Complex Analysis Qual Sheet

Robert Won

“Tricks and traps. Basically all complex analysis qualifying exams are collections of tricks and
traps.”
- Jim Agler

1 Useful facts
∞
X zn
1. ez =
n!
n=0
∞
X z 2n+1 1
2. sin z = (−1)n = (eiz − e−iz )
(2n + 1)! 2i
n=0
∞
X z 2n 1
3. cos z = (−1)n = (eiz + e−iz )
2n! 2
n=0

1
4. If g is a branch of f −1 on G, then for a ∈ G, g 0 (a) =
f 0 (g(a))
5. |z ± a|2 = |z|2 ± 2Reaz + |a|2
6. If f has a pole of order m at z = a and g(z) = (z − a)m f (z), then
1
Res(f ; a) = g (m−1) (a).
(m − 1)!

7. The elementary factors are defined as

z2 zp
 
Ep (z) = (1 − z) exp z + + ··· + .
2 p
Note that elementary factors are entire and Ep (z/a) has a simple zero at z = a.
8. The factorization of sin is given by
∞ 
z2
Y 
sin πz = πz 1− 2 .
n
n=1

9. If f (z) = (z − a)m g(z) where g(a) 6= 0, then

f 0 (z) m g 0 (z)
= + .
f (z) z−a g(z)

1
2 Tricks
1. If f (z) nonzero, try dividing by f (z). Otherwise, if the region is simply connected, try writing
f (z) = eg(z) .

2. Remember that |ez | = eRez and argez = Imz. If you see a Rez anywhere, try manipulating
to get ez .

3. On a similar note, for a branch of the log, log reiθ = log |r| + iθ.

4. Let z = eiθ .

5. To show something is analytic use Morera or find a primitive.

6. If f and g agree on a set that contains a limit point, subtract them to show they’re equal.

7. Tait: “Expand by power series.”

8. If you want to count zeros, either Argument Principle or Rouché.

9. Know these Möbius transformations:

1−z
(a) To map the right half-plane to the unit disk (or back), .
1+z
z−a
(b) To map from the unit disk to the unit disk, remember ϕa (z) = . This is a bijective
1 − az
1 − |a|2
map with inverse ϕ−a (z). Also, ϕa (a) = 0, ϕ0a (z) = , ϕ0a (0) = 1 − |a|2 , and
(1 − az)2
1
ϕ0a (a) = .
1 − |a|2

10. If f (z) is analytic, then f (z) is analytic (by Cauchy-Riemann). So if, for example, f (z) is
real on the real axis, then f (z) = f (z).

11. To prove that Ra function defined by an integral

R R ∞is analytic, try RMorera and reversing the
∞ ∞R
integral. (e.g.  e−t tz−1 dt is analytic since T  e−t tz−1 dtdz =  T e−t tz−1 dzdt = 0.)

12. RIf given a point of f (say f (0) = a) and some condition on f 0 on a simply connected set, try
0
[0,z] f = f (z) − f (0).

13. To create a non-vanishing function, consider exponentiating.

3 Theorems
1. Cauchy Integral Formula: Let G bePregion and f : G → C be analytic. If γ1 , . . . , γm
are closed rectifiable curves in G with m k=0 n(γk ; w) = 0 for all w ∈ C \ G, then for a ∈
G \ (∪mk=1 {γ k }),
m m Z
(n)
X n! X f (z)
f (a) · n(γk ; a) = n+1
dz.
k=0
2πi
k=1 γk (z − a)

2
 2. Cauchy’s Theorem: Let GPbe a region and f : G → C be analytic. If γ1 , . . . , γm are closed
rectifiable curves in G with m
k=0 n(γk ; w) = 0 for all w ∈ C \ G, then
m Z
X
f (z)dz = 0
k=1 γk

3. Liouville’s Theorem: If f is a bounded entire function, then f is constant.

4. Maximum Modulus Theorem: Let G be a region and f : G → C be analytic. If there

exists an a ∈ G such that |f (a)| ≥ |f (z)| for all z ∈ G, then f is constant on G.
R
5. Morera’s Theorem: Let G be a region and f : G → C be continuous. If T f = 0 for every
triangular path T in G, then f is analytic on G.

6. Goursat’s Lemma: Let G be a region and let f : G → C. If f is differentiable, then f is

analytic on G.

