Topic 1B. Complex Numbers - Matrices

International Baccalaureate
MATHEMATICS
Applications and Interpretation HL
Lecture Notes
Christos Nikolaidis
TOPIC 1
NUMBER AND ALGEBRA
International Baccalaureate
1B. Complex numbers - Matrices
COMPLEX NUMBERS
1.8 COMPLEX NUMBERS – BASIC OPERATIONS …………………………………….. 1
1.9 THE COMPLEX PLANE …………………………………………..……………………………… 9
1.10 PRODUCTS, QUOTIENTS AND POWERS IN POLAR FORM ……………….. 16
1.11 ADDING SINUSOIDAL FUNCTIONS ………………………………………………………. 21
MATRICES
1.12 DEFINITION OF A MATRIX – MATRIX OPERATIONS ….……………………… 25
1.13 THE DETERMINANT detA – THE INVERSE A-1 ………………………………….. 35
1.14 MATRIX EQUATIONS – THE LINEAR SYSTEM AX=B ………...………………. 41
1.15 TRANSFORMATION MATRICES …………………………………………………………….. 48
1.16 EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS …………………………………………………… 55
January 2022
TOPIC 1: NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Christos Nikolaidis
1.8 COMPLEX NUMBERS – BASIC OPERATIONS
As we know, there are no real numbers of the form
1 4 , 9 , 5
However, we agree to accept an imaginary number i such that
i2 = -1
(so, in some way, the definition of i is: i =  1 )
The imaginary numbers mentioned above can be written as follows:
instead of  4 we write 2i
Consider now the equation
x 2  4x  13  0
Since Δ=-36, there are no real solutions. However, if we accept

that Δ  i 36  6i we obtain solutions of the following form
4  Δ 4  6i
x= = = 2  3i
2 2
These “new” numbers are known as complex numbers.
In general, if Δ<0 the complex roots of the quadratic are given by
-b  i Δ
x=
2a
NOTICE for the GDC - For Casio:

 use shift-0 for i
 for a quadratic with Δ<0 you may obtain the complex roots if
you use SET UP – Complex mode: a+bi
This gives rise to the following definition.
3
 THE DEFINITION
A number z of the form z = x  yi
where x, y R, is called a complex number. We also say,
the real part of z is x: Re(z)=x

the imaginary part of z is y: Im(z)=y
The set of all complex numbers is denoted by C. A real number x is

also complex of the form x+0i (it has no imaginary part).
 THE CONJUGATE z
The conjugate complex number of z = x+yi is given by z =x-yi
(Sometimes, the conjugate number of z is denoted by z*)
EXAMPLE 1
For z=3+4i, we write Re(z)=3, Im(z)=4, z =3-4i.

Similarly
Complex number Real part Imaginary part Conjugate

z Re(z) Im(z) z
2+3i 2 3 2-3i
2-3i 2 -3 2+3i
-2+3i -2 3 -2-3i
-2-3i -2 -3 -2+3i
1+i 1 1 1-i
3i 0 3 -3i
2 2 0 2
0 0 0 0
i 0 1 -i
2  3i 1 3 2  3i
4 2 4 4
4
 THE MODULUS |z|
The modulus of z=x+yi is defined by |z| = x 2  y2
For example, if z=2+3i, then |z|=|2+3i|= 2 2  3 2  13
Notice
z x+yi
z x-yi
-z -x-yi
-z -x+yi
all have the same modulus x 2  y2
Thus 3+4i, 3-4i, -3-4i, -3+4i have the same modulus
3 2  4 2  25  5
Finally, observe that |3|=3 and |-3|=3. That is, the modulus
generalizes the notion of the absolute value for real numbers.
 EQUALITY: z1 = z2
Two complex numbers are equal if they have equal real parts and
equal imaginary parts: Let z1=x1+y1i and z2=x2+y2i
x 1  x 2
z1 = z2  
y1  y 2
Thus, the equation of complex number must be thought as a system

of two simultaneous equations.
EXAMPLE 2
Let z1=3+4i and z2=a+(3b-2)i. Find a,b if z1 = z2.
3  a a  3
z1 = z2    
4  3b  2 b  2
5
 ADDITION-SUBTRACTION-MULTIPLICATION-DIVISION
The four operations for complex numbers follow the usual laws of
algebra. We only have in mind that i2=-1.
EXAMPLE 3
Consider the two complex numbers z=7+4i and w=2+3i
 z+w =(7+4i)+(2+3i) =9+7i [add real parts; add imaginary parts]
 z-w =(7+4i)-(2+3i) = 5+i [similarly]
For multiplication we need some extra work:
 zw =(7+4i)(2+3i) = 14+21i+8i+12i2 = 14+21i+8i-12 =2+29i
What about the division?

z 7  4i
The fraction = is also a complex number!
w 2  3i
In order to obtain the usual form x+yi, we multiply both terms by
the conjugate of the denominator i.e. by w  2-3i
z 7  4i 7  4i (2  3i) 14  21i  8i  12 26  13i

 = = = = =2-i
w 2  3i 2  3i (2  3i) 13 13
Thus
7  4i
= 2-i
2  3i
(Confirm the result by multiplying (2+3i)(2-i); you must find 7+4i)
NOTICE
|z|2 = z. z
Indeed, both sides are equal to x2+y2: For z = x+yi
|z|2 = x2+y2
z z = (x+yi)(x-yi) = x2-y2i2 = x2+y2
6
Get used to the multiplication by a conjugate:
EXAMPLE 4
(3+4i)(3-4i) = 9+16 = 25
(1+i)(1-i) = 1+1 = 2
(2-i)(2+i) = 4+1 =5
The result is always a real number (the square of the modulus).
EXAMPLE 5
Let us estimate the powers of i:
i0=1 i1=i i2=-1 i3=-i

i4=1 i5=i i6=-1 i7=-i
i8=1 i9=i i10=-1 i11=-i
… and so on
Thus, for example

i35=i32+3=i3=-i
(since 32 is a multiple of 4).
EXAMPLE 6
Calculate
(2  i) 3
(a) z = (2+i)3 (b) w=
1i
Solution
(a) z = (2+i)2(2+i) = (4+4i+i2)(2+i)
= (3+4i)(2+i)
= 6+3i+8i+4i2
= 2+11i
(2  i) 3 2  11i 2  11i 1  i 2  2i  11i  11i 2

(b) w= = = =
1i 1i 1i 1i 2
 9  13i  9 13
= = + i
2 2 2
7
EXAMPLE 7
Find z if
z(1-i) = 2+11i
Solution
Method A (Analytical and safe but laborious):
Let z = x+yi. Then
z(1-i) = 2+11i  (x+yi)(1-i) = 2+11i
 x-xi+yi-yi2 = 2+11i
 (x+y)+(y-x)i = 2+11i
x  y  2
 
y  x  11
The solution of the system is x =-9/2 and y =13/2
 9 13
Hence, z = + i
2 2
Method B (quicker): think as in the equation ax=b
2  11i
z(1-i) = 2+11i  z =
1i
= …
 9 13
= + i [look at Exercise 6(b)]
2 2
8
1.9 THE COMPLEX PLANE
The complex number z=x+yi can be represented on the Cartesian

plane as follows
y z = x+yi
O x
 z=x+yi is the point (x,y) *
 Real part = x-coordinate, Imaginary part = y-coordinate
 The modulus |z|= x 2  y 2 is in fact the distance from the origin.
EXAMPLE 1
4 3+4i
0+4i
3
2
1
-5 O 1 2 3
3+0i
-2
-5-2i
Notice
|3+4i|= 25 =5, |3|=3, |4i|=4, |-5|=5, |-5-2i|= 29
The modulus is always the distance from the origin.
*
We may also think of z as a vector from the origin to the point (x,y). Compare
x
with vectors   in paragraph 3.10
y
 
