Test Bank For Criminology Today An Integrative Introduction 6th Edition by Schmalleger

Test Bank for Criminology Today An
Integrative Introduction 6th Edition by

Schmalleger
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Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 9e (Schmalleger)

Chapter 2 Where Do Theories Come From?
2.1 Multiple Choice Questions
1) The "evidence" in evidence-based criminology refers to

A) information obtained from witnesses to the crime.
B) fingerprints found at the crime scene.
C) experimental scientific findings.
D) social discussions.
Answer: C
Page Ref: 29
Objective: What is the role of social scientific research methods in the development of
criminological theories? How does the meaning of the word evidence in evidence-based
criminology differ from the evidence found at a crime scene or the evidence used in criminal
trials?
Level: Intermediate
2) Evidence-based criminology is based upon which research method?

A) Randomized, controlled experiments
B) Case studies
C) Participant observation
D) Secondary analysis of data
Answer: A
Page Ref: 29
trials?
Level: Basic
3) The ideas of armchair criminologists achieve acclaim in all but which of the following ways?
A) The involvement of distinguished lecturers
B) Publication in prestigious essays
C) The systematic collection of related acts
D) The association of their ideas with institutions of higher learning
Answer: C
Page Ref: 30
trials?
Level: Intermediate
4) Which of the following is not a scientific endeavor?
A) Investigating the relationship between facts that have been gathered
B) Building a database of information
C) Investigating paranormal phenomena
D) Interrogating witnesses at a crime scene
Answer: D
Page Ref: 30
trials?
Level: Difficult
5) A(n) is a series of interrelated propositions which attempt to describe, explain,

predict, and ultimately control some class of events.
A) hypothesis
B) theory
C) variable
D) experiment
Answer: B
Page Ref: 31
Objective: What is a theory? What purposes do theories serve? What role do research and
experimentation play in theory building in criminology?
Level: Basic
6) The statement, "Breaking the cycle of poverty will reduce crime" is an example of a(n)
A) hypothesis.
B) theory.
C) social policy.
D) causal question.
Answer: A
Page Ref: 31
Level: Intermediate
7) Which of the following statements is an example of a theory?

A) Increasing job opportunities will reduce crime
B) Crime rates increased in the past year
C) Poverty is a root cause of illegal drug use
D) Requiring everyone to earn a high school degree will lead to a reduction in crime
Answer: C
Page Ref: 31
Level: Difficult
8) Which of the following is not a use of theory in social scientific thinking?
A) Theories supply frameworks within which concepts and variables acquire special significance
B) Theories link studies together
C) Theories can be improved through hypothesis testing
D) Theories provide patterns for the interpretation of data
Answer: C
Page Ref: 32-33
Level: Intermediate
9) research is undertaken simply for the sake of advancing scientific knowledge.

A) Applied
B) Pure
C) Primary
D) Secondary
Answer: B
Page Ref: 33
Objective: What is the role of criminological research in theory building? What is internal
validity? External validity? How can threats to internal and external validity be addressed?
Level: Basic
10) What is the first step in any research?

A) Develop a research design
B) Review the findings
C) Choose a data collection technique
D) Identify a problem
Answer: D
Page Ref: 33
Level: Basic
11) is the process by which a concept is made measurable or a simple hypothesis is