7. Cauchy-Riemann Equations: Let f (x, y) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) for real-valued functions u

and v. Then f is analytic if and only if
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= and =−
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x

8. Constant functions: Let f : G → C be analytic. Then the following are equivalent

(i) f (z) ≡ α;
(ii) {z ∈ G | f (z) = α} has a limit point in G;
(iii) there exists a ∈ G such that f (n) (a) = 0 for all n ≥ 1.

9. Conformality: Let f : G → C be analytic. Then if z ∈ G and f 0 (z) 6= 0, f is conformal at

z.

10. Roots of an analytic function: Let f : G → C be analytic. If f (a) = 0, then there exists
a unique m ≥ 1 and g analytic such that

f (z) = (z − a)m g(z)

with g(a) 6= 0.

11. Power Pseries: A function f is analytic on B(a; R) if and only if there exists a power series
f (z) = ∞ n
n=0 an (z − a) where we compute

f (n) (a)
Z
1 f (z)
an = = dz.
n! 2πi γ (z − a)n+1

The series converges absolutely on B(a; R) and uniformly on B(a; r) for 0 ≤ r < R.

12. Cauchy’s Estimate: If f analytic on B(a; R), and |f (z)| ≤ M for each z ∈ B(a; R), then

 (n)  n!M
 
f (a) ≤ n .
R

3
13. Winding Number: To compute the index of a closed curve about a point a,
Z
1 dz
n(γ; a) = ∈ Z.
2πi γ z − a

14. Open Mapping Theorem: Let G be a region, f a non-constant analytic function. If U is

an open subset of G, then f (U ) is open.

15. Zero-Counting Theorem: Let G be a region, f : G → C analytic with roots a1 , . . . am . If

{γ} ⊆ G and ak 6∈ {γ} for all k, and γ ≈ 0 in G, then
Z 0 m
1 f (z) X
dz = n(γ; ak )
2πi γ f (z)
k=1

Corollary: If f (a) = α, then f (z) − α has a root at a. So if f (ak ) = α, then

m
f 0 (z)
Z
1 X
dz = n(γ; ak )
2πi γ f (z) − α
k=1

Corollary 2: If σ = f ◦ γ and α 6∈ {σ} and ak are the points where f (ak ) = α, then
m
X
n(σ; α) = n(γ; ak ) or
k=1
m
X
n(f ◦ γ; f (a)) = n(γ; ak )
k=1

16. Roots of analytic functions: Suppose f is analytic on B(a; R) and let f (a) = α. If f (z)−α
has a zero of order m at z = a, then there exist  > 0 and δ > 0 such that if 0 < |ζ − α| < δ,
the equation f (z) = ζ has exactly m simple roots in B(a, ).

17. Existence of Logarithm: Let f (z) be analytic and f (z) 6= 0 on G, a simply connected
region. Then there is analytic function g(z) on G such that f (z) = eg(z) for all z ∈ G.

18. Existence of Primitive: Let f (z) be analytic on G, a simply connected region. Then f has
a primitive.

19. Laurent Series: Let f be analytic on R1 < |z − a| < R2 , then there exists a sequence
{an }∞
n=−∞ and
∞
X
f (z) = an (z − a)n
n=−∞

with absolute convergence in the open annulus and uniform convergence on every compact
subset of the annulus. This series is called a Laurent series, and if γ is a closed curve in the
annulus, then Z
1 f (z)
an = dw.
2πi γ (z − a)n+1
(Note that this is just the same as number 11).

4
20. Classification of Singularities: Suppose f analytic on B(a; R) \ {a} and f has an isolated
singularity at a. Then a is

(a) Removable singularity if there is a function g analytic on B(a; R) such that f (z) = g(z)
for all z ∈ B(a; R) \ {a}.
The singularity is removable if and only if lim (z − a)f (z) = 0.
z→a
Also, the singularity is removable if and only if the Laurent series of f has no coefficients
an for n < 0.
(b) Pole if lim |f (z)| = ∞.
z→a
If a is a pole, then there is a unique m ≥ 1 and an analytic function g such that
g(z)
f (z) = for all z ∈ B(a; R) \ {a} and g(a) 6= 0.
(z − a)m
The singularity is a pole if and only if the Laurent series of f has only finitely many
coefficients an for n < 0. The partial series for these coefficients is called the singular
part of f .
(c) Essential singularity if a is not removable and not a pole.
The singularity is essential if and only if the Laurent series of f has infinitely many
coefficients an for n < 0.