9
NOTICE
We already know that the sets
N = natural numbers
Z = integers
Q = rational numbers
R = real numbers
can be represented on the real axis. We extend this representation
here to the complex plane (considering an imaginary y-axis).
It also holds
N Z Q R C
EXAMPLE 2
It is interesting to see the representations of z, z ,-z,- z . For
example,
z=3+4i z =3-4i z=-3+4i - z =-3-4i
- z =-3+4i z=3+4i
-z=-3-4i z =3-4i
 The modulus of all those is 5 (distance from the origin).

 z is symmetric to z about the x axis
 -z is symmetric to z about the origin
Think that these observations hold for real numbers as well:

 The absolute value of 5 and -5 is 5 (distance from origin)
 The conjugate of 5 is 5 itself (symmetric about x-axis)
 The opposite of 5 is -5 (symmetric about the origin)
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 THE POLAR FORM (MODULUS-ARGUMENT FORM)
We have just seen that a complex number z=x+yi is represented on

the plane by a pair of Cartesian coordinates (x,y).
An alternative way to describe a point on the plane (and thus the

position of z) is the so-called Polar coordinates (r,θ):
We draw a vector (an arrow) from O to the point and consider
r = the length of the vector

θ = the angle between the x-axis and the vector
y z = x+yi
r
θ
O x
Notice:
x y y
cosθ = , sinθ = , tanθ = (*)
r r x
For a complex number z=x+yi
r is in fact the modulus |z|
θ is called argument of z. We write arg(z)=θ
REMARK
Of course, the argument θ is not unique. For example, if θ=30ο is

an argument of z then
36oo+30ο= 390o, 720o+30o= 750o, etc

are also arguments of z.
For the principal argument θ, we agree

-180o<θ  180 o or -π<θ  π
but in our applications, we may consider any equivalent argument.
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The relations (*) above give
x=rcosθ and y=rsinθ
Thus, a complex number can be also written as
z = x+yi = (rcosθ)+(rsinθ)i = r (cosθ+isinθ)
The form
z = r (cosθ+isinθ)
is known as the polar form of the complex number z

(or otherwise modulus-argument form or trigonometric form)
 TRANSFORMATION FROM z = x+yi TO z = r (cosθ+isinθ)
Given: z = x+yi. We find r and θ by
 r = |z| = x 2  y2
y
 tanθ = , having in mind the quadrant of x+yi
x
EXAMPLE 3
Find the polar form of z =1+ 3 i and w =3+4i.
Solution
 For z =1+ 3 i :
r = 1  3 =2,
3 π
tanθ = = 3 , [1st quadrant]  θ=
1 3
π π
Therefore, z = 2(cos +isin ) [or 2 (cos 60 +isin 60 )]
3 3
 For w =3+4i :
r = 32  4 2 = 5 ,
4
tanθ = , [1st quadrant]  θ = 0.927 (by GDC)
3
Therefore, w = 5 [cos(0.927)+isin(0.927)]
12
EXAMPLE 4
Find the polar form of z1 =1+i, z2 =-1-i, z3 = 1-i, z4 =-1+i
Solution
For all of them the modulus is r = 11 = 2

1 π
 For z1 =1+i: tanθ = = 1, [1st quadrant]  θ =
1 4
π π
Therefore, z1 = 2 (cos +isin )
4 4
1 5π
 For z2 =-1-i: tanθ = =1, [3rd quadrant]  θ =
-1 4
5π 5π
4 4
1 π
 For z3 = 1-i: tanθ = =-1, [4th quadrant]  θ = 
-1 4
π π
Therefore, z3 = 2 (cos  +isin  )
4 4
-1 3π
 For z4 =-1+i: tanθ = =-1, [2nd quadrant]  θ =
1 4
3π 3π
4 4
 TRANSFORMATION FROM z = r (cosθ+isinθ) TO z = x+yi
This is much easier! We just perform the operations! In fact, the

polar form is also Cartesian:
z = r(cosθ+isinθ) = rcosθ + irsinθ x=rcosθ, y=rsinθ
For example,
π π 1 3
the Cartesian form of z = 2(cos +isin ) is 2( +i ) = 1+ 3 i
3 3 2 2
NOTICE for the GDC
GDC transforms one form to another. For Casio use:
Run-Matrix – OPTN – COMPLEX - ►r<θ or ►a+bi
13
 CIS FORM: z=rcisθ
There is an abbreviation for the polar form

z = r (cosθ+isinθ).
It is sometimes written as
z = rcisθ.
π π π
For example, z =2(cos +isin ) = 2cis .
3 3 3
 EULER’S FORM: z=reiθ
Another abbreviation is due to Euler.
We define†
eiθ=cosθ+isinθ
Consequently, the trigonometric form z=r(cosθ+isinθ) obtains the

form
z=reiθ
π
π π i
For example, z =2(cos +isin ) = 2 e 3 .
3 3
EXAMPLE 5
Write down all the possible forms of z1=1+i , z2 =3+4i, z3 =3+4i
Cartesian Polar form cis form Euler form
π π π π
1+i 2(cos +isin ) 2 cis 2e
i
4
4 4 4
3+4i 5[cos(0.927)+isin(0.927)] 5cis(0.927) 5 e0.927i
3-4i 5[cos(-0.927)+isin(-0.927)] 5cis(-0.927) 5 e-0.927i
† This is not accidental! It can be shown that eiθ follows all known exponential properties
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NOTICE
 Any complex number with modulus 1 has polar form
z = cisθ = cosθ+isinθ
(Indeed, |z|= cos 2 θ  sin 2 θ =1)
For any z given in polar form we know |z|. For example,
if z = 23cis3π = 23(cos3π+isin3π) then |z|=23
 For real numbers  a (on the horizontal, real axis)

the polar form is immediate, since
- the argument of a positive real number is 0
- the argument of a negative real number is π.
1 cis0 ei0 -1 cisπ eiπ
2 2cis0 2 ei0 -2 2cisπ 2 eiπ
3 3cis0 3 ei0 -3 3cisπ 3 eiπ
... ...
 For imaginary numbers of the form ai : (on the imaginary axis)
the argument is either π/2 or -π/2.
π  π
i cis eiπ/2 -i cis -  e-iπ/2
2  2
π  π
2i 2cis 2eiπ/2 -2i 2cis -  2e-iπ/2
2  2
π  π
3i 3cis 3eiπ/2 -3i 3cis -  3e-iπ/2
2  2
... ...
 The conjugate of z = r (cosθ+isinθ) is z = r (cosθ-isinθ)
Attention!! The latter is not in polar form. We must have a (+)

sign in front of i. However, we know that
cos(-θ) = cosθ and sin(-θ) = -sinθ
Hence z = r [cos(-θ)+isin(-θ)]
Indeed, if arg(z)=θ then arg( z )=-θ
15
1.10 PRODUCTS, QUOTIENTS AND POWERS IN POLAR FORM
The polar form is convenient for multiplication, division and powers

of complex numbers:
For z1 = r1 cisθ1 and z2 = r2 cisθ2
z1 z2 = r1r2 cis(θ1+θ2)
z1 r
= 1 cis(θ1-θ2)
z2 r2
Notice that for z = r cisθ,

