CONTROL

9
MEASURES AND
MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS
CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

CONTENTS

9.1 RISK OF EXPOSURE (EXPOSURE POTENTIAL) 05

9.2 REMOVE, REPLACE OR REDUCE THE HAZARD 06

THE HIERARCHY OF CONTROLS 06

REDUCE EXPOSURE POTENTIAL 07

9.3 ENGINEERING CONTROL 08

HAZARD CLASSIFICATION 09

CONTAINMENT PERFORMANCE TARGET 09

ENGINEERING CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES 10

BARRIERS 11

MANAGED AIRFLOW 15

CONTAINED TRANSFER SYSTEMS 20

ENGINEERING CONTROL TECHNOLOGY PERFORMANCE 25

LOSS OF CONTAINMENT 26

9.4 ADMINISTRATIVE CONTROLS 27

9.5 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT 29

RESPIRATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT 29

GLOVES 30

OTHER PPE 31

WORKPLACE HYGIENE PRACTICES 31

9.6 WORKER TRAINING 33

REFERENCES 34

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CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

SUMMARY
• Most PGMs are integral to the workplaces in which
they are used, and typically cannot be eliminated or
readily substituted. This chapter focuses on effective
management of the level of exposure for a workplace
activity involving PGMs, with emphasis on the control of
inhalation exposures.

• Protection of workers from exposure to chemical agents

is a regulatory requirement. Whilst most PGM substances
possess low to moderate toxicity, some are of sufficiently
high toxicity (Chapter 6) to compel stringent exposure
control, e.g., complex halogenated platinum salts (CHPS)
such as chloroplatinates, and Pt-containing anticancer
drugs (“platins”).

• Employers should evaluate exposure potential taking

into consideration local legal requirements. This can be
achieved through workplace monitoring (Chapter 8), or
estimated using predictive tools and models.

• A hierarchical approach is recommended for exposure

control. Elimination or substitution of the hazardous
material are preferred options. If neither is possible,
engineering controls are the next best option.

• Engineering controls achieve containment

– Barrier systems such as gloveboxes, which separate
the operator from the hazardous activity
– Managed airflow that entrains dust away from the
operators breathing zone
– Contained transfer systems which connect two items,
e.g., from a dryer to a container
– Automation and robotics that remove the operator
from the exposure area.
The desired target exposure level for a hazardous
substance drives selection of the optimal control
technology.

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CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

SUMMARY
• The most effective engineering controls for reducing
exposures to PGM substances, especially for High hazard
category substances, are barrier systems designed to
provide total containment. Such containment is typically
feasible in PGM refinery processes involving milling and
blending, solvent extraction, separation/filtering, and
calcining. This approach may also be adopted for other
activities, e.g., certain process catalyst installations.

• Administrative controls include reducing either the number

of workers in an area or operator residency time, and
increasing the distance between workers and the exposure
source.

• Personal protective equipment (PPE) including respirators,

coveralls, gloves, and eye protection should be considered
when other exposure controls are insufficient by
themselves, or are otherwise infeasible.

• Attention needs be paid to a variety of PPE factors

including: chemical compatibility; assigned protection
factors (APF); training in use; fit testing; tolerability and
comfort considerations; decontamination and cleaning;
storage; and medical fitness to use.

• PPE can be particularly appropriate in non-routine and

exceptional exposure circumstances such as during
maintenance activities and where equipment integrity is
disrupted, e.g., during stock-take.

• Good hygiene practices (for example skin surface washing

Note: Throughout this chapter
and decontamination) are also key to minimising personal
the inclusion of a particular
exposures. Worker awareness and training must cover image or reference to a
control measures (their necessity, function, use, reporting specific item of manufacturer
of defects etc.). equipment should not
be considered to be an
endorsement nor a critique of
that item.

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CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

9.1 RISK OF EXPOSURE (EXPOSURE POTENTIAL)

RISK OF EXPOSURE
(EXPOSURE POTENTIAL)

Potential for exposure to PGM • Process activity activity, but it does indicate the
substances can occur throughout (nature of the activity). type of technology that may
the PGM production and product be appropriate, and therefore
• Duration and frequency of the
formulation process, commencing has utility (particularly when
activity.
with sampling of incoming raw monitoring data is unavailable,
materials, evaluation stages, • Form of material handled and such as in process design stages).
smelting, refining, chemical its intrinsic fugacity When handling highly hazardous
production, catalyst coating etc. (i.e., dustiness/volatility). materials at industrial scale,
This applies not only to production • Quantity handled. ILO directs the readers to seek
operations, but also to cleaning, specialist help. Sections in this
maintenance, laboratory analysis, • Concentration of a substance. chapter do provide guidance on
and in research and development • Physical conditions, including exposure control solutions for
activities. workplace environmental such situations. It should be noted
factors. that a number of other models
The risk of worker exposure is a and tools of varying complexity
• Operator proximity and
function of the substance hazard and applicability domain have
intervention.
and the probability that it will cause been developed for workplace
harm (exposure). The potential • Operator compliance chemical exposure assessment
health hazards of PGMs have been (e.g., to standard operating (ECHA, 2012).
discussed in Chapter 6, whilst procedures).
Chapter 10 covers occupational Conclusions on exposure potential
exposure limits (OELs) and other When applied in a qualitative and any target exposure level
benchmark values relevant to PGM predictive manner, exposure definition should form part of the
exposure control, such as control potential has no determinable workplace activity risk assessment,
bands. For the purpose of defining numeric value. However, in and normally be documented (see
engineering controls, the key this case some authorities Chapter 10).
parameter is the target exposure have provided guidance by
level, e.g., based on the OEL, or rationalising exposure potential Manufacturing scenarios involving
other such value. How this will be to only the scale of operation (i.e., Pt-containing anticancer
applied to the control strategy will amount of hazardous substance pharmaceuticals (“platins”) are
be explored in later sections. being handled) and its dustiness/ within scope of this chapter, but
volatility, and then linking this to protection of health care workers
In an existing facility, exposure a suitable engineering control for handling and administering these
monitoring and observation a given workplace activity. The drugs is a more applied exposure
of a task can determine the International Labour Organisation control situation, and readers
exposure potential. The following Chemical Control Toolkit (ILO, should instead consult other
parameters should be included for 2006) is one such approach. specific sources, for example US
consideration: The result may offer only one NIOSH (2004).
control solution option for each

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CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

9.2 REMOVE, REPLACE OR REDUCE THE HAZARD

REMOVE, REPLACE OR
REDUCE THE HAZARD

As prescribed by many health options for the elimination and contain a material at source),
and safety authorities, the substitution of a hazard. before administrative controls or
starting point in considering how personal protective equipment
to control a hazardous activity If elimination or substitution is (PPE) are examined.
involving a chemical agent is via infeasible, then other controls
use of a hierarchical approach. must be sequentially considered
In some countries this stance is a and implemented, as shown in
legal requirement and a company descending order of preference in
may need to demonstrate that it Figure 9-1. Engineering controls
has been followed. should first be evaluated (to

MOST EFFECTIVE

THE HIERARCHY OF
CONTROLS ELIMINATION
Physically remove the hazard

In the conventionally recognised

SUBSTITUTION
‘Hierarchy of Controls’ (Figure Replace the hazard
9-1), removal of a hazard from
the workplace is the most
effective method of minimising
ENGINEERING CONTROLS
exposure. Therefore, elimination
Isolate people from the hazard
of a hazardous substance
from a process, substituting a
less hazardous alternative, or
reducing the amount or working
ADMINISTRATIVE CONTROLS
Change the way people work
concentration are the preferred
approaches. Where higher
hazard PGM substances such as PPE
chloroplatinates are concerned, Protect the worker with
if possible, less hazardous Personal Protective Equipment

alternatives should be identified.