21. Casorati-Weierstrass: If f has an essential singularity at a, then for all δ > 0, f ({z | 0 < |z − a| < δ})
is dense in C.

22. Residues: If f has an isolated singularity at a, then the residue of f at a, Res(f ; a) = a−1 .
We can calculate the residue using the formula for Laurent coefficients:
Z
1
Res(f ; a) = f (z)dz.
2πi γ

If a is a pole of order m, then if g(z) = (z − a)m f (z)

g (m−1) (a)
Res(f ; a) = .
(m − 1)!

23. Residue Theorem: Let f be analytic on a region G except for singularities at a1 , . . . , am .

Let γ ≈ 0 be a closed curve in G with a1 , . . . , am ∈
/ {γ}. Then
Z m
1 X
f (z)dz = n(γ; ak ) · Res(f ; ak ).
2πi γ k=1

24. Argument Principle: Let f be meromorphic with roots z1 , . . . , zm and poles p1 , . . . , pn with
z1 , . . . , zm , p1 , . . . , pn ∈
/ {γ}. Then
m n
f0 X
Z
1 X
= n(γ; zm ) − n(γ; pn ).
2πi γ f
k=1 j=1

5
25. Rouché’s Theorem: Let f, g be meromorphic on G and let γ be a closed curve in G. Then
if, for all z ∈ {γ},
|f (z) + g(z)| < |f (z)| + |g(z)|
then Zf − Pf = Zg − Pg .

26. Jordan’s Lemma: Suppose that:

(i) f (z) is analytic at all points z in the upper half plane y ≥ 0 that are exterior to a circle
|z| = R0 ;
(ii) CR denotes a semicircle z = Reiθ for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π with R > R0 ;
(iii) for all points z on CR there is a positive constant MR such that |f (z)| ≤ MR , with
limR→∞ MR = 0

Then for every positive constant a:

Z
lim f (z)eiaz dz = 0.
R→∞ CR

27. Fractional Residue: If z0 is a simple pole of f (z), and CR is an arc of the circle {|z−z0 | = R}
of angle θ, then
Z
lim f (z)dz = θiRes(f (z), z0 ).
R→0 CR

4 Theorems, part 2
1. Maximum Modulus Theorem:

(a) (First Version). If f : G → C is analytic and there exists a ∈ G with |f (a)| ≥ |f (z)| for
all z ∈ G, then f is constant.
(b) (Second Version). If G is open and bounded, and f analytic on G and continuous on G,
then
max{|f (z)| | z ∈ G} = max |f (z)| | z ∈ ∂G}.
(Or f attains its maximum on the boundary).
(c) (Third Version). If f : G → C is analytic, and there is a constant M such that
lim supz→a |f (z)| ≤ M for all a ∈ ∂∞ G, then |f (z)| ≤ M for all z ∈ G.
(Where lim supz→a f (z) = limr→0+ sup{f (z) | z ∈ G ∩ B(a; r)}.)

2. Schwarz’s Lemma: Suppose f : D → D is analytic and f (0) = 0. Then

(i) |f 0 (0)| ≤ 1,
(ii) |f (z)| ≤ z, and
(iii) if |f 0 (0)| = 1 or |f (z)| = z for any z ∈ D, then f (z) = cz for some |c| = 1.

3. Generalized Schwarz’s Lemma: Suppose f : D → D is analytic. Then

6
 1 − |f (a)|2
(i) |f 0 (a)| ≤ ,
1 − |a|2
(ii) if equality, then f (z) = ϕ−a (cϕa (z)).

4. Logarithmic Convexity: Let a < b, G = {z ∈ C | a < Re z < b}, and f : G → C. If f is

continuous on G, analytic on G and bounded, then M (x) = sup |f (x + iy)| is logarithmically
y∈R
convex.

5. Phragmèn-Lindelöf : Let G be simply connected, f : G → C analytic, and suppose there

exists ϕ : G → C analytic, bounded, and nonzero on G. Suppose further that ∂∞ G = A ∪ B
and

(i) for all a ∈ A, lim sup |f (z)| ≤ M

z→a
(ii) for all b ∈ B, for all η > 0, lim sup |f (z)||ϕ( a)|η ≤ M ,
z→b

then |f (z)| ≤ M on G.