z2 = z z = r r cis(θ+θ) = r2 cis(2θ)
z3 = z2z = r2r cis(2θ+θ) = r3 cis(3θ)
We can generalize this result as follows:
For z = r cisθ
zn = rn cis(nθ) [De Moivre law]
NOTICE:
The modulus of z1z2 is r1r2: |z1z2| = |z1||z2|
z1 r z1 z1
The modulus of is 1 : =
z2 r2 z2 z2
The modulus of zn is rn: |zn| = |z|n
Also
The argument of z1z2 is θ1+θ2: arg(z1z2)=arg(z1)+arg(z2)
z1 z1
The argument of is θ1-θ2: arg( )=arg(z1)-arg(z2)
z2 z2
The argument of zn is nθ: arg(zn)=narg(z)
In other words,
the modulus |z| preserves the operations
the argument arg(z) behaves like log(z)
16
For example, if z = r cisθ and w = ρ cisφ

z3 r3
the modulus of is
w4 ρ4
z3
the argument of is 3θ–4φ
w4
In other words
z3 r3
= cis(3θ–4φ)
w4 ρ4
EXAMPLE 1
π π 1 3
Let z =2cis and w =cis (In fact, z = 3 +i and w = + i)
6 3 2 2
Then
π π 3π π
 zw =2.1 cis( + ) =2cis( ) = 2cis( )
6 3 6 2
π π
=2[cos( )+isin( )]=2(0+i) = 2i
2 2
z 2 π π π
 = cis( - ) = 2cis(- )
w 1 6 3 6
π π 3 1
= 2[cos(- )+isin(- )] =2( - i)= 3 -i
6 6 2 2
π π
 z2 =22 cis(2 ) = 4cis
6 3
π π 1 3
= 4(cos +isin ) =4( + i)=2+2 3 i
3 3 2 2
π π
 z3=23 cis(3 ) = 8cis =8i
6 2
π
 z6=26 cis(6 ) = 64cisπ =-64
6
π
 w6=16 cis(6 ) = cis2π = cis0 = 1
3
z 6 26 π π
 3
= 3 cis(6 -3 ) =64(cis0)= 64
w 1 6 3
60π
 z60 = 260cis =260 cis10π =260 cis0 =260
6
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EXAMPLE 2
Find (1+i)10 (without using a GDC!)
Solution
It is more convenient to use the polar form of 1+i:
r = 1+1  2
π
tanθ = 1  θ =
4
Thus
π
1+i= 2 cis
4
Then
10π 5π
(1+i)10=( 2 )10 cis =25 cis
4 2
5π π
But =2π+ , thus
2 2
π
(1+i)10 = 25 cis =32i
2
EXAMPLE 3
Let z = cisθ = cosθ+isinθ.
We calculate z2 in two different ways:
 De Moivre’s theorem gives
z2 = cis2θ = cos2θ+isin2θ
 The identity (a+b)2 gives
z2 =(cosθ+isinθ)2
=cos2θ+2cosθ(isinθ)+(isinθ)2
=(cos2θ-sin2θ) +i(2sinθcosθ)
By comparing the two results we obtain the identities
cos2θ = cos2θ-sin2θ
sin2θ = 2sinθcosθ
18
 GEOMETRICAL INTERPRETATION OF MULTIPLICATION
Let P be the point on the Complex plane which represents

w=2cisθ
- P is on a circle of radius 2 (centre at the origin)
- The line OP forms an angle θ with x-axis.
 If we multiply w by z=3, the result is zw=6cisθ.

The image point Q is on a circle of radius 6:
(enlargement by scale factor 3)
19
 If we multiply w by z= cisφ, the result is zw=2cis(θ+φ).

The image line OQ forms an angle θ+φ with x-axis
(rotation by angle φ)
 If we multiply w by z=3cisφ, the result is zw=6cis(θ+φ).

Q is on a circle of radius 6; OQ forms an angle θ+φ with x-axis
(rotation by angle φ and enlargement by scale factor 3)
20
1.11 ADDING SINUSOIDAL FUNCTIONS
In this section we use the polar form (in fact the Euler form) in
order to express
A1cos(x+θ1) + Α2cos(x+θ2) as a single function Αcos(x+θ)
A1sin(x+θ1) + Α2sin(x+θ2) as a single function Αsin(x+θ)
We use the fact that

Acos(x+θ) and Asin(x+θ)
are the real and the imaginary parts, respectively,
of the complex number
A[cos(x+θ)+isin(x+θ)], that is of Aei(x+θ)
For example, let

π
f(x)=4cosx and g(x)=3cos(x+ )
4
We want to express f(x)+g(x) in the form Acos(x+θ)
But f(x)=4cosx is the real part of 4eix

π
π i(x  )
g(x)=3cos(x+ ) is the real part of 3 e 4
4
Then f(x)+g(x) is the real part of the complex number

π π
i(x  ) i
4eix+3 e 4 = 4eix+3eix e 4
π
i
= eix(4+3 e 4 )
= eix(6.48e0.334i) [by GDC]
= 6.48ei(x+0.334)
Therefore,
f(x)+g(x) = 6.48cos(x+0.334)
Remark
Use your GDC to check that the graphs of the functions
π
y = 4cosx + 3cos(x+ )
4
y = 6.48cos(x+0.334)
coincide.
21
In many applications in physics a sine wave (or sinusoid) is a curve

that describes a periodic oscillation (e.g. wind wave, sound wave,
light wave). It is a function of time (usually in seconds) of the form
Asin(ωt+φ) [or Acos(ωt+φ)]

where
A = amplitude
ω = angular frequency (ω=2πf, f=the number of cycles per second)
φ = phase
When we add sine waves of the same angular frequency we obtain

a sine curve of the same angular frequency.
Our previous example can be viewed as follows: for 2 waves

π
V1(t)=4cosωt, V2(t)=3cos(ωt+ )
4
the sum has the form
V(t)=6.48cos(ωt+0.334)
which is a wave of the same frequency.
EXAMPLE 1
Consider the waves of angular frequency 4
V1(t)=7sin(4t-1) and V2(t)=2sin(4t+3)
Express V1(t)+V2(t) in the form V(t)=Asin(4t+φ)
Solution
V1(t) is the imaginary part of z1=7ei(4t-1)
V2(t) is the imaginary part of z2=2ei(4t+3)
Then
z1+z2=7e4ite-i +2e4ite3i
= e4it (7e-i +2e3i)
= e4it(5.89e-1.26i) [by GDC]
= 5.89ei(4t-1.26)
But V(t) is the imaginary part of z1+z2, that is
V(t) = 5.89sin(4t-1.26)
22
23
24
1.12 DEFINITION OF A MATRIX – MATRIX OPERATIONS
 A matrix is simply a rectangular array of numbers (called

elements). Some typical examples:
 4 8 
 
 1 2 7 4 6   2.5 4 
     0
 3 0 5   2 11  1/2 
 
 1 3.1 

A matrix is usually denoted by a capital letter, say

 4 8 
 
 1 2 7 4 6   2.5 4 
A=   B=   C= 
 3 0 5   2 11  0 1/2 
 
 1 3.1 

The first matrix above has 2 rows and 3 columns.
We say that A is a 2×3 (“two by three”) matrix, or otherwise that

the order of A is 2×3.
Likewise, B is a 2×2 matrix while C is a 4×2 matrix.
The general form of a 2×3 matrix is
 a11 a12 a13 