Process development and facility
LEAST EFFECTIVE
design stages often provide the
best opportunity to implement Figure 9-1: Hierarchy of controls

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CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

9.2 REMOVE, REPLACE OR REDUCE THE HAZARD

REDUCE EXPOSURE
POTENTIAL

The aim of the hierarchy of

controls is to eliminate or
reduce exposure to a hazardous
substance. Elimination or
reduction of risk may also be
achieved by improving exposure
potential sub-criteria. Examples
of how exposure potential can be
reduced include:

EXPOSURE POTENTIAL SUB-CRITERION IMPROVEMENT MEASURE

Select processes that involve fewer transfer steps, or have closed transfers, or select
Process activity
equipment that generates less dust or generates dust at lower escape velocities.

Keep particulate materials in solution or suspension to avoid dust generation. Use pellets or
granules rather than fine powders. Use wet/damp powders (e.g., from filtration rather than a
Form of material handled
drying step).
Chemically deactivate materials in-situ prior to opening or dismantling equipment.

Use smaller amounts of material/reduce batch sizes. Use vessels/receptacles that can be
Quantity handled
connected and filled in a contained manner.

Reduce airborne dust by wetting or misting contaminated equipment surfaces before

Physical conditions
opening them.

Design robust processes, or use automation or robotics to obviate or reduce the necessity
Operator intervention
for operator intervention.

Provide training on hazard awareness and control measures (especially for operators who
Operator training/ compliance
are new to a process/activity).

Table 9-1: Examples of how exposure potential can be reduced

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CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

9.3 ENGINEERING CONTROLS

ENGINEERING
CONTROLS

Where eliminating the hazardous health risks then enhanced controls

substance is not possible, the next are required under local regulations.
hierarchy step is an evaluation of In relation to respiratory sensitisers,
engineering controls. The provision such as CHPS, several territories
of engineering controls to reduce require exposure to be as low as
exposure to acceptable levels is reasonably achievable. In the EU
generally known as containment. additional provisions are applicable
where workplace exposure to
The process for arriving at the carcinogens and mutagens occurs.
best engineering control solution The EU Carcinogens and Mutagens
can be complex. Quantifying Directive (EC, 2004) states:
or qualitatively estimating the “Where it is not technically
exposure potential, and then possible to replace the carcinogen
matching that and the material or mutagen by a substance,
hazard to the optimal technology preparation or process which,
takes experience. A good under its conditions of use, is not
knowledge of the process and the dangerous or is less dangerous
engineering control technology to health or safety, the employer
is also needed to ensure that shall ensure that the carcinogen
satisfactory operability of the or mutagen is, in so far as is
process is achieved in the case of technically possible, manufactured
new facilities, or maintained for and used in a closed system.
existing ones. Where a closed system is not
technically possible, the employer
Provision of engineering controls shall ensure that the level of
can involve significant capital cost. exposure of workers is reduced
In general, the higher the level of to as low a level as is technically
containment, the higher the cost, possible.” As platins can fall into
and the less flexible and operable this category of carcinogenic
will be the solution. Therefore, hazard, local regulations and an
it is important to provide a level organisation’s own policies should
of control which is adequate but be reviewed before selecting
not excessive. In similar vein, it is controls.
often less expensive to design-in
engineering controls rather than
retrofit them to a process.

In some jurisdictions, if the

hazardous substance has significant

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CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

9.3 ENGINEERING CONTROLS

entities in development which under consideration for step-

may have incomplete toxicity change reduction); Hazard
data (e.g., novel pharmaceutical level = Very High.
drugs or new chemical products).
• Pharmaceutical platins – OEL:
HAZARD Use of exposure limit banding /
1 µg/m3 to < 0.1 µg/m3;
control banding is often assigned
CLASSIFICATION Hazard level = Very High.
to such substances as a basis for
defining a target exposure level.
How these bands are used to aid
selection of engineering controls
For hazardous materials — Such banding systems can
will be discussed later.
especially those with significant vary between companies and
hazards via the inhalation route jurisdictions, but a logarithmic-
—it is good practice to assign a step scale is common. A further
target exposure level, typically categorization of the numeric
via reference to an occupational bands into low / medium / high
exposure limit (OEL) or else and very high hazard may be
via exposure limit banding. The applied. A typical schema is
CONTAINMENT
latter approach, which requires shown in Figure 9-3. PERFORMANCE
less data than needed for OEL
setting, still allows a risk-based In the context of the PGM industry TARGET
set of engineering controls to some examples of categorisation
be selected to prevent exposure would be as follows 1:
to the substance during work Handling of solid materials
• Pt metal – OEL: 1000 µg/m3;
processes. Furthermore, official including pellets, granules and
Hazard category = Low.
OELs are not set for all chemical powders can create dust, which
substances (including certain • Soluble Pt salts – OEL: 2 µg/m3; may be inhalable/respirable. The
PGM substances), and this is Hazard category = High. amount of dust is dependent
particularly true for new chemical on some of the parameters also
• CHPS – OEL: 2 µg/m3 (but
impacting on exposure potential,
i.e.:

• Process activity.
CONTROL Target Exposure Level /
Hazard Category • Duration and frequency of
BAND Exposure Banding (µg/m3)
activities.
1 1000-10000 LOW
• Quantity handled.
2 100-1000 • Form of material handled.

3 10-100 MEDIUM
The concentration of dust
(particulate) in the air is expressed
4 1-10 HIGH
in microgram (µg)/m3 or mg/m3
5 0.01-1 (as per OEL values). Liquids can
also pose an inhalation risk if they
6 <0.01 VERY HIGH become aerosolised. The airborne
concentration can be quantified
Table 9-2: Example of Control Banding/Target Exposure Level/Hazard categorization in the same manner as for dusts.

1
Taking into account typical jurisdictional OELs for these substances, or other
norms applied by industry.

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CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

9.3 ENGINEERING CONTROLS

For consistency, the units for operation when combined with

particulate/aerosol concentration an engineering control is called its
in air have been standardised to containment performance level,
µg/m3 in the remainder of this and the goal set when specifying
chapter. and purchasing such a control
device is called the containment
In general industrial situations, performance target (CPT).
typical total airborne dust levels
which have been observed for For new engineering control
some uncontrolled operations are: equipment, the CPT will often be
first verified using a surrogate
marker material during factory
DUST testing and then tested later during
ACTIVITY CONCENTRATION process operation. For an existing
(µg/m3) operation, the CPT of the control
will be verified using workplace
Charging of tray with damp powder (drying oven) by scooping 1,000 – 5,000 exposure monitoring. The CPT is
typically specified and tested over
Discharge of filter or centrifuge (damp powder) 1,000 – 10,000 an operational period (activity-
based) rather than as a 8-hr time-
Reactor charging (by hand scooping into manway) 10,000 – 50,000 weighted average (TWA) value.
This CPT result can then be used by
an industrial hygienist to determine
Emptying tray by scooping or tipping into sacks 20,000 – 100,000
the overall control strategy for
worker protection.
Discharge of dry material to drums 50,000 – 100,000

Milling (e.g., basic comminuting-type mill) 50,000 – 100,000

Sieving (open sieve) 50,000 – 100,000

Table 9-3: Example of exposure ranges by activity

ENGINEERING
CONTROL
Current regulatory OELs for dusts, and more so if a lower TECHNOLOGIES
inhalable nuisance dust2 levels OEL is assigned to a particular
are commonly set at 10,000 µg/m3 substance.
in a number of jurisdictions (or Engineering controls achieve
between 3,000 to 5,000 µg/m3 as Engineering controls operate by containment via four basic modes:
respirable dust). With reference reducing the dust concentrations
1. A physical barrier that
to the above table it may be seen to an acceptable level. The
separates the operator from
that for many operations the dust level of reduction depends on
the hazardous activity.
concentrations produced could the technology used. The dust
be a concern even in relation to concentration or exposure 2. Managed airflow that entrains
standards applicable to nuisance concentration produced by an dust away from the operators

2
Also known as Particulates Not Otherwise Classified (PNOC) or Particulates
Not Otherwise Regulated (PNOR).

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CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