6. Logic of the ρ metric: For all  > 0, there exist δ > 0 and K ⊆ G compact such that

ρK (f, g) < δ =⇒ ρ(f, g) < 

and for all δ > 0, K compact, there exists an  such that

ρ(f, g) <  =⇒ ρK (f, g) < δ

7. Spaces of Continuous Functions: If Ω is complete, then C(G, Ω) is complete.

8. Normal Families: F ⊆ C(G, Ω). F is normal if all sequences have a convergent subse-
quence.
F is normal iff F is compactSiff F is totally bounded (i.e. for all K, δ > 0, there exist
f1 , . . . , fn ∈ F such that F ⊆ ni=1 {g ∈ C(G, Ω) | ρK (f ; g) < δ}.

9. Arzela-Ascoli: F is normal iff

(i) for all z ∈ G, {f (z) | f ∈ F } has compact closure in Ω, and

(ii) for all z ∈ G, F is equicontinuous at z (for all  > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that
|z − w| < δ ⇒ d(f (z), f (w)) <  for all f ∈ F ).

10. The Space of Holomorphic Functions: Some useful facts:

(a) fn → f ⇐⇒ for all compact K ⊆ G, fn → f uniformly on K.

(b) {fn } in H(G), f ∈ C(G, C), then fn → f =⇒ f ∈ H(G) (If fn converges, it will converge
to an analytic function).
(k)
(c) fn → f in H(G) =⇒ fn → f (k) (If f converges, its derivatives converge).
(d) H(G) is complete (Since H(G) is closed and C(G, C) is complete).

7
11. Hurwitz’s Theorem: Let {fn } ∈ H(G), fn → f , f 6≡ 0. Let B(a; r) ⊆ G such that f 6= 0
on |z − a| = r. Then there exists an N such that n ≥ N =⇒ fn and f have the same number
of zeros in B(a; r).
Corollary: If fn → f and fn 6= 0, then either f (z) ≡ 0 or f (z) 6= 0.
12. Local Boundedness: A set F in H(G) is locally bounded iff for each compact set K ⊂ G
there is a constant M such that |f (z)| ≤ M for all f ∈ F and z ∈ K. (Also, F is locally
bounded if for each point in G, there is a disk on which F is uniformly bounded.)
13. Montel’s Theorem: F ⊆ H(G), then F is normal ⇐⇒ F is locally bounded (for all K
compact, there exists M such that f ∈ F ⇒ |f (z)| ≤ M for all z ∈ K).
Corollary: F is compact iff F is closed and locally bounded.
14. Meromorphic/Holomorphic Functions: If {fn } in M (G) (or H(G)) and fn → f in
C(G, C∞ ), then either f ∈ M (G) (or H(G)) or f ≡ ∞.
15. Riemann Mapping Theorem: G simply connected region which is not C. Let a ∈ G, then
there is a unique analytic function such that:
(a) f (a) = 0 and f 0 (a) > 0;
(b) f is one-to-one;
(c) f (G) = D.
16. Infinite Products: Some propositions for convergence of infinite products:
Q P
(a) Re zn > 0. Then zn converges to a nonzero number iff log zn converges.
P P
(b) Re zn > −1. Then log(1 + zn ) converges absolutely iff zn converges absolutely.
Q P
(c) Re zn > 0. Then zn converges absolutely iff (zn − 1) converges absolutely.
17. Products
P Defining Analytic Functions: G a region and {fn } in H(G) such Q that fn 6≡ 0.
If [fn (z) − 1] converges absolutely uniformly on compact subsets of G then fn converges
in H(G) to an analytic function f (z). The zeros of f (z) correspond to the zeros of the fn ’s.
18. Entire Functions with Prescribed Zeros: Let {an } be a sequence with lim |an | = ∞ and
an 6= 0. If {pn } is a sequence of integers such that for all r > 0
∞ 
r pn +1
X 
< ∞,
|an |
n=1
Q
then f (z) = Epn (z/an ) converges in H(C) and f is an entire function with the correct
zeros. (Note that you can choose pn = n − 1 and it will always converge).
19. The (Boss) Weierstrass Factorization Theorem: Let f be an entire function with non-
zero zeros {an } with a zero of order m at z = 0. Then there is an entire function g and a
sequence of integers {pn } such that
∞  
m g(z)
Y z
f (z) = z e Epn .
an
n=1

