length of Echo
Robot

chair chair

Scan moving from left to right

Scanning at an angle of 15º apart can achieve best results

 Laser Ranger Finder
Range 2-500 meters
Resolution : 10 mm
Field of view : 100 - 180 degrees
Angular resolution : 0.25 degrees
Scan time : 13 - 40 msec.
These lasers are more immune to Dust and Fog
 Laser Ranger Finder
Laser rangefinders emit electromagnetic pulses in laser beams via their optoelectronic systems. The
laser beam is reflected off the target’s surface and returns to the rangefinder.

Next, the rangefinder’s systems process the beam to measure the distance. The device’s system measures
distance by analyzing the travel time in two planes based on the phase delay of the emitted and
reflected EM wave.

Laser rangefinders are less susceptible to errors in measurement caused by incorrect positioning of the
tool and other operator errors.
 Laser Ranger Finder
Compared to their optical and ultrasonic counterparts, laser rangefinders are the most functional and
technologically advanced measurement tools.

Their main advantage, other than the extremely precise measurements (+/- 1-5 mm per km), is the fact
that they can be used by only one person. Optical rangefinders, used to take precise distance
measurements at construction sites and in large open areas, require at least two people at once.

That’s why using a laser rangefinder lets you reduce staffing requirements and significantly speed up
measurement processes.
Acoustic Sensors
An acoustic wave sensor is an electronic device that can measure sound levels. They are called acoustic wave
sensors because their detection mechanism is a mechanical (or acoustic) wave.

When an acoustic wave (input) travels through a certain material or along the surface of a material, it is
influenced by the different material properties and obstacles it travels through. Any changes to the
characteristics of this travelling path affect the velocity and/or amplitude of the wave.

These characteristics are translated into a digital signal (output) using transducers. These changes can be
monitored by measuring the frequency or phase characteristics of the sensor. Then these changes can be
translated to the corresponding physical differences being measured.
 Practically all acoustic wave devices and sensors use a piezoelectric material to
generate the acoustic wave. Piezoelectricity essentially means electricity resulting
from pressure.
 It refers to the production of electrical charges as a result of mechanical stress. The
sensors normally use two inter digital transducer (IDT) that can convert the incoming
signal into a mechanical wave signal trough a piezoelectric substrate.
 The transducers are interlocked electrodes in a comb-structure. What they do is
turning an electrical signal into a mechanical wave and convert it into an electrical
signal again.
 The performance of these sensors can be changed by varying the length, width and
position of the IDT.
 Piezoelectric acoustic wave sensors are relatively cheap, rugged, very sensitive,
reliable, and can be used passively (without a power source) and wirelessly.
Applications
• All acoustic wave sensors are sensitive to changes from many different physical parameters. These sensors are often used in
the telecommunications industry. All acoustic wave devices manufactured for the telecommunications industry must be
hermetically sealed to prevent any disturbances.

• The reason for this is that these disturbances will be sensed by the device and cause an unwanted change in output. These
sensors can be used as pressure, mass, thickness, torque, shock, acceleration, angular rate, viscosity, displacement, flow
and force detectors under an applied stress that changes the dynamics of the object it travels through. Sensors can also detect
mechanical failures or hick-ups such as grinding of components.

• Other applications are the monitoring of closed systems such as water pipelines irregularities, turbulence, noise in hydraulic
and pneumatic systems and pressure fluctuations. The sensors also have an acoustic electric sensitivity, allowing the detection
of pH levels, ionic contaminants, and electric fields.
 Magnetic Sensor
A magnetic sensor is a sensor that detects the magnitude of magnetism and geomagnetism generated by
a magnet or current. There are many different types of magnetic sensors.
 Coiled
 Reed Switch
 Hall Elements
 Magnetoresistive Element
 Semiconductor Magnetoresistive Element (SMR)
 Anisotropic Magnetoresistive Eelement (AMR)
 Giant Magnetoresistive Element (GMR)
 Tunnel Magnetoresistive Element (TMR)
 • Coils are the simplest magnetic sensors that can detect changes of the
magnetic flux density.
• As shown in Figure, when a magnet is brought close to the coil, the
magnetic flux density in the coil increases by ΔB. Then, an induced
electromotive force/induced current that generates a magnetic flux in a
direction that hinders an increase in magnetic flux density is generated in
the coil.
• Conversely, moving the magnet away from the coil reduces the magnetic
• Also, since there is no change in the magnetic
flux density in the coil, so induced electromotive force and induced
flux density when the magnet is not moved, no
current will be generated in the coil to increase the magnetic flux density.
induced electromotive force or induced current
will be generated. • Because of its simple structure, a coil is not easily damaged. However,
• By measuring the direction and magnitude of the output voltage depends on the rate of change of the magnetic flux.
this induced electromotive force, it is possible • It may not be possible to use a coil to detect a fixed magnet or magnetic
to detect the change in magnetic flux density. flux that changes very slowly.
Reed Switch
• A reed switch is a sensor in which metal pieces (reed) extending
from both the left and right sides are enclosed in a glass tube
with a gap at the overlapping position of the reeds. When a
magnetic field is applied externally, these reeds are
magnetized. When the reeds are magnetized, the overlapping
parts attract each other and come into contact, then the switch
turns on.