9.3 ENGINEERING CONTROLS

breathing zone and captures Gloveboxes can be manufactured

it by using filtration. in a range of materials including
BARRIERS soft walled polymers, acrylic,
3. Contained transfer systems
stainless steel and alloys such
than can be made and then
as Hastelloy®. Acrylic materials
broken with limited release Barriers work by providing a high are commonly used where
of hazardous materials. They integrity enclosure that physically acid resistance is required,
are used to connect two separates the process materials e.g., for enclosing filtration of
items to effect a transfer of and the operator. Examples are as chloroplatinate suspensions.
material, e.g., from a dryer to follows:
a container.
The containment performance of
4. Automation and robotics GLOVEBOX / ISOLATOR a glovebox can depend on the
which remove the operator techniques used for transferring
from the exposure area. If the barrier operates at a
materials into and out of it. Some
negative internal pressure,
very high integrity methods have
More than one technology can to reduce escape of dust
been developed for use with
be used to achieve the desired via apertures/joints, and
barriers, e.g., the rapid transfer
overall CPT. provides gloved access to the
port. Other methods are pass-
operations within, they are
in/pass-out chambers and
Exposure control performance called containment isolators or
continuous liners. (See Contained
levels stated in the remainder gloveboxes. Such containment
transfer systems).
of this chapter are indicative equipment is typically custom-
only and are not assured values made.
Figure 9-2 illustrates some typical
(actual performance is dependent glovebox components.
on multiple variables such as
specific manufacturer’s equipment
performance, local conditions,
correct installation etc.). However,
Air exhaust filters Controls and indicators
the control performance figures
provided should permit the reader
to appreciate the typical order
of containment achieved by Acrylic enclosure
various technologies and to make
comparisons.
Air inlet filter

Aside from standard explosive Continuous liner

waste port
atmospheres (ATEX) protection,
if PGMs are present consideration
should be given to reactive hazards
management and implications for
Pass-in chamber
Fan housing
control design. Reactive PGMs,
such as finely divided Pt, can
present a chemical reactivity/fire
risk, particularly if significant levels
Figure 9-2: Acrylic glovebox
of fallout dust accumulate in ducts
and other dead spaces.

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CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

9.3 ENGINEERING CONTROLS

The exhaust air can either be and a plastic cuff ring to which glove that is shaped close to the
High-Efficiency Particulate Air a hand glove is attached. The arm from the wrist to the glove
(HEPA) filtered on exiting the gauntlet attaches to the glove port—and therefore minimises
glovebox, or can be directed to port and encloses the whole arm excess volume in the glove—
a common exhaust system. The and hand. The gauntlet is the restricts arm movement less and
former is preferable as the dust most widely used and the most is therefore easier to use. This
is contained at source without secure method. The 3-piece will be more apparent at lower
contaminating long stretches system allows for different size (more negative) isolator internal
of duct (which can be difficult gloves to be fitted to suit different pressures.
to clean and present a hazard sized hands and can therefore
during dismantling). The inlet air offer greater dexterity. If flammable solvents, gases
is also fitted with a HEPA filter to or powders are handled within
protect the environment should Gloves are available in many the glovebox, the internal
a malfunction cause the unit to elastomeric materials. Most environment can made be inert
become positively pressurised common are latex, neoprene, using a gas such as nitrogen. In
with respect to the workplace nitrile, butyl, EPDM and CSM (also these cases, additional controls
environment. known as chlorosulphonated and interlocks will be needed and
polyethylene, or by the former a full design safety review should
For metal rigid walled isolators, brand name Hypalon®). When be conducted.
windows and doors are provided selecting glove materials,
in glass or acrylic. These can be consideration should be given to Manufacturing lead times for
sealed to the isolator body using chemical compatibility, chemical gloveboxes can be extensive for
static or inflatable seals. permeability, robustness, comfort, metal wall types (up to 9 months);
electrostatic properties, and cost. 4-6 months for acrylic wall types;
Operations or manipulations Sample gloves should be obtained and a few weeks for flexible wall
performed within the isolator and tested prior to purchase. A variants. For this reason and
are accessed by the operator via their relatively lower capital cost,
gloves mounted in glove ports flexible wall units (Figure 9-4)
(usually in the windows). Glove have become popular for short-
ports are assembled from either term high hazard challenges.
side of the glove port aperture, to
present a smooth internal profile The bodies of flexible wall
and a two-groove spigot on the isolators are fabricated from PVC
outside. Glove port shields can be or polyurethane sheeting up to
installed to add integrity to the 0.5 mm thick. This material is
enclosure when gloves are not in transparent and provides good
use (see Figure 9-3; a glovebox visibility. The sheets are welded
used for housing filters for soluble together using radio frequency
Pt compounds). Interlocked welding to ensure high integrity
versions are also available. joints. External support frames
can be fabricated from plastic,
Either a 3-piece sleeve (glove and aluminium or stainless steel. This
cuff arrangement) or a one-piece system provides rigidity to the
gauntlet can be used. The three- flexible wall isolator so it retains
piece unit has a material sleeve its shape. The units operate under
that is attached to the glove port Figure 9-3: Glovebox with gloveport shields

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CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

9.3 ENGINEERING CONTROLS

negative pressure, and are usually good early indication of the The ergonomics assessment
supplied with inlet and extract access being proposed, but it is should cover all operation,
HEPA filters. still necessary to view a model maintenance and cleaning
constructed in materials such as activities where operator
Compared to rigid types, such model board, metal, or plastic to manipulation is required. Where
isolators have flexibility of design judge ergonomics and operability. possible, operations personnel
and improved ergonomics as the The model should be robust should be involved. This will
operator can extend the reach enough to simulate full scale help to ensure the operators
of glove sleeves. However, they material handling trials to assess understand and participate in
are not as robust: the flexible wall factors including: the design evolution and are
can be quite easily damaged, and therefore more likely to accept
• Operator access to perform
may need periodic replacement. the final design.
the tasks.
Decontamination can also be
more complex. • Operation vision. Gloveboxes/isolators, combined
• Dexterity necessary to perform with the appropriate transfer
It is essential when designing tasks. techniques and decontamination
a glovebox to perform an regimes, can offer the highest
ergonomic assessment using a • Weight to be manipulated. levels of containment with
physical model. • Comfort of stance during CPT below 0.1 µg/m3. They are
manipulation. therefore suitable for operations
Most suppliers produce 3D involving Very High hazard
CAD models which provide a categories and significant
exposure potential, including
the handling of CHPS, such as
chloroplatinates, and platins and
their precursors. They are also
suitable for chemical materials
requiring a closed handling system
and controlled environment due
to their reactivity.

Figure 9-4: Flexible wall glovebox (courtesy of Solo Containment)

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9.3 ENGINEERING CONTROLS

Figure 9-5(b): Glovebags used in vacuum transfer

of material from dryer bowl and for sampling
containment

Figure 9-5(a): Glovebags used in vacuum transfer of material from dryer bowl and for sampling containment
(courtesy of Solo Containment)

GLOVEBAGS methods by which the bag can particles. Washing with a spray
be attached to the framework, lance is usually difficult due to the
Glovebags are fabricated
pipes, reactor necks, drums or absence of a drain and taped seals
from polyethylene, PVC or
equipment, but the norm is a trapping the contaminated wash
polyurethane film. They differ
taped seal. This sealing method liquors. Loss of containment usually
from a flexible wall glovebox in
can provide a gas/liquid-tight seal. occurs during removal of bag.
that the glovebag operates in
most cases at ambient pressure
Pass-in chambers can be created Due to the low cost and short
and therefore does not provide
with a zip or similarly sealable lead-time the design can be
the same level of integrity. The
door for material entry, whilst improved quickly after the first
bag itself is often considered as
sealing within a bag prior to trial use.
a disposable item. Glovebag use
removal (“bagging out”) is almost
is increasing to overcome short-
universally used for taking out Examples of glovebags in use are
term containment challenges,
material. Glove design can be shown in Figures 9-5(a) and (b).
or where enclosure geometry to
similar to flex walled isolators
provide good ergonomics would
and similar glove materials can Where glovebags are correctly
be too difficult with a rigid wall.
be used but often the glove is fitted, used and decontaminated,
welded into the bag. CPTs of 5-10 µg/m3 can be
An internal or external support
achieved, making them suitable
frame can be provided fabricated
During decontamination, misting for containing High hazard
from plastic, aluminium or stainless
of the internal environment can be category materials.
steel, or the bag can be self-
used to reduce levels of airborne
supporting. There are various

