User Manual for Web-based

Calculation Software eAssistant

Release May 2022

© 2022 GWJ Technology GmbH

Celler Strasse 67-69  38114 Braunschweig  Germany  Tel.: +49 531 129 399-0

www.eAssistant.eu
Contents

1 A Helpful Guideline to the Manual 3

2 Registration 4
2.1 How to Register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Login for Registered Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Lost Your Password? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3 General Functions 8
3.1 Project Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.2 Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2.1 Creating a New Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2.2 Copying and Pasting a Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2.3 Renaming a Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2.4 Deleting a Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2.5 Project Folder `Default' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2.6 Calculation Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.3 Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3.1 Copying and Pasting a File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3.2 Renaming a le . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3.3 Cutting a File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3.4 Deleting a File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.4 The Button `File' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.4.1 New . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.4.2 Quit the Calculation Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.4.3 Quit the Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.5 The Button `Extras' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.5.1 Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.5.2 Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.6 Button `Help' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.7 File Info . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.7.1 Time Account . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.8 Logging Out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.9 General eAssistant Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.10 Opening a Calculation from the eAssistant Server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.11 Opening a Calculation From Your Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.12 Saving a Calculation to the eAssistant Server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.13 Saving a Calculation to Your Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.14 The Button `Calculate' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.15 The Button `Redo' and `Undo' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.16 Button `CAD' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.16.1 DXF Output for Exact Tooth Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.16.2 3D CAD Plugins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.16.3 Manufacturing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.16.4 Coordinate Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.17 The Button `Report' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.18 The Button `Options' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.19 The button `Help' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.20 Message Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

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3.21 Quick Info: Tooltip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

3.22 How to Change the Unit System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.23 Automatic Dimensioning Functions (Calculator Symbol) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.24 User-Dened Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.25 The Button `Question Mark' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.26 Calculation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.27 Template Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

4 Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 49

4.1 Start the Calculation Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.2 The Geometry Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.2.1 Shaft Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.2.2 Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.2.3 Relative and Absolute Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.2.4 Creating a Shaft Segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.2.5 Creating a Hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.2.6 Creating a Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.2.7 Force Elements: Cylindrical Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.2.8 Force Elements: Bevel Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.2.9 Force Elements: Coupling/Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.2.10 Force Element: Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.2.11 Extra Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.2.12 Notch Eect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.3 General Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.3.1 How to Select an Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.3.2 How to Shift an Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.3.3 How to Copy and Add an Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.3.4 How to Cut Out an Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.3.5 How to Delete an Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.3.6 Menu Item `Delete All' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.4 2D and 3D View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.5 Toolbar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.6 Message Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.7 Quick Info . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.8 Calculation Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.8.1 Bearing Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.8.2 Deection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.8.3 Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.8.4 Critical Speed (Bending) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.8.5 Critical Speed (Torsion) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.9 Documentation: Calculation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.10 How to Save the Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.11 The Button `Redo' and `Undo' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.12 The Button `CAD' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.12.1 eAssistant 3D CAD Plugin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.13 The Button `Options' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.14 Calculation Examples: Shaft According to DIN 743 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.14.1 Start the Calculation Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.14.2 First Calculation Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.14.3 Start Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.14.4 Documentation: Calculation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.14.5 Save Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.14.6 Second Calculation Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.14.7 Start Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.14.8 Documentation: Calculation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.14.9 Save Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

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5 Rolling Bearings According to DIN ISO 281 104

5.1 Start the Calculation Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.2 General Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.2.1 Number of Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.2.2 How to Delete a Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.3 Selection of Manufacturer and Bearing Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.3.1 Bearing Manufacturer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.3.2 Fatigue Limit Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.3.3 Bearing Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.4 Specication of Bearing Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.4.1 Calculation with Load Collectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.4.2 Lubricant Contamination Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.5 Nominal Rating Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.6 Modied Rating Life Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.6.1 Lubricant Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.6.2 Dene Your Own Lubricant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.7 Bearing Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.7.1 Bearing Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.7.2 Dene Your Own Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.8 Message Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.9 Quick Info: Tooltip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.10 Calculation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.11 Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.12 Documentation: Calculation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.13 How to Save the Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.14 The Button `Redo' and `Undo' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.15 The Button `Options' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.16 Calculation Examples: Rolling Bearing According to DIN ISO 281 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.16.1 Start the Calculation Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.16.2 First Calculation Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.16.3 The Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.16.4 Calculation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.16.5 Documentation: Calculation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.16.6 Save the Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.16.7 Second Calculation Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.16.8 The Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.16.9 Calculation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.16.10 Documentation: Calculation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.16.11 Save the Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

6 Single External and Internal Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3960 and Other Standards 138
6.1 Start the Calculation Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.2 Input of Geometry Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.2.1 Normal Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.2.2 Pressure Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6.2.3 Helix Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6.2.4 Direction of Helix Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.2.5 Number of Teeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.2.6 Facewidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6.2.7 Prole Shift Coecient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6.2.8 Tip Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.2.9 Tip Diameter Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.2.10 Modication of Tip Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.2.11 Root Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.2.12 Allowances of Root . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.2.13 Innen and Outer Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.2.14 Web Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.2.15 Chamfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.2.16 Addendum Chamfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

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6.3 Input of Tool Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

6.3.1 Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
6.3.2 Standard Basic Rack Tooth Prole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
6.3.3 Tip Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.3.4 Addendum Coecient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.3.5 Semi Topping Flank and Topping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
6.3.6 Protuberance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
6.3.7 Machining Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.4 Input of Data for the Determination of Allowances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
6.4.1 Gear Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
6.4.2 Backlash Allowance and Tolerance Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
6.4.3 Tooth Thickness Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
6.4.4 Tooth Space Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
6.4.5 Measurement of Tooth Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
6.5 Representation of Gear Tooth Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
6.5.1 Representation of Cylindrical Gear Pair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.5.2 Representation of Tooth Mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.5.3 Rotating Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.5.4 Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.5.5 Tooth Thickness Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.5.6 Tip Diameter Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
6.6 Input of Gear Tooth Prole and Gear Flank Modications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
6.6.1 Gear Tooth Prole Modication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
6.6.2 Gear Flank Modications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
6.7 Some Notes for Internal Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
6.8 Input of Geometry Data for Internal Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.8.1 Direction of Helix Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
6.8.2 Internal Helical Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
6.8.3 Number of Teeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6.8.4 Prole Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6.9 Manufacturing Process for Internal Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
6.10 Meshing Interferences for Internal Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
6.10.1 Generation meshing interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
6.10.2 Feed Meshing Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
6.11 Message Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
6.12 Quick Info: Tooltip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
6.13 Calculation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
6.14 Documentation: Calculation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
6.15 How to Save the Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
6.16 The Button `Redo' and `Undo' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
6.17 The Button `CAD' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
6.17.1 DXF Output for the Accurate Tooth Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
6.17.2 STEP/IGES Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
6.17.3 GDE Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
6.17.4 eAssistant CAD-PlugIn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
6.17.5 Manufacturing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
6.17.6 Coordinate Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.18 The Button `Options' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

7 Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 190
7.1 Start the Calculation Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
7.2 Input of Geometry Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
7.2.1 Normal Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
7.2.2 Pressure Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
7.2.3 Helix Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
7.2.4 Centre Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
7.2.5 Helix Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
7.2.6 Number of Teeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
7.2.7 Facewidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

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7.2.8 Prole Shift on the Pinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

7.2.9 Tip Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
7.2.10 Tip Diameter Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
7.2.11 Modication of Tip Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
7.2.12 Tip Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
7.2.13 Root Diameter and Allowances of Root . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
7.2.14 Gear Rack Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
7.2.15 Addendum Chamfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
7.2.16 Inner Diameter for the Pinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
7.2.17 Web Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
7.2.18 Chamfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
7.3 Input of Tool Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
7.3.1 Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
7.3.2 Standard Basic Rack Tooth Prole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
7.3.3 Tip Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
7.3.4 Semi Topping Flank and Topping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
7.3.5 Protuberance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
7.3.6 Machining Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
7.4 Input of Data for the Determination of Allowances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
7.4.1 Gear Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
7.4.2 Backlash Allowance and Tolerance Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
7.4.3 Tooth Thickness Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
7.4.4 Tooth Space Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
7.4.5 Measurement of Tooth Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
7.4.6 Tolerance Field for Centre Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
7.4.7 Centre Distance Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
7.4.8 Backlash Normal Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
7.4.9 Backlash Pitch Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
7.4.10 Radial Backlash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
7.5 Representation of Gear Tooth Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
7.5.1 Rotating Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
7.5.2 Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
7.5.3 Tooth Thickness Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
7.5.4 Tip Diameter Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
7.5.5 Centre Distance Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
7.6 Calculation of Gear Load Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
7.6.1 Activate Load Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
7.6.2 Inputs for Load Capacity According to DIN 3990 Method B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
7.6.3 Extended General Input Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
7.6.4 Extended Input Options for Load Capacity of Tooth Root and Tooth Flank . . . . . . 239
7.6.5 Extended Input Options for Scung Load Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
7.6.6 Input Options for Load Capacity According to ISO 6336 Method B . . . . . . . . . . . 247
7.6.7 Scung Load Capacity According to ISO/TR 13989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
7.6.8 Input Options for Load Capacity According to ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04 . . . . . . . . . 254
7.7 Input of Gear Tooth Prole and Gear Flank Modications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
7.7.1 Gear Tooth Prole Modication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
7.7.2 Gear Flank Modications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
7.8 Meshing Interferences for External Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
7.8.1 Meshing Interferences Due to Low Contact Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
7.9 Message Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
7.10 Quick Info: Tooltip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
7.11 Calculation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
7.12 Dokumentation: Protokoll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
7.13 How to Save the Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
7.14 The Button `Redo' and `Undo' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
7.15 The Button `CAD' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
7.15.1 DXF Output for the Accurate Tooth Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
7.15.2 GDE Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
7.15.3 eAssistant CAD Plugin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