turned into one that is testable.
A) Operationalization
B) Theory building
C) Variable development
D) Pure research
Answer: A
Page Ref: 34
Level: Basic
12) You are interested in determining whether allowing prison inmates to have televisions in
their cells will reduce violent behavior. You measure the rate of violence in the prison, install
televisions in all cells, and then measure the rate of violence again one month later to see if there
has been any change. What research design have you used?
A) A controlled experiment
B) A one-group pretest-posttest design
C) A quasi-experiment
D) A life history
Answer: B
Page Ref: 35
Level: Difficult
13) A(n) research design is particularly useful when some aspects of the social setting
are beyond the control of the researcher.
A) controlled experiment
B) one-group pretest-posttest
C) quasi-experimental
D) case study
Answer: C
Page Ref: 35-36
Level: Intermediate
14) Which of the following threats to internal validity is an example of the problem of
experimental mortality?
A) During the implementation of a study on violence in a prison, the prison administrator is
replaced
B) During a study, subjects become tired and their response time is affected
C) During a study in which students interview prison inmates, a number of student interviewers
graduate and must be replaced
D) During a study comparing two groups of prison inmates, some of the members of one group
are released on parole
Answer: D
Page Ref: 36
Level: Difficult
15) Which of the following threats to external validity is an example of the problem of reactive
effects of experiment arrangements?
A) A pretest was conducted that sensitized the subjects to the topic of the research, so that they
may have responded to the treatment differently than would individuals who did not go through
the pretest
B) Defendants in a county court are allowed to choose whether or not they would like to
participate in a study to determine the effectiveness of a new diversion program
C) Inmates in a prison are aware that they are part of a study on prison violence and modify their
behavior as a result of this awareness
D) Inmates in a prison are participating in two research studies and are simultaneously exposed
to two different experimental interventions
Answer: C
Page Ref: 37
Level: Difficult
16) After the results of a large research study on police procedures were publicized, the
researchers were interested in determining whether the study had affected police policy. The
researcher telephoned big-city police departments and asked a series of questions about
department policies and procedures. This is an example of which data-gathering strategy?
A) Participant observation
B) Survey research
C) Case study
D) Secondary analysis
Answer: B
Page Ref: 38
Level: Difficult
17) You are interested in studying how prison inmates and correctional officers interact on a
daily basis. To do this, you get a job as a correctional officer in a state prison and work there for
several months. What data-gathering strategy are you employing here?
A) Participant observation
B) Survey research
C) Secondary analysis
D) Self-reporting
Answer: A
Page Ref: 39
Level: Difficult
18) Which is the only data-gathering technique that does not produce new data?
A) Self-reporting
B) Secondary analysis
C) Case study
D) Survey research
Answer: B
Page Ref: 39-40
Level: Basic
19) Because the Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment had a major impact on police
policy, the National Institute of Justice decided to see if the same results would be found if the
study was conducted in other cities around the U.S. This is an example of the issue of
A) replicability.
B) intersubjectivity.
C) reactivity.
D) instrumentation.
Answer: A
Page Ref: 40
Level: Difficult
20) Which of the following is an example of inferential statistics?

A) Standard deviation
B) Correlation
C) Median
D) Test of significance
Answer: D
Page Ref: 41-42
Level: Intermediate
21) are techniques that produce measurable results which can be analyzed statistically.
A) Qualitative methods
B) Pure research methods
C) Quantitative methods
D) Participant observations
Answer: C
Page Ref: 42
Objective: What are the differences between quantitative and qualitative methods in social
sciences? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each method?
Level: Basic
22) treats numbers as having intrinsic scientific value.
A) Intersubjectivity
B) Pure research
C) Qualitative methodology
D) The mystique of quantity
Answer: D
Page Ref: 43
Level: Basic
23) After research into the effectiveness of Project D.A.R.E. found that the program was
ineffective, publication of the research results was blocked. A representative of the National
Institute of Justice stated that they did not agree with one of the study's major findings. What
ethical issue applies here?
A) Protection of human subjects
B) Informed consent
C) Objectivity
D) Data confidentiality
Answer: C
Page Ref: 44
Objective: What are some of the ethical considerations involved in conducting criminological
research?
Level: Difficult
24) The ethical principle of means that research subjects are told about the nature of
the research and their role in it.
A) informed consent
B) data confidentiality
C) anonymity
D) objectivity
Answer: A
Page Ref: 44-45
research?
Level: Basic
25) Which of the following is not a critical ethical issue for criminal justice researchers?
A) Data confidentiality
B) Protection of human subjects
C) Disclosure of research methods
D) Application of results to social policy
Answer: D
Page Ref: 44-45
research?
Level: Intermediate
26) A(n) involves reviewing the results of other studies on a specific topic.
A) participant observation study
B) meta-analysis
C) survey
D) case study
Answer: B
Page Ref: 47
Objective: How do criminological research and experimental criminology impact social policy?
Level: Basic
27) In a research report, the is a brief summation of the findings of the report.
A) abstract
B) review of the existing literature
C) preface
D) analysis
Answer: A
Page Ref: 48
Objective: What sections might a typical research report contain?
Level: Basic
28) Which of the following sections is not always included in a research report?
A) Appendixes
B) Findings and results
C) Analysis and discussion
D) References
Answer: A
Page Ref: 48-49
Level: Intermediate
29) Where are criminologists most likely to publish their research?