14
CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

9.3 ENGINEERING CONTROLS

The most effective method, and non-protected areas. In practice

hence that providing the highest the best containment is achieved
degree of containment, is the toward the rear of the booth.
MANAGED AIRFLOW
downflow booth (DFB), Figure 9-6.
Booths with well-designed
The downflow booth provides a workstations can provide
Managed airflow devices can
laminar flow of downward air at CPTs of 100-200 µg/m3 for
be broadly separated into three
0.5 m/s over the entire working carefully controlled operations,
categories:
area of the booth. A fan circulates making them suitable for Low
• Booths. air within the booth, of which and Medium hazard category
5-10% is discharged to the room activities. Performance is very
• Cabinets.
and made-up by fresh air. A fine dependent on the nature of the
• Local Exhaust Ventilation. dust filter and HEPA filter remove operation and the care taken by
particles from the airflow. A the operator and hence operator
BOOTHS second HEPA is recommended training is crucial. If combined
either in the rear of the booth or with an additional barrier, such
Booths may enclose the operator the ceiling in case of a breach as a screen or curtain, then
and the process, or just the of the primary HEPA filter. The containment levels can be improved
process with the operator filters in the rear of the booth are such that CPTs of 1-10 µg/m3 can
standing outside. The former work normally located in safe change be achieved, making such booths
by having the operator positioned housings and can be designed to useful for High hazard category
either parallel to or upstream of be accessed from either the front situations.
the dust generating activity and or the rear of the booth.
by having the dust entrained in A booth can also provide
the airstream to be extracted to a A safe working line is provided excellent secondary containment
capture device (filter). for demarcation of protected and to a primary system, where the
latter on its own is not suitable for
High hazard category materials.

Another booth configuration is

the horizontal laminar airflow
booth, in which the air can travel
into the booth from the room or
horizontally across the booth, see
Figures 9-7 and 9-8.

The horizontal flow booth is a

development of local exhaust
ventilation (LEV) as a technique
which improves the performance
of simple local hood designs by
creating an air-swept enclosure to
prevent material escaping laterally.

The booth may be small, located

Figure 9-6: Downflow booth schematic around the emission source

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CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

9.3 ENGINEERING CONTROLS

allowing only hand access into Open-fronted horizontal booths

the area (for example a sack tip achieve containment levels of
extract hood); or else a large 100-500 µg/m3 so should be used
booth that the operator stands on Low hazard category materials
within to carry out the operations. (unless used to provide secondary
containment to support a primary
For smaller booths containment system).
relies on a booth face velocity
(typically 0.7 m/s) to prevent
dust escaping from the booth.
For larger walk-in booths the
dust is entrained in the airstream
and directed away from the
operator. Large booths require
vast quantities of air to be moved
and filtered. This configuration
supplies air to the side of the
booth and extracts it from
the other side, entraining dust
particles. It is less effective
than when extracting air from
the rear as it does not create
a face velocity. Performance
is dependent on dust being
generated at a lesser velocity
than that of the air stream. Figure 9-7: Horizontal laminar flow booth schematic (side view)

Operators may be required to place

their hands inside the booth leading
to a contamination risk. There is
also a contamination risk from
materials and equipment brought
out of the booth. Some suppliers
provide a screen with glove access
to the front of the booth.

This encloses the operation and

provides for good containment
during operation, similar to that
of a glovebox. Materials still need
to be passed in and out and
therefore opening the system to
achieve this can result in loss of
containment as can the possibly
high surface contamination on the
exiting items. Figure 9-8: Horizontal laminar flow booth schematic (front view)

16
CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

9.3 ENGINEERING CONTROLS

CABINETS

Cabinets are used for mid-

and small-scale operations or
dispensing.

A few different operating modes

exist. The type of airflow cabinet
shown in Figure 9-9 functions by
providing a barrier air curtain that
separates the activity from the
environment. Dust is captured by
the barrier curtain and directed
to the extraction via the sides of
the units and then can either be
fed into the exhaust air system
or returned through filters. Figure 9-9: Airflow cabinet, using air curtain
Extraction slits are located in the
table front or in the upper door
area. The barrier nozzles are out ports can be provided in the These units are often used in
located in the upper hood area. sides of the unit. laboratories or in health care
worker protection scenarios.
Materials are generally passed into Without a front screen, In the former case, they should
and out of the unit via the front. containment performance is always be used in preference to
The units can be fitted with rigid around 100 µg/m3 (although a fume cupboard (hood) which
or flexible type gloved screens to achieve this, operators should not be used for significant
that fully enclose the operation, and equipment must be handling of hazardous solids as a
such that the performance is decontaminated prior to exiting). fume cupboard (hood) provides
similar to that of an isolator. Bag- With added screens, levels of no particulate filtration.
~1 µg/m3 have been achieved
making the cabinet suitable for Containment levels of <1 µg/m3 can
high hazard categories. be achieved when handling low
solid volumes, and if good glove
Cytotoxic cabinets work by and surface decontamination
providing downward laminar air practices are used by the
and a front face velocity to protect operators.
the operator (Figure 9-10).
Ventilated safety cabinets (Figure
They are predominantly used 9-11) provide an inexpensive
in small scale or laboratory method for handling low volumes
environments. Contaminated of high hazard category substances.
air is HEPA filtered then both
exhausted and recirculated. The The enclosures are ventilated by
operator works via a variable a separate fan, usually positioned
height sash. under the unit, which draws air
through safe change HEPA filters
Figure 9-10: Cytotoxic cabinet

17
CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

9.3 ENGINEERING CONTROLS

connected to the rear exhaust

duct via trunking.

Like all devices that use a face

velocity to prevent dust particles
from leaving the cabinet, they rely
on good operator practices to
achieve containment levels (e.g.,
slow movements, decontaminating
items prior to removal from the
enclosure, and optimal glove
procedures). The enclosures
are bench mounted or can be
provided on a mobile frame.

Containment levels of <1 µg/m3 can

Figure 9-11: Ventilated safety cabinet
be achieved provided that best
practices are followed and a “bag-
out” port is used.
which are transported along a carefully studied to evaluate how
duct, by the suction provided and where the dust is generated,
LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION by a fan. The air is cleaned by at what velocity, and how the
Local exhaust ventilation (LEV) a filtration system before being resultant dust cloud behaves.
systems comprise all or some of exhausted, often to the building There are many examples of hood
the elements shown in Figure 9-12. external environment. design for specific operations,
obtainable from sources such as:
Air movement at the capture To produce an effective hood
• The ACGIH manual on
hood entrains dust particles, design, the activity must be
industrial ventilation practice
and design (ACGIH, 2013).

• UK HSE (2011) HSG258,

Controlling airborne
contaminants at work: A guide
to local exhaust ventilation
(LEV).