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7.15.4 Manufaturing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

7.15.5 Coordinate Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
7.16 The Button `Options' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

8 Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 274

8.1 Start the Calculation Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
8.2 Input of Geometry Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
8.2.1 Normal Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
8.2.2 Pressure Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
8.2.3 Helix Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
8.2.4 Standard Centre Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
8.2.5 Working Centre Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
8.2.6 Direction of Helix Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
8.2.7 Number of Teeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
8.2.8 Facewidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
8.2.9 Prole Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
8.2.10 Tip Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
8.2.11 Tip Diameter Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
8.2.12 Modication of Tip Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
8.2.13 Tip Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
8.2.14 Root Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
8.2.15 Allowances of Root . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
8.2.16 Inner and Outer Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
8.2.17 Web Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
8.2.18 Chamfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
8.2.19 Addendum Chamfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
8.3 Input of Tool Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
8.3.1 Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
8.3.2 Standard Basic Rack Tooth Prole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
8.3.3 Tip Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
8.3.4 Addendum Coecient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
8.3.5 Semi Topping Flank and Topping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
8.3.6 Protuberance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
8.3.7 Machining Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
8.4 Input of Data for the Determination of Allowances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
8.4.1 Gear Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
8.4.2 Backlash Allowance and Tolerance Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
8.4.3 Tooth Thickness Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
8.4.4 Tooth Space Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
8.4.5 Measurement of Tooth Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
8.4.6 Tolerance Field for Centre Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
8.4.7 Centre Distance Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
8.4.8 Backlash Normal Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
8.4.9 Backlash Pitch Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
8.4.10 Radial Backlash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
8.5 Representation of Gear Tooth Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
8.5.1 Representation of Cylindrical Gear Pair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
8.5.2 Representation of Tooth Mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
8.5.3 Rotating Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
8.5.4 Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
8.5.5 Tooth Thickness Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
8.5.6 Tip Diameter Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
8.5.7 Centre Distance Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
8.6 Calculation of Gear Load Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
8.6.1 Activate Load Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
8.6.2 Input Options for Load Capacity According to DIN 3990 Method B . . . . . . . . . . 311
8.6.3 Extended General Input Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
8.6.4 Extended Input Options for Load Capacity of Tooth Root and Tooth Flank . . . . . . 324
8.6.5 Extended Input Options for Scung Load Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

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8.6.6 Input Options for Load Capacity According to ISO 6336 Method B . . . . . . . . . . . 332
8.6.7 Scung Load Capacity According to ISO/TR 13989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
8.6.8 Input Options for Load Capacity According to ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04 . . . . . . . . . 339
8.6.9 Input Options for Load Capacity According to VDI 2736 for Plastic Gears . . . . . . . 342
8.7 Input of Gear Tooth Prole and Gear Flank Modications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
8.7.1 Gear Tooth Prole Modication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
8.7.2 Gear Flank Modications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
8.8 Meshing Interferences for External Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
8.8.1 Meshing Interferences Due to Low Contact Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
8.8.2 Meshing Interferences Due to No Involute Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
8.9 Internal Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
8.10 Input of Geometry Data for Internal Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
8.10.1 Direction of Helix Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
8.10.2 Internal Helical Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
8.10.3 Number of Teeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
8.10.4 Centre Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
8.10.5 Prole Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
8.11 Manufacturing Process for Internal Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
8.12 Meshing Interferences for Internal Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
8.12.1 Tooth Root Meshing Interference on the Pinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
8.12.2 Tooth Root Meshing Interference on the Internal Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
8.12.3 Generation Meshing Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
8.12.4 Tooth Crest Meshing Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
8.12.5 Feed Meshing Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
8.12.6 Radial Assembly Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
8.13 Examples for Internal Gears in eAssistant Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
8.13.1 Extremely Small Number of Teeth (Pinion) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
8.13.2 Standard Tooth Prole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
8.13.3 Small Dierence of Number of Teeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
8.14 Dimensioning for Gear Pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
8.15 Message Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
8.16 Quick Info: Tooltip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
8.17 Calculation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
8.18 Documentation: Calculation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
8.19 How to Save the Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
8.20 The Button `Redo' and `Undo' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
8.21 The Button `CAD' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
8.21.1 DXF Output for the Accurate Tooth Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
8.21.2 STEP/IGES Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
8.21.3 GDE Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
8.21.4 eAssistant CAD Plugin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
8.21.5 Manufacturing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
8.21.6 Coordinate Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
8.22 The Button `Options' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
8.23 How to Calculate the Accurate Tooth Form of Involute Splines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
8.23.1 Select Basic Data for Involute Spline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
8.23.2 Modify Basic Rack Prole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
8.23.3 Enter Data for Involute Spline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
8.23.4 Dene Tooth Thickness Allowances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
8.23.5 Accurate Tooth Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377

9 Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 378
9.1 Start the Calculation Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
9.2 Conguration of a Simple Planetary Gear Train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
9.3 Basic Conguration of a Planetary Gear Train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
9.3.1 Direction of Helix Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
9.3.2 Reference Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
9.3.3 Standard Centre Distance and Working Centre Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
9.3.4 Number of Planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381

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9.3.5 Minimum Distance Between the Planet Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382

9.3.6 Normal Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
9.3.7 Pressure Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
9.3.8 Motion State - Gearbox Fixed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
9.3.9 Helix Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
9.3.10 Transmission Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
9.4 Input of Geometry Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
9.4.1 Facewidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
9.4.2 Prole Shift and Balanced Specic Sliding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
9.4.3 Tip Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
9.4.4 Tip Diameter Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
9.4.5 Modication of Tip Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
9.4.6 Tip Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
9.4.7 Root Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
9.4.8 Inner and Outer Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
9.4.9 Web Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
9.4.10 Chamfer and Addendum Chamfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
9.5 Input of Tool Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
9.5.1 Selection of Sun Gear-Planet Gear and Planet Gear-Annulus Gear . . . . . . . . . . . 389
9.5.2 Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
9.5.3 Standard Basic Rack Tooth Prole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
9.5.4 Tip Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
9.5.5 Addendum Coecient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
9.5.6 Semi Topping Flank and Topping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
9.5.7 Protuberance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
9.5.8 Machining Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
9.6 Input of Data for the Determination of Allowances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
9.6.1 Gear Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
9.6.2 Backlash Allowance and Tolerance Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
9.6.3 Tooth Thickness Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
9.6.4 Tooth Space Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
9.6.5 Measurement of Tooth Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
9.6.6 Tolerance Field for Centre Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
9.6.7 Centre Distance Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
9.6.8 Backlash Normal Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
9.6.9 Backlash Pitch Diameter and Radial Backlash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
9.7 Representation of Gear Tooth Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
9.7.1 Representation of Planetary Gear Train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
9.7.2 Representation of Mesh of Sun Gear-Planet Gear and Planet Gear-Annulus Gear . . . . 401
9.7.3 Rotating Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
9.7.4 Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
9.7.5 View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
9.7.6 Tooth Thickness Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
9.7.7 Tip Diameter Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
9.7.8 Centre Distance Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
9.8 Input of Power Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
9.8.1 Power and Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
9.8.2 Input Power and Output Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
9.8.3 Pitch Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
9.8.4 Coupling Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
9.8.5 Relative Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
9.9 Calculation of Gear Load Capacity of Planetary Gear Trains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
9.9.1 Activate Load Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
9.9.2 Input for Load Capacity According to DIN 3990 Method B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
9.9.3 Extended General Input Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
9.9.4 Extended Input Options for Load Capacity of Tooth Root and Tooth Flank . . . . . . 419
9.9.5 Extended Input Options for Scung Load Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
9.9.6 Input Options for Load Capacity According to ISO 6336 Method B . . . . . . . . . . . 427
9.9.7 Scung Load Capacity According to ISO/TR 13989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430

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9.9.8 Input Options for Load Capacity According to ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04 . . . . . . . . . 434
9.9.9 Input Options for Load Capacity According to VDI 2736 for Plastic Gears . . . . . . . 437
9.10 Input of Gear Tooth Prole and Gear Flank Modications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
9.10.1 Gear Tooth Prole Modication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
9.10.2 Gear Flank Modications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
9.11 Meshing Interferences for Planetary Gear Trains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
9.12 Additional Information On Planetary Gear Trains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
9.12.1 Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
9.12.2 Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
9.12.3 Planetary Carrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
9.12.4 Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
9.13 Dimensioning for Gear Pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
9.14 Message Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
9.15 Quick Info: Tooltip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
9.16 Calculation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
9.17 Documentation: Calculation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
9.18 How to Save the Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
9.19 The Button `Redo' and `Undo' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
9.20 The Button `CAD' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
9.20.1 DXF Output for Accurate Tooth Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
9.20.2 STEP/IGES Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
9.20.3 GDE Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
9.20.4 eAssistant CAD Plugin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
9.20.5 Manufacturing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
9.20.6 Coordinate Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
9.21 The Button `Options' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460