A) Newspapers
B) Monographs
C) Professional journals
D) Wikipedia
Answer: C
Page Ref: 49
Level: Basic
30) Which submission requirement tends to be the same for all professional refereed journals?
A) The style of the references
B) The method of submission
C) A prohibition on simultaneous submissions
D) The amount of the submission fee
Answer: C
Page Ref: 50
Level: Intermediate
2.2 True/False Questions
1) The evidence used in evidence-based criminology is the same type of evidence that is used in
a criminal trial.
Answer: FALSE
Page Ref: 29
trials?
Level: Basic
2) During the Golden Age of Theory, there was a systematic attempt to link criminological
research to theory.
Answer: FALSE
Page Ref: 29
trials?
Level: Basic
3) Gathering facts is sufficient to offer a satisfactory explanation of crime.

Answer: FALSE
Page Ref: 30
trials?
Level: Basic
4) The statement "Providing more educational opportunities to lower-income individuals will
reduce crime" is a hypothesis.
Answer: TRUE
Page Ref: 31
Level: Difficult
5) A theory is tested by how well it describes and predicts reality.

Answer: TRUE
Page Ref: 31
Level: Intermediate
6) If you conduct applied research, you are not expecting your results to have any immediate,
practical application.
Answer: FALSE
Page Ref: 33
Level: Basic
7) Problem identification often includes some basic statistical analyses.

Answer: FALSE
Page Ref: 33-34
Level: Intermediate
8) A one-group pretest-posttest research design eliminates all other possible explanations of

behavioral change.
Answer: FALSE
Page Ref: 35
Level: Basic
9) You are conducting a simple one-group pretest-posttest research design in a police department
and between the pretest and posttest, the chief of police resigns. This event may produce a
confounding effect.
Answer: TRUE
Page Ref: 35
Level: Difficult
10) A rehabilitation program is tested in a California medium security prison and found to be
effective. The researchers want to know if the program will be effective in maximum security
prisons in Texas. This is a question of external validity.
Answer: TRUE
Page Ref: 35
Level: Difficult
11) In the "participant as observer" strategy, the observer goes "undercover" and joins the group,
participating in their activities.
Answer: FALSE
Page Ref: 39
Level: Intermediate
12) The question, "Do you see what I see?" highlights the role of intersubjectivity in scientific
observation.
Answer: TRUE
Page Ref: 40
Level: Basic
13) Findings from qualitative studies are expressed numerically.

Answer: FALSE
Page Ref: 43
Level: Basic
14) The best way to control the effects of biases is to be aware of them at the start of the
research.
Answer: TRUE
Page Ref: 44
research?
Level: Basic
15) During participant observation, the researcher's primary role becomes that of a member of
the group he or she is observing.
Answer: FALSE
Page Ref: 45
research?
Level: Intermediate
16) Politicians frequently consult with criminologist when developing new crime legislation.
Answer: FALSE
Page Ref: 46
Level: Intermediate
17) A meta-analysis is a study of other studies.

Answer: TRUE
Page Ref: 47
Level: Basic
18) It is not necessary for a researcher to present research limitations in the final research report.
Answer: FALSE
Page Ref: 49
Level: Basic
19) Most refereed professional journals discourage simultaneous submissions.

Answer: TRUE
Page Ref: 50
Level: Basic
2.3 Fill in the Blank Questions
1) Evidence-based criminology is founded on the method.

Answer: experimental/scientific
Page Ref: 29
trials?
Level: Basic
2) The Golden Age of was a time when data on crime were gathered and evaluated
independent of any particular ideational framework.

Answer: Research
Page Ref: 30
trials?
Level: Basic
3) A(n) is an explanation that accounts for a set of facts and that can be tested by
further investigation.
Answer: hypothesis
Page Ref: 31
Level: Basic
4) A(n) is tested by how well it describes and predicts reality.

Answer: theory
Page Ref: 31
Level: Basic
5) Most criminological research today is intended to explore issues of .

Answer: causality
Page Ref: 34
Level: Intermediate
6) Rival explanations or competing hypotheses are known as .

Answer: confounding effects
Page Ref: 35
Level: Basic
7) Properly selected control groups help criminology researchers eliminate threats to .