A=  
 a 21 a 22 a 23 
(notice that a23 for example is the element in row 2 and column 3)
 SQUARE MATRICES
No of rows = No of columns
The order of a square matrix is nxn, eg. 2×2, 3×3, 4×4 etc.
(in this case we may also say: “a square matrix of order n”.
For example,
25
 a 11 a 12 a 13 
 4 6  
   a 21 a 22 a 23 
5 2 a a 32 a 33 
 31
are square matrices of order 2 and 3 respectively.
We also say that the elements a11, a22, a33 … (indicated above)
form the main diagonal of the square matrix.
 ROW MATRICES
Matrices of order 1×n
For example
A= 2 7 3 is a 1×3 row matrix
B=(4 2 6 -1 0 6) is a 1×6 row matrix
 COLUMN MATRICES (or VECTORS)
Matrices of order m×1
For example,
1
  - 1 
A=  4  is a 3×1 vector B=   is a 2×1 vector
2  3 
 
Notice: Matrices of order 1×1 are also defined, for example C=(5).
 THE ZERO MATRIX 0
All elements are 0
0 0 0
The 2×3 zero matrix is 0 =  
0 0 0
0 0
The 2×2 zero matrix is O =   and so on!
0 0
26
 EQUAL MATRICES: A=B
A=B if  A and B have the same order

 the corresponding elements are equal
EXAMPLE 1
2 x  1 2 3  y 7  s t u
A=   B=   C=   D=  
 a 3 2 3 0  0 3 v w 7
It cannot be A=B since A is 2×2 while B is 2×3
A=C implies y=2, x=7, a=0
(3=3 holds anyway!)
B D since 0  7 (although both are 2×3)
Let A and B have the same order. We define some new matrices:
 THE SUM A+B
we simply add the corresponding elements
 THE DIFFERENCE A-B
we simply subtract the corresponding elements
 THE SCALAR PRODUCT nA (n is a scalar, i.e. a number)
we simply multiply each element of A by n
27
EXAMPLE 2
1 2 3 3 5 0
A=   B=  
4 1 5  2 3 7 
Then
4 7 3  - 2 - 3 3   2 3 -3
A+B=   A-B=   B-A=  
 6 4 12   2 - 2 - 2 - 2 2 2 
 3 6 9   -3 -6 -9  -1 -2 -3
3A=   -3A=   -A=-1A=  
 12 3 15  -12 -3 -15 -4 -1 -5
1  1/2 1 3/2   0.5 1 1.5 

A=   or 0.5A=  
2  2 1/2 5/2   1 0.5 2.5 
Finally,
1 2 3 3 5 0
2A+3B = 2   +3  
4 1 5  2 3 7 
 2 4 6   9 15 0 
=   +  
 8 2 10   6 9 21 
 11 19 6 
=  
 14 11 31 
EXAMPLE 3
1 2  2 0 
Let A=   and B=   . Find the matrix X if
3 4 5 - 1
2A+X=3B
Method 1:
a b 
X must be of order 2×2. Suppose that X=  
 c d
Then
1 2  a b  2 0 
2A+X=3B  2   +   =3  
3 4   c d 5 - 1
28
 2 4 a b   6 0 
   +   =  
 6 8   c d   15 - 3 
 2  a 4  b  6 0 
   =  
 6  c 8  d   15 - 3 
Hence,
2+a=6  a=4 4+b=0  b=-4
6+c=15  c=9 8+d=-3  d=-11
Therefore,
4 - 4 
X=  
 9 - 11 
Method 2:
We solve for X (as a usual equation)
2A+X=3B  X=3B-2A
2 0  1 2 
 X=3   -2  
5 - 1 3 4
 6 0  2 4
 X=   -  
 15 - 3   6 8 
4 - 4 
 X=  
 9 - 11 
The following operation is the most important one for matrices
 THE PRODUCT OF TWO MATRICES: AB
1 2   2 3
    = ?
3 4  5 1
 2 6
It is NOT   as someone would expect!! Here, we do not
 15 4 
multiply the corresponding elements.
29
Let us start by a SPECIAL CASE. We multiply a row-matrix by a

column-matrix:
x
 
a b c  y  = (ax+by+cz)
 z
 
Notice that we multiply the corresponding elements and add the

results. For example,
3
 
2 3 5   4  = (2.3+3.4+5.1)=(23)
1
 
Now we are ready to multiply two matrices A and B in general.

First of all, the orders of A and B must be as follows:
A B
m × k k × n
That is,
number of columns of A = number of rows of B.
The order of the new matrix AB will be m × n

For example,
order of A order of B order of AB
3× 5 5×8 3×8
3× 2 2×1 3×1
2× 2 2×2 2×2
2× 3 2×3 not defined
The multiplication takes place as follows:
 we multiply rows of A by columns of B
 (row i) x (column j) will give the element aij
Ok, it seems complicated!!! Relax, take it easy!!!! Look at the

following description:
30
Let
a x 
 1 2 3  
A=   B=  b y 
 4 5 6 c z
 
Notice that the order of AB is expected to be 2×2
 For the first row of AB:

multiply row 1 of A by each column of B separately:
 a x 
 1 2 3   1a  2b  3c 1x  2y 3z 
AB =    b y  =  
 4 5 6  c z     
 
 For the second row of AB:

multiply row 2 of A by each column of B separately:
 a x 
 1 2 3   1a 2b3c 1x 2y3z
AB =    b y  =  

 4 5 6  c z   4a 5b5c 4x 5y6z
 
EXAMPLE 4
2 5 
 1 2 3  
A=   B=  3 3 
 4 5 6 1 2
 
Then
2   5
1 2 3   =  11  1 2 3    17 
  3       3  =  
  1        
   2  
2   5
  =       
3  = 
  3   29    
 4 5 6  1     4 5 6  2  
 47 
  
In fact, we calculate all the resulting elements in one step:
2 5 
 1 2 3    11 17 
AB=    3 3  =  
 4 5 6   1 2   29 47 
 
31
EXAMPLE 5
Consider again the matrices A and B above. Let us find the product
BA. Notice that the order is expected to be 3x3.
We obtain
2 5   2  20 4  25 6  30 
   1 2 3  
BA=  3 3    =  3  12 6  15 9  18 
 1 2   4 5 6   1  8 2  10 3  12 
   
 22 29 36 
 
=  15 21 27 
 9 12 15 
 
NOTICE: In general
AB  BA
They may be of different order, or perhaps only one the products

could be defined (eg. if A is a 2x3 and B is 3x5)
Even if both matrices A and B are square matrices, say 2x2, the
resulting 2x2 matrices AB and BA are not equal in general.
EXAMPLE 6
1 2  1 1
Let A=   and B=   . Then
3 4 0 2
1 2   1 1  1 5   1 1  1 2   4 6
AB=     =   while BA=     =  
 3 4   0 2   3 11   0 2  3 4   6 8
Sometimes though, it happens AB=BA. Then we say that matrices

A and B commute.
32
EXAMPLE 7
1 2  5 4 
Let A=   and B=   . Then
3 4  6 11 
 1 2   5 4  17 26  5 4   1 2   17 26
AB=     =   and BA=     =  
 3 4   6 11   39 56  6 11   3 4   39 56
The following square matrix plays a key role in our theory.
 THE IDENTITY MATRIX I
1 in the main diagonal

0 elsewhere
Namely,
1 0 0 0
1 0 0  
1 0   0 1 0 0
I=   or I=  0 1 0  or I=  etc
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
   