10 Three- and Four-Gear Train Systems 462

10.1 Start the Calculation Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
10.2 Input of Geometry Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
10.2.1 Normal Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
10.2.2 Helix Angle and Helix Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
10.2.3 Pressure Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
10.2.4 Standard Centre Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
10.2.5 Working Centre Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
10.2.6 Comment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
10.2.7 Number of Teeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
10.2.8 Facewidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
10.2.9 Prole Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
10.2.10 Tip Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
10.2.11 Tip Diameter Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
10.2.12 Modication of Tip Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
10.2.13 Tip Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
10.2.14 Root Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
10.2.15 Allowances of Root . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
10.2.16 Inner Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
10.2.17 Web Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
10.2.18 Chamfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
10.2.19 Addendum Chamfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
10.3 Input of Tool Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
10.3.1 Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
10.3.2 Standard Basic Rack Tooth Prole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
10.3.3 Tip Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
10.3.4 Addendum Coecient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
10.3.5 Semi Topping Flank and Topping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
10.3.6 Protuberance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
10.3.7 Machining Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
10.4 Input of Data for the Determination of Allowances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
10.4.1 Gear Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482

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10.4.2 Backlash Allowance and Tolerance Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484

10.4.3 Tooth Thickness Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
10.4.4 Tooth Space Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
10.4.5 Measurement of Tooth Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
10.4.6 Tolerance Field for Centre Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
10.4.7 Centre Distance Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
10.4.8 Backlash Normal Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
10.4.9 Backlash Pitch Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
10.4.10 Radial Backlash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
10.5 Representation of Gear Tooth Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
10.5.1 Representation of Cylindrical Gear Pair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
10.5.2 Representation of Tooth Mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
10.5.3 Rotating Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
10.5.4 Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
10.5.5 Tooth Thickness Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
10.5.6 Tip Diameter Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
10.5.7 Centre Distance Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
10.6 Calculation of Gear Load Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
10.6.1 Activate Load Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
10.6.2 Inputs for Load Capacity According to DIN 3990 Method B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
10.6.3 Extended General Input Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
10.6.4 Extended Input Options for Tooth Root and Tooth Flank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
10.6.5 Extended Input Options for Scung Load Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
10.6.6 Input Options for Load Capacity According to ISO 6336 Method B . . . . . . . . . . . 518
10.6.7 Scung Load Capacity According to ISO/TR 13989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
10.6.8 Input Options for Load Capacity According to ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04 . . . . . . . . . 525
10.6.9 Input Options for Load Capacity According to VDI 2736 for Plastic Gears . . . . . . . 528
10.7 Input of Gear Tooth Prole and Gear Flank Modications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
10.7.1 Gear Tooth Prole Modication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
10.7.2 Gear Flank Modications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
10.8 Meshing Interferences for External Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
10.8.1 Meshing Interferences Due to Low Contact Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
10.9 Message Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
10.10Quick Info: Tooltip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
10.11Calculation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
10.12Documentation: Calculation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
10.13How to Save the Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
10.14The Button `Redo' and `Undo' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
10.15The Button `CAD' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
10.15.1 DXF Output for the Accurate Tooth Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
10.15.2 STEP/IGES Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
10.15.3 GDE Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
10.15.4 eAssistant CAD Plugin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
10.15.5 Manufaturing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
10.15.6 Coordinate Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
10.16The Button `Options' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546

11 Straight and Helical Bevel Gears According to ISO 23509 547

11.1 Start Calculation Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
11.2 Basic Conguration of a Bevel Gear Pair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
11.2.1 Type of Bevel Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
11.2.2 Form of Tooth Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
11.2.3 Pressure Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
11.2.4 Shaft Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
11.2.5 Oset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
11.2.6 Number of Teeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
11.2.7 Reference Cone Diameter and Reference Cone Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
11.2.8 Facewidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
11.2.9 Mean Normal Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552

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11.2.10 Helix Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552

11.3 Input of Tool Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
11.3.1 Manufacturing of Straight and Helical Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
11.3.2 Standard Basic Rack Tooth Prole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
11.4 Input of Geometry Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
11.4.1 Helix Angle Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
11.4.2 Prole Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
11.4.3 Thickness Modication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
11.4.4 Angle Modication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
11.4.5 Bottom Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
11.4.6 Face Angle and Root Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
11.4.7 Cone Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
11.5 Input of Data for the Gear Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
11.5.1 Mounting Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
11.5.2 Plane Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
11.5.3 Tip Circle Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
11.5.4 Curve Radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
11.5.5 Tooth Tip Chamfering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
11.6 Input of Data for the Determination of Tolerances and Backlash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
11.6.1 Shaft Angle Deviation and Common Apex Deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
11.6.2 Normal Backlash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
11.6.3 Circumferential Backlash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
11.6.4 Tooth Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
11.6.5 Application Factor q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
11.7 Calculation of Load Capacity of Straight and Helical Bevel Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
11.7.1 Activate Load Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
11.7.2 Inputs for Load Capacity According to ISO 10300 Method B1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
11.7.3 Extended Input Options for Load Capacity of Tooth Root and Tooth Flank . . . . . . 570
11.8 Message Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
11.9 Quick Info: Tooltip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
11.10Calculation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
11.11Documentation: Calculation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
11.12How to Save the Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
11.13The Button `Redo' and `Undo' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
11.14The Button `CAD' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
11.14.1 STEP/IGES-Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
11.14.2 eAssistant CAD Plugin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
11.15The Button `Options' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580

12 Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 581
12.1 Start Calculation Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
12.2 Basic Conguration of Bevel Gear Pair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
12.2.1 Types of Bevel Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
12.2.2 Tooth Trace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
12.2.3 Constant Tooth Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
12.2.4 Pressure Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
12.2.5 Shaft Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
12.2.6 Oset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
12.2.7 Number of Teeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
12.2.8 Reference Cone Diameter and Reference Cone Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
12.2.9 Facewidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
12.2.10 Mean Normal Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
12.2.11 Mean Spiral Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
12.3 Input of Tool Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
12.3.1 Standard Basic Rack Tooth Prole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
12.3.2 Machine Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
12.3.3 Cutter Radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
12.3.4 Number of Blade Groups and Machine Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
12.4 Input of Geometry Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591

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12.4.1 Spiral Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591

12.4.2 Prole Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
12.4.3 Thickness Modication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
12.4.4 Angle Modication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
12.4.5 Bottom Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
12.4.6 Face Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
12.4.7 Root Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
12.4.8 Cone Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
12.5 Input of Data for the Gear Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
12.5.1 Mounting Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
12.5.2 Plane Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
12.5.3 Tip Circle Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
12.5.4 Curve Radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
12.5.5 Tooth Tip Chamfering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
12.6 Input of Data for the Determination of Tolerances and Backlash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
12.6.1 Shaft Angle Deviation and Common Apex Deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
12.6.2 Normal Backlash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
12.6.3 Circumferential Backlash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
12.6.4 Tooth Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
12.6.5 Application Factor q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
12.7 Calculation of Load Capacity of Spiral Bevel Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
12.7.1 Activate Load Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
12.7.2 Inputs for Load Capacity According to ISO 10300 Method B1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
12.7.3 Extended Input Options for Load Capacity of Tooth Root and Tooth Flank . . . . . . 607
12.8 Message Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
12.9 Quick Info: Tooltip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
12.10Calculation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
12.11Documentation: Calculation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
12.12How to Save the Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
12.13The Button `Redo' and `Undo' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
12.14The Button `CAD' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
12.14.1 STEP/IGES-Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
12.14.2 eAssistant CAD Plugin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
12.15The Button `Options' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617

13 Cylindrical Worms with Globoid Worm Wheel 618

13.1 Start the Calculation Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
13.2 Input of Geometry Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
13.2.1 Flank Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
13.2.2 Lead direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
13.2.3 Number of Teeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
13.2.4 Axial Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
13.2.5 Facewidth/Tooth Length of the Worm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
13.2.6 Rim Width of the Worm Wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
13.2.7 Prole Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
13.2.8 Pressure Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
13.2.9 Lead Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
13.2.10 Worm Reference Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
13.2.11 Centre Distance and Shaft Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
13.2.12 Web Width on Worm Wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
13.2.13 Gear Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
13.2.14 Worm Wheel Throat Radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
13.2.15 Chamfer Angle and Chamfer Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
13.2.16 Diameter/Centre Distance Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
13.2.17 Form Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
13.2.18 Tip Clearance of Worm and Worm Wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
13.3 Input of Tool Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
13.3.1 Standard Basic Rack Tooth Prole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
13.3.2 Own Input of Basic Rack Tooth Prole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630

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13.4 Input of Data for the Determination of Allowances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631

13.4.1 Gear Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
13.4.2 Backlash Allowance and Tolerance Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
13.4.3 Tooth Thickness Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
13.4.4 Tooth Space Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
13.4.5 Three-Wire Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
13.4.6 Tolerance Field for Centre Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
13.4.7 Centre Distance Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
13.4.8 Backlash Normal Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
13.4.9 Backlash Pitch Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
13.5 Calculation of Load Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
13.5.1 Activate Load Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
13.5.2 Inputs for Load Capacity According to DIN 3996 and ISO 14521 . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
13.5.3 Extended Input Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
13.5.4 Power Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
13.6 Message Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
13.7 Quick Info: Tooltip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
13.8 Calculation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
13.9 Documentation: Calculation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
13.10How to Save the Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646
13.11The Button `Redo' and `Undo' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
13.12The Button `Options' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647