For the system to function

correctly each of the elements
must be correctly designed.
The ACGIH manual provides
guidance to sizing all elements of
the system. The capture velocity
(that required to entrain the
dust cloud into a hood) and the
transport velocity (that required
Figure 9-12: LEV Components
to convey the particles along

18
CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

9.3 ENGINEERING CONTROLS

the duct) are critical design and may detrimentally affect 6. Contamination of workers
parameters. Capture velocity the performance of the other during maintenance or
varies depending on the energy hoods. modification of ductwork
of release and particle size, Ductwork with inadequate
3. Operators adjusting the
and transport velocity varies transport velocities will
position of manual dampers
depending on particle size. The become contaminated and can
Dampers can be provided in
above reference sources provide present exposure concerns
a system to aid balancing, i.e.,
the recommended velocities for to workers who access the
to adjust the static pressure
given conditions. system internals or those in
in a branch such that the
the workplace (especially if
correct volume is obtained in
As these two documents provide main ductwork branches run
each branch. Therefore, these
excellent reference material for at high level through a facility).
should not be closed to “save
all elements of the system design Ductwork should be designed
energy” or opened more fully
this section will focus on the to be cleanable or plastic
to get more volume. Once set-
most common errors observed in liners placed around joints
up, damper handles should be
practice, which are: such that the duct ends can
removed or locked in position.
be tied off when the duct is
1. Poor hood design
4. Poor ductwork design removed. The duct can then be
Hood design is frequently not
Ductwork branches teeing into decontaminated.
appropriate for the task. Often
a main line at 90 degrees, or
the design only addresses part 7. Dust collection units
duct diameter not changing to
of the activity in which dust is Dust filtration units, such as
cope with different velocities
generated. An example may those with shaker-type or
when two branches meet, can
be hand scooping material blowback filters, often have
give rise to higher pressure
from a container to a sieve. poor containment at the
losses than allowed for in the
The sieve may be protected by dust collection point. This
fan design calculations. This
a hood but the hand scooping engineering control technology
leads to lower fan volume and
and scoop movement are needs to be matched to the
lower transport velocities.
not. Because only a few off- target exposure level for the
the-shelf hood designs are 5. Insufficient transport velocity hazardous substance(s).
available (e.g., cones) these in the duct
LEV containment performance is
tend to be used whether they This can be due to poor design,
highly variable but generally will
are appropriate to the task or poor fan maintenance, or by
reduce dust concentration by a
not. Note: The velocity from an increasing the size of a duct
factor of between x2 and x10. For
open ended duct or cone falls to add branches to a system
this reason, it is seldom an optimal
by 90% within one diameter of without checking the design of
control approach for other than
the cone face. the whole system. Insufficient
low hazard category situations.
transport velocity will cause
2. Hoods with insufficient
dust to settle and accumulate,
capture velocity or ones In some countries it is a legal
which then exacerbates the
situated too far from the requirement to have a periodic
situation. Build-up of reactive
activity thorough examination and test of
particulates in ductwork has led
Extra hoods can only be a system (e.g., at least every 14
to fires in several PGM facilities.
added to a system that has the months in UK), and a record of this
necessary capacity; otherwise must be kept for at least 5 years.
an additional hood can
change the system dynamics

19
CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

9.3 ENGINEERING CONTROLS

BAG-OVER-BAG The disadvantage of this

technique is that the o-ring
One of the most common material
becomes a consumable.
CONTAINED TRANSFER transfers for product or waste
SYSTEMS material is the discharge from
Figure 9-14 illustrates an alternate
a process equipment item to a
technique by which some flexible
bag. If the bag is tied or taped
intermediate bulk containers
to the discharge chute there will
Most PGM processes involve (FIBCs)/big bags are connected
be dust released when the bag
the transfer of material from a and disconnected in a contained
is removed. The bag-over-bag
container to a process equipment manner. The neck of the big bag
technique, illustrated in Figure
item, between equipment, or contains a pocket to store the old
9-13, significantly improves the
from equipment into a container. liner tail. Such approaches can be
containment level:
Equipment to equipment
transfers can be hard-piped, in
which case they are considered
closed and therefore contained.
Other transfers can be open, e.g.,
scooping into a vessel manway
or dropping material from a filter
discharge port into a receiving
container, in which case airborne
dust concentrations, as described
Figure 9-13: Bag over bag sequence of operation
in the section: Containment
Performance Target (page 9), can
be high.

The sequence of operation is: useful to minimise the number of

The alternative method is to
transfers and avoid the cleaning
connect the container to the 1. Secure bag using o-ring on the
and storage associated with rigid
process equipment item, to allow lower o-ring grove.
containers.
a more contained transfer.
2. Fill.

3. Seal (by using twist, tape and Containment levels of 1-10 µg/m3
The following systems that
double tie method) or crimp. can typically be achieved using this
achieve this are described:
technique.
• Bag over bag. 4. Cut.

• Continuous liner. 5. Place new bag over remainder

of old and secure with o-ring.
• Flexible containment solutions:
systems. 6. Remove stub end and old
o-ring (by manipulating
• Split butterfly valves.
through new bag).
• Cone valves.
7. Seal, then cut and remove (with
• Double valve with air- or liquid- a “swan-neck” of the sealed
wash. end to increase integrity).

• Rapid transfer ports. 8. Slide o-ring to lower groove

Figure 9-14: Contained connection of FIBC

20
CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

9.3 ENGINEERING CONTROLS

CONTINOUS LINER FLEXIBLE CONTAINMENT

SOLUTIONS
A continuous liner is a long length
of a lay-flat tube. The liner is There are a number of flexible
manually loaded onto a spigot, containment solutions that
designed for the purpose (Figure have a proprietary containment
9-15). This is suitable for small technology involving an alpha
quantities of liner, up to 10m in part connected to the process
length. The liner can be safely and a beta part welded to a bag
changed using the bag-over-bag (Figure 9-17).
technique (described on page
20). Various operational issues have
arisen with this type of system, and
As an alternative, the liner can be experience suggests they are most
purchased as a proprietary item suitable to low volume operations
(Figure 9-16) where the liner is where very careful handling can
Figure 9-16: Cassette preloaded with liner
loaded into a cassette that slots be guaranteed. Capital costs for
over the discharge chute. Up to this class of containment solution
80m of liner can be handled in Typical containment levels of are typically low, but consumable
this way, and with this method the 1 µg/m 3 can be attained using this costs are comparatively high.
liner can also be changed safely. technique making it suitable for Extensive “actual use” type testing
High hazard materials. With added is recommended prior to purchase.
In both cases the liner is sealed secondary containment measures
at one end to form a bag and <1 µg/m3 can be achieved, making Typical containment levels of
then closed after filling to form it applicable for Very High hazard 1-5 µg/m3 can be achieved using
a sealed bag and to provide the category materials. It is a common this technique making it suitable
base of the next bag. technique for removing product for High hazard category materials.
and waste from gloveboxes.

Figure 9-15: Continuous liner on spigot

Figure 9-17: Flexible containment solutions

21
CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

9.3 ENGINEERING CONTROLS

SPLIT BUTTERFLY VALVE There are a number of systems CONE VALVES

available, with a variety of
A split butterfly valve (Figure The cone valve system (Figure
docking systems and features,
9-18) can be considered as a 9-19) operates on a similar
including air-washing when the
single butterfly valve that has principle to the split butterfly
valve is partially undocked to
been split in half through the valve but the passive part is a
provide better containment.
disc and one half is fitted to the cone mounted in the base of an
Split valves are widely used to
filling vessel and the other to the IBC. The actuated active part is
connect containers of all sizes to
receiving unit. located in a discharge station,
process systems, both for filling
which when the two are docked,
and discharge, especially for rigid
Neither half will operate until the lifts up to allow powder to flow
intermediate bulk containers
two halves have been brought around the cone, down a chute
(IBCs).
together and locked. The half that and into the vessel below. The
includes the actuation device is base of the cone and the top
Split valve systems are
nominated as the active part and face of the actuator are kept
mechanically complex, with
the other is called the passive part. clean through the use of seals
performance relying on the close
and close tolerances. In addition,
coupling of highly engineered
Containment is achieved whereby the cone can be lifted in cycles
mating faces and seal systems.
the two external mating faces and vibrated to further aid flow.
The valves are often sequenced
of the halves seal together to
by the main plant control systems
prevent powder ingress when the
including multiple position sensors
valve is opened into the product
to ensure correct operation.
stream. When the valve is closed
As a result, it is essential that
and undocked the external faces
maintenance activities are
remain relatively uncontaminated.
rigorously followed; a degree of
In reality the sealing is not
outage due to equipment failures
perfect so some residual surface
should be anticipated. Split valve
contamination remains with
technology has developed rapidly
corresponding release of dust on
since the 1990’s and suppliers
separation.
are providing new options all
the time. Care should be taken
when selecting a valve to ensure
that any recent developments
are well established and their
possible impact on containment
performance is understood.