0 0 0 1 

EXAMPLE 8
a b  1 0
Let A=   and I=   .
 c d 0 1
Then
a b   1 0 a b   1 0 a b  a b 
AI=     =   =A and IA=     =   =A
 c d 0 1  c d 0 1  c d  c d
In general, for any matrix A
AI=A and IA=A
(provided that the orders of A and I are appropriate!)
In other words, the identity matrix I plays the role of 1 (unit)

when we multiply matrices!
33
 PROPERTIES OF MATRIX OPERATIONS
The following properties hold
For addition of matrices
A+B = B +A Commutative law
(A+B)+C = A+(B+C) Associative law
A+O = A = O+A O is the identity for addition
For multiplication of matrices
(AB)C = A(BC) Associative law
AI = A = IA I is the identity for multiplication
Remember that the commutative law does not hold for

multiplication, i.e. AB ≠ BA in general.
For addition and multiplication of matrices together
(A+B)C = AC+BC
Distributive laws
C(A+B) = CA + CB
For multiplication by scalars m,nR
m(A+B) = mA+mB
Distributive laws
(m+n)A = mA+nA
m(nA) = (mn)A
34
1.13 THE DETERMINANT detA – THE INVERSE A-1
 2x2 DETERMINANT
a b 
Let A=   . The determinant of A is the number
 c d
detA= ad-bc
It is also denoted by
a b  a b
det   =ad-bc or =ad-bc
 c d c d
EXAMPLE 1
5 2  5 2
Let A=   . Then detA= = 5  4  2  3 =14
 3 4 3 4
2 - 4 2 -4
Let B=   . Then detB= =  12  12 =0
3 - 6 3 -6
EXAMPLE 2
Solve the equation

x -1
=0
2 x- 3
It is
x(x-3)+2=0  x2-3x+2=0  x=1 or x=2
 3x3 DETERMINANT
Let
 a1 a2 a3 
 
A=  b1 b2 b3  .
c c2 c3 
 1
In exams the 33 determinant, detA, will be asked only by GDC.
35
Although it is not in the syllabus, just for information we mention

the definition of the determinant of A. It is the number
detA = a1b2c3 + a2b3c1 + a3b1c2 – a1b3c2 – a2b1c3 – a3b2c1
Ok, I know, it looks horrible!!!!
A more elegant way to estimate detA is
b2 b3 b b3 b b2
a1 - a2 1 + a3 1
c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2
 We multiply the elements of the first row, a1, a2, a3, by three
smaller determinants respectively.
 For a1, the corresponding 2x2 determinant can be obtained if

we eliminate the row and the column of a1
 a1 a2 a3 
 
 b1 b2 b3 
c c2 c3 
 1
Similarly for a2 and a3.
 We alternate the signs (+ - +)
EXAMPLE 3
 2 3 4
 
Let A=  5 6 7  . Then
1 2 8
 
6 7 5 7 5 6
detA = 2 -3 +4 = 2.34-3.33+4.4 = -15
2 8 1 8 1 2
Notice: The following terminology is also used
If detA=0 we say that the matrix A is singular.
If detA  0 we say that the matrix A is non-singular.
36
Consider the following special cases:
 a x y a 0 0  a 0 0
     
A=  0 b z  B=  x b 0  C=  0 b 0 
0 0 c y z c  0 0 c 
     
Matrices like A are called upper-triangular. [0’s below main diagonal]
Matrices like B are called lower-triangular. [0’s above main diagonal]
Matrices like C are called diagonal. [0’s below & above main diagonal]
For the determinant of such a matrix we just multiply the

elements of the main diagonal.
detA=a.b.c detB= a.b.c detC= a.b.c
For example,
2 0 0 2 2 5
0 3 0  2  3  4  24 0 3 - 8  2  3  4  24
0 0 4 0 0 4
 THE INVERSE A-1 OF A 2X2 MATRIX
a b 
Let A=   . Given that detA  0 (and only then),
 c d
we define the inverse of A as follows
1  d - b
A-1 =  
detA - c a 
EXAMPLE 5
2 6
Let A=   . Then detA=2 and the inverse matrix is
1 4
1  4 - 6  2 - 3
A-1 =   =  
2 - 1 2  - 1/2 1 
2 8
Let B=   . Then detB=0 and hence, B-1 is not defined.
 1 4 
37
To justify the term “inverse”, let’s multiply the matrices A and A-1
of the example above.
2 6  2 - 3  1 0 
AA-1=     =   = I
 1 4  - 1/2 1   0 1 
 2 - 3  2 6   1 0 
A-1A=     =   = I
- 1/2 1   1 4   0 1 
This is not accidental! In general
AA-1 = I and A-1A = I
NOTICE: Compare with numbers
NUMBERS MATRICES
The inverse of number a is a-1 The inverse of a matrix A is A-1

aa-1=1 and a-1a=1 AA-1=I and A-1A=I
Is any number invertible? Is any Matrix invertible?
NO. Only if a  0 NO. Only if detA  0
(if a=0, a-1 is not defined) (if detA=0, A-1 is not defined)
If a is invertible then If A is invertible then

1 1  d - b
a-1= A-1=  
a detA - c a 
NOTICE
If AB=I or BA=I we know that A is invertible and B is the inverse of

A, that is
A-1 = B
(B is also invertible and B-1 = A).
38
 THE INVERSE A-1 OF A 3X3 MATRIX
The explicit formula for A-1 is out of our scope! It is enough to

know that
 A-1 exists only if detA  0
 AA-1=I and A-1A=I
 If AB=I or BA=I then B is the inverse of A
 A-1 can be found by GDC.
EXAMPLE 6
2 5 1 0 3 - 2 
   
Let A=  3 2 0  , B=  0 - 4 3 
4 3 0  1 14 - 11 
   
a) Find AB and BA
b) Find the inverse of A
c) Find the inverse of B
Solution
a) We can easily verify that AB=I and BA=I
b) Clearly A-1=B (the GDC also gives the same result)
c) Similarly, B-1=A (the GDC also gives the same result)
Notice that we cannot divide matrices, for example

B
is not defined.
A
However, we can multiply B by A-1, either as BA-1 or as A-1B,
according to the situation.
The following example will be characteristic:
39
EXAMPLE 6
2 6  20 28
Let A=   and C=   . Find B given that AB=C
1 4  13 18 
Solution
Method 1: (analytical)
a b   2 6   a b   2a  6c 2b  6d 
Let B=   . Then AB=     =  
 c d  1 4   c d   a  4c b  4d 
Then AB=C implies
 2a  6c 2b  6d   20 28
 = 
 a  4c b  4d   13 18 
That is,
2a+6c=20 2b+6d=28
a+4c=13 b+4d=18
The first two equations give a=1, c=3

The second two equations give b=2, d=4.
Therefore,
1 2 
B=   .
3 4
A much more practical method is the following
Method 2: (solve for B)
 2 - 3
The matrix A is invertible with A-1 =   .
- 1/2 1 
Thus, we may multiply both parts of AB=C by A-1 on the left
AB=C  A-1AB=A-1C  IB= A-1C  B=A-1C

Hence
 2 - 3   20 28  1 2 
B=     =  
- 1/2 1   13 18   3 4 
40
1.14 MATRIX EQUATIONS – THE LINEAR SYSTEM AX=B
 MATRIX EQUATIONS
An equation of matrices may involve an unknown matrix X.
Suppose that the matrices A, B and C are given.