14 Interference Fits According to DIN 7190 648

14.1 General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
14.2 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
14.3 Selection of Fit/Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
14.3.1 Selection of Fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650
14.3.2 Calculation of Fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
14.4 Automatic Dimensioning Functions (Calculator Button) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
14.5 Inuence of Centrifugal Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
14.6 Additional External Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
14.7 Operating Factor (Application Factor) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
14.7.1 Working Characteristics of the Driving Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
14.7.2 Working Characteristics of the Driven Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
14.8 Coecients of Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
14.9 Stepped Hub Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
14.10Subsidence/Surface Smoothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
14.11Modication of Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
14.12Fretting Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
14.13Assembly and Disassembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
14.13.1 Shrink ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
14.13.2 Force Fits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
14.14Example of Interference Fits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662
14.15How to Change the Unit System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
14.16The Button `Redo' and `Undo' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
14.17Material Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
14.18Message Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
14.19Quick Info: Tooltip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
14.20Calculation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
14.21Documentation: Calculation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
14.22How to Save the Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
14.23The Button `Options' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
14.24Calculation Example: Interference Fit According to DIN 7190 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
14.24.1 Start the Calculation Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
14.24.2 Calculation Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
14.24.3 Start the Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
14.24.4 Calculation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672
14.24.5 Documentation: Calculation report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672

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14.24.6 How to Save the Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673

15 Parallel Keys According to DIN 6892 674

15.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
15.2 Scope of DIN 6892 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
15.3 Types of Parallel Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
15.4 Surface Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
15.5 Permitted Surface Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
15.6 Application Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
15.6.1 Working Characteristics of the Driving Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
15.6.2 Working Characteristics of the Driven Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
15.7 Load Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
15.8 Load Distribution Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
15.9 Friction Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680
15.10Load Direction Changing Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
15.11Load Peak Frequency Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
15.12Support Factor and Hardness Inuence Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
15.13Inputs for Calculation Method B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
15.14Some Additional Information On Method C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684
15.15Design Recommendations of Parallel Keys According to DIN 6892 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684
15.15.1 Hub Geometry and Load Output from the Hub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684
15.15.2 Parallel Key Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684
15.15.3 Shaft Shoulders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
15.15.4 Keyway Form in the Shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
15.15.5 Parallel Key Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
15.16Automatic Dimensioning Functions (Calculator Button) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
15.17Material Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686
15.18Selection and Geometry of Parallel Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686
15.19Input of Individual Parallel Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
15.19.1 Supporting Length of Individual Parallel Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
15.20The Button `Redo' and `Undo' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
15.21Message Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
15.22Quick Info: Tooltip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
15.23Calculation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
15.24Documentation: Calculation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
15.25How to Save the Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
15.26The Button `Options' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
15.27Calculation Example: Parallel Key According to DIN 6892 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692
15.27.1 Start the Calculation Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692
15.27.2 Calculation Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692
15.27.3 Start the Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692
15.27.4 Calculation Method B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
15.27.5 Calculation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
15.27.6 Documentation: Calculation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
15.27.7 How to Save the Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698

16 Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 699

16.1 Start the Calculation Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
16.2 Field of Application of DIN 5480 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
16.3 Input of Geometry Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
16.3.1 Prole Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702
16.3.2 More Inputs for the Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702
16.3.3 Dene Your Own Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
16.4 Input of Tool Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
16.4.1 Tool Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
16.4.2 Tool Standard Basic Rack Prole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
16.4.3 Broaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
16.4.4 Gear Hobbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708
16.4.5 Gear Shaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708
16.4.6 Cold-Rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708

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16.4.7 Dene Your Own Tool Standard Basic Rack Prole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
16.4.8 Dimensioning of Tool Standard Basic Rack Prole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
16.4.9 Machining Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710
16.5 Input of Data for the Determination of Allowances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710
16.5.1 Gear Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
16.5.2 Backlash Allowance Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
16.5.3 Tooth Thickness Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712
16.5.4 Tooth Space Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713
16.5.5 Span Measurement across Several Teeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713
16.5.6 Ball Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713
16.5.7 Backlash Normal Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714
16.5.8 Backlash Pitch Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714
16.6 Representation of Gear Tooth Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714
16.6.1 Representation of the Shaft-Hub Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
16.6.2 Representation of Tooth Mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
16.6.3 Rotating Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716
16.6.4 Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716
16.6.5 Tooth Thickness Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716
16.6.6 Tip Diameter Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
16.7 Calculation of Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718
16.7.1 Application Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718
16.7.2 Examples for Driving Machines with Various Working Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . 719
16.7.3 Examples of Working Characteristics of Driven Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719
16.7.4 Nominal Operation Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720
16.7.5 Share Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720
16.7.6 Load Peaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721
16.7.7 Maximum Load Peak Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721
16.7.8 Kind of Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722
16.7.9 Material Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
16.7.10 Stepped Hub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725
16.8 Message Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726
16.9 Quick Info: Tooltip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726
16.10Calculation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726
16.11Documentation: Calculation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727
16.12How to Save the Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728
16.13The Button `Redo' and `Undo' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
16.14The Button `CAD' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
16.14.1 DXF Output for Accurate Tooth Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
16.14.2 STEP/IGES Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731
16.14.3 GDE Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731
16.14.4 eAssistant CAD Plugin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
16.14.5 Coordinate Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
16.15The Button `Options' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733

17 Serrated Shaft and Splined Shaft Connection According to Niemann 734

17.1 Start the Calculation Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734
17.2 Prole Geometry Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
17.2.1 Serrated Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
17.2.2 Splined Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737
17.3 How to Change the Unit System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739
17.4 Application Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739
17.4.1 Examples for Driving Machines with Various Working Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . 740
17.4.2 Examples of Working Characteristics of Driven Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740
17.5 Load Peaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741
17.5.1 Maximum Load Peak Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741
17.6 Kind of Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742
17.7 Stepped Hub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743
17.8 Material Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744
17.9 Message Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746

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17.10Quick Info: Tooltip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746

17.11Calculation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746

17.12Documentation: Calculation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747

17.13How to Save the Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748

17.14Automatic Dimensioning Functions (Calculator Button) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749

17.15The Button `Redo' and `Undo' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750

17.16The Button `CAD' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750

17.17The Button `Options' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751

17.18Calculation Example: Splined Shaft for Lifting Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752

17.18.1 Start the Calculation Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752

17.18.2 Input Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752

17.18.3 The Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753

17.18.4 Calculation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756

17.18.5 Documentation: Calculation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756

17.18.6 How to Save the Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 758

18 Bolts and Pins 760

18.1 Start the Calculation Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760

18.2 Kind of Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761

18.2.1 Longitudinal Pin under Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761

18.2.2 Guide Pin under Bending Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762

18.2.3 Cross Pin under Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762

18.2.4 Bolt Connection under Shearing Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762

18.3 Pin Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763

18.3.1 Solid Pin/Bolt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763

18.3.2 Grooved Pin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763

18.3.3 Dowel Pin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764

18.3.4 Coiled Spring Pin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764

18.4 Material Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764

18.5 Application Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765

18.6 Message Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766

18.7 Calculation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767

18.8 Documentation: Calculation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768

18.9 How to Save the Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769

18.10The Button `Redo' and `Undo' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770

18.11The Button `Options' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770

19 Clamp Connections 771

19.1 Start the Calculation Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771

19.2 Kind of Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772

19.2.1 Separated Hub Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772

19.2.2 Split Hub Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773

19.3 Application Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773

19.4 Coecients of Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774

19.5 Required Clamping Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775

19.6 Material Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775

19.6.1 Dene Your Own Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776

19.7 Message Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776

19.8 Quick Info: Tooltip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776

19.9 Calculation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777

19.10Documentation: Calculation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777

19.11How to Save the Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778

19.12The Button `Redo' and `Undo' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779

19.13The Button `Options' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779

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20 Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 780

20.1 Start the Calculation Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
20.2 Operating Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781
20.2.1 Setup of Bolted Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 782
20.2.2 Minimum Clamp Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783
20.2.3 Number of Alternating Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
20.2.4 Bolt Temperature and Parts Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
20.3 Assembly Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785
20.3.1 Tightening Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785
20.3.2 Tightening Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788
20.3.3 Utilization of the Yield Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789
20.3.4 Assembly Preload . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789
20.3.5 Tightening Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790
20.3.6 Embedment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
20.3.7 Loss of Preload . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792
20.4 Input of the Clamped Parts and Denition of the Basic Solid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793
20.4.1 Clamped Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794
20.5 Selection and Input of the Connecting Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797
20.5.1 Type of Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797
20.5.2 Bolt Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798
20.5.3 Dene Your Own Bolt Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801
20.5.4 Strength Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802
20.5.5 Material Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804
20.5.6 Nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 805
20.5.7 Thread Bore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806
20.5.8 Friction Coecients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808
20.5.9 Roughnesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809
20.5.10 Washers Under the Bolted Head/Nut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809
20.6 Input of the Load Introduction and the Load Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811
20.6.1 Eccentric Clamping and Eccentric Load Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 812
20.7 The Display of the Joint Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 814
20.7.1 Further Operating Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816
20.8 Message Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817
20.9 Quick Info: Tooltip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817
20.10Calculation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817
20.10.1 Utilization Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 818
20.11Documentation: Calculation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 818
20.12How to Save the Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 819
20.13The Button `Redo' and `Undo' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820
20.14The Button `Options' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820

21 Compression Springs According to DIN EN 13906-1-2002 822

21.1 Start the Calculation Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 822
21.2 General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
21.3 Input Possibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
21.3.1 Input of Spring Force and Spring Deection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
21.3.2 Transverse Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824
21.3.3 Coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824
21.3.4 Spring End Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
21.3.5 Support of Spring End Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826
21.3.6 Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826
21.3.7 Input of Lengths and Diameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827
21.4 Spring Geometry Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828
21.5 Material Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829
21.5.1 Dene Your Own Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829
21.6 How to Change the Unit System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830
21.7 The Button `Redo' and `Undo' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
21.8 Message Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
21.9 Quick Info: Tooltip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831

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21.10Calculation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 832