8
20. Existence of Analytic Functions with Given Zeros: Let G be a region and {aj } a
sequence of distinct points with no limit point in G, {mj } a sequence of integers. Then there
is an analytic function f defined on G whose only zeros are the aj ’s with multiplicity mj .
21. Meromorphic Functions as a Quotient of Analytic: If f is a meromorphic function on
the open set G, then there are analytic functions g and h on G such that f = g/h.
22. Runge’s Theorem: Let K be compact and E meet each component of C∞ \ K. If f is
analytic in an open set containing K, then for any  > 0, there is a rational function R(z)
with poles in E such that |f (z) − R(z)| <  for all z ∈ K.
Corollary: Let G be an open subset of the plane and E a subset of C∞ \ G meeting each
component. Let R(G, E) be the set of rational functions with poles in E. If f ∈ H(G) then
there is a sequence {Rn } in R(G, E) such that f = lim Rn . (That is, R(G, E) is dense in
H(G)).
Corollary: If C∞ \ G is connected, then polynomials are dense in G.
23. Polynomially Convex Hull: Let K be compact. The polynomially convex hull of K (K̂)
is the set of all points w such that for every polynomial p, |p(w)| ≤ max{|p(z)| | z ∈ K}.
If K is an annulus, then K̂ is the disk obtained by filling in the interior hole.
24. A Few Words on Simple Connectedness (Ha): The following are equivalent for G ⊆ C
open, connected:
(i) G is simply connected;
(ii) n(γ; a) = 0 for every closed rectifiable curve γ in G and every point a ∈ C \ G;
(iii) C∞ \ G is connected;
(iv) For any f ∈ H(G), there is a sequence of polynomials that converges to f in H(G);
R
(v) For any f ∈ H(G) and any closed rectifiable curve γ in G, γ f = 0;
(vi) Every function f ∈ H(G) has a primitive;
(vii) For any f ∈ H(G) such that f (z) 6= 0, there is a function g ∈ H(G) such that f (z) =
exp g(z);
(viii) For any f ∈ H(G) such that f (z) 6= 0, there is a function g ∈ H(G) such that f (z) =
[g(z)]2 ;
(ix) G is homeomorphic to D;
(x) If u : G → R is harmonic then there exists a harmonic conjugate.
25. Mittag-Leffler’s Theorem: Let G be open, {ak } distinct points in G without a limit point
in G, and {Sk (z)} be a sequence of singular parts at the ak ’s. Then there is a meromorphic
function f on G whose poles are exactly the {ak } such that the singular part of f at ak is
Sk (z).
26. Mean Value Property: If u : G → R is a harmonic function and B(a; r) is a closed disk
contained in G, then
Z 2π
1
u(a) = u(a + reiθ ) dθ.
2π 0

9
 In fact, for z ∈ B(0; r),
2π
reiθ + z
Z  
1
u(z) = Re u(reiθ ) dθ.
2π 0 reiθ − z

27. Jensen’s Formula: Let f be analytic on B(0; r) and suppose a1 , . . . , an are the zeros of f
in B(0; r) repeated according to multiplicity. If f (0) 6= 0, then
n   Z 2π
X r 1
log |f (0)| = − log + log |f (reiθ )|dθ.
|ak | 2π 0
k=1

28. Poisson-Jensen Formula: Let f be analytic on B(0; r) and suppose a1 , . . . , an are the zeros
of f in B(0; r) repeated according to multiplicity. If f (z) 6= 0, then
n  2  Z 2π  iθ 
X r − ak z 1 re + z
log |f (z)| = − log + Re log |f (reiθ )|dθ.
r(z − ak ) 2π 0 reiθ − z
k=1

29. Genus, Order, and Rank of Entire Functions:

• Rank : Let f be an entire function with zeros {ak } repeated according to multiplicity
such that |a1 | ≤ |a2 | ≤ . . .. Then f is of finite rank if there is a p ∈ Z such that
∞
X 1
< ∞.
|an |p+1
n=1

If p is the smallest integer such that this occurs, then f is of rank p. A function with
only a finite number of zeros has rank 0.
• Standard Form: Let f be an entire function of rank p with zeros {ak }. Then the canonical
product
∞  
m g(z)
Y z
f (z) = z e Ep
an
n=1

is the standard form for f .