Find the unknown matrix X in each of the following equations:
Matrix equation Solution
A+X=B X=B-A
2A+X=3B X=3B-2A
1
-3A+2X=5B 2X=3A+5B  X= (3A+5B)
2
AX=B X=A-1B (mind the order!)
XA=B X=BA-1 (mind the order!)
AXB=C X=A-1CB-1
AX+B=A AX=A-B  X=A-1(A-B)  X=I-A-1B
XA-B=XC XA-XC=B  X(A-C)=B  X=B(A-C)-1
AX+X=B (A+I)X=B  X=(A+I)-1B
(provided that the sizes of the matrices involved are appropriate)
Let us solve in detail some of the above equations:
EXAMPLE 7
2 5  3 4
Let A=   and B=   .
1 3 1 2 
Solve the equations
(a) -3A+2X=5B (b) AX =B (c) XA=B
(d) AX+B=A (e) AX+X=B
41
Solution
(a) -3A+2X=5B  X = 1/2(3A+5B)
 21 35   21/2 35/2 
 X = 1/2   =  
 8 19   4 19/2 
(b) AX =B  X = A-1B
 3 - 5  3 4
 X =    
- 1 2   1 2 
 4 2
 X =  
- 1 0 
(c) XA =B  X = BA-1
3 4  3 - 5 
 X =    
 1 2  - 1 2 
5 -7 
 X =  
 1 - 1
(d) AX+B=A  X = I-A-1B
1 0  4 2
 X =   -  
0 1 - 1 0 
- 3 - 2 
 X =  
 1 1 
(e) AX+X=B  X = (A+I)-1B

1
3 5  3 4 
 X =    
1 4  1 2 
1 4 -5 3 4 
 X=    
7 - 1 3  1 2 
1  7 6   1 6/7 
 X=   = 
7  0 2   0 2/7 
42
 SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS – THE EQUATION AX=B
Consider the 2×2 system (2 equations, 2 unknowns)
2x+3y=9
4x+7y=19
If we solve it in the traditional way (or by GDC) we will find:
x=3 and y=1 (check!)
We can describe this system by using matrices.
Let
 2 3
A=   the matrix of coefficients
4 7
x
X=   the vector of unknowns
 y
 9 
B=   the vector of constants
 19 
The equation of matrices AX=B is equivalent to
 2 3  x   9   2x  3y   9 
    =   , that is   =  
 4 7   y   19   4x  7y   19 
which gives in fact the system of linear equations above!
Consider now a 3×3 system:
5x+11y-21z = -22
x +2y -4z = -4
3x -2y +3z = 11
Again, if
 5 11 - 21  x - 22 
     
A=  1 2 4  X=  y  B=  - 4 
3  2 3   z  11 
    
the system can be written in the form AX=B.
43
In general, any system of n linear equations and n unknowns (that

is n×n) can be expressed in the form
AX=B
Hence, if A is invertible (that is if detA  0) the solution is given by
X=A-1B
EXAMPLE 1
Consider the 2x2 system given above
2x+3y=9
4x+7y=19
which can be written in the form AX=B.
2 3
Since detA= =2  0,
4 7
1  7 - 3  7/2 - 3/2 
A-1=   =  
2 - 4 2   - 2 1 
The solution of the system is given by
7/2 - 3/2   9   3
X = A-1B =     =  
-2 1   19  1
In other words, x=3 and y=1.
EXAMPLE 2
Consider the 3x3 system given above
5x+11y-21z = -22
x +2y -4z = -4
3x -2y +3z = 11
which can be written in the form AX=B.
44
The GDC gives
 2/7  9/7 2/7 

 
A-1 =  15/7  78/7 1/7 
 8/7  43/7 1/7 
 
The solution of the system is given by
 2/7  9/7 2/7  - 22   2

    
X = A-1B =  15/7  78/7 1/7   - 4  = - 1 
 8/7  43/7 1/7   11   1
    
EXAMPLE 3
0 3 - 2  2 5 1 1 1 1
       
Let A=  0 - 4 3 , A΄=  3 2 0  , B=  1  , C=  1 1 
 1 14 - 11  4 3 0 1 1 1
       
a) Find AA΄. What do you deduce?
b) Write down the system of three linear equations which

corresponds to the matrix equation AX=B
c) Solve the system of linear equations AX=B
d) Solve the matrix equation AX=C (this is not a system)
Solution
a) We easily obtain AA΄=I. So A and A΄ are inverse to each other.
A΄= A-1
b) 3y -2z = 1
-4y +3z = 1
x+14y-11z = 1
 2 5 1  1  8
     
c) AX=B  X=A-1B  X=  3 2 0  1   X=  5 
 4 3 0  1  7 
    
That is x=8, y=5, z=7
 2 5 1  1 1 8 8
    
d) AX=C  X=A-1C  X=  3 2 0  1 1  X= 5 5
 4 3 0  1 1 7 7
    
45
Notice though that if A is not invertible (A-1 does not exist) the
system AX=B cannot be solved in this way. In general,
for the system AX=B
detA  0
 UNIQUE SOLUTION X=A-1B
(A-1 exists)
detA=0  NO SOLUTION, or
(A-1 doesn’t exist)
 INFINITELY MANY () SOLUTIONS
REMARK. Compare with numbers. For the equation ax=b
a 0
b
1  Unique solution x= .
(a-1= exists) a
a
 No solution
a=0 (e.g. 0x=5 has no solution)
(a-1 doesn’t exist)  Infinitely many solutions
(e.g. 0x=0, true for any xєR)
In IB exams, A will always be invertible (detA≠0, unique solution).
However, it is worth to see two examples of systems of linear

equations, where detA=0
EXAMPLE 4
Consider the systems
(a) x+2y=1 (b) x+2y=1
2x+4y=5 2x+4y=2
1 2
For both detA= =0,
2 4
so the systems have either no solution or an  number of solutions.
46
We multiply the first solution by 2 and obtain 2x+4y=2. Hence the

two systems take the equivalent form
(a) 2x+4y=2 (b) 2x+4y=2
2x+4y=5 2x+4y=2
 System (a) has no solution (impossible) [check also by GDC]
 System (b) reduces to just one equation: x+2y=1.
There are infinitely many solutions (all points of the line x+2y=1)
If we solve for x: x=1-2y,

y  R (free variable). [check also by GDC]
x
In fact, for each value of y we obtain a different solution   :
 y
1 -1  -3 
for y=0:   , for y=1:   , for y=2:   etc
0 1 2
For 3x3 systems with detA=0, the GDC gives the answer.
EXAMPLE 5
Consider the systems
(a) 2x +3y +3z = 3 (b) 2x +3y +3z = 3
x + y -2z = 4 x + y -2z = 4
5x +7y +4z = 5 5x +7y +4z = 10
2 3 3
For both systems detA  1 2 - 2 =0
5 7 4
The GDC gives
(a) the system has no solution.
(b) the system has infinitely many solutions
x = 14 + 16z
y = -5 + 7z
z  R (free variable)
47
1.15 TRANSFORMATION MATRICES
Any 2×2 matrix M maps a point P(x,y) to another point P΄(x΄,y΄).
x
For our purpose we express the point (x,y) as a vector   .
 y
a b 
Let M=   . Then
 c d
 a b   x   ax + by 
    = 
 c d   y   cx + dy 
We call
x  = ax + by
y = cx + dy
x  x 
In this way, M maps   to  
 y  y 
1 2 1
For example, if M=   , for the vector   , we obtain
3 4 1
 1 2   1  3
    = 
 3 4   1  7 
Thus, the matrix M maps the point A(1,1) to the point A΄(3,7).
In general,
 1 2   x   x + 2y   x    x + 2y 
    =  i.e.   =  
 3 4   y   3x + 4y   y   3x + 4y 
In this way we can find the image of several points. M maps
0 0 1 3 -1  3