Typical simple split valves will

achieve exposure levels of
1-10 µg/m3, making them suitable
for High hazard categories,
though this performance is
heavily dependent on powder
physical properties and methods
Figure 9-18: The passive half of a split butterfly
of operation, cleaning and
valve attached to a container maintenance. Figure 9-19: Matcon™ cone valve system

22
CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

9.3 ENGINEERING CONTROLS

When not docked to the actuator, Container

the cone is held in place by the
weight of the material and can be
clamped with an additional travel
cap to provide greater security.

Cone valves are widely used with

IBC systems where powder flow
characteristics may be poor, Air-wash
where pre-set weights of powder
may be required, or where rapid
feeding is required.
High containment versions
are available, for which the
Vessel
manufacturers have used closer
Figure 9-20: Air-wash
tolerances and LEV as secondary
containment.

The containment performance wash is introduced prior to the in reverse for filling a container.
of the valve without secondary valves being uncoupled. The air-wash waste air must
protection around the make and be directed to a safe-change
break position is 10-50 µg/m3. This Using a liquid-wash is not a filtration/extraction system.
can be improved by the inclusion common technique because of
of air-wash or LEV, adjacent to the difficulty in situating pipework Due to surface flooding, a liquid-
the coupling, reducing exposure to form an effective drain, the wash system can be suitable for
levels to 1-5 µg/m3, and hence length of time it takes to dry the very high hazard categories. With
being suitable for High hazard pipework, and the possibility of an air-wash, typical operational
category materials. Discharge having residual moisture in the exposure levels of 5-10 µg/m3
can be performed remotely, with system when starting the next have been achieved.
automation, therefore obviating transfer.
a need for the operator to be This is heavily dependent on a
near the coupling. Containment One technique is illustrated in powder’s physical properties, such
performance has been seen to Figure 9-20, whereby a product as its propensity for clumping.
decline rapidly if the seals are not container with a standard
maintained regularly. butterfly valve attached is
connected to discharge pipework
DOUBLE VALVE AIR- OR containing a second butterfly
LIQUID-WASH valve, e.g., a charge chute. Both
valves are opened and product
If two valves are located in
is discharged. Both valves are
close proximity in a chute, then
closed and air-wash is introduced
breaking the connection between
and removed tangentially to the
them will release airborne material
separating pipework, creating a
into the surrounding environment.
swirling effect.
Such contamination can be
removed if a liquid-wash or air-
The system can equally be used

23
CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

9.3 ENGINEERING CONTROLS

RAPID TRANSFER PORTS Powder should not be fed directly AUTOMATION

through the door, unless the door
The rapid transfer port (RTP), Automation of the process is
peripheral seal faces are protected.
also known as an alpha-beta an effective risk management
If the door is opened whilst the
door, is designed to allow the measure. This can involve
isolator is contaminated, the door
contained transfer of hazardous operators located in control rooms
seal will become contaminated
materials, typically into and out (e.g., in a centralised operations
and should be cleaned using a
of gloveboxes. The basis of its area in the PGM refinery) with
wet wipe or swab before closing.
operation is similar to the split fewer persons actually stationed in
Standardisation within a facility (and
valve in that the door is made up process areas.
even between facilities) can allow
of two elements, the alpha and
use of common transfer containers.
beta parts. Automation of material transfers
The RTP provides a highly secure depends on mechanically,
The alpha element consists of a transfer system and an isolator robotically or hydraulically
door and frame mounted to an utilising RTPs for transfers can transferring PGM materials thus
isolator wall. The beta element achieve very low exposure levels reducing manual intervention and
consists of a door and frame <0.01 µg/m3. If levels below this are coincident exposure potential.
mounted to a container. The beta required, then dust evolution within
element is inserted into the alpha the isolator must be minimised so
element and rotated. The rotation dust cannot transfer across RTP
engages the alpha frame within seals.
the beta frame and the alpha door
with the beta door. The alpha/
beta door can then be opened as a
single door from within the isolator
via gloves to allow passage of
materials (Figure 9-21(a) & (b)).

Containment is achieved
by ensuring that external or
contaminated faces of the alpha/
beta doors are sealed together,
the only weak point being the Figure 9-21(a): Beta canister docked to isolator
periphery of the seal. The beta
flange can be connected to a
number of transfer containers:

• Rigid containers often referred

to as ‘beta canisters’.

• Bag out ports (sometimes

with continuous liner attached
- see Section Continuous
Liner, page 21).

• Bags for product (with inner

chute to protect the door
Figure 9-21(b): Alpha door opened to allow passage
seals). of material

24
CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

9.3 ENGINEERING CONTROLS

ENGINEERING
CONTROL
TECHNOLOGIES
1000µg/m3 100µg/m3 10µg/m3 1µg/m3 0.1µg/m3
PERFORMANCE

Claims made for CPTs attained

by engineering controls may
be based on ideal conditions
or brand-new systems, or
with highly-trained operators,
and can include results time-
weighted over several hours
or a full shift rather than being
activity-based. Performance is
of course very dependent on
extant airborne dust levels, i.e.,
apparently rigorous containment
performance can be achieved by
many technologies on small scale
non-dusty processes.

Figure 9-22 indicates likely

performance for the technologies
covered in this chapter under typical
industrial conditions, and also the
best control level that is likely to
be achieved if all containment
1000µg/m3 100µg/m3 10µg/m3 1µg/m3 0.1µg/m3
enhancements are provided.

LEV = Local exhaust ventilation DFB = Downflow booth

SBV = Split butterfly valve RTP = Rapid transfer port

Figure 9-22: Control technology performance chart

25
CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

9.3 ENGINEERING CONTROLS

For each foreseeable circumstance

further control measures including
adjunctive engineering controls
should be selected.
LOSS OF
CONTAINMENT

After designation of the target

exposure level and selection of
the main engineering control
solution(s) for an activity
involving a hazardous substance,
operations likely to result in a
loss of containment also need to
be considered. Experience in the
PGM industry suggests that these
circumstances could typically
involve:

• Sampling input material; or

sampling material in process.

• Charging materials to
equipment from a container;
or discharging materials into a
container.

• Residual material removal, e.g.,

filter heels.

• Dispensing materials.

• Equipment breakdown or
unforeseen conditions.

• Routine maintenance
operations.

• Cleaning equipment internals;

or cleaning of re-useable
containers.

• Waste disposal.

• Venting/emergency venting of
equipment.

26
CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

9.4 ADMINISTRATIVE CONTROLS

ADMINISTRATIVE
CONTROLS

Administrative controls include can reduce overall exposure.

a range of measures such as Use of time limitation must be
reducing the number of workers administered carefully, and is
in an exposure area or operator rarely used as a primary control
residency time, or increasing measure (it can also require
distances between workers additional employees for activity
and PGM exposure sources. rotation). Increasing distance
Administrative controls are between an operator and a PGM
usually used in conjunction with exposure source also normally
other measures, e.g., personal reduces personal exposure.
protective equipment (PPE).
The measures outlined in
They rely on adherence to specific this section also assist in the
work instructions, and often minimization of skin contact
require supplemental training. with PGMs (although process
design should again be the first
Facility areas may be segregated consideration).
to limit worker access and
exposure, for instance, where For example, skin exposure can
respiratory sensitiser forms of be reduced by automation or by
Pt are present. Segregation of increasing the distance between
hazardous areas can include operator and source.
partitioned locations with
access restriction (e.g., card Practices which help ensure
entry systems), and the use of that administrative controls are
atmospheric pressure differentials effective include: development of
to confine hazardous materials standard operating procedures
and reduce contaminant transfer. (SOPs); clear labelling of all
containers and workplace signage
Another approach may be to (especially of hazardous areas or
schedule higher hazard tasks when equipment); training programmes;
areas are unmanned or have fewer regular workplace inspections;
personnel present (e.g., calcining and periodic procedural audits
of chloroplatinates overnight). As (with subsequent improvement
inhalation exposure of employees action follow up).
to PGMs is determined by both
airborne concentrations and
exposure duration, limiting the
residency time in a work area

27
CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

9.5 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE
EQUIPMENT

Use of Personal Protective

Equipment (PPE) should be
regarded as a means of providing
additional exposure control
where other measures alone
are insufficient. PPE includes
respiratory protection, coveralls,
aprons, gloves, gauntlets, eye
protection, hearing protection,
safety footwear and safety head
gear. Respirators must
be worn in this area
All of these are used in the
PGM industry but this chapter
focuses on selection and use of
Respiratory Protective Equipment
(RPE) and skin protection.