Answer: internal validity
Page Ref: 35-36
Level: Intermediate
8) A case study focusing on a single subject is known as a .

Answer: life history
Page Ref: 38
Level: Basic
9) Because research subjects generally do not know that they are being studied, secondary
analysis is said to be .
Answer: nonreactive
Page Ref: 40
Level: Intermediate
10) research methods produce subjective results.

Answer: Qualitative
Page Ref: 43
Level: Basic
11) such as researcher preconceptions and biases enter into all stages of the research
process.
Answer: Values
Page Ref: 44
research?
Level: Basic
12) is a strategy used to overcome many ethical issues inherent in criminological

research by telling research subjects about the research and their role in it.
Answer: Informed consent
Page Ref: 44
research?
Level: Basic
13) Ideally, criminological research should have an impact on politicians who formulate crime
control .
Answer: policy
Page Ref: 46
Level: Basic
14) In a research report, a discussion of relevant previous research is usually found in the section
.
Answer: review of existing literature
Page Ref: 48
Level: Basic
15) journals use peer reviewers to determine the quality of manuscripts submitted to
them.
Answer: Refereed
Page Ref: 59
Level: Basic
2.4 Matching Questions
Place the steps in the theory-building process in the proper order
A) Step 3
B) Step 1
C) Step 4
D) Step 7
E) Step 5
F) Step 6
G) Step 2
1) The Hypothesis is Tested

Page Ref: 31
Level: Intermediate
2) A Correlation is Observed
Page Ref: 31
Level: Intermediate
3) A Theory is Proposed
Page Ref: 31
Level: Intermediate
4) Theory-Based Understanding is Achieved

Page Ref: 31
Level: Intermediate
5) Questions are Raised about Causes

Page Ref: 31
Level: Intermediate
6) A Theory-Based Hypothesis is Developed

Page Ref: 31
Level: Intermediate
7) Theory-Based Social Policies Result
Page Ref: 31
Level: Intermediate
Answers: 1) F 2) B 3) A 4) C 5) G 6) E 7) D
Match the type of research with its definition
A) Research based on scientific inquiry that is designed and carried out with practical
applications in mind
B) Research characterized by original and direct investigation
C) Research based on new evaluations of existing information that has been collected by other
researchers
D) Research undertaken simply for the sake of advancing scientific knowledge
8) Applied research
Page Ref: 33
Level: Intermediate
9) Pure research
Page Ref: 33
Level: Intermediate
10) Primary research

Page Ref: 33
Level: Intermediate
11) Secondary research

Page Ref: 33
Level: Intermediate
Answers: 8) A 9) D 10) B 11) C

Place the stages in the scientific research process in order
A) Step 2
B) Step 1
C) Step 3
D) Step 4
12) Review of findings

Page Ref: 33
Level: Intermediate
13) Development of research design

Page Ref: 33
Level: Intermediate
14) Problem identification

Page Ref: 33
Level: Intermediate
15) Choice of data collection techniques

Page Ref: 33
Level: Intermediate
Answers: 12) D 13) A 14) B 15) C

Identify the threats with the type of validity they threaten
A) External validity
B) Internal validity
16) Pretest effects

Page Ref: 36-37
Level: Intermediate
17) History
Page Ref: 36-37
Level: Intermediate
18) Reactivity
Page Ref: 36-37
Level: Intermediate
19) Self-selection
Page Ref: 36-37
Level: Intermediate
20) Maturation
Page Ref: 36-37
Level: Intermediate
21) Instrumentation
Page Ref: 36-37
Level: Intermediate
22) Experimenter bias

Page Ref: 36-37
Level: Intermediate
23) Multiple-treatment interference
Page Ref: 36-37
Level: Intermediate
24) Statistical regression