21.11Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 832
21.12Documentation: Calculation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 832
21.13How to Save the Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833
21.14The Button `Options' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834
21.15Calculation Example: Compression Spring According to DIN EN 13906-1, Edition 2002 . . . . 836
21.15.1 Start the Calculation Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836
21.15.2 Input Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836
21.15.3 The Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 837
21.15.4 Calculation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 838
21.15.5 Documentation: Diagrams and Calculation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840
21.15.6 How to Save the Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841

22 Tension Springs According to DIN EN 13906-2-2002 842

22.1 Start the Calculation Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 842
22.2 General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843
22.3 Input Possibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843
22.3.1 Input of Spring Forces and Deections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843
22.3.2 Wire Diameter and Spring Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844
22.3.3 Input of Diameters and Lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844
22.3.4 Coil Clearance and Initial Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845
22.3.5 Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845
22.4 Material Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846
22.4.1 Dene Your Own Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847
22.5 Spring end types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847
22.5.1 Input of Distance from Inner Radius of Loop to Spring Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849
22.6 How to Change the Unit System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849
22.7 The Button `Redo' and `Undo' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
22.8 Message Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
22.9 Quick Info: Tooltip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851
22.10Calculation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851
22.11Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851
22.12Documentation: Calculation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852
22.13How to Save the Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853
22.14The Button `Options' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 854

23 Timing Belt Drives 856

23.1 Start the Calculation Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 856
23.2 General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 856
23.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Timing Belt Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857
23.3.1 Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857
23.3.2 Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857
23.4 Pre-Selection of a Timing Belt Prole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857
23.5 Conguration of Geometry of a Belt Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859
23.5.1 Belt Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859
23.5.2 Belt Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859
23.5.3 Timing Belt Pulleys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860
23.5.4 Position of the Timing Belt Pulleys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862
23.5.5 Number of Teeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863
23.5.6 Pitch Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864
23.5.7 Adding or Removing a Timing Belt Pulley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864
23.5.8 Graphic Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865
23.5.9 Additional Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866
23.6 Message Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867
23.6.1 Quick Info: Tooltip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868
23.7 Input of Power Data Of the Timing Belt Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868
23.7.1 Belt Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 869
23.7.2 Safety Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870
23.8 Documentation: Calculation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
23.9 How to Save the Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872

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23.10The Button `Redo' and `Undo' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 873

23.11The Button `Options' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 873

24 Tolerance Fit Calculator DIN ISO 286, Edition 1990 874

24.1 Selection of Fits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 874
24.2 Calculation of Possible Fits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876
24.3 Example for Cylindrical Fits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 878
24.3.1 Examples for Interference Fits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 878
24.3.2 Examples for Transition Fits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 879
24.3.3 Examples for Clearance Fits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 879
24.4 Further Possibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 881

25 Approximate Shaft Dimensioning According to Niemann 2001 882

25.1 Material Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883
25.1.1 Dene your Own Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883
25.2 Material Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 884
25.3 Load Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 884
25.4 Further Possibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885

26 Rough Estimation of Bolted Joints According to VDI 2230 Sheet 1 (2003-02) 886
26.1 Axial Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887
26.2 Transverse Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887
26.3 Strength Grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 888
26.4 Load Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 888
26.5 Tightening Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890
26.6 Preload . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890
26.7 Further Possibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 891

27 Hardness Conversion According to DIN 50150: 2000-10 892

27.1 Kind of Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
27.2 Hardness Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893
27.3 Further Possibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894

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Chapter 1

A Helpful Guideline to the Manual

The eAssistant manual contains information on all aspects of using. Having this information available right
from the start makes it easier to work with the eAssistant. The eAssistant consists of various calculation
modules and the manual provides all information about the modules. Furthermore, you will get calculation
examples for every calculation module. Our examples will show how easy it is to work with the eAssistant
software. Our manual oers you a very fast access to all information. To get to the manual you have dierent
possibilities:

(1) Visit our web site www.eAssistant.eu. The navigation bar `Help' takes you to the manual.

Figure 1.1: Menu item `Help' on the web site

(2) Click on the `Help' button which you will nd directly in the program.

Figure 1.2: `Help' button in the program

(3) Click on the `Help' button which you will nd directly in all calculation modules.

Figure 1.3: `Help' button in every calculation module

Our manual is improved continually. Of course we are always interested in your opinion, so we would like to
know what you think. We appreciate your feedback and we are looking for ideas, suggestions or criticism. If
you have anything to say, please let us know by phone +49 (0) 531 129 399-0 or email [email protected].
You will always nd a sympathetic ear, no matter what the problem is.

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2. Registration 23

2.1 How to Register

Click the link `Free test account'.

Figure 2.2: Registration for a free test account

Click on the link `Please click here to register for a free test account'.

Please note: In order to complete your registration, you need to accept our general terms and conditions.

The registration window is started.

Figure 2.3: Enter your personal data

Enter the required user data and conrm with the button `Create new user'.

Please Note: Private users should enter `private' into the input eld `Company'. You can select your
username by yourself, but please note that you cannot change your username at a later date. But there is still
the possibility to change your personal data in the project management. In case your username is assigned to
someone else, you will get the appropriate information in the message window.

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2. Registration 24

Please Note: Your registration data will be veried. Registrations with false or incorrect
information will be deleted automatically. Your password will be mailed to you, usually
within 24 hours and you can login immediately.

Once you have successfully registered, you can login. To login, please visit www.eAssistant.eu and click on
the button `Login for registered users'.

2.2 Login for Registered Users

If you have already received an email message from us with your password, simply log in. Click on the link
`Login for registered users'.

Figure 2.4: Login for registered users

Please login with your username and your password and conrm with the button `Login'.

Figure 2.5: Enter login and password

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2. Registration 25

Now you are in the project management.

Figure 2.6: Project management

2.3 Lost Your Password?

If you cannot remember your username or your password, use the `Forgot your password?' link. Enter your
email address in the following form. Please note that you need the same email address you have entered for
your rst registration. Then click on the button `Request new password'. You will get a new password via
email. After a successful registration, you can change your password to one that is easier to remember.

Figure 2.7: Request a new password

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Chapter 3

General Functions

3.1 Project Management

As soon as you have successfully signed in with your username and password, you are presented with the
project management screen where you can start all calculation modules. With the project manamgement tool
it becomes easy to manage all your projects and calculation les. The project management helps you to open,
save, delete, copy or rename projects or calculation les. You can change your personal data or your password
here if necessary.

Figure 3.1: Project management

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3. General Functions 27

3.2 Projects
Here you can manage your projects. You can create a new project, you can copy, rename, or delete projects.
The window `Files' lists the content of the selected project.

3.2.1 Creating a New Project

Click in the `Projects' window and click the right mouse button. Select the menu item `New project' from the
context menu.

Figure 3.2: Create a new project

A new input window is opened. Enter a name into the input eld and click the button `Ok'.

Figure 3.3: Name the new project

The input window is closed. Now your `New project' is created in the list window `Projects'.

Figure 3.4: New project was created

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3. General Functions 28

3.2.2 Copying and Pasting a Project

Select the project you would like to copy and click the right mouse button. Select the menu item `Copy' from
the context menu.

Figure 3.5: Copy the project

Click in the window `Projects' and click the right mouse button. Select the menu item `Paste' from the context
menu.

Figure 3.6: Menu item `Paste'

The copied project has got still the title `Copy'. You can change the name of that project later. If you copy a
project, the content (les) of this project will copied too.

Figure 3.7: Paste the project

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3.2.3 Renaming a Project

Select the project you would like to rename and click the right mouse button. Select the menu item `Rename'
from the context menu.

Figure 3.8: Rename a project

Change the name of the project and conrm with `Ok'.

Figure 3.9: New name

3.2.4 Deleting a Project

Select the project you would like to delete and then a right-click on this project. Select the menu item `Delete'
from the context menu. Answer the prompt with `Yes'.

Figure 3.10: Delete the project

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3. General Functions 30

3.2.5 Project Folder `Default'

The folder `Default' is a default setting. If you close a calculation module, the current state of the calculation
will be saved automatically as a calculation le called `last Calculation' in the project folder `Default'. In case
you forgot to save your calculation, no data get lost. The calculation modules of the same module will be
overwritten when opening and closing the modules. You cannot rename, delete or cut the folder `Default'.

Figure 3.11: Project folder `Default'

3.2.6 Calculation Modules

The module tree on the left side shows all calculation modules. Click the arrow to the left to display the
modules of each module group. One click starts the module.

Figure 3.12: Start calculation modules

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3. General Functions 31

To narrow down the selection to one particular type, choose the calculation type from the list. Click `All Files'
to display all calculation les.

Figure 3.13: Calculation type

To close the calculation module, click the menu item `File', then click `Quit calculation'.

Figure 3.14: Quit the calculation module

The eAssistant framework provides the exibility to easily change between the modules. A previously opened
module does not need to be reloaded again and is immediately available without waiting. The last calculation
will be loaded automatically.

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3. General Functions 32

3.3 Files
The window `Files' displays all calculation les. By using a lter function, the saved calculation les can be
displayed within a specic module or across modules. Choose a calculation module and see all les which
belong to the respective calculation module.

3.3.1 Copying and Pasting a File

Select the le you would like to copy and click the right mouse button on this le. Select the menu item
`Copy' from the context menu.

Figure 3.15: Copy a le

Select the project where you would like to copy the le. Click the right mouse button in the eld `Files' and
click the menu item `Paste' from the context menu.