In terms of operational
deployment of PPE, due attention
should be paid to a variety of
key factors including, but not
limited to: chemical compatibility;
assigned protection factors
(APF); training in use; testing for
good fit; tolerability and comfort
considerations; decontamination
and cleaning; storage; and the
medical fitness of personnel to
use a specified protective item.

PPE can be particularly

appropriate in non-routine
exposure circumstances such as
during maintenance activities
and where equipment integrity is
disrupted, e.g., stock-take.

28
CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

9.5 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

Each RPE type/class has a numeric and disposable masks.

APF rating which indicates the
protection level it is capable of Some companies specify that
providing. For example, RPE respirators with an APF of 40
RESPIRATORY
with an APF of 10 will reduce the are to be worn for all operations
PROTECTIVE wearer’s exposure to an airborne associated with: the intake of raw
contaminant by at least a factor of materials at materials reception;
EQUIPMENT 10 if fitted and used properly, i.e., evaluation of raw materials in
the wearer will inhale one-tenth or preparation; and processing
less of substance concentration associated with extraction and
In selecting RPE it is necessary present in the workplace air. In recovery of PGM, e.g., the loading
to consider: (a) the nature practice, relatively few APF ratings of chloroplatinate salts in the
of the hazardous material; are applied (Table 9-4 on page refinery.
(b) its workplace airborne 32 summarises APF assigned by
concentrations; (c) its form; and several regional organisations For all RPE which relies on a tight
(d) other chemicals which may to various RPE types). After seal with the wearer’s face, the
also be present. Most exposure to calculating the required individuals must be face fit-tested
PGM substances is in the form of minimum protection factor to to ensure the respirator seal is
a particulate (fume, dust, or liquid reduce an exposure to below maintained when carrying out
aerosol). Using the example of an occupational exposure limit normal activities such as walking,
Pt refining operations, airborne (OEL) or comparable reference bending and talking. The fit of the
particulates may be emitted when value, always select RPE with an respirator should be checked on
handling solids at the start of the APF which meets or exceeds the a regular basis as any changes
process, e.g., when smelting the minimum protection factor. As an can reduce the effectiveness of
raw materials, when processing example: the seal, thereby reducing the
chloroplatinate intermediates, and protection provided. As the use
at end-stage handling of elemental • Measured airborne Pt metal
of other protective devices such
Pt powder. concentration = 5 mg/m3.
as safety glasses and hearing
• Pt metal OEL (TWA-8h) = protection may impact on the seal
The degree of protection required 1 mg/m3. of the respirator, the face fit-tests
should preferably be based on should be conducted with the
• Required APF to reduce to
airborne monitoring (see Chapter wearer using any such items which
OEL = 5/1 = 5.
8), or other exposure assessments, could affect the seal integrity.
such that the chosen RPE will • Select RPE with an APF Wearers must also be instructed
reduce the actual exposure of the greater than the required in any checks to be performed
wearer to levels which are health- protection factor. In this case, each time they don the respirator,
protective. Therefore, RPE must RPE with an APF of 4 would and be made aware of the impact
be selected to comply with local be insufficient, and one with of facial hair on respirator seal
jurisdictional Assigned Protection an APF of at least 10 should be integrity.
Factors (APF) see below. It has chosen.
also to be suitable for the wearer, Regardless of the type of RPE
task, and workplace environment. Various types of RPE used in the in use, it is good practice for it
UK HSE (2013) provides useful PGM industry include powered to be covered under a formal
guidance on the selection and use hoods, full-face powered management procedure including
of adequate and suitable RPE. respirators, full-face non-powered the following:
respirators, ori-nasal half masks,

29
CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

9.5 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

• Responsibilities. skin sensitisers), soluble rhodium

compounds, and platinum
• Relationship to on-going air
anticancer agents (platins)—refer
monitoring and exposure
to Chapter 6 for a description
potential.
of PGM substances presenting a
• RPE selection procedures. potential hazard by skin contact.
• Training, for example on Chemical protective glove
the need for wearing RPE, types are selected according
cleaning, storage, inspection, to the nature of the substance,
filter changes (if applicable), permeability characteristic of a
replacement etc. particular glove type, and the
nature of the exposure, e.g.,
• Face fit-testing; facial hair degree of contact (splash/
policy. immersion) and its duration.
• Inspection of RPE.
In selecting protective gloves,
• Cleaning and decontamination
any further hazards associated
procedures.
with the work activities should be
• Maintenance, including criteria considered, for instance, the risk
for replacement of filters and of cuts and abrasion or other co-
parts. existent hazardous materials (e.g.,
chlorine; or strong acids used
• Storage.
in PGM operations). Thermally
• Medical fitness to wear RPE. resistant gloves are required
for any smelting and casting (in
preparation and evaluation) and
during reductive calcining or
oven drying (during extraction/
recovery).

GLOVES

Due to the skin permeation and

sensitising properties of certain
Pt salts, control measures will
involve the selection and use
of chemical protective gloves.
Other PGM substances may also
Note: Advice on the
present contact hazards requiring
selection of suitable and
gloves and supplementary skin
appropriate protective
protection strategies. These
gloves can be obtained from
substances include corrosive or
a variety of references such
irritant PGM compounds, soluble
as Forsberg et al. (2014).
palladium compounds (which are

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CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

9.5 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

for indirect exposures, e.g.,

inadvertent contamination
of transportation and home
environments. Food and drink
should be permitted only in
designated clean areas, where
PGMs or other workplace
chemicals are excluded.

Changing facilities should have

designated ‘clean’ and ‘dirty’
zones, with normal clothes being
(a) (b) (c) stored in the ‘clean’ side, and the
Figure 9-23: Examples of (a) disposable coveralls; (b) chemical suit; and (c) face shield workers donning workwear before
entering the production areas.
Workwear must be removed
contact hazard, upgraded at the end of the work shift
protective ensembles are and when entering clean areas
appropriate PPE, which dependent (e.g., canteen/rest areas). Non-
on specific circumstances can disposable workwear should be
OTHER PPE laundered either by the company
include face shields (or full-face
respirator mask), impervious full (on the premises) or by a qualified
chemical suits, and chemical- external contractor. If disposable
In terms of standard PPE clothing is worn it should be
resistant boots.
ensembles, sites normally require changed every shift and disposed
hard hat, safety glasses, dedicated of in accordance with local waste
work shirt/trousers or coveralls, regulations.
and protective footwear (safety
shoes or boots) for working in the Good workplace housekeeping
manufacturing process areas. and cleaning regimes should be
WORK PLACE enforced (with operators receiving
For eye/face protection, where HYGIENE PRACTICES appropriate equipment, supplies,
more significant exposure from and instruction). As detailed in
particulates or liquids could occur, Chapter 8, surface wipe sampling
chemical goggles and/or face for PGMs can underpin cleaning
Work hygiene practices such as
shields are typically used. and decontamination practices.
removing protective clothing
and washing hands/exposed In-line or portable vacuum
Chemical-resistant disposable systems are normally preferred
skin surfaces whenever leaving
coveralls are useful in preventing for cleaning, and to avoid the
the work area, and before eating
contamination of skin surfaces or resuspension of dust in air, no
or drinking, are essential in
work garments, e.g., if allergenic cleaning using compressed air or
minimising worker exposures.
PGM substances are present. dry brushing should be permitted.
Showering and changing into
Where there is a potential for Use of high efficiency filters
clean clothing at shift-end lowers
exposure to corrosive substances (e.g., HEPA-type) on vacuum
body surface contamination,
(e.g., process acids) or other equipment is recommended.
and also minimises the potential
chemicals presenting a marked

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CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

9.5 TABLE 9-4: INDICATIVE ASSIGNED PROTECTION

FACTORS (APF) FOR RPE

GEOLOGICAL OCCURRENCES OF
Type of RPE (respirator) a
US OSHA US NIOSH ANSI Z88.2
EN 529
(2005)
BS 4275
(1997)