Page Ref: 36-37
Level: Intermediate
25) Experimental mortality

Page Ref: 36-37
Level: Intermediate
Answers: 16) A 17) B 18) A 19) A 20) B 21) B 22) B 23) A 24) B 25) B
Match each threat to the validity of a research design with the appropriate example
A) A researcher conducts an experiment in a prison to determine the effect of a new treatment

program. During the experiment, a large number of the inmates in the control group are released
on parole, although no inmates in the experimental group are paroled during the course of the
study.
B) Prior to experiencing a treatment, subjects in a study take a pretest. This sensitizes them to the
topic of the study. They may react differently to the treatment than would subjects who did not
take the pretest first.
C) The researcher applies two different treatments to the experimental group in a research study.
D) During a large-scale study in which crime victims are interviewed, two interviewers resign
and must be replaced.
E) A researcher brings subjects into a lab to conduct a study. The subjects are aware that they are
being studied and may not behave normally.
F) Instead of randomly selecting students to participate in a study on campus, the researcher asks
students to volunteer. As a result, only students who are interested in the study participate.
G) A researcher conducts an experiment in an elementary school to determine the effectiveness
of an anti-drug education program. As there are an equal number of boys and girls in the school,
the researcher finds it easier to assign all the boys to the experimental group and all the girls to
the treatment group
H) While interviewing subjects during an experiment, the researcher does not treat the subjects
in the experimental and control group identically.
I) A researcher selects subjects based on their extreme scores on a personality test. When the
subjects are tested again later, their scores are less extreme.
J) During the process of a study, subjects become tired, affecting their responses
K) A specific event takes place between the first and second observations in a study that may
affect measurement.
26) Pretest effects

Page Ref: 36-37
Level: Difficult
27) History
Page Ref: 36-37
Level: Difficult
28) Reactivity
Page Ref: 36-37
Level: Difficult
29) Self-selection
Page Ref: 36-37
Level: Difficult
30) Maturation
Page Ref: 36-37
Level: Difficult
31) Instrumentation
Page Ref: 36-37
Level: Difficult
32) Experimenter bias

Page Ref: 36-37
Level: Difficult
33) Multiple-treatment interference

Page Ref: 36-37
Level: Difficult
34) Statistical regression

Page Ref: 36-37
Level: Difficult
35) Experimental mortality

Page Ref: 36-37
Level: Difficult
36) Differential selection
Page Ref: 36-37
Level: Difficult
Answers: 26) B 27) K 28) E 29) F 30) J 31) D 32) H 33) C 34) I 35) A 36) G
Match the data collection technique to its definition
A) Examining pre-existing data in new ways

B) The use of questionnaires to gather data
C) An in-depth investigation into a single subject or group
D) The researcher joins a group to gather data on the group's activities
E) Individuals are asked to keep a journal about their frequency of involvement in a specific
activity
37) Participant observation

Page Ref: 38-40
Level: Intermediate
38) Secondary analysis

Page Ref: 38-40
Level: Intermediate
39) Case studies

Page Ref: 38-40
Level: Intermediate
40) Surveys
Page Ref: 38-40
Level: Intermediate
41) Self-reporting
Page Ref: 38-40
Level: Intermediate
Answers: 37) D 38) A 39) C 40) B 41) E

Match the element of a research report to its features
A) A discussion of any shortcomings in the researcher so that readers may assess their impacts
on the reported results
B) Includes the names and professional affiliations of all authors
C) A brief summary of the report's findings
D) A discussion of relevant works of other researchers and prior research
E) Provides an overview of the methodology used by the researcher and explains how the
problem was investigated
F) A statement of what is being tested in the research study
G) Bibliography of all materials used in planning the study and preparing the research report
42) List of references

Page Ref: 48-49
Level: Intermediate
43) Statement of hypothesis

Page Ref: 48-49
Level: Intermediate
44) Review of existing literature

Page Ref: 48-49
Level: Intermediate
45) Disclaimers/limitations
Page Ref: 48-49
Level: Intermediate
46) Abstract
Page Ref: 48-49
Level: Intermediate
47) Title page

Page Ref: 48-49
Level: Intermediate
48) Description of research plan
Page Ref: 48-49
Level: Intermediate
Answers: 42) G 43) F 44) D 45) A 46) C 47) B 48) E
2.5 Essay Questions
1) Identify the four eras of criminology and discuss how they have influenced the current field of
criminology today.
Answer: Answers should define the four eras of criminology based on the textbook: the golden
age of research (1900-1930), the golden age of theory (1930-1960), the age of theory testing and
empirical methods (1960-2000), and the current era (21st century) that is heir to the first three.
Criminology has moved into the scientific or evidence-based criminology that we see today,
building off of the previous periods.
Page Ref: 29-30
trials?
Level: Intermediate
2) What is a theory? What is the role of theories in the field of criminology?