Figure 3.16: Paste a le

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3. General Functions 33

3.3.2 Renaming a le

Select the le you want to rename and click the right mouse button on this le. Select the menu item `Rename'
from the context menu.

Figure 3.17: Rename a le

Change the name of the le and click the button `Ok'.

Figure 3.18: Enter a new name

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3. General Functions 34

3.3.3 Cutting a File

Select the le you would like to cut and click the right mouse button on this le. Select the menu item `Cut'
from the context menu.

Figure 3.19: Cut a le

Select the project where you would like to paste the le and click the right mouse button. Select the menu
item `Paste' from the context menu.

Figure 3.20: Paste a le

3.3.4 Deleting a File

Select the le you would like to delete and click the right mouse button on this le. Select the menu item
`Delete' from the context menu. Answer the prompt with `Yes'.

Figure 3.21: Delete a le

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3. General Functions 35

3.4 The Button `File'

3.4.1 New
Clicking the menu item 'New' closes the current calculation and opens the calculation module with the internal
default setting for all values. If you have dened your own template le, this template le will then be used
when you open the calculation module.

Figure 3.22: Menu item `New'

3.4.2 Quit the Calculation Module

The menu item `Quit the Calculation module', which you´ll nd under the `File' menu item, just closes the
current calculation module and not the whole program.

Figure 3.23: Close the calculation module

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3. General Functions 36

3.4.3 Quit the Application

Click the menu item `File' and then the `Exit' button to quit the application. If you close the software without
logging out, you will be automatically logged out. But you can immediately return to the eAssistant and
re-login with your username and password.

Figure 3.24: Quit the application

3.5 The Button `Extras'

3.5.1 Language
It is easy to switch from one language to another. click the menu item `Language' and select the required
language. The software is available in English and German.

Figure 3.25: Change the language

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3. General Functions 37

3.5.2 Settings
The menu item `Settings' controls the properties of the software as a whole, while the menu item `Options'
controls the properties of the individual calculation module. This is where you congure settings like adding
a project info, enabling/disabling job data or selecting a short calculation report. If you ever need to change
your password, you can do that here.

Figure 3.26: Settings

Job Data
Entering the job data allows to specify an order. In this way you can describe each job in detail and properly
document it. In the tree structure on the left side, click `General' and set the checkmark `Show a dialog to
edit the job data before generating the report'. If you enable this option, the job data is displayed on the
screen before the calculation report is opened. That also means that a window is displayed in which you can
enter the job data every time a calculation report is generated.

Figure 3.27: Enter and enable order data

The job data can be saved to the calculation, meaning that you do not have to enter the job data again every
time. To do so, please enable the checkbox `Save with calculation'. If you save the calculation, the job data is

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3. General Functions 38

also saved. If you disable the function `Show in report', the job data is not displayed in the calculation report.

Figure 3.28: Report including job data

User Data
In case several users share the same password and user name, a single user can congurate own user data on
the workstation. Later, the data will appear at the top of the generated calculation report and you will be
able to see who has created the calculation. The conguration manager is particularly helpful for companies
who have multiple parallel accounts. When you start the conguration manager, the module rst shows the
user data that is saved in the eAssistant `User data'. You can customize the user data. Click the button `OK`
to save the modications.

Figure 3.29: Modify the user data

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3. General Functions 39

Open a calculation module from the project management, for example cylindrical gears. You can leave the
conguration manager open. Click the button `Report' to generate the calculation report. The modied user
data appear in the header section of the calculation report. The general user data will remain in place.

Figure 3.30: Create a calculation report

Login Data
The password can be modied by clicking the menu item `Login Data'. Enter the new password into the input
eld `New password'. Conrm the password in the input eld `Repeat password' and click the button `Change
Password'. Conrm with the button `OK'.

Figure 3.31: Change the password

Project Info
The program allows you to create a project info. For any project, you can add a describing text, for example
order data or other project-related information (e.g., drive shaft). The text then appears in the header section
on each page of the PDF calculation report. The conguration of the project info allows you to choose whether
to be prompted for conrmation before generating the project info.

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3. General Functions 40

Server
On the left-hand side in the tree view under `Project info' you can nd the menu item `Server'. If you click
this menu item, all existing project les saved in the project management under `Projects' are listed.

Figure 3.32: Project info

Select a project, for example `Project 1'. The text eld `Project info' lets you add some text. This text will
appear in the header section of the calculation report. Click the button `Save project info' in order to save
your text. The added text then applies to all calculation les that belong to this project.

Figure 3.33: Add some text

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3. General Functions 41

Select the project `Project 1' from the project management and open the calculation `Shaft with Gear' either
by double-clicking the le or click the button `Open Calculation'.

Figure 3.34: Project Management

In order to generate the calculation report, click the button `Report' in the calculation module. You can see
the newly added text in the upper left corner. If you open the PDF calculation report, then the text will appear
at the top of every page in your calculation report.

Figure 3.35: Create a calculation report

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3. General Functions 42

If you check the checkbox `Show a dialog to conrm...', you receive a dialog each time before the generation
of the calculation report starts. You can then decide whether to use the added project info or not. If this
checkbox is clear, the calculation report is automatically generated and no prompt is displayed.

Figure 3.36: Enable the option

If you choose to place a check mark here, a message window will be opened each time before the generation
of the calculation report begins. In this window you can check the project info again and decide if the text
contains the information you want. If not, you can overwrite and quickly replace the text. Conrm with the
`OK' button and the calculation report including the new project info will be created. But the saved project
info in the conguration manager cannot be overwritten and remains unchanged.

Figure 3.37: Overwrite project info

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3. General Functions 43

Local
On the left-hand side in the tree view under `Project info' you can nd the menu item `Local'. If you click this
menu item, you can add a project info for all calculation les that are saved locally to your computer.

Please note: The eAssistant software exports the project info as an XML le. The locally saved eAssistant
calculation and the XML le must be in the same directory.

To save the project info locally, please click the menu item `New Project'.

Figure 3.38: Projekt info local

Please enter a project name into the input eld `Project'. Click the button `Browse' and save the le where
the eAssistant calculation le is stored. Click the `Open' button.

Figure 3.39: Set save location

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3. General Functions 44

Add some text to the text eld `Project info'. This text will appear in the header section of the calculation
report. Click the button `OK' in order to save your text.

Figure 3.40: Add text for project info

Open a calculation module (e.g., for shafts). Now open the calculation le that is saved locally to your
computer.

Please note: When opening the calculation, please keep in mind to activate the option `Local' in the top
menu bar of the calculation module.

Figure 3.41: Open local calculation

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3. General Functions 45

In order to generate the calculation report, click the button `Report' in the calculation module. You can see
the newly added text in the upper left corner. If you open the PDF calculation report, then the text will appear
at the top of every page in your calculation report.

Figure 3.42: Create calculation report

As with the menu item `Server', you can activate the option `Show a dialog to conrm...'. If you check the
checkbox, you receive a dialog each time before the generation of the calculation report starts. You can
then decide whether to use the added project info or not. If this checkbox is clear, the calculation report is
automatically generated and no prompt is displayed.

Figure 3.43: Enable option

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3. General Functions 46

If you choose to place a check mark here, a message window will be opened each time before the generation
of the calculation report begins. In this window you can check the project info again and decide if the text
contains the information you want. If not, you can overwrite and quickly replace the text. Conrm with the
`OK' button and the calculation report including the new project info will be created. But the saved project
info in the conguration manager cannot be overwritten and remains unchanged.

Figure 3.44: Overwrite saved project info

You can quickly and easily delete the local project info le from your computer. To do so, please click the the
button `Delete'. The XML le automatically disappears from your computer.

Figure 3.45: Delete le with project info

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3. General Functions 47

Report Templates
The conguration manger provides report templates for each calculation module. Individual reports can be
also integrated. If you have any questions or if you need further information, please feel free to contact us.

Figure 3.46: Protokollvorlage

Click the tree view on the left-hand side to select a calculation module, for example shaft calculation. Click
the listbox `Standard report template' and choose either `Standard' or `Short report'. Click on the button
`Save settings'. If you select `Short report', then a short report is generated for all calculation les that belong
to the shaft module. A short report is not available for all calculation modules.

Figure 3.47: Short report

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3. General Functions 48

If you check the checkbox `Show a dialog to conrm...', you receive a selection list each time before the
generation of the calculation report starts. This list will help you decide which report template should be used
for the report generation. If this checkbox is clear, the calculation report is automatically generated and no
prompt is displayed.

Figure 3.48: Enable option

If you choose to place a check mark in the checkbox, a message window will be opened each time before
the generation of the calculation report begins. In this window you can decide whether to create a standard
calculation report or a short report. Conrm with the button `OK' and the desired calculation report is
generated.

Figure 3.49: Notication message

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3. General Functions 49

3.6 Button `Help'

Click the button `Help' to open the user manual in HTML and PDF format. It also contains the eAssistant
Terms and Conditions.

Figure 3.50: Button `Help'

3.7 File Info

Here you get further information about the les. Click on a le, the `File info' appears. You will get the name
of the le, the calculation type as well as the date and time of your calculation that is saved to the eAssistant
server.

Figure 3.51: File info

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3. General Functions 50

3.7.1 Time Account

The time left is displayed in the information area. As long as you work in the project management, no time will
be lost or deducted from your account during this time. But when you open one of the calculation modules,
the usage time will be automatically deducted from your account. Please visit www.eAssistant.eu to get
further information.