 ֏  ,  ֏  ,  ֏  , etc.
0 0 1 7  2 5 
or, if we express the points in the traditional coordinate-form,
O(0,0) to O΄(0,0),
A(1,1) to A΄(3,7),
B(1,2) to B΄(3,5), etc.
48
This kind of mapping is known as linear transformation. A linear

transformation maps, not only points to points but a whole shape
to a new shape, e.g. a line to a line, a triangle to a triangle, etc.
For example, the transformation above maps
the straight line passing through O(0,0) and A(1,1)

to the straight line passing through O΄(0,0) and A΄(3,7).
It also maps
the triangle OAB with vertices O(0,0), A(1,1) and B(-1,2)

to the triangle O΄A΄B΄ with vertices O΄(0,0), A΄(3,7) and B΄(3,5).
49
 BASIC TRANSFORMATION MATRICES
 k 0 horizontal stretch
 
0 1 with a scale factor of k
1 0 vertical stretch
 
0 k  with a scale factor of k
 k 0 enlargement,
 
0 k  with a scale factor of k, centre (0,0)
 cosθ -sinθ  anticlockwise rotation

 
 sinθ cosθ  of angle θ about the origin
 cosθ sinθ  clockwise rotation

 
-sinθ cosθ  of angle θ about the origin
 cos2θ sin2θ  reflection

 
 sin2θ -cos2θ  in the line y = mx where m=tanθ
EXAMPLE 1
3 0 x  3x 
The matrix A=   maps  y  to  y  . Indeed,
0 1    
 3 0   x   3x 
    = 
 0 1   y  y 
Thus, it stretches each point horizontally with a scale factor of 3.

It also stretches any shape horizontally with a scale factor of 3.
For example, it maps
the triangle OAB with vertices O(0,0), A(2,0), B(1,1)
to the triangle O΄A΄B΄ with vertices O΄(0,0), A΄(6,0), B΄(3,1)
50
EXAMPLE 2
Consider again the triangle OAB with O(0,0), A(2,0), B(1,1).
The image of the triangle under the following transformations is

shown in the 3rd column.
1 0 vertical stretch
 
0 2 with a scale factor of 2
enlargement,
2 0
  with a scale factor of 2,
0 2
centre (0,0)
clockwise rotation
 0 1
  of angle θ=9Ο°
-1 0 
about the origin
reflection
0 1
  in the line y = x
1 0
(m=tan45°=1)
51
 COMPOSITION OF TRANSFORMATIONS
x
If vector   is transformed
 y
by matrix A,
then by matrix B,
then by matrix C,
we obtain
x x x x
  ֏ A   ֏ BA   ֏ CBA  
 y  y  y  y
Hence, the composition the 3 transformations can be achieved by

the product of the 3 matrices (in the reverse order).
EXAMPLE 3
x
Let   be transformed by
 y
3 0
a horizontal stretch with a scale factor of 3: A=  
0 1
0 1
and a clockwise rotation of angle θ=9Ο°: B=  
-1 0
x  3 0   x   3x 
Then   ֏    = 
 y  0 1   y  y 
 3x   0 1   3x   y 
and then  ֏  = 
 y  -1 0   y  -3x 
We obtain the same result by applying the transformation matrix
 0 1 3 0  0 1
BA=    = 
-1 0   0 1  -3 0 
Indeed,
 0 1 x  y 
    = .
-3 0   y  -3x 
In general, the composition of n transformations with matrices

A1, A2, …, An
can be achieved by the product of matrices An ⋯ A2A1
52
 AN INTERESTING PROPERTY OF THE DETERMINANT.

Suppose that a transformation matrix M maps a closed shape S to
a new shape S΄. Then
(Area of S΄) = |detM| × (Area of S)
EXAMPLE 4
In Example 2, the original triangle OAB has area 1.
vertical stretch
detM=2
1 0
M=  
0 2 Area of image = 2
enlargement
detM=4
2 0
M=  
clockwise rotation 9Ο°
detM=1
 0 1
M=  
-1 0  Area of image = 1
Reflection in y = x
detM=-1
0 1
M=  
53
 AFFINE TRANSFORMATIONS
We can extend the linear transformations described in this
e
paragraph by also adding a translation vector   :
f 
 a b   x   e   ax + by   e   ax + by + e 
    +  = + =  
 c d   y   f   cx + dy   f   cx + dy + f 
a b 
If   is the identity matrix, we simply have a translation
 c d
 x  e  x + e
  + = 
 y f   y+f 
These transformations are known as affine transformations.
EXAMPLE 5
The transformation
1 0  x   3  x   3  x +3
    +  =  +  = 
 0 1   y 5   y 5   y+5 
translates each point (x,y)
horizontally by 3 units to the right
vertically by 5 units up
For example, the image of the point (1,2) is the point (4,7).
EXAMPLE 6
The transformation
 1 2   x   5   x + 2y + 5 
    +  = 
 3 4   y   6   3x + 4y +6 
maps
0 5  1 6 1  8 
  ֏  ,   ֏  ,  ֏ , etc.
0 6 0 9  1  13 
54
1.16 EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS
Consider
1 3
A   
4 2
3
Observe what happens when we multiply Α by vector u    .
4
 1 3   3   15  3
Au          5    5u
 4 2   4   20  4
We obtain a multiple of u. In such a case we say that 5 is an

eigenvalue of the matrix A and u is a corresponding eigenvector.
Our task here is to find all those characteristic vectors.
Let A be a square nn matrix. The value λ  R is said to be an

eigenvalue of Α if there exists a non-zero vector u such that
Au  λu
Such a vector is called eigenvector (corresponding to eigenvalue λ).
 FINDING EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS
Notice that
λ is an eigenvalue of Α  Au  λu for some u  0

 Au  λu  0 for some u  0
 (A  λI)u  0 for some u  0
 the system (A  λI)X = 0 has a nonzero solution
 A  λI has no inverse
 det(A  λI)  0
a b 
For a 22 matrix A    , the expression det(A  λI) is
 c d
aλ b
= (a-λ)(d-λ)-bc=0 = λ2-(a+d)λ+ ad-bc
c dλ
This is known as the characteristic polynomial of matrix A.
Notice that the constant term is detA.
55
In practice:
 We find the eigenvalues by solving det(A  λI)  0
 For each eigenvalue λ, we solve the corresponding system
(A  λI)X =0
to find the eigenvectors.
The following example will clarify the process:
EXAMPLE 1
1 3
Consider again A   
4 2
1λ 3
det(A  λI) = = λ 2  3λ  10
4 2λ
There are two eigenvalues: λ  5 , λ  2 .
-4 3
 For λ  5 , the determinant becomes . Solve the system
4 -3
- 4x  3y  0
4x  3y  0
In fact, it is enough to use the 1st equation to find the ratio x/y:
x 3
- 4x  3y  0  4x  3y  
y 4
The corresponding eigenvectors are
 x  3 3
     t [i.e.   as well as all its multiples)]
 y  4   4
3 3
 For λ  2 , the determinant becomes . Solve the system
4 4
3x  3y  0
4x  4y  0
Again we use the 1st equation to find the ratio x/y:

x
3x  3y  0  x  y  0  x  -y   -1
y
The corresponding eigenvectors are
 x  - 1  -1 
     t [i.e.   as well as all its multiples)]
 y  1  1
56
NOTICE
The characteristic polynomial for 22 matrices is a quadratic so it