• Genus: An entire function f has finite genus if f has finite rank and g(z) is a polynomial.
If the rank is p and the degree of g is q, then the genus µ = max(p, q). If f has genus µ,
then for each α > 0, there exists an r0 such that |z| > r0 implies
µ+1
|f (z)| < eα|z| .

• Order : An entire function f is of finite order if there exists a > 0 and r0 > 0 such that
|f (z)| < exp(|z|a ) for |z| > r0 . The number
λ = inf{a | |f (z)| < exp(|z|a ) for |z| sufficiently large}
is called the order of f .
If f has order λ and  > 0, then |f (z)| < exp(|z|λ+ ) for all |z| sufficiently large, and a
z can be found, with |z| as large as desired, such that |f (z)| ≥ exp(|z|λ− ).
If f is of genus µ, then f is of finite order λ ≤ µ + 1.

10
30. Hadamard’s Factorization Theorem: If f is entire with finite order λ, then f has finite
genus ≤ λ. Combined with above, we have that f has finite order if and only if f has finite
genus. Corollary: If f is entire with finite order, then for all c ∈ C with one possible
exception, we can always solve f (z) = c.
Corollary: If f is entire with finite order λ ∈
/ Z, then f has an infinite number of zeros.

5 Special Functions
1. The Riemann Zeta Function
∞
X 1 Y 1
ζ(s) = = and ζ(s) = ζ(1 − s)
n s 1 − p−s
n=1 p prime

This function has a pole at s = 1, zeros at the negative even integers, and its remaining zeros
are in the critical strip {z | 0 < Re z < 1}.
Riemann’s functional equation is
 
z−1 1
ζ(z) = 2(2π) Γ(1 − z)ζ(1 − z) sin πz .
2

2. The Gamma Function: The gamma function is the meromorphic function on C with simple
poles at z = 0, −1, −2, . . . defined by:
Z ∞
Γ(z) = e−t tz−1 dt
0
∞
e−γz Y  z −1 z/n
= 1+ e
z n
n=1
n!nz Γ(z + n)
= lim = .
n→∞ z(z + 1) · · · (z + n) z(z + 1) · · · (z + n − 1)

The residues at each of the poles is given by

(−1)n
Res(Γ, −n) = .
n!
The functional equation holds for z 6= 0, 1, . . .

Γ(z + 1) = zΓ(z).

Note further that

π √
Γ(1 − z)Γ(z) = and Γ(z) = Γ(z) and Γ(1/2) = π.
sin(πz)

11
6 Theorems, part 3
1. Schwarz Reflection Principle: Let G be a region such that G = G∗ (symmetric with
respect to real axis). If f : G+ ∪ G0 → C is continuous and analytic on G+ , and f (G0 ) ⊆ R,
then there is an analytic function g : G → C such that f (z) = g(z) for z ∈ G+ ∪ G0 .

2. Analytic Continuations: Let γ : [0, 1] → C be a curve and [f ]a be a germ at a = γ(0). An

analytic continuation of [f ]a along γ is a family (ft , Gt ), t ∈ [0, 1] such that

(i) γ(t) ∈ Gt
(ii) [f0 ]a = [f ]a
(iii) ∀t ∈ [0, 1], ∃δ > 0 such that |s − t| < δ =⇒ γ(s) ∈ Gt and [fs ]γ(s) = [ft ]γ(s)

3. Uniqueness of Analytic Continuations: Let γ : [0, 1] → C be a path from a to b and

let (ft , Gt ) and (gt , Bt ) be two analytic continuations along γ such that [f0 ]a = [g0 ]a . Then
[f1 ]b = [g1 ]b .

4. Analytic Continuations along FEP Homotopic Curves: Let a ∈ C and [f ]a a germ

at a. If γ0 and γ1 are FEP homotopic and [f ]a admits analytic continuation along every
γs , s ∈ [0, 1], then the analytic continuations of [f ]a along γ0 and γ1 are equal.