Please note: The project management provides calculation modules for free: t calculation according to DIN
ISO 286, shaft dimensioning according to Niemann, hardness conversion according to DIN 50150 as well as a
lubricant selection. When you start these modules from the eAssistant web site, it is not necessary to register
for the eAssistant. If you open the free modules using the project management, no usage time will be deducted
from your account. With ate rate accounts, the time is disabled, too.

Figure 3.52: Time account

3.8 Logging Out

Click on the button `Logout' to leave the program. You will be taken back to the login page and you can
re-login.

Figure 3.53: Logging out

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3. General Functions 51

3.9 General eAssistant Functions

The top menu bar includes all general functions that are identical in every calculation module. Some calculation
modules provide (e.g., shaft and cylindrical gear pair) the button `CAD'. Based on your calculation, parts can
be generated automatically as a feature-based 3D part in a 3D system. Find more information in the calculation
modules as well as in the section 3.16 `The Button CAD'.

Figure 3.54: Calculation module

3.10 Opening a Calculation from the eAssistant Server

Click the `Open' button in the top menu bar and choose the le that you want to open. Click the button
`Open'.

Figure 3.55: Open the le

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3.11 Opening a Calculation From Your Computer

Activate the checkbox `Local' and click the button `Open'.

Figure 3.56: Activate the checkbox `Local'

Select the le you want to open and click the `Open' button.

Figure 3.57: Standard Windows dialog

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3.12 Saving a Calculation to the eAssistant Server

In general there are two dierent possibilities to save a calculation. Save your calculation either to the
eAssistant server or to your computer. Click on the button `Save' to store the calculation to the eAssistant
server. The checkbox Local is not set.

Figure 3.58: Button `Save'

A new window appears. Select a project where you want to save the le and type a name for the le. Click
on the `Save' button.

Figure 3.59: Save the le

Please note: eAssistant identies the calculation module automatically, so it is not necessary to specify the
le extension.

3.13 Saving a Calculation to Your Computer

Activate the checkbox `Local' and click the button `Save'.

Figure 3.60: Save the le locally

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3. General Functions 54

A standard Windows dialog for saving les will appear. Now you will be able to save the calculation to your
computer.

Figure 3.61: Standard Windows dialog

3.14 The Button `Calculate'

All results will be calculated during every input and will be displayed in the result panel. A recalculation
occurs after every data input. Any changes that are made to the user interface take eect immediately. In
case a minimum safety is not fullled, the result will be marked red. Press the Enter key or move to the
next input eld to complete the input. Alternatively, use the Tab key to jump from eld to eld or click
the `Calculate' button after every input. Your entries will be also conrmed and the calculation results will
displayed automatically.

Figure 3.62: Button `Calculate'

3.15 The Button `Redo' and `Undo'

The button `Undo' allows you to reset your inputs to an older state. The button `Redo' reserves the undo.

Figure 3.63: Button `Undo' and `Redo'

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3.16 Button `CAD'

The top menu bar of some calculation modules provides the button `CAD'. The CAD plugins for various CAD
systems (e.g., SOLIDWORKS, Solid Edge, Autodesk Inventor, NX and Creo Parametric) oer a great way to
connect calculation and design. Based on the eAssistant calculation, you can create shafts, cylindrical gears,
bevel gears, involute splines, splined shaft or serrated shaft connections as a 3D part within seconds. The
individual features of the CAD plugin depend on the CAD system. eAssistant also supports the output format
DXF.

Figure 3.64: Button `CAD'

Before you can start using the CAD plugin, you need to download and install the plugin from
our web site www.eAssistant.eu.

3.16.1 DXF Output for Exact Tooth Form

Click on the button `CAD', then click on the menu item `DXF-Output'. An accurate tooth form for any
involute gears in DXF format can be generated.

Figure 3.65: DXF output

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3. General Functions 56

For the DXF output the following settings are possible:

- Output as DXF le for gear 1 or gear 2

- Output in normal section or transverse section (both options will be active when an helix angle is entered)

- Output of the tooth form in the DXF le as points

- Output of the tooth form in the DXF le as lines

- Output of the tooth form in the DXF le as polylines

- Output of the tooth form in the DXF le as arcs

- Number of teeth

- Name of DXF layer

- Save DXF le with header

Figure 3.66: Settings for DXF output

If you have changed your settings, then click on the button `OK'. A standard Windows dialog for saving the
data le will appear.

Figure 3.67: Save the DXF le

Now you can save the DXF le to your computer. Enter a name and click on the button `Save'. It is not
necessary to specify the le extension `dxf ', because the extension will be attached automatically to the le
name.

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3.16.2 3D CAD Plugins

The CAD plugins for various CAD systems oer a great way to connect calculation and design. Together with
the software, the CAD plugins allow to dimension, calculate and optimize various machine elements directly
in the CAD system (SOLIDWORKS, Solid Edge, Autodesk Inventor, NX or Creo). The plugins enables the
user to open all eAssistant calculation modules directly through the CAD menu. At the push of a button, the
part can be created as a 3D part on the basis of the previously calculated data. First, you have to download
and install the CAD plugin. You can nd the plugin on our web site www.eAssistant.eu. After installation,
an integrated button called `eAssistant' appears in the CAD system.

Figure 3.68: 3D CAD Plugin

Run the calculation using the eAssistant and click on the button `CAD'. Please select the appropriate CAD
system from the list. The values are transferred to the CAD system where you can generate the 3D models
through the eAssistant menu. By taking a step-by-step process dening the gears or pinions geometry, tol-
erances and tooth prole, you can create gears automatically as a 3D part. Based on the calculation, shafts
with an unlimited number of cylindrical and conical segments can be created as a 3D part. The attractiveness
of the CAD plugin is additionally enhanced by the bidirectional connection between eAssistant and the CAD
system. As changes are made to a calculation, the 3D model can be updated. With just one click, the design
table with all manufacturing details can be placed on the manufacturing drawing. The calculation information
is saved in the 3D model and can be opened at any time throughout the entire design phase. Please visit
www.gwj.de to get further information.

Figure 3.69: CAD Plugin in the CAD system

Please Note: Before you click the CAD button for involute gears, please click the button Tooth form. Select

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Detail view and set the desired allowance (min./middle/max).

3.16.3 Manufacturing Data

The button `CAD ⇒ Manufacturing data' allows to save the manufacturing data to a text le.

Figure 3.70: Output of manufacturing data

3.16.4 Coordinate Table

The gear tooth form geometry of a tooth space can be exported as a coordinate text le in transverse section
as well as in normal section.

Figure 3.71: Coordinate table

3.17 The Button `Report'

After the completion of your calculation, you can create a calculation report. Click on the `Report' button.

Figure 3.72: Button `Report'

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You can navigate through the report via the table of contents that provides links to the input values, results
and gures. This calculation report contains all input data, the calculation method as well as all detailed
results. The report is available in HTML and PDF format. The calculation report saved in HTML format can
be opened in a web browser or in Word for Windows. The reports are structured dierently in the various
calculation modules.

Figure 3.73: Calculation report

The calculation module includes:

- Calculation method

- Address

- Date / Time

- Print, PDF or Save: Here you have the possibility to save and print the report or to generate a PDF
document.

- To save the report in the HTML format, please select `File' ⇒ `Save as' from your browser menu
bar. Select the le type `Webpage complete', then just click on the `Save' button.

- If you click on the symbol `Print', then you can print the report very easily.

- If you click on the symbol `PDF', then the report appears in the PDF format. If you right-click on
the PDF symbol, you should see the `Save Target As' option. Click on that option and you will
see the Windows save dialog.

- Name of the project

- Content: The table of contents is linked. So you can always go to the most important data immediately.

- Messages: Here all messages from the message window will be listed.

- Input data: Here all input data are available. So you can check the input data again.

- Graphical representation: In case a graphical representation is available, you will see it here.

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3. General Functions 60

- Calculation results: Here you get all calculation results.

- Hints: The report contains a reference to the used literature and standards.

3.18 The Button `Options'

Some settings of the calculation modules have default values and by clicking the button `Options' you can
change these settings. For example, you can change the system of units, the minimum safeties for cylindrical
gears, the operating temperature for springs or set the number of decimal places for the calculation report.

Figure 3.74: Button `Options'

3.19 The button `Help'

Click the button `Help' to open the user manual. This takes you directly to the user manual of the respective
module.

Figure 3.75: Button `Help'

3.20 Message Window

Every calculation module contains a message window. This message window displays detailed information,
helpful hints or warnings about problems. One of the main benets of the program is that the software provides
suggestions for correcting errors during the data input. If you check the message window carefully for any
errors or warnings and follow the hints, you are able to nd a solution to quickly resolve calculation problems.

Figure 3.76: Message window

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3. General Functions 61

3.21 Quick Info: Tooltip

he quick info feature gives you additional information about all input elds and buttons. Move the mouse
pointer to an input eld or a button, then you will get some additional information. This information will be
displayed in the quick info line.

Figure 3.77: Quick info

3.22 How to Change the Unit System

eAssistant provides two unit systems: the metric system and the U.S. customary unit system. You can quickly
switch between the units. To select the unit system, click the button `Options' and decide for a unit.