THE PLATINUM GROUP METALS

APR - quarter mask 5 5 10 4-30 4-20

APR - filtering facepiece 10 10 10 4-30 4-20

APR - tight fitting half mask 10 10 10

PAPR - tight fitting half mask 50 50 50 10-500 10-500

c
PAPR - tight fitting full facepiece 1000 50 1000 10-500 10-40

b c
PAPR - helmet/hood 25/1000 25 1000 5-100 10-40
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,
consectetur
SAR - demandadipiscing elit, sed
mode - half mask 10 10 10
do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut
labore et dolore
SAR - demand modemagna aliqua.
- full facepiece 50 50 100 1000

Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis

SAR - continuous flow - half mask 50 50 50 100
nostrud exercitation ullamco
laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea
SAR - continuous flow – full facepiece 1000 50 1000 1000
commodo consequat. Duis aute
irure
SAR -dolor in demand
pressure reprehenderit
- half mask 50 1000 50 30
in voluptate velit esse cillum
dolore eu fugiat
SAR - pressure nulla
demand pariatur.
- full facepiece 1000 2000 1000

Excepteur sint occaecat cupidatat

SCBA - demand mode - half mask 10 ---- 10
non proident, sunt in culpa qui
officia deserunt mollit anim id est
SCBA - demand mode - full facepiece 50 50 100 ∞
laborum.
SCBA - pressure demand - helmet / hood 50 ---- ----

d
SCBA - pressure demand - full facepiece 10000 10000 10000 ∞

SCBA - pressure demand - helmet / hood 10000 ---- ----

APR = Air-purifying respirator PAPR = Powered air-purifying respirator

SAR = Supplied air respirator SCBA = Self-contained breathing apparatus

Table 9-4: Indicative assigned protection factors (APF) for RPE

a
Some commonly available RPE types/formats are shown, but the listing is not exhaustive.
b
APF should always be re-confirmed using any official local guidance and/or manufacturers statement.
c
The employer must have evidence provided by manufacturer that testing demonstrates performance at a level of protection of 1000 (or greater).
d
For HEPA filter if used for particulate protection; if less than HEPA then APF=100.

32
CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

9.6 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

WORKER TRAINING

Another important measure in All employees potentially exposed

reducing any risks associated with to hazards associated with PGMs
PGM workplaces is the provision need to be informed of:
of instruction, information and
• The nature of any health
training. How workers must be
hazards, e.g., via the inhalation
informed about the hazards
or skin contact routes.
from materials and any related
precautions is covered in Chapter • The potential concentrations
10. In relation to control measures, to which they are exposed
workers must be instructed in during normal operations (and
the purpose, correct selection if controls are bypassed or if
and operation of controls, emergencies occur).
including the recognition and • Control measures to prevent
reporting of defects and impaired adverse health effects, and
performance. how they operate.

Such training must be provided • Why and how to report

when a person starts work in the defects in plant, equipment or
workplace, i.e., as part of initial exposure controls that could
training, and must be repeated lead to excessive exposure.
at regular intervals thereafter • Situations which may require
(refresher training). Apart from adjustments in the normal
formal training sessions and on- control strategy, such as
the-job instruction, so-called exceptional activities requiring
toolbox talks re-enforce initial ancillary use of PPE.
training and also give individuals
• Practical instruction on when
the opportunity to raise concerns
and how to use PPE, its proper
or suggest improvements.
care and maintenance, and the
Specific training may be required
limitations of the PPE provided.
for persons changing roles, or
in particular circumstances, e.g.,
revisions in the exposure controls
being used. Checking that the
training has been effective will
help to demonstrate competency
of the individual.

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CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

REFERENCES
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, ACGIH.
(2013)
Industrial Ventilation: A Manual of Recommended Practice for Design,
28th Edition; www.acgih.org
The 23rd edition (1998) of the Manual is freely available to download via:
https://law.resource.org/pub/us/cfr/ibr/001/acgih.manual.1998.pdf

European Chemicals Agency, ECHA. (2012)

Guidance on information requirements and chemical safety assessment;
Chapter R.14: Occupational exposure estimation. http://echa.europa.eu/
guidance-documents/guidance-on-reach

EC (2004)
Council Directive 2004/37/EC of 29 April 2004 on the protection of
workers from the risks related to exposure to carcinogens or mutagens
at work (Sixth individual Directive within the meaning of Article 16(1) of
Council Directive 89/391/EEC); codified version.

Forsberg K., Van den Borre A., Henry N., Zeigler JP. (2014)
Quick Selection Guide to Chemical Protective Clothing. 6th edition.
Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley.

International Labour Organisation, ILO. (2006)

International Chemical Control Toolkit; www.ilo.org/legacy/english/
protection/safework/ctrl_banding/toolkit/icct

UK HSE. (2011)
HSG258 Controlling airborne contaminants at work: A guide to local
exhaust ventilation (LEV), 2nd edition. Sudbury: HSE Books. ISBN: 978-
0-7176-6415-3. Link to free download: www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/books/
hsg258.htm

UK HSE. (2013)
HSG53 Respiratory Protective Equipment at Work. A Practical Guide,
Health and Safety Executive, 4th edition. Sudbury: HSE Books. ISBN:
978-0-7176-6454-2. Link to free download: www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/
books/hsg53.htm

US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, NIOSH. (2004)

Preventing Occupational Exposures to Antineoplastic and Other
Hazardous Drugs in Health Care Settings DHHS [NIOSH Publication No.
2004-165]. See also www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/antineoplastic

34
CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 9-1: Hierarchy of controls
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH);
https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/hierarchy/default.html

Figure 9-2: Acrylic glovebox

Gurney-Read Consulting;
http://www.gurney-read.com

Figure 9-3: Glovebox with gloveport shields

Gurney-Read Consulting;

Figure 9-4: Flexible wall glovebox

Solo Containment;
http://solocontainment.com

Figure 9-5(a): Glovebags used in vacuum transfer of material from

dryer bowl and for sampling containment
Gurney-Read Consulting;

Figure 9-5(b): Glovebags used in vacuum transfer of material from

dryer bowl and for sampling containment
Solo Containment;

Figure 9-6: Downflow booth schematic

Gurney-Read Consulting;

Figure 9-7: Horizontal laminar flow booth schematic (side view)

Gurney-Read Consulting;
http://www.gurney-read.com

Figure 9-8: Horizontal laminar flow booth schematic (front view)

Gurney-Read Consulting;

Figure 9-9: Airflow cabinet, using air curtain

Gurney-Read Consulting;

Figure 9-10: Cytotoxic cabinet

Gurney-Read Consulting;

Figure 9-11: Ventilated safety cabinet

Weiss gwe GmbH;
https://www.weiss-technik.com

Figure 9-12: LEV Components

Gurney-Read Consulting;

35
CHAPTER 9 | CONTROL MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 9-13: Bag over bag sequence of operation
Gurney-Read Consulting;

Figure 9-14: Contained connection of FIBC

Gurney-Read Consulting;

Figure 9-15: Continuous liner on spigot

Gurney-Read Consulting;

Figure 9-16: Cassette preloaded with liner

Solo Containment;

Figure 9-17: Flexible containment solutions

Ezidock and RommelAG;
http://www.ezidock.com and https://www.rommelag-flex.com

Figure 9-18: The passive half of a split butterfly valve attached to a

container
Gurney-Read Consulting;

Figure 9-19: Matcon™ cone valve system

MATCON;
https://www.matconibc.com

Figure 9-20: Air-wash

Gurney-Read Consulting;

Figure 9-21(a): Beta canister docked to isolator

Gurney-Read Consulting;

Figure 9-21(b): Alpha door opened to allow passage of material

Gurney-Read Consulting;

Figure 9-22: Control technology performance chart

Gurney-Read Consulting;

Figure 9-23: Examples of (a) disposable coveralls; (b) chemical suit;

and (c) face shield
Gurney-Read Consulting;

36