5. Monodromy Theorem: Let G be a region, a ∈ G, [f ]a a germ at a. If G is simply

connected and admits unrestricted continuation of [f ]a . then there exists F ∈ H(G) such
that [F ]a = [f ]a .

6. Neighborhood Systems: Let X be a set and for all x ∈ X, Nx a collection of subsets of

X such that

(i) for each U ∈ Nx , x ∈ U ;

(ii) if U, V ∈ Nx , ∃W ∈ Nx such that W ⊆ U ∩ V ;
(iii) if U ∈ Nx and V ∈ Ny then for z ∈ U ∩ V ∃W ∈ Nz such that W ⊆ U ∩ V .

Then {Nx | x ∈ X} is a neighborhood system on X.

7. Sheaf of Germs: For an open set G in C let

S (G) = {(z, [f ]z ) | z ∈ G, f is analytic at z},

and define a map ρ : S (G) → C by ρ(z, [f ]z ) = z. Then (S (G), ρ) is the sheaf of germs of
analytic functions on G.
We put a topology on the sheaf of germs by defining a neighborhood system. For D ⊆ G,
and f ∈ H(D), define

N (f, D) = {(z, [f ]z ) | z ∈ D}.

For each point (a, [f ]a ) ∈ S (G), let

N(a,[f ]a ) = {N (g, B) | a ∈ B and [g]a = [f ]a }.

This is a neighborhood system on S (G) and the induced topology is Hausdorff.

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 8. Components of the Sheaf of Germs:

• There is a path in S (G) from (a, [f ]a ) to (b, [g]b ) iff there is a path γ in G from a to b
such that [g]b is the analytic continuation of [f ]a along γ.
• Let C ⊆ S (G) and (a, [f ]a ) ∈ C . Then C is a component of S (G) iff

C = {(b, [g]b ) | [g]b is the continuation of [f ]a along some curve in G}.

9. Riemann Surfaces: Fix a function element (f, D). The complete analytic function F
associated with (f, D) is the collection

F = {[g]z | [g]z is an analytic continuation of [f ]a for any a ∈ D}.

Then R = {(z, [g]z ) | [g]z ∈ F } is a component of S (C), and (R, ρ) is the Riemann Surface
of F .

10. Complex Manifolds: Let X be a topological space.

• A coordinate chart is a pair (U, ϕ) such that U ⊆ X is open and ϕ : U → V ⊆ C is a

homeomorphism.
• A complex manifold is a pair (X, Φ) where X is connected, Hausdorff and Φ is a collection
of coordinate patches on X such that
(i) each point of X is contained in at least one member of Φ and
(ii) if (Ua , ϕa ), (Ub , ϕb ) ∈ Φ with Ua ∩ Ub 6= ∅, then ϕa ◦ ϕ−1
b is analytic.

11. Analytic Functions: Let (X, Φ) and (Ω, Ψ) be analytic manifolds, f : X → Ω continuous,
a ∈ X, and (a) = α. Then f is analytic at a if for any patch (Λ, ψ) ∈ Ψ which contains α,
there is a patch (U, ϕ) ∈ Φ which contains a such that

(i) f (U ) ⊆ Λ;
(ii) ψ ◦ f ◦ ϕ−1 is analytic on ϕ(U ) ⊆ C.

12. Some Results on Analytic Functions:

• Let F be a complete analytic function with Riemann surface (R, ρ). If F : R → C is

defined by F (z, [f ]z ) = f (z) then F is an analytic function.
• Compositions of analytic function are analytic
• (Limit Points) If f and g are analytic functions X → Ω and if {x ∈ X : f (x) = g(x)}
has a limit point in X, then f = g.
• (Maximum Modulus) If f : X → C is analytic and there is a point a ∈ X and a
neighborhood U of a such that |f (a)| ≥ |f (x)| for all x ∈ U , then f is constant.
• (Liouville) If (X, Φ) is a compact analytic manifold, then there is no non-constant ana-
lytic function from X into C.
• (Open Mapping) Let f : X → Ω be a non-constant analytic function. If U is an open
subset of X, then f (U ) is open in Ω.