Answer: Responses should define theory, based on the description in the textbook, as a set of
interrelated propositions that attempt to describe, explain, predict, and ultimately control some
class of events. Answers should connect the role of theory building in the field as one that helps
construct models to allow for better understanding of criminal behavior, and in turn, better
development of social policies to reduce criminal behavior.
Page Ref: 30-33
Level: Difficult
3) Define the two types of validity and explain some of the factors that may threaten validity in
research designs. How can threats to the two types of validity be addressed?
Answer: Answers should explain the two types of confounding effects, which may invalidate the
results of research — internal validity (limits to the certainty that the research interventions
caused observed changes in research findings) and external validity (factors limiting the ability
of researchers to generalize research findings to other settings). Responses should also list some
of the specific threats to internal and external validity listed in Figures 2-2 and 2-3 in the text.
Strategies to address these threats, such as control and randomization, should also be discussed.
Page Ref: 35-37
Level: Difficult
2.6 Critical Thinking Questions
1) Explain how theory building develops in the field and contributes to social policy in
criminology. Please provide examples.
Answer: While examples will vary, all answers should accurately define theory according to the
textbook as a set of interrelated propositions that attempt to describe, explain, predict, and
ultimately control some class of events. All answers should explain a bit of the theory developing
process, including observations, theory/hypothesis development, evidence-based testing, and the
results leading up to social policy development. Answers should also discuss the importance of
and problems with ensuring that research results guide daily practice and social policy.
Page Ref: 30-33, 46-47, & others
Objective: Multiple
Level: Difficult
2) What are some of the values and ethics that criminologists must consider when conducting
research? How are they addressed?
Answer: Answers should address how criminologists work to prevent biases in research
conducted, data confidentiality, informed consent, and the overall protection of human subjects
in research. Some answers may include participation observation issues as well as building a
code of ethics for researchers in the field.
Page Ref: 44-45
research?
Level: Intermediate

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Integrative Introduction 6th Edition by

Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction, 9e (Schmalleger)

2.1 Multiple Choice Questions

1) The "evidence" in evidence-based criminology refers to

2) Evidence-based criminology is based upon which research method?

5) A(n) is a series of interrelated propositions which attempt to describe, explain,

7) Which of the following statements is an example of a theory?

9) research is undertaken simply for the sake of advancing scientific knowledge.

10) What is the first step in any research?

11) is the process by which a concept is made measurable or a simple hypothesis is

20) Which of the following is an example of inferential statistics?

29) Where are criminologists most likely to publish their research?

2.2 True/False Questions

3) Gathering facts is sufficient to offer a satisfactory explanation of crime.

5) A theory is tested by how well it describes and predicts reality.

7) Problem identification often includes some basic statistical analyses.

8) A one-group pretest-posttest research design eliminates all other possible explanations of

13) Findings from qualitative studies are expressed numerically.

17) A meta-analysis is a study of other studies.

19) Most refereed professional journals discourage simultaneous submissions.

2.3 Fill in the Blank Questions

1) Evidence-based criminology is founded on the method.

independent of any particular ideational framework.

4) A(n) is tested by how well it describes and predicts reality.

5) Most criminological research today is intended to explore issues of .

6) Rival explanations or competing hypotheses are known as .

7) Properly selected control groups help criminology researchers eliminate threats to .

8) A case study focusing on a single subject is known as a .

10) research methods produce subjective results.

12) is a strategy used to overcome many ethical issues inherent in criminological

Place the steps in the theory-building process in the proper order

1) The Hypothesis is Tested

4) Theory-Based Understanding is Achieved

5) Questions are Raised about Causes

6) A Theory-Based Hypothesis is Developed

Match the type of research with its definition

10) Primary research

11) Secondary research

Answers: 8) A 9) D 10) B 11) C

12) Review of findings

13) Development of research design

14) Problem identification

15) Choice of data collection techniques

Answers: 12) D 13) A 14) B 15) C

16) Pretest effects

22) Experimenter bias

24) Statistical regression

25) Experimental mortality

A) A researcher conducts an experiment in a prison to determine the effect of a new treatment

26) Pretest effects

32) Experimenter bias

33) Multiple-treatment interference

34) Statistical regression

35) Experimental mortality

A) Examining pre-existing data in new ways

37) Participant observation

38) Secondary analysis

39) Case studies