Hall Elements
• A Hall element is a device that uses the Hall effect. “Hall” came from Dr.
Hall's name for discovering Hall effect. It is based on the phenomenon
that the electromotive force appears in the direction orthogonal to both
the current and the magnetic field when applying a magnetic field
perpendicular to the current to the object through which current is flowing.
When a current is applied to a thin film semiconductor, a voltage
corresponding to the magnetic flux density and its direction is output by
the Hall effect. The Hall effect is used to detect a magnetic field.
Semiconductor Magnetoresistive Element (SMR)
• Whereas the Hall element is a sensor that measures the Hall voltage generated by
the Lorentz force, the magnetoresistive element is a sensor that utilizes the change
in the resistance value caused by the Lorentz force. Figure shows how the
resistance value of an N-type semiconductor magnetoresistive element (SMR:
Semiconductor Magnetoresistive). Metal electrodes are placed on a semiconductor
thin film in the structure of SMR. When a clockwise current as shown in the figure
flows through the semiconductor thin film, electrons which are carriers of N-type
semiconductors flow counterclockwise, and the velocity of the vector is assumed as
"v". When applying a magnetic field B oriented as shown in the figure, electrons
undergo Lorentz force and the path becomes longer as being bent, so that the
resistance value increases.

Anisotropic Magnetoresistive Eelement (AMR)

The scattering degree of electro changes between the case (a)
where the magnetization direction of the ferromagnetic film is
parallel to the direction of current and the case (b) where the
direction of magnetization is vertical to the current direction.
Therefore, the resistance value also changes.
Giant Magnetoresistive Element (GMR)
• In the case of a laminated film of ferromagnetic
material, (pinned layer), nonmagnetic metal and
ferromagnetic material, (free layer), the scattering
degree of electron changes depending on if the
direction of magnetization of the pinned layer and
the free layer are antiparallel (a) or parallel (b).
Therefore, the resistance value changes.

Tunnel Magnetoresistive Element (TMR)

• In the case of a laminated film of ferromagnetic material,
(pinned layer), insulator and ferromagnetic material, (free
layer), the proportion of electrons passing through the
insulator changes due to the tunnel effect and the resistance
value changes depending on if the direction of magnetization
of the pinned layer and the free layer are antiparallel (a) or
parallel (b).
Fiber Optic Sensors
The fiber optic sensor has an optical fiber connected to
a light source to allow for detection in tight spaces or
where a small profile is beneficial.

The optical fiber consists of the core and the cladding,

which have different refractive indexes. The light beam
travels through the core by repeatedly bouncing off the
wall of the cladding. The light beam, having passed
through the fiber without any loss in light quantity, is
dispersed at an angle of approximately 60° and emitted
to the target.
The cores are divided into the following types:
 The optical fiber sensors are divided into two categories: thru beam
• Plastic type and reflective. The thru beam type comprises a transmitter and a
The core of the plastic-fiber consists of one receiver. The reflective type, which is a single unit, is available in 3
or more acrylic-resin fibers 0.25 to 1 mm in types: parallel, coaxial, and separate. The 3 are based on the
diameter, encased in a polyethylene sheath. shape of the cross-section of the optical fiber.
Plastic fibers are light, cost-effective, and
flexible which is why they are the most
common type of fiber sensor.
• Glass type
The glass-fiber consists of 10 to 100 µm
diameter glass fibers encased in stainless
steel tubing. This allows it to be used at high
operating temperatures (350°C max.).
Tactile sensing includes any form of sensing which requires physical touch between the sensor and the object to be sense. The
need for touch or tactile sensors occurs in many robotic applications, from picking parts to loading machines. Probably the most
important application currently is the general problem of locating, identifying, and organizing parts that need to be
assembled.