has either two or one or no real eigenvalues. For example,
3  1
 The matrix A    has only one eigenvalue, λ  4 (check!)
1 5 
So there is only one eigenvector (together with all its multiples).
 x  - 1 
     t
 y  1 
- 1  1 
 The matrix A    has no real eigenvalues (check!).
 2 1 
So there are no eigenvectors with real coefficients.
These two cases are out of the scope of this course. We only
consider matrices with two distinct eigenvalues.
 DIAGONALISATION
For two matrices A and B we say that B is similar to A if
B  P 1 AP
for some invertible matrix P. We write B ∼ A
NOTICE
 A ∼ B: any matrix is similar to itself, since A  I 1 AI
 B ∼ A  A ∼ B: if B is similar to A, then A is similar to B, since
B  P 1 AP  A  PBP 1 [notice that P  (P 1 )1 ]
Thus we can simply say that A and B are similar.
 C ∼ B and B ∼ A  C ∼ A: if C is similar to B and B is similar to A,

then C is similar to A. Indeed,
C  Q1BQ and B  P 1 AP implies

C  Q 1 (P 1 AP)Q  (PQ) 1 A(PQ) [notice that (PQ)1  Q1P 1 ]
57
Any 22 matrix with two distinct eigenvalues λ1 and λ2 is similar

to the diagonal matrix
λ 0
D   1 
0 λ 2 
We are going to explain the process of diagonalization by using the
example 1.
The matrix
1 3
A   
4 2
has two eigenvalues λ  5 , λ  2 with corresponding eigenvectors
3 - 1 
  t and   t
4  1 
Let
5 0   3  1
D    and P   
0  2 4 1 
Then
P 1 AP = D
Indeed, by using a GDC we can verify that
 1 1   1 3   3  1 5 0 
P 1 AP   7 7     
 4 3   4 2   4 1   0  2 
 7 7
NOTICE.
We could also consider the eigenvalues in the opposite order.
Then
- 2 0  - 1 3 
D    and P   
 0 5  1 4
and finally
- 2 0 
P 1 AP   
 0 5
58
A nice application of the diagonalization is derived by the following

observation:
P 1 AP = D implies A  PDP 1
Then
A n  (PDP 1 ) (PDP 1 ) ⋯ (PDP 1 )  PD n P 1
But for a diagonal matrix D, it is easy to find the power D n :
λ n 0 
Dn   1
 0 λ 2 
n

EXAMPLE 2
1 3
For A    , find an expression of A n in terms of n.
 4 2 
Diagonalization gave us
A  PDP 1
where
5 0   3  1 1  1 1
D    , P    , P 1   
0  2 4 1  7   4 3 
Then
A n  PD n P 1
 3  1 5 n 0  1  1 1
      
4 1   0 ( 2) n  7   4 3 
1 35 n  ( 2) n   1 1
    
7  4  5 n ( 2) n    4 3
1  3  5 n  4  (2) n 3  5 n  3  ( 2) n 
  
7  4  5 n  4  ( 2) n 4  5 n  3  ( 2) n 
For example
 277 261   836761 837273 

A 4    and A 9   
 348 364   1116364 1115852 
(check by your GDC!).
59
 A NICE PROPERTY OF THE CHARACTERISTIC POLYNOMIAL
Let us close this section by a surprising property of the

characteristic polynomial. We have seen that the characteristic
polynomial of the matrix
1 3
A   
4 2
is
1λ 3
det(A  λI) = = λ 2  3λ  10
4 2λ
A well-known result (known as Cayley-Hamilton theorem) says
that the matrix A satisfies the characteristic equation
A 2  3A  10 I  O .
(where I is the identity matrix).
Indeed,
2
1 3 1 3 1 0
A 2  3A  10 I     3   10 
 4 2   4 2  0 1
 13 9   3 9   10 0  0 0
         =  
 12 16   12 6   0 10  0 0
This relation helps us to express, the inverse A-1 as well as the

powers An in terms of A:
1
A 2  3A  10 I  O  A 2  3A  10 I  I  (A 2  3A)
10
If we multiply by A-1 we obtain
1
A 1  (A  3I)
10
Also, we can express A2, A3, A3 in terms of A and I as follows:
A 2  3A  10 I  O  A 2  3A  10I
A 3  A 2 A  (3A  10I)A  3A 2  10A  3(3A  10I)  10A  19A  30I
A 4  A 3 A  (19A  30I)A  19A 2  30A  19(3A  10I)  30A  87A  190I
etc.
60

Topic 1B. Complex Numbers - Matrices

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International Baccalaureate

1.8 COMPLEX NUMBERS – BASIC OPERATIONS …………………………………….. 1

1.9 THE COMPLEX PLANE …………………………………………..……………………………… 9

1.10 PRODUCTS, QUOTIENTS AND POWERS IN POLAR FORM ……………….. 16

1.11 ADDING SINUSOIDAL FUNCTIONS ………………………………………………………. 21

1.12 DEFINITION OF A MATRIX – MATRIX OPERATIONS ….……………………… 25

1.13 THE DETERMINANT detA – THE INVERSE A-1 ………………………………….. 35

1.14 MATRIX EQUATIONS – THE LINEAR SYSTEM AX=B ………...………………. 41

1.15 TRANSFORMATION MATRICES …………………………………………………………….. 48

1.16 EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS …………………………………………………… 55

1.8 COMPLEX NUMBERS – BASIC OPERATIONS

As we know, there are no real numbers of the form

However, we agree to accept an imaginary number i such that

(so, in some way, the definition of i is: i =  1 )

The imaginary numbers mentioned above can be written as follows:

Consider now the equation

Since Δ=-36, there are no real solutions. However, if we accept

In general, if Δ<0 the complex roots of the quadratic are given by

NOTICE for the GDC - For Casio:

This gives rise to the following definition.

A number z of the form z = x  yi

where x, y R, is called a complex number. We also say,

the real part of z is x: Re(z)=x

The set of all complex numbers is denoted by C. A real number x is

The conjugate complex number of z = x+yi is given by z =x-yi

(Sometimes, the conjugate number of z is denoted by z*)

For z=3+4i, we write Re(z)=3, Im(z)=4, z =3-4i.

Complex number Real part Imaginary part Conjugate

 THE MODULUS |z|

The modulus of z=x+yi is defined by |z| = x 2  y2

For example, if z=2+3i, then |z|=|2+3i|= 2 2  3 2  13

all have the same modulus x 2  y2

Thus 3+4i, 3-4i, -3-4i, -3+4i have the same modulus

Thus, the equation of complex number must be thought as a system

Let z1=3+4i and z2=a+(3b-2)i. Find a,b if z1 = z2.

 z+w =(7+4i)+(2+3i) =9+7i [add real parts; add imaginary parts]

 z-w =(7+4i)-(2+3i) = 5+i [similarly]

For multiplication we need some extra work:

 zw =(7+4i)(2+3i) = 14+21i+8i+12i2 = 14+21i+8i-12 =2+29i

What about the division?

z 7  4i 7  4i (2  3i) 14  21i  8i  12 26  13i

Indeed, both sides are equal to x2+y2: For z = x+yi

Get used to the multiplication by a conjugate:

i0=1 i1=i i2=-1 i3=-i

Thus, for example

(2  i) 3 2  11i 2  11i 1  i 2  2i  11i  11i 2

Method A (Analytical and safe but laborious):

Let z = x+yi. Then

z(1-i) = 2+11i  (x+yi)(1-i) = 2+11i

Method B (quicker): think as in the equation ax=b

1.9 THE COMPLEX PLANE

The complex number z=x+yi can be represented on the Cartesian

 z=x+yi is the point (x,y) *

 Real part = x-coordinate, Imaginary part = y-coordinate

 The modulus |z|= x 2  y 2 is in fact the distance from the origin.

|3+4i|= 25 =5, |3|=3, |4i|=4, |-5|=5, |-5-2i|= 29

The modulus is always the distance from the origin.

 The modulus of all those is 5 (distance from the origin).

Think that these observations hold for real numbers as well: