Desalination 501 (2021) 114914

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Desalination
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/desal

Experimental investigation on the negative effect of the external condenser

on the conventional solar still performance
Ahmed Rahmani a, *, Fouzia Khemmar b, Zine Saadi c
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Larbi Ben M’hidi University, Oum El Bouaghi 04000, Algeria
b
Department of Matter Sciences, Larbi Ben M’hidi University, Oum El Bouaghi 04000, Algeria
c
Unité de Recherche en Energies Renouvelables en Milieu Saharien (URER.MS), Centre de Développement des Energies Renouvelables (CDER), 01000 Adrar, Algeria

H I G H L I G H T S

• A new external condenser (EC) design was presented.

• The effect of integrating an EC on conventional solar still (CSS) is experimentally studied.
• Integrating an EC into CSS is not always efficient.
• In moderate weather days, EC enhances the daily yield by about 29%.
• In cold and hot weather, EC decreases the daily yield by about 4.24% to 16.53%.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This experimental study aims to reveal the negative effect of the external condenser (EC) on the conventional
Conventional solar still solar still (CSS) performance. A new EC design was proposed and integrated into a single-slope, basin type CSS.
External condenser The EC’s negative aspect is demonstrated through a comparative study between the CSS and the modified solar
Negative effect
still (MSS) in the same outdoor weather conditions. The experimental results show that adding an EC to the CSS
Experimental study
Natural circulation
is not always positive and the still performance is closely related to the weather conditions. The EC positive effect
Purging-diffusion appears in moderate weather conditions, where its contribution to improving MSS productivity reaches 29%.
While in very cold or hot weather days, the EC affects adversely the still productivity, which decreases to about
16.5% against that of the CSS. It was found that the natural circulation mode (NC) is the dominant mass transfer
process, which contributes by about 63% to 80% to the water vapor transfer toward the EC. The results show also
that the maximum daily energy and exergy efficiencies for the MSS and CSS are 23.2% and 1.9%, respectively,
while for the CSS, they are 18.25% and 2.4%, respectively.

1. Introduction well as the exacerbation of conflicts and high migration rates.

Water scarcity mainly affects the residents of arid and remote regions
Water is one of the most vital needs for all life-forms on our planet. [4,5]. Water sources in these regions are limited and most of them are
Statistics indicate that only 3% of the water on earth is freshwater. deep groundwater that can’t be used, except after treatment, due to its
Around 77.6% of this quantity forms the lakes, rivers, groundwater and high salinity and its containment of bacteria and many other pollutants.
ice in the polar ice caps, while only 0.6% is the amount available to meet Because of the lack of water treatment plants in these regions, residents
all human needs [1]. Freshwater resources are exhausted due to many are obliged to utilize unsafe water. This in turn, contributes to the spread
factors like rapid industrial development, population growth and of infectious diseases as cholera and malaria [6]. Thanks to the vast solar
climate warming [2]. Providing freshwater is an urgent priority for energy that characterize these regions, solar desalination represents the
many countries, especially in Latin America, South Asia, the Middle East most attractive solution for providing clean water and improving the
and North Africa [3]. These countries suffer from an acute shortage of living conditions of residents [7,8]. The use of solar energy is not only
water resources, which affects agricultural production, food security, as limited to its economic benefits but also for environmental and social

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Rahmani).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2020.114914
Received 5 August 2020; Received in revised form 20 November 2020; Accepted 17 December 2020
Available online 26 December 2020
0011-9164/© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
A. Rahmani et al. Desalination 501 (2021) 114914

considerations. So, energy-saving and environmental protection repre­ separate condenser). According to the literature survey, no previous
sents the main challenges for researchers and politicians alike. work has focused on the combined effect between the EC design and the
Solar distillation has long been the subject of many scientific papers weather conditions, except for a few studies that revealed a decrease in
and remains till now one of the privileged research fields. Various solar solar still productivity due to the increase in external cooling [48–51].
still designs were proposed in the literature, while the most known is the Besides, there no precise calculation rule that defines the EC optimal
simple solar still (CSS). These devices are less expensive, easy to build design, taking into account the still operating mode and weather
and to transport. Whereas, their main drawback is the low productivity conditions.
compared to modern desalination systems, which limits their utilization This paper presents an experimental study showing the negative ef­
[9,10]. Therefore, many amendments were introduced by researchers on fect of integrating an EC to the single-slope CSS. A new EC design was
the CSS design and its working mode to overcome this limitation [11]. proposed in this study to highlight the condenser’s negative aspect. The
An extensive review of different techniques used in enhancing the still EC was built as a passive compact heat exchanger, having a large heat
productivity was recently summarized by [12,13]. These modifications transfer area and a reduced air volume, in addition to the low wall
are adopted to improve evaporation, condensation, increase heat stor­ thickness and higher thermal conductivity than the glass cover. These
age and reduce heat loss [14]. features help to minimize the MSS’s thermal inertia and making it more
The glass is an essential element widely used in most solar stills due sensitive to weather conditions. Furthermore, these properties were
to its optical, mechanical and chemical features. It is well-known for its combined to highlight the EC negative effect on CSS performance, which
ability to transmit solar rays and its resistance to degradation factors like is the main aim of this work.
heat, pressure and chemical reaction. It is also perfect in solar stills to The EC impact on the still performance was evaluated through a
minimize upward heat loss [15,16]. In hot weather conditions (high comparative study conducted between the MSS and the CSS for various
solar radiation, high temperature and low wind speed), the glass cover weather conditions in the region of Adrar-Algeria (Latitude: 27◦ 87′ N,
becomes unable to condense all water vapor in the still. Because of its Longitude: − 0◦ 18′ E). Based on the obtained results, the mass transfer
low conductivity, the glass cover fails to transfer the latent heat of phenomena related to the integrated EC, namely purging, diffusion and
condensation accumulated in the still to the ambient. In these condi­ NC, are analyzed. Energy and exergy efficiencies of both solar stills were
tions, the glass cover’s temperature rises, leading to a decrease in the also evaluated and compared for each test day.
evaporation rate and a rise in the pressure inside the still. Therefore,
solar still productivity decreases, despite the high intensity of solar ra­ 2. System design and experimentation
diation. As a solution to this problem, several practical solutions were
proposed by researchers [17], like the glass cover’s external cooling The EC effect on the solar still performance is demonstrated through
[18], using thermoelectric cooling [19–21], vapor extraction [22], by a comparative study between the modified solar still (with EC) and the
shading the glass cover [2,23], as well as by integrating an additional simple one (without EC). Therefore, two similar basin-type, single-slope,
condenser [24,25]. solar stills were designed, fabricated and tested under the same outdoor
Many efforts are devoted to improving CSS productivity by inte­ operating conditions at the Research Unit in Renewable Energies in
grating an additional passive condenser [26,27]. The condenser can be Saharan Medium (URER.MS) in Adrar-Algeria.
integrated to the still in three different ways, namely: built-in condenser
[28–30], internal condenser [31–33] and EC [14,22,34,35]. Most pre­ 2.1. Solar still description and features
vious studies have focalized on evaluating the EC effect on the still
performance under diffusion and purging mode, whereas operating Fig. 1 shows a cross-sectional view of the experimental setup. The
under NC mode has not been fully elucidated. still absorber area is about 0.35 m2 (0.5 m × 0.7 m) made from 0.7 mm
In hot weather conditions, the glass cover’s temperature increases galvanized steel and coated with black spray paint to increase its ab­
due to the high solar radiation and the high ambient temperature as it sorption of solar radiation. The basin still was placed inside a rectan­
becomes unable to condense all vapor produced inside the still. In this gular wooden box of 2 cm thickness, where it’s front and rear-wall
case, the EC intervenes to suck the water vapor excess and transfer the height is about 10 cm and 46.3 cm, respectively. The still bottom-side
accumulated heat from the still to the ambient, thanks to its high ther­ was closed by a removable wooden sheet for easy cleaning and main­
mal conductivity. Hence, the EC serves as an additional heat-sink that tenance operations. The remaining space between the basin and the
acts to support the glass cover by increasing heat/mass transfer. From wooden cover is filled with a glass wool layer of 10 cm thickness to
the thermal point of view, the condenser acts as a heat sink that main­ reduce the bottom heat loss. The still upper-side was covered with a
taining low pressure and temperature inside the still by increasing heat transparent glass sheet of 4.0 mm thickness, an area of 0.43 m2 and tilted
losses and by absorbing the excess of the generating water vapor from the horizon by 36◦ . A small-diameter PVC tube was opened up as a
[36,37]. gutter and set up along the glass cover lower edge to collect and guide
The literature survey shows that the condenser’s positive effect on the condensed water to the collection bottle. Silicone glue is applied to
the CSS performance appears clearly in moderate and hot weather prevent any vapor leakage from the stills.
conditions [38]. This positive effect is also manifested when adopting As illustrated in Fig. 2, the solar still condensation area has been
enhancing techniques [39], like in the case of multi-effect solar stills enlarged by an additional EC that takes the shape of a compact heat
[34,40,41], when integrating solar collectors [42,43], using heat storage exchanger attached to the still rear-wall. The proposed EC is a paral­
materials [44], by using solar reflectors [36,45] as well as by using lelepiped box of 0.29 m2 (10 cm × 30 cm × 50 cm) made of a 0.5 mm
nanofluids [46,47]. galvanized sheet. Generally, adding an EC increases air volume inside
However, no much attention was paid to evaluate the condenser the still, which reduces its daily productivity [52–54]. To further in­
effect in cold weather conditions. Under cold weather conditions (low crease the EC heat/mass transfer area without increasing its volume, five
solar radiation and low ambient temperature) and due to excessive heat aluminum tubes are inserted vertically in the galvanized box. Each one
losses, the condenser can adversely affect the still’s thermal behavior has a 40 cm length, 50 mm outer diameter and 1.0 mm of thickness.
and its productivity. This negative effect is not only related to the As a result, the EC heat/mass transfer area is enhanced by 81.2% and
weather conditions but also their geometrical and physical properties its air volume is trimmed by about 20%. Thus, the EC represents an
(wall thickness, heat/mass transfer area, air volume), its operating mode additional heat/mass transfer area of about 0.52 m2 (vs. 0.43 m2 for the
(passive or active), the materials used in the design (conductivity, glass cover) with a reduced volume ratio compared to the CSS volume
emissivity, heat capacity), the heat/mass transfer mode (purging, cavity (evaporator) of about 1/8 that makes the MSS more compact and
diffusion or NC) and its integration way to the solar still (built-in or transferable.

2
A. Rahmani et al. Desalination 501 (2021) 114914

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the experimental setup.

Fig. 2. Schematic illustration of the MSS integrated with the EC.

To increase the rate of water vapor transfer from the evaporator in the still cavity (evaporator). Due to the difference in temperature
toward the EC, two-rectangular and horizontal slots (3.5 cm × 45 cm) between the water and the glass, the natural convection occurs in the
were performed at the top and bottom side of the still back-wall. This still, transferring the water vapor to the glass cover where it condenses
layout allows getting an efficient NC of the humid-air between the at its inner side. The condensed water droplets slide along the glass cover
evaporator and the condenser. The EC was also protected from direct toward the gutter then collected in the glass bottle. In the MSS, a fraction
sun rays by a plastic sheet fitted along the glass’s upper edge. The EC was of the generated vapor condenses at the glass cover inner side while the
slightly tilted to facilitate the collection and extraction of the condensed rest will transfers toward the EC by three different mass transfer phe­
water through a narrow tube fitted to the underside of the galvanized nomena, namely: purging, diffusion and NC [26,30]. By diffusion mode,
box. the water vapor moves from the high concentration in the still cavity
toward the lower concentration in the EC. The purging of the water
vapor depends on the relative pressure difference between evaporator
2.2. Operating principle of the still with and without EC
(high volume and high pressure) and EC (lower volume and low pres­
sure). Previous experiments showed that operating in diffusion-purging
After it’s passing through the transparent glass cover, the incoming
mode gives an enhancement of about 62% to 70% in the still produc­
solar energy gets absorbed by the galvanized plate and then transferred
tivity [34,55].
toward the brackish water in the basin still. This energy acts to raise the
The NC phenomenon occurs because the EC is linked to the still
temperature of various components of the solar still through different
through two horizontal slots (upper and lower). As a result of the air
heat/mass transfer mechanisms. The rise in water temperature causes
density difference between the still cavity and the EC, the NC phe­
the evaporation process to start.
nomenon takes place. A shown in Fig. 3, the saturated humid air inside
The continuous heating and evaporation result in a pressure increase

3
A. Rahmani et al. Desalination 501 (2021) 114914

materials), play a vital role in determining the MSS performance.

2.3. Experimental set-up

Fig. 4 shows a photograph of the experimental setup proposed to

study the EC effect on CSS performance. Both stills were fabricated and
tested under the same weather conditions in Adrar region, located in
southwestern Algeria at a latitude of 27◦ 87′ N, a longitude of − 0◦ 18′ E
and lies at an altitude of 258 m above the sea level [6]. Both stills are
placed on an iron stand and oriented toward the south to receive
maximum solar radiation throughout the test days. At the beginning of
each test, both stills are filled with the same amount of 4.0 l of brackish
water. The main temperatures of each still (basin absorber, basin water,
glass cover inner side and condenser wall), were measured using cali­
Fig. 3. Operating principle of the modified solar still. brated K-type thermocouples. These thermocouples are connected to a
digital data acquisition system (Fluke 2638A Hydra Series III). Mea­
the still tends to move upward and toward the EC via the upper hori­ surements have been recorded every 10 min from 06: 00 a.m. to 08:00 p.
zontal slot. Inside the EC, the fluid moves downward and streaming over m. The weather data characterizing the test days (global solar radiation,
the space between the vertical aluminum tubes and the lateral walls of ambient temperature and wind speed) are obtained from the weather
the galvanized box. On the condenser internal walls, the simultaneous station of the URER.MS. A CMP21 type Kipp-Zonen pyranometer was
heat/mass transfer causes a decrease in the humid air temperature, used to measure the global solar radiation. The ambient temperature
where its density increases and then return toward the evaporator across was measured using CS215 digital thermometer. The wind speed was
the lower slot. As reported by Fath et al. [37], NC represents the large measured using the NRG #40C anemometer. The distillate output is
part of the heat/mass transfer rate from the still to the EC compared to recorded every half-hour by using a graduated glass bottle of 1500 ml
other modes (purging and diffusion). Thanks to the NC phenomenon, capacity.
continuous removal of the water vapor from the still cavity to the EC is
maintained, which leads to an enhanced heat/mass transfer in both sides 2.4. Uncertainty analysis
of the still (evaporator and EC). The water vapor is separated from the
air and condensed around aluminum tubes and on the internal walls of The uncertainty analysis is required to express limitations related to
the galvanized box. The condensed water slides down under the gravity the measuring tools and material used in the experiment. In this study,
effect and then collected in a graduated glass container. the uncertainty analysis is performed by using the systematic un­
Solar still performance depends on the wind speed and the temper­ certainties category (type B). This uncertainty class assumes that the
ature difference between the solar still condensing area (glass cover and measurements are evenly distributed. Systematic errors are collected
EC walls) and ambient air [55]. Wind velocity has a significant effect on from manufacturer manuals and instrument catalogs. The standard un­
the still productivity and efficiency by cooling the condensing area and certainty related to the measuring instruments used in the present
maintaining it at a relatively lower temperature than that of the humid investigation is calculated using Eq. (1), according to Parsa et al. [58].
air inside the still cavity. The external heat exchange from the still (CSS The uncertainty associated with the measuring instruments used in the
and MSS) to the surrounding ambient is carried out by both radiation experimental study is given in Table 1.
and convection due to the temperature difference between the Accuracy of the instrument
condensing area and the ambient. Uncertainty = √̅̅̅ (1)
3
For the CSS, an increase in the wind speed increases the convective
heat transfer between the still’s glass cover and the ambient, leading to a The uncertainty for the calculated dependent variable F(x1, x2, …,
rise in distillate production [1]. As found by El-Sebaii [57], the CSS daily xn) is determined according to the following equation proposed by [59].
productivity increases with an increase in wind speed up to a typical Where, x1, x2, …, xn are the independent input variables and u(xi) de­
value beyond which this increase becomes insignificant. notes the uncertainties in the independent variables.
The wind speed effect on the MSS is higher than that on the CSS due √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( )2 ( )2 ( )2
to the additional area provided by the integrated EC. Given its physical u(F) =
∂F
u(x1 )2 +
∂F
u(x2 )2 + … +
∂F
u(xn )2 (2)
and geometrical properties (large heat transfer area and high conduc­ ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂xn
tivity), the external heat exchange from the MSS to the ambient would Accordingly, the distillate production depends on the water depth in
be higher. This increase in heat losses is appropriate in hot weather the glass bottle ṁd = f(h). According to Eq. (3), the total uncertainty in
conditions where the ambient temperature is high. the hourly freshwater production can be expressed by:
Under cold weather conditions, a high wind speed associated with √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
low ambient temperature increases the heat losses and causing a sharp √(
√ ∂ṁ
)2
decrease in the EC’s temperature. This decrease in EC wall temperature uṁd =
√ d
u(h)2 (3)
∂h
is followed by an increase in the internal heat transfer rate, leading to a
noticeable reduction in the basin water temperature. If the incoming The total uncertainty related to the still energy efficiency is calcu­
solar energy (solar intensity, sunshine duration) is insufficient to sub­ lated based on the hourly distillate production (ṁd ) and the incoming
stitute the heat losses and maintains the basin water temperature, the solar radiation (Is) (Eq. (16)) and simplified under the following form:
evaporation rate decreases leading to a sharp reduction in the MSS √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
productivity and even lower than that of the CSS. Accordingly, the EC’s √⎛ ( ) ⎞2
√
positive/negative effect on the still performance is evaluated based on √ u ṁd
√⎜ ⎟
(
u(Is )
)2
the energy balances between the internal heat (latent and sensible) u(η) = η√ ⎜
√⎝ ṁd ⎠ +
⎟ (4)
Is
gained from the humid air and heat losses toward the ambient. Conse­
quently, the weather conditions (solar radiation, wind speed and
ambient temperature), in addition to the EC design (area, volume, Moreover, the uncertainty of the exergy efficiency is estimated from
Eqs. (18), (19) and (20) and expressed as given in [60]:

4
A. Rahmani et al. Desalination 501 (2021) 114914

Fig. 4. Photographic view of the experimental setup.

Table 1
Based on the experimental data, the uncertainty amount of the
Specifications of the measuring instruments.
calculated daily productivity is ±3.37%. Moreover, the highest uncer­
Instrument Accuracy Range Uncertainty tainty amount of energy efficiency and exergy efficiency is ±3.61% and
K-type thermocouple (Ni-Cr) ±1 ◦ C − 100–300 ◦ C ±0.58 ◦ C ±0.71%, respectively.
Digital thermometer (CS215) ±1 ◦ C − 50–300 ◦ C ±0.58 ◦ C
Pyranometer (Kipp & Zonen) ±1 W/m2 0–2500 W/m2 ±0.58 W/m2
3. Results and discussion
Anemometer (NRG #40C) ±0.1 m/s 0–96 m/s ±0.08 m/s
Measuring jar ±5 ml 0–1500 ml ±2.88 ml
The experimental data presented in this paper relate to four typical
tests, selected among several tests and performed under different
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
u(ηEx ) =
1
u2 (Exout ) + Ex2out ∙u2 (Exin ) (5) weather conditions. Several aspects related to the EC and the main
Exin associated phenomena are discussed in this paper.
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
√⎛ ( ) ⎞2
√
√ u ṁd ( )2 ( )2 3.1. Metrological parameters
√⎜ ⎟ u(Ta ) Ta ∙u(Tw )
u(Exout ) = Exout √⎜
√⎝ ṁd ⎠ + Tw − Ta
⎟ + (6)
(Tw − Ta )Tw To evaluate the weather’s condition’s effect on the still thermal
behavior (with and without an EC), four test days covering several
seasons (spring, summer and winter) were presented in the scope of this
study. Fig. 5(a)–(c) shows the evolution of the weather conditions

√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
√[ ( ( ) ( ) 4 ) ]2 [ ( ( ) 3 ) ]2
√ 4 Ta 1 Ta 4Ab Is Ta
u(Exin ) = √ Ab 1 − + u2 (Is ) + − 1+ u2 (Ta ) (7)
3 Ts 3 Ts 3Ts Ts

1200 55 40

1100 06/04/2018 (a) 50

06/04/2018
(b) (c)
15/04/2018 15/04/2018 35
1000 25/06/2018 45 25/06/2018
20/12/2018 06/04/2018
900 20/12/2018 30 15/04/2018
40
Ambient temperature (°C)

25/06/2018
Solar radiation (W/m²)

Wind speed (m/s)

800
35 25 20/12/2018
700
30
600 20
25
500
20 15
400
15
300 10

200 10
5
100 5

0 0 0
06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00

Time (hr) Time (hr) Time (hr)

Fig. 5. Variation of the solar radiation (a), ambient temperature (b) and wind speed (c), during the four test days.

5
A. Rahmani et al. Desalination 501 (2021) 114914

describing the test days, namely: solar radiation, ambient temperature temperatures (Tb, Tw and Tg) of the MSS, where this overtakes remains
and wind speed, respectively. For spring weather conditions, two days until 09:00 a.m. This temperature rise is due to the direct exposure of the
were selected, namely: 06/04/2018 and 15/04/2018. Both tests are EC to solar radiation that reaches the EC external walls in the morning
distinguished by high solar radiation up to 1000 W/m2, a moderate wind period as well as in the afternoon (Section 3.4). This early increase in the
speed (between 0.18 m/s and 5.75 m/s) except for the ambient tem­ EC wall temperature is associated with an increase in the glass cover
perature, which varies highly between both tests. For the first spring temperature that exceeds the water temperature and its counterpart in
test, the ambient temperature was ranged between 21.37 ◦ C and 37.6 ◦ C, the CSS, unlike the other tests. As a consequence of the fast rise in
while it has ranged from 19.7 ◦ C to 26.5 ◦ C for the second spring test. temperatures of both EC wall and glass cover, the MSS productivity is
The summer test was performed on 25/06/2018, where it marked by retarded until 09:40 a.m.
high ambient temperatures reaching about 45 ◦ C and high solar radia­ Fig. 6(d) shows the variation of the main temperatures of both stills
tion reaching 1040 W/m2. This summer day was also marked by high on the winter test day (20/12/2018). It seems that the thermal behavior
wind speed, which varied between 37.5 m/s and 1.65 m/s. In order to of both stills is affected by the cold weather conditions, namely: the low
evaluate the still performance under cold weather conditions, an solar intensity, the reduced sunshine duration (10 h) and the low
experimental test was performed on 20/12/2018. This winter day was ambient temperature. The maximum temperatures of the water and the
marked by a reduction in the ambient temperature from 4.33 ◦ C to glass cover in the CSS are about 61 ◦ C and 54.5 ◦ C, respectively. While,
21.25 ◦ C and with low solar radiation (696 W/m2) in comparison to the the maximum temperatures of water and glass cover for MSS reach
other tests. 53.7 ◦ C and 48.5 ◦ C, respectively.

3.2. Solar still thermal behavior 3.3. Still hourly and accumulate productivity

The stills thermal behavior under the weather conditions effect is Fig. 7 represents the variations of the half-hour productivity for the
evaluated through the variation of the basin temperature (Tb), the water CSS and MSS in spring, summer and winter test days. The data show that
temperature (Tw), the glass cover temperature (Tg) and the EC wall weather conditions affect the yield of both stills, especially to that of the
temperature (Tc) in Fig. 6. The temperature level in the MSS is lower MSS, which respond adversely during the cold days. This negative aspect
than that in the CSS. This difference is directly related to the EC, which is related to the EC design specifications, namely: its high thermal
participates in the heat/mass transfer and maintains the MSS at lower conductivity (47 W/mK vs. 0.78 W/mK for the glass), a large heat
pressure/temperature than the CSS. For both stills, the water tempera­ transfer area (0.29 m2), extra air volume (12.23%) and low wall thick­
ture is close to that of the basin temperature (Tb ≈ Tw) and this mainly ness (0.5 mm). All these characteristics enhance the heat exchange from
due to the low water mass/depth in the basin still. By comparing the two and to the EC wall and making the MSS more vulnerable to weather
spring tests (Fig. 6(a) and (b)), it is clear that the CSS thermal behavior is conditions.
mainly related to the solar radiation intensity. However, the MSS ther­ The first negative effect of the EC can be observed at the beginning of
mal behavior is strongly affected by the low ambient temperature each test day, in which the CSS starts always its production before the
characterizing the second test (15/04/2018). Qualitatively, the CSS MSS. This happens when the initial weather conditions, namely: the
temperature profiles have the same trends between the two test days. solar irradiance and ambient temperature are at their lowest value. Due
Whereas for the MSS, the gap between the main temperatures (Tw, Tg to the fast-rising in its water temperature, the water vapor generated in
and Tc) has widened and their profiles haven’t the same tendency as the CSS starts earlier than in the MSS. At the beginning of each test, the
those of the first day. CSS productivity overcomes that of the MSS by about 40, 30, 50 and 30
In the CSS, the maximum water-glass temperature difference (Tw-Tg) ml, during the four test days, respectively. This represents an initial
was about 10.2 ◦ C for the first day and 13 ◦ C for the second test day. decrease in front of the CSS productivity by about 3.2, 2.5, 3.9 and 6%,
Whereas for the MSS, the water-glass temperature difference increased respectively. The maximum freshwater productivity rate for the MSS
from 7.7 ◦ C to 11.4 ◦ C between the first and the second day, respectively. was obtained on the first test day, by about 0.51 kg/m2/30 min (Fig. 7
The water-condenser temperature difference (Tw-Tc) is a good indicator (a)). However, the best productivity rate for the CSS was recorded on the
of the ambient temperature effect on MSS thermal behavior. The second test day with a maximum yield of 0.457 kg/m2/30 min (Fig. 7
maximum water-condenser temperature difference was 13.7 ◦ C for the (b)).
first day and 19.8 ◦ C for the second test day. This difference reveals that Fig. 8 displays the variations of the accumulated productivity of both
the MSS is greatly affected by the decrease in the ambient temperature stills through the four test days. Regardless of the EC negative effect that
than the CSS. Otherwise, this difference reflects an excessive heat loss appears at the beginning of each test, the data show that integrating an
through the EC wall. EC to the CSS is not always positive. The positive EC effect on the MSS
Fig. 6(c) shows the variation of the main temperatures of both solar productivity was observed on hot weather days, while in cold weather
stills for the summer test day. The data show that both stills were conditions, its effect is negative. The typical behavior of the MSS appears
affected by the hot weather conditions, with a decrease recorded in the on the first test day (Fig. 8(a)). Despite its delay by about 1 h:30 than the
MSS temperatures compared to the CSS. The water temperature in the CSS productivity, the MSS productivity quickly increased, overtaking
CSS increases reaching 82.5 ◦ C, while the maximum temperature of the that of CSS (at 02:00 p.m.). The daily productivity of the MSS and CSS
glass cover reaches 75 ◦ C. The maximum water-glass temperature dif­ was about 3.57 kg/m2 and 2.77 kg/m2, respectively. This improvement
ference in the CSS is 7.9 ◦ C, which is lower than that of the previous test in MSS daily productivity (by about 29%) reflects the EC positive effect,
days (12.2 ◦ C and 13 ◦ C). This implies a decrease in the heat/mass which contributes by about 41% to MSS productivity.
transfer rate from the water to the glass cover and then reduced fresh­ For the second test day, it appears that the MSS productivity is lower
water productivity. Under these conditions, the CSS glass cover seems than that of the CSS throughout the test day (Fig. 8(b)). The calculation
unable to dissipate the latent heat of condensation accumulated in the shows that the MSS daily yield is lower than that of the CSS, by about
still toward the ambient. Whereas in the MSS, the EC intervenes to 16.5%. Therefore, the EC effect on MSS productivity is negative despite
maintain temperature levels by increasing heat losses. The maximum the high solar radiation that marked this day (Table 2). Compared to the
recorded water temperature in the MSS is 75.5 ◦ C, while that of the glass previous test day (06/04/2018), the MSS productivity did not change
cover and the EC wall is 70 ◦ C and 63.3 ◦ C, respectively. The maximum much (from 3.57 kg/m2 to 3.45 kg/m2), while the CSS productivity
temperature difference between water and the glass cover is 6.7 ◦ C and increased significantly from 2.77 kg/m2 to 4.02 kg/m2, as a result from
that between the water and the EC wall is 12.9 ◦ C. As can be seen that the the relative decrease in the ambient temperature. The MSS glass cover
EC wall temperature (Tc) rises before and faster than the other productivity was slightly increased from 2.08 kg/m2 to 2.2 kg/m2, while

6
A. Rahmani et al. Desalination 501 (2021) 114914

80 80
Tb_CSS Tb_CSS
(a) (b)
Tw_CSS Tw_CSS
70 Tg_CSS 70 Tg_CSS
Tb_MSS Tb_MSS
Tw_MSS Tw_MSS
60 Tg_MSS Tg_MSS
Temperature (°C)

60

Temperature (°C)
Tc Tc
Ta Ta
50 50
06/04/2018 15/04/2018

40 40

30 30

20 20
06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00
Time (hr) Time (hr)

80
80 Tb_CSS Tb_CSS
(c) (d)
Tw_CSS 70 Tw_CSS
Tg_CSS Tg_CSS
70 Tb_MSS Tb_MSS
60
Tw_MSS Tw_MSS
Tg_MSS Tg_MSS
Temperature (°C)

60 Tc Temperature (°C) 50 Tc
Ta Ta
40
50 25/06/2018 20/12/2018
30
40
20

30
10

20 0
06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00
Time (hr) Time (hr)

Fig. 6. Variation of the main temperatures describing the CSS and the MSS during the four test days.

the EC productivity decreased from 1.48 kg/m2 to 1.25 kg/m2 (a cold days but also appears on hot summer days due to its exposure to
decrease of about 36.3%). This result confirms that the EC is responsible solar radiation during the morning and afternoon periods. Direct expo­
for the MSS productivity decrease in front of CSS. sure to sun rays causes heating of the EC wall, which affect adversely the
The second negative aspect of the EC is related to the EC wall MSS productivity (as discussed in Section 3.4). This effect can be mini­
overheating, observed in the summer test day (Fig. 6(c)). As discussed mal if the wind speed is high enough to cool the condenser wall, as in the
above (Section 3.2), this external heating is due to the sun rays reaching case of 25/06/2018. Data also indicates that during winter days, the EC
the EC lateral walls during the morning period. In the day-end, the EC daily productivity exceeds that of the glass cover by about 27% to 31%.
effect turned positive, where the MSS productivity exceeds that of the
CSS by about 9.5%. This improvement is insufficient given the typical 3.4. Effect of EC exposure to solar radiation
weather conditions that marked this day, namely: high solar radiation
and the long sunshine duration (exceed 14 h). This improvement would The experimental data show the EC negative aspect due to their
not have been possible without the high wind speed and the ambient exposure to direct solar radiation in the morning and afternoon periods
temperature decrease in the evening. on hot summer days. This external heating causes an increase in the EC
Fig. 8(d) shows that the EC’s negative effect on the MSS daily pro­ wall temperature, which negatively affects the MSS thermal behavior as
ductivity appears throughout the winter test day. The reduction in the well as its productivity. This negative effect has been reported by
daily productivity of the MSS compared to that of the CSS is about 12%. Madhlopa and Johnstone [34]. They revealed that despite its location in
This negative effect of the EC has resulted from a high rate of heat/mass the shaded zone, direct solar radiation would reach the EC wall.
transfer from the still to the EC, accompanied by an excessive heat loss Furthermore, the condenser wall receives diffuse and ground reflected-
through the EC wall. Data indicate that the EC has contributed by about solar radiation throughout the test day.
56% in MSS productivity, which is higher than the glass cover. More­ Generally, the rise in the EC wall temperature is caused by an in­
over, it represents the highest contribution compared to all previous ternal heat/mass transfer from the still toward the EC, by diffusion,
tests. purging and NC phenomenon as illustrated in Fig. 12(a) and that dis­
Table 2 summarizes the results of all tests performed in the scope of cussed in Section 2.2. The heat/mass transfer rate depends mainly on the
this study. The daily productivity of both solar stills is closely related to amount of vapor produced and the temperature difference between the
weather conditions. The negative effect of the EC is not just limited to still cavity and the EC. On the summer test day, it was observed that the

7
A. Rahmani et al. Desalination 501 (2021) 114914

0,55 0,55

0,50 CSS (a) 0,50 CSS (b)

glass_MSS glass_MSS
0,45 condenser 0,45 Condenser
MSS (glass+cond,) MSS (glass+cond,)
0,40 0,40
Hourly yield (kg/m²h)

hourly yield (kg/m²h)

0,35 06/04/2018 0,35 15/04/2018
0,30 0,30
0,25 0,25
0,20 0,20
0,15 0,15
0,10 0,10
0,05 0,05
0,00 0,00
06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00
06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00
Time (hr) Time (hr)

0,55 0,55

0,50 CSS (c) 0,50 CSS (d)

glass_MSS glass_MSS
0,45 condenser 0,45 condenser
MSS (glass+cond,) MSS (glass+cond,)
0,40 0,40
Hourly yield (kg/m²h)

0,35
25/06/2018 Hourly yield (kg/m²h) 0,35 20/12/2018
0,30 0,30

0,25 0,25

0,20 0,20

0,15 0,15

0,10 0,10
0,05 0,05
0,00 0,00
06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00
Time (hr) Time (hr)

Fig. 7. Hourly productivity of the simple and modified solar still for the four test days.

EC wall temperature rises early and quickly a few minutes after the radiation, the EC receives solar rays from sunrise (06:06 a.m.) until
sunrise (Fig. 6(c)). Knowing that the productivity of the EC for this test about 11:30 a.m. In the afternoon period, the EC remains exposed to sun
started at 11:30 a.m. (Fig. 7(c)), i.e., there is no water vapor transfer rays from about 02:30 p.m. until sunset (08:00 p.m.).
toward the EC before this time. Thus, the rise in the EC wall temperature
is indeed due to the external heating caused by solar radiation reaching 3.5. Mass transfer analysis
the EC.
The EC wall temperature rise also affects the glass cover temperature The water vapor transfer from the still cavity to the EC is carried out,
that rises in turn above the water temperature and its counterpart in the by diffusion, purging and by the NC mode. A quantitative analysis is
CSS, unlike the other tests. The glass temperature increase is due to a performed in this section to evaluate the contribution of each mass
convective heat transfer, performed by the warm air that impinges on transfer mode in the amount of collected freshwater in the EC, as fol­
the glass cover after leaving the EC through the upper slot. The airflow is lows:
happened by the inverted NC, created due to the negative air density
ṁcond = ṁDiff . + ṁPurg. + ṁNC (8)
difference between the still and the EC. The NC loop turns inversely to
the reference case and acts to extract the warm air through the EC upper The transferred water vapor by diffusion from the evaporator to the
slot to the still, as illustrated in Fig. 12(b). The NC effect on MSS pro­ EC is estimated using the diffusion theory [34].
ductivity will be the subject of Section 3.6. ( / )
The increase in the EC wall temperature appears on the summer test ṁDiff = D Agap xgap (φs − φc ) (9)
day, where the solar azimuth angle, corresponding to sunrise, is greater D is the water vapor diffusion coefficient expressed by the flowing
than 90◦ and the condenser’s solar exposed area is higher. For 25/06/ equation [61,62].
2018, the solar azimuth angle at the sunrise time (06:08 a.m.) was
( )2.072 /
114.4◦ to the east direction. To prove that the EC is exposed to direct D = 1.8710− 10 Tf + 273 P (10)
solar radiation, two photographic pictures were captured for the MSS in
the morning of the following day (09:42 a.m.) and in the afternoon The humid air temperature in the still cavity is average between the
period (03:47 p.m.), as shown in Fig. 9. Despite its protection from solar water and the glass temperatures as Tf = (Tw + Tg) / 2 and P is the total
pressure inside the still. Agap/xgap represents the ratio between the slot

8
A. Rahmani et al. Desalination 501 (2021) 114914

4,0 4,0
CSS CSS
3,5 glass_MSS 3,5
glass_MSS
condenser condenser_MSS
3,0 MSS (glass+cond,) MSS (glass+cond,)
3,0

Accumulated yield (kg/m²)

Accumulated yield (kg/m²)

06/04/2018 15/04/2018
2,5 2,5

2,0 2,0

1,5 1,5
41,6%
1,0 1,0 36,36%

0,5 0,5
(a) (b)
0,0 0,0
06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00
Time (hr) Time (hr)

4,0 4,0

CSS CSS
3,5 glass_MSS 3,5 glass_MSS
condenser_MSS condenser_MSS
3,0 MSS (glass+cond,) 3,0 MSS (glass+cond,)

Accumulated yield (kg/m²)

Accumulated yield (kg/m²)

25/06/2018 20/12/2018
2,5 2,5

2,0 2,0

1,5 1,5
39,6%
1,0 1,0 56%

0,5 0,5
(c) (d)
0,0 0,0
06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00
Time (hr) Time (hr)

Fig. 8. Accumulated productivity of both stills for the four test days.

Table 2
Comparison of the daily productivity of the CSS and MSS for other experiments.
Date Average values of weather conditions Freshwater daily productivity (ml) Daily productivity rise
(%)
Global solar radiation (MJ/ Wind speed (m/ Ambient temperature CSS MSS
m2) s) (◦ C)
Glass Glass External Total
cover cover condenser

06/04/ 27.50 3.1 32.24 970 730 520 1250 +29

2018
15/04/ 28.33 2.7 23.20 1410 770 440 1210 − 16.53
2018
29/04/ 30.10 3.62 26.60 1090 600 540 1140 +4.58
2018
06/06/ 30.40 3.04 34.35 1280 750 415 1165 − 9.87
2018
12/06/ 28.77 5.76 36.32 1230 760 420 1180 − 4.24
2018
25/06/ 31.32 11.7 38.50 1160 770 500 1270 +9.48
2018
19/12/ 15.80 3.63 14.12 550 210 275 485 − 13.38
2018
20/12/ 15.81 3.09 13.75 560 220 280 500 − 12
2018

The negative sign (− ) indicates a decrease in the MSS productivity against the CSS.

9
A. Rahmani et al. Desalination 501 (2021) 114914

Fig. 9. Photography of the external condenser and their exposure to solar radiation.

1,6 1,6

Condenser Condenser
1,4 1,4 NC
NC
Purging Purging
1,2 1,2 Diffusion
Diffusion
Condenser yield (kg/m²)

Condenser yield (kg/m²)

68,1%
1,0 06/04/2018 1,0 15/04/2018
63,5%
0,8 0,8

0,6 0,6
31,8% 36,4%
0,4 0,4

0,2 0,2

0,0 0,0

06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00
Time (hr) Time (hr)

1,6 1,6
Condenser
1,4
Condenser 1,4 NC
NC
Purging
Purging
1,2 79,7% 1,2 Diffusion
Diffusion
Condenser yield (kg/m²)

Condenser yied (kg/m²)

1,0 1,0
20/12/2018
25/06/2018

0,8 0,8
76,3%
0,6 0,6

0,4 0,4
20,2%
23,6%
0,2 0,2

0,0 0,0

06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00
Time (hr) Time (hr)

Fig. 10. Contribution of diffusion, purging and NC in the EC accumulated productivity.

10
A. Rahmani et al. Desalination 501 (2021) 114914

area and the distance traveled by water vapor from the still to EC, which same asymptotic tendency as the solar radiation profile; however, its
equals 2.0 cm in our case. The density of water vapor between (φs and intensity is highly proportional to the ambient temperature. The calcu­
φc) is expressed in terms of partial pressure and temperature [34,37]. lation shows that the predicted NC mass flow rate is high under hot
weather conditions (25/06/2018). As the difference in temperature in­
φ(T) = P/461.52(T + 273.15) (11)
crease between the still and the EC, the humid air density difference is
increased, which leads to a faster NC and high heat/mass transfer from
P(T) = exp[25.317 − 5144/(T + 273) ] (12)
the still toward the EC and leading to higher daily productivity.
The freshwater quantity transferred by the purging mode to the EC is The ambient temperature effect on the NC intensity appears when
determined based on the volume ratio between the EC and the still comparing the two spring tests (06/04/2018 and 15/04/2018). Both
cavity [37]. test days have approximately the same solar radiation intensity
(Table 2), while the main difference lies in the ambient temperature. The
ṁPurg = ṁMSS (Vc /(Vs + Vc ) ) (13)
results show also that getting the same NC mass flow rate is possible for
After determining the freshwater amount transferred by diffusion different weather conditions, as observed by comparing the mass flow
and purging, NC contribution is then calculated by subtracting them rate curves of 15/04/2018 with that of 20/12/2018. Between 01:30 p.
from the EC total production as: m. and 06:00 p.m., the mass flow rate of both tests has approximately
( ) the same values, despite their different solar radiation intensities (Fig. 5
ṁNC = ṁEC − ṁDiff + ṁPurg. (14) (a)). On the winter test day (20/12/2018), the NC intensity is highly
decreased due to the low ambient temperature as well as the reduced
Fig. 10 shows the contribution of purging, diffusion and NC mass solar radiation. Due to the excessive heat losses to the ambient, the EC
transfer modes, in the EC productivity for each test day. It is clear that wall temperature falls, causing a decrease in the flowing air temperature
NC is the prevailing mass transfer mode for all tests, which contributes leaving the EC, this in turn decreases the basin water temperature. The
by about 63.5 to 80%. This is in accordance with that revealed by Fath difference in air density between the still cavity and EC diminished,
et al. [37]. However, the diffusion contribution in the mass transfer to leading to a low NC flow rate and a reduction in MSS daily productivity
the EC is negligible. (1.43 kg/m2) in comparison to the other tests.
Based on the results obtained in this section, a schematic diagram
showing the NC behavior inside the still is suggested in Fig. 12. When the
3.6. Natural circulation analysis air density difference between the still cavity and the EC is positive (ρs >
ρc), the humid air moves from the evaporator toward the EC through the
Based on the obtained experimental data, the NC analysis is per­ upper slot (Fig. 12(a)). In the EC, the air temperature decrease and its
formed in this section to estimate the intensity and the direction of the density increases and then moves toward the lower opening. The rela­
humid air flowing inside the MSS. As discussed above (in Section 2.2), tively cold air current streaming from the lower slot and spreads over the
NC takes place due to the air density difference between the still cavity water surface, generating more water vapor. The simultaneous heat/
and the EC. The NC airflow rate is determined using the balance between mass transfer at the water-air interface causes a decrease in the water
the driving buoyancy force (resulting from the density difference) and temperature. Thanks to the incoming solar energy, heat losses are
the frictional force linked to the EC geometrical characteristics. Ac­ compensated and the temperature gap between the still cavity and the
cording to Fath et al. [37], the air mass flow rate between the still and EC is maintained. The experimental data show that the EC wall tem­
the EC is expressed by: perature can highly exceed that of the basin water (Fig. 6(c)) when the
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ EC is exposed to solar radiation in the morning as well as in the after­
ṁair = Ag ρc g Hc (ρs − ρc )/KE (15)
noon period. Due to the negative difference of the air density between
Ag is the slot flow area, Hc is the condenser height and KE is the NC the still cavity and the EC (ρs < ρc), the NC turns in the opposite direction
flow resistance coefficient. Regarding the large volume fraction between than in the typical case, extracting the hot air from the condenser toward
the still and EC, a high-value of KE = 10 is taken to predict the air mass the evaporator through the upper slot (Fig. 12(b)). During its passage
flow rate for all tests. inside the still cavity, the hot air exchanges heat with the glass cover and
Fig. 11(a) illustrates the estimated air mass flow rate inside the MSS basin water, which are relatively at a lower temperature. Thus, its
for the four test days. Firstly, it is clear that the air mass flow rate de­ temperature decreases when it moves toward the lower slot to return to
pends mainly on the difference in density between the still and the EC the EC.
(Fig. 11(b)). It is clear that the profile of the NC mass flow rate has the

0,8 0,08 100

06/04/2018 (a) 06/04/2018 (b)
0,07 90
0,7 15/04/2018 15/04/2018
25/06/2018 0,06 25/06/2018 80
md=3,64 kg/m²
0,6 20/12/2018 20/12/2018
Ambient temperature (°C)
Density diference (kg/m )
Mass flowrate (Kg/s*10 )

0,05 70
3

md=3,57 kg/m²
0,5
0,04 60
md=3,45 kg/m²
0,4 0,03 50
md=1,43 kg/m²
0,02 40
0,3
0,01 30
0,2
0,00 20
0,1
-0,01 10

0,0 -0,02 0
06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00
Time (hr) Time (hr)

Fig. 11. NC flow rate and their dependence to the density difference.

11
A. Rahmani et al. Desalination 501 (2021) 114914

Fig. 12. Air natural circulation inside the MSS in the cold (a) and hot climatic conditions (b).

3.7. Energy and exergy efficiency represents a qualitative insight to estimate the maximum power that can
be produced by the still under certain weather conditions.
The EC effect on the solar still’s thermal performance is evaluated by
comparing the energy and exergy efficiencies of both stills. As reported 3.7.1. Energy efficiency
by Hassan et al. [39], energy efficiency gives a quantitative view of solar Based on the freshwater amount collected each half-hour, the latent
energy effectively used by the solar still. While the exergy efficiency heat of evaporation and the solar energy falling on the basin still, the still

100 100

90 CSS 90 CSS
MSS MSS
80 80
06/04/2018 15/04/2018
70 70
Energy efficiency (%)

Energy efficiency (%)

60 60

50 50

40 40

30 23,2% 30

20 20 18,25%

10 18,1% 10 16%

0 0
06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00
100 Time (hr) 100 Time (hr)
90 CSS 90 CSS
MSS MSS
80 80
25/06/2018 20/12//2018
70 70
Energy efficiency (%)

Energy efficiency (%)

60 60

50 50

40 40

30 30
21%
20 20
10,8%
10 17,3% 10
9,1%
0 0
06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00

Time (hr) Time (hr)

Fig. 13. Variation of energy efficiency of the CSS and MSS during the four test days.

12
A. Rahmani et al. Desalination 501 (2021) 114914

energy efficiency is calculated by the following formula [63]:

ηex = Exout /Exin (18)
ṁd hfg
ηEn = (16) The solar still exergy output is calculated based on the freshwater
Is Ab ∙1800
rate (ṁd ) collected for 30 min, ambient temperature (Ta) and water
where hfg is the latent heat of water evaporation expressed with the temperature (Tw) [68]. Where the exergy input to the solar still is esti­
following equation, which is valid for temperature between 0 ◦ C and mated, according to [69,70].
200 ◦ C, as given by [64]. ṁd hew
[
Ta
]
[ ] Exout = 1− (19)
hfg = 103 2501.9 − 2.40706Tw + 1.192217∙10− 3 Tw2 − 1.5863∙10− 5 Tw3 1800 Tw
(17) [ ( ) ( )4 ]
4 Ta 1 Ta
Fig. 13 shows the variation of the energy efficiency of CSS and MSS Exin = Ab Is 1 − + (20)
3 Ts 3 Ts
for all test days. The calculations show that the MSS daily energy effi­
ciency varies between 9.1% and 23.2%, while for the CSS, it varies be­ where, Ts is the sun’s surface temperature of about 6000 K.
tween 10.8% and 18.25%. The EC positive effect on the still’s thermal
Fig. 14 shows a comparison of the exergy efficiencies of both CSS and
efficiency appears on hot weather days, namely 06/04/2018 and 25/ MSS for the four test days. The calculation shows that the maximum
06/2018, while its negative aspect effect appears when the ambient
daily exergy efficiency for the MSS is about 1.9%, obtained for the first
temperature is reduced (15/04/2018 and 20/12/2018). test day (06/04/2018). Except for this day, the average exergy efficiency
of the CSS is higher than that of the MSS. The maximum averaged exergy
3.7.2. Exergy efficiency efficiency of the CSS is about 2.4% for the second test day (15/04/2018).
The exergy efficiency of both solar stills is defined as the ratio of the This test reveals the EC’s negative effect on the still exergy efficiency,
exergy output of evaporated water to the exergy input represented by which decreases by about 41.17% to that of the CSS. The averaged
the incoming solar energy through the still glass cove and is determined exergy efficiency for both solar stills is low in the winter test (20/12/
by [65]. According to the following references [66, 67], the solar still 2018), where the daily exergy efficiency of CSS and MSS were 1.2% and
exergy efficiency is estimated by: 0.9%, respectively.

10 10
CSS CSS
MSS MSS
8 06/04/2018 8 15/04/2018
Exergy efficiency (%)

Exergy efficiency (%)

6 6

4 4

2,4%
1,9%
2 2

1,7% 1,7%
0 0
06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00
10 Time (hr) 10 Time (hr)
CSS CSS
MSS MSS
8 25/06/2018 8 20/12/2018
Exergy efficiency (%)

Exergy efficiency (%)

6 6

4 4

2 2
1,66% 1,2%

1,57%
0,9%
0 0
06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00

Time (hr) Time (hr)

Fig. 14. Variation of exergy efficiency of the CSS and MSS during the four test days.

13
A. Rahmani et al. Desalination 501 (2021) 114914

4. Conclusion interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence

the work reported in this paper.
The present paper deals with an experimental study revealing the
EC’s negative effect on CSS performance. The EC negative effect has Acknowledgements
been experimentally demonstrated, through a comparison between two
similar conventional solar stills, with and without an EC. Based on the This work was supported by the Research Unit in Renewable En­
obtained results, the following conclusions can be drawn: ergies in Saharan Medium, Renewable Energy Development Center of
Adrar-Algeria. The authors are grateful to all the personnel of the
• The negative effect of the EC appears in three various aspects, ac­ weather station of the Research Unit to have provided all information
cording to the prevailing weather conditions and during different relating to the atmospheric conditions and which made it possible to
periods of the day, which adversely affects the MSS thermal perfor­ conclude the present step of work.
mance and reduces its daily yield by about 16.5% compared to CSS.
• Regardless of the weather conditions, the EC negative effect appears References
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The authors declare that they have no known competing financial condenser loaded by silver/nanofluid for simultaneously water disinfection and

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