Tactile sensor system includes the capability to detect such things as:
1. Presence
2. Part shape, location, orientation, contour examination
3. Contact area pressure and pressure distribution
4. Force magnitude, location, and direction
5. Surface inspection : texture monitoring, joint checking, damage detection
6. Object classification : recognition, discrimination
7. Grasping : verification, error compensation (slip, position ,orientation)
8. Assembly monitoring
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 The major components of a tactile/touch sensor system are:
1. A touch surface

2. A transduction medium, which convert local forces or moments into electrical signals.

3. Structure

4. Control/interface

Methods Of Transduction
1. Resistive
2. Piezoelectric & Pyroelectric Effects
3. Capacitive Technique
4. Mechanical Transduction
5. Magnetic Transduction Methods
6. Optical Transduction Methods

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Resistive
It is the transduction method in tactile sensor design
which has received the most attention. It is concerned
with the change in resistance of a conductive material
under applied pressure.

This technique involves measuring the resistance

either through or across the thickness of a conductive Resistive Tactile Element – Resistance Measured
elastomer. Most elastomers are made from carbon- or Through The rubber
silicon-doped rubber.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
1.Wide dynamic range 1.Hysteresis in some designs.
2.Durability 2.Elastromer needs to be optimized for both mechanical and
3.Good overload tolerance electrical properties.
4.Compatibility with integrated 3.Limited spatial resolution compared with vision sensors.
circuitry, particularly VLSI. 4.Larger numbers of wires may have to be brought away from the
sensor.
5.Monotonic response but often not linear.

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 Piezoelectric & Pyroelectric Effects
Piezoelectric effect is the generation of a voltage across a
sensing element when pressure applied to it. The voltage
generated is proportionally related to the applied pressure. No
external voltage is required, and a continuous analogue
output is available from such sensor.
A pyroelectric effect is the generation of a voltage when the
sensing element is heated or cooled.
Polymeric materials with piezoelectric and pyroelectric Piezoelectric/Pyroelectric Effects Tactile element
properties are appropriate for use with sensors.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. Wide dynamic range 1. Difficult of separating piezoelectric from
2. Durability pyroelectric effects
3. Good mechanical properties of 2. Inherently dynamic - output decay to zero for
piezoelectric from pyroelectric materials constant load
4. Temperature as well as force sensing 3. Difficult of scanning elements
capabilities 4. Good solution are complex

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Capacitive Technique
Tactile sensors within this category are concerned with
measuring capacitance, which made to vary under applied load.
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor depends upon the
separation of the plates and their area, so that a sensor using an
elastomeric separator between the plates provides compliance
such that the capacitance will vary according to applied load.

Disadvantages:
Advantages:
1. Wide dynamic range 1. Susceptible to noise
2. Linear response 2. Some dielectrics are temperature sensitive
3. Robust 3. Capacitance decreases with physical size ultimately
limiting spatial resolution.

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Mechanical Transduction
A Linear Potentiometer
Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. Well known Technology 1. Limited spatial resolution
2. Good for probe application 2. Complex for array construction Mechanical Transducer
A linear Potentiometer

Magnetic Transduction Methods

Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. Wide dynamic range 1. Poor spatial resolution
2. Large displacements possible 2. Mechanical problems when
sensing on slopes.
3. Simple Magnetic tactile Element

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Optical Transduction Methods

Advantages:
1. Very high resolution
2. Compatible with vision sensing technology
3. No electrical interference problems
4. Processing electronics can be remote from sensor
5. Low cabling requirements Optical Tactile Element Pressure to light Transduction
Disadvantages:
1. Dependence on elastomer in some designs – affects
robustness
2. Some hysteresis

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Important Questions
What are Robotic Drive Systems? Describe various Explain your understanding about hydraulic variable
types. speed device.
Distinguish the advantages and limitations of Hydraulic What is path planning? Describe the Classification of
drive systems Robots based on Path Control.
Annotate the functions of machine vision system with a
Describe the working of electrical drive systems. neat block diagram.
With a neat sketch, explain the working of pneumatic Describe the working of Range Sensors with neat
drive systems. sketch. (Ultrasonic & Laser)
Derive the expression for the of Illustrate the working principle of acoustic wave sensor.
calculation
Horsepower.
Describe the working of various types of magnetic
What are variable speed arrangements? Describe the sensors.
concept of variable speed arrangements using gear Describe the working of & Optical fiber sensor.
trains with an example.
What are tactile sensors? Describe the various
Explain your understanding about mechanical and transduction methods.
electronic variable speed device.
Assignment 2
What are Robotic Drive Systems? Describe various types.

Describe the working of Range Sensors with neat sketch. (Ultrasonic & Laser)

What are variable speed arrangements? Describe the concept of variable speed arrangements
using gear trains with an example.

What is path planning? Describe the Classification of Robots based on Path Control.

Derive the expression for the calculation of Horsepower.