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13. Mean Value Property: If u : G → R is a harmonic function and B(a; r) ⊂ G then
Z 2π
1
u(a) = u(a + reiθ ) dθ.
2π 0

14. Maximum Principles:

I. Suppose u : G → R has the MVP. If there is a point a ∈ G such that u(a) ≥ u(z) for all
z in G, then u is constant. (Analogously, there is a Minimum Principle).
II. Let u, v : G → R be bounded and continuous functions with the MVP. If for each point
a ∈ ∂∞ G,

lim sup u(z) ≤ lim inf v(z)

z→a z→a

then u(z) < v(z) for all z in G or u = v.

Corollary: If a continuous function satisfying the MVP is 0 on the boundary, then it
is identically 0.
III. If ϕ : G → R is a subharmonic function and there is a point a ∈ G with ϕ(a) ≥ ϕ(z) for
all z in G, then ϕ is constant.
IV. If ϕ, ψ : G → R are bounded functions such that ϕ is subharmonic and ψ is superhar-
monic and for each point a ∈ ∂∞ G,

lim sup ϕ(z) ≤ lim inf ψ(z)

z→a z→a

then ϕ(z) < ψ(z) for all z in G or ϕ = ψ is harmonic.

15. The Poisson Kernel: For 0 ≤ r < 1, −∞ < θ < ∞, the Poisson kernel is the following:
∞
1 + reiθ 1 − r2
X  
|n| inθ
Pr (θ) = r e = Re = .
n=−∞
1 − reiθ 1 − 2r cos θ + r2

16. Dirichlet Problem in the Disk: If f : ∂D → R is a continuous function, then there is a

continuous harmonic function u : D → R such that u(z) = f (z) for all z ∈ ∂D. Moreover, u
is unique and defined by
Z π
iθ 1
u(re ) = Pr (θ − t)f (eit ) dt.
2π −π

17. Harmonicity vs. MVP: If u : G → R is a continuous function which has the MVP, then u
is harmonic.

18. Harnack’s Inequality: If u : B(a; R) → R is continuous, harmonic in B(a; R), and u ≥ 0

then for 0 ≤ r < R and all θ
R−r R+r
u(a) ≤ u(a + reiθ ) ≤ u(a).
R+r R−r

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19. Harnack’s Theorem: Let G be a region. The metric space Har(G) is complete. If {un } is
a sequence in Har(G) such that u1 ≤ u2 ≤ . . . then either un (z) → ∞ uniformly on compact
subsets of G or {un } converges in Har(G) to a harmonic function.

20. Subharmonic Functions: Let ϕ : G → R be continuous. Then ϕ is subharmonic iff for

every G1 ⊆ G and every harmonic u1 on G1 , ϕ − u1 satisfies the Maximum Principle on G1
Corollary: ϕ is subharmonic iff for every bounded region G1 such that G1 ⊂ G and for every
continuous function u1 : G1 → R that is harmonic on G1 and satisfies ϕ(z) ≤ u1 (z) on ∂G1 ,
ϕ(z) ≤ u1 (z) for z ∈ G1 .

21. Maxima of Subharmonic Functions: If ϕ1 and ϕ2 are subharmonic functions on G then

ϕ(z) = max{ϕ1 (z)ϕ2 (z)} is a subharmonic function.

22. Bumping Let ϕ : G → R be subharmonic and B(a; r) ⊂ G. Define ϕ0 (z) = ϕ(z) if z ∈

G \ B(a; r) and ϕ0 (z) be the solution to the Dirichlet problem for z ∈ B(a; r). Then ϕ0 is
subharmonic.

23. The Perron Function: Let f : ∂∞ G → R be continuous. Then u(z) = sup{ϕ(z) | ϕ ∈

P(f, G)} defines a harmonic function on G.
(P(f, G) = {ϕ : G → R | ϕ subharmonic, lim supz→a ϕ(z) ≤ f (a) ∀a ∈ ∂∞ G})

24. General Dirichlet Problem: A region G is a Dirichlet Region iff there is a barrier for G
at each point of ∂∞ G.
(A barrier for G at a is a family {ψr } such that ψr is superharmonic on G(a; r) with 0 ≤
ψr (z) ≤ 1, lim ψr (z) = 0, and lim ψr (z) = 1 for w ∈ G ∩ {w | |w − a| = r}.)
z→a z→w
Corollary: Let G be a region such that no component of C∞ \ G reduces to a point, then G
is a Dirichlet region.
Corollary: A simply connected region is a Dirichlet region.

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