Figure 3.78: Select the unit system

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3. General Functions 62

It is also possible to change the unit by clicking the label eld. When you click the label eld, a context menu
will open providing all available units within the unit system. The change should take eect immediately.
All settings will be saved to the calculation le. As soon as you select a unit, the current eld value will be
converted automatically into the chosen unit.

Figure 3.79: Change the unit

3.23 Automatic Dimensioning Functions (Calculator Symbol)

The button for the dimensioning functions is marked by a calculator symbol. Via the `Calculator' button
next to the input elds, you can have the program suggest appropriate values for you. In some modules, the
maximum possible values are calculated by using the respective minimum safety.

Figure 3.80: Example for a dimensioning button

3.24 User-Dened Input

eAssistant enables you to specify your user-dened inputs. There you get the possibility to calculate non-
standard parallel keys or to calculate involute splines which dier from the standard. In case you cannot nd
the material you are looking for in our extensive material database, you can dene your individual material.
You will nd the entry `User-dened' or the entry `User dened input' in the listboxes. If you select one of
these already mentioned options, the according input elds will be enabled, so that you can specify your own
input values. Examples for the user-dened input:

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3. General Functions 63

Examples for the user-dened input:

- Interference t: Surface quality

Figure 3.81: Interference t

- Parallel key: Own input of load peaks

Figure 3.82: Own input

- Roller bearings: Lubricant selection

Figure 3.83: Lubricant selection

- Cylindrical gear pair: Selection of basic rack tooth prole

Figure 3.84: Own basic rack tooth prole

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3. General Functions 64

3.25 The Button `Question Mark'

In some calculation modules (e.g., spur gear pair or parallel key module) you will nd question mark buttons.
If you click on these buttons, you will get additional information, for example gures or tables.

Figure 3.85: Button `Question mark'

3.26 Calculation Results

All results will be calculated during every input and will be displayed in the result panel. A recalculation
occurs after every data input. Any changes that are made to the user interface take eect immediately. In
case a minimum safety is not fullled, the result will be marked red. Press the Enter key or move to the
next input eld to complete the input. Alternatively, use the Tab key to jump from eld to eld or click
the `Calculate' button after every input. Your entries will be also conrmed and the calculation results will
displayed automatically.

Figure 3.86: Calculation results

3.27 Template Files

If you have to enter the same data very often, we recommend you to dene a template le. That saves both
time and work. All you have to do is to dene a template. Enter your input data once into the calculation

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3. General Functions 65

module. When you are ready to save the le, please name it `standard'. If you now open the calculation
module, the module starts with your individual values. Please note that the template le can be saved only to
the eAssistant server. You can dene a template le specically to a project or you can save the template le
to the folder `Default' for a general use. It is possible to dene a template le for each calculation module.
The default search follows the following order:

1. The search always starts in the current project folder.

2. The search continues to the next level, the project folder `Default'.

3. If no template le is found, the eAssistant default conguration will be used.

The template le, which was found rst, is taken over. For example: If a template le is dened in the current
folder, then the le will be primarily accepted. But in case this template le does not exist, the le will be
searched in the project folder `Default'. There the template le is taken over again. If the le also cannot be
found there, then the central eAssistant standard is used.

Create a Template File for a Parallel Key Calculation

Start the calculation module `Parallel key'. Change and dene your input data. Click on the button `Save'
and select a project folder to save the le. Now enter the le name `standard' into the input eld.

Figure 3.87: Save the template le

Please Note: It is not necessary to specify the le extension. The eAssistant identies the calculation module
automatically.

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3. General Functions 66

If you select the project `Default', the template le applies for all projects, except for the
projects where a template le was dened separately. Please also pay attention to the lower
case of `standard'.

Close the calculation module `Parallel key'.

Figure 3.88: Template le `standard' is created

The calculation le `standard' appears in the window `Files'. When you open the module `Parallel key', the
module starts with your previously dened values.

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Chapter 4

Shafts with Strength According to

DIN 743

4.1 Start the Calculation Module

Please login with your username and your password. To start the calculation module for shafts, please click
the menu item `Shaft/Bearings' on the left side and select `Shaft'.

Figure 4.1: General overview

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 68

This module provides a geometry and a calculation part. The geometry part is the part where you dene the
shaft geometry, the bearings, the loads as well as the notch eects. The actual calculation then takes place
in the calculation part. The calculation part allows to determine bearing forces, deection, strength or static
torsion. Click on the `Calculate' button to switch between the geometry and calculation part.

4.2 The Geometry Part

The geometry part allows you to dene the entire shaft geometry including bearings, force elementes and force
eects. The upper part of the module provides dierent input options. The lower part includes the coordinate
system as well as the shaft symmetry axis. The input values are taken over immediately and are represented
graphically in the lower part. The representation is interactive. That means, you can select, move, copy or
delete shaft elements. Use the `3D' view button to move quickly between 2D and 3D view.

Figure 4.2: Geometry part

4.2.1 Shaft Properties

When you start the calculation module, the general shaft properties are automatically displayed. Use the
`Shaft properties' button to modify the properties at any time you want.

Figure 4.3: Shaft properties

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 69

The shaft properties allows you to select the shaft material. You can also specify your own material. Dene
speed, direction of rotation and the position of the shaft in space. The speed is dened as revolutions per
minute. Please keep in mind: When you change the speed of the shaft, the torques will change because of
the entered power and speed. This happens when a power instead of a torque is given for the force elements.
Select the material by using the listbox or material number. Click the button `Material selection' and you get
detailed information on the material (e.g., material type, density, yield point).

Figure 4.4: Material selection

In case there is no material that will fulll the design requirements, then simply dene your individual material.
Select `User-dened` from the listbox and click the button `Material selection' or click directly on the button
`Material selection' to open the material database. Select the option `User dened' and all inputs and options
are enabled and you can specify your individual material very easily. Click on the button `OK' to conrm your
entries and to return to the shaft geometry part. Please be advised that changing the material will delete your
dened inputs and you have to enter the inputs again.

Figure 4.5: Materal selection

Please note: It is important to consider the fact that the integrated strength calculation according to DIN
743 is valid or steels only.

4.2.2 Coordinate System

The calculation module uses a coordinate system that is a clockwise system where the Y-axis is the axis of
symmetry as well as the axis of rotation of the shaft. In the two-dimensional view, the Z-axis shows upwards
and the X-axis shows out of the screen. A rotation of the shaft around the Y-axis is dened as a clockwise
rotation. The left end of the shaft is the point of origin. The forces and torques have to be entered in positive
direction without signs and in negative direction with a minus sign.

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Please Note: The direction of torques is usually dened by the input `driving' and `driven'. The input `driving'
means that the shaft is driving and the torque counteracts the direction of rotation.

Figure 4.6: The coordinate system

4.2.3 Relative and Absolute Position

You get more information about the respective elements, for example about the absolute position. It is
important that you have to dierentiate between a relative position and an absolute position.

Figure 4.7: The relative and absolute position

Relative Position
The positioning of an element occurs always from a shaft section related to the left side of the element. This
means that the relative position corresponds to the input value `Position' of the respective element.

Figure 4.8: Relative position

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Absolute Position
The position of an element is displayed from the origin of the coordinate system to the left side of the element.

Figure 4.9: Absolute position

4.2.4 Creating a Shaft Segment

There are segments for the outer contour and axial holes for the inner contour available. Click on the button
`Segment' to create a shaft segment.

Figure 4.10: Create a shaft segment

The segment is represented.

Figure 4.11: Representation of the shaft segment

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 72

Input elds for the entry of length and diameter are displayed. To add a conic segment, activate the option
`Conic segment'.

Figure 4.12: Activate conic segment

If this option is activated, enter a left diameter `1' and a right diameter `2' for the segment. To add another
segment, please click on the `Segment' button again.

4.2.5 Creating a Hole

To create a hole (an inner contour), click on the button `Hole (axial)'. The dierent possibilities for a data
input are now displayed.

Figure 4.13: Add an axial hole

In addition, you can extend the axial hole by clicking the button `Adjust to shaft length'. This button adapts
the length of the axial hole to the shaft length automatically. Then the entire inner contour goes exactly to
the end of the outer contour.

Figure 4.14: Adjust to shaft length

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 73

Please Note: For the strength calculation notch eects, such as shoulders, are not considered in the inner
contour. There is no applicable calculation method right now.

4.2.6 Creating a Bearing

You can add as many bearings as you need. A calculation of statically over-determined shafts with more than
two bearings is possible. Select a shaft segment to position the bearing on the shaft, then click on the button
`Bearing'.

Figure 4.15: Button `Bearing'

Now the bearing is added to the shaft.

Figure 4.16: Add bearing

To dene the bearing, dierent options for an input are available: position, width, diameter, stiness, and
pressure angle. Further you can dene the kind of bearing arrangement: xed bearing, movable bearing, axial
bearing or oating bearing.

Figure 4.17: Dene a bearing

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 74

Please note that the position refers to respective shaft segment, that means a relative position has to be
entered. The absolute position, related to the point of origin and with it related to the left end of the shaft,
is indicated with the element info (see section 4.2.3 `Relative and absolute position').

The width is the overall width of the bearing and the diameter is the outer diameter of the bearing for the
correct representation. For bearings with a pressure angle the changed point of application of load can be
considered for the calculation of the support reactions. In case the (radial) stiness of the bearing is known,
the stiness can be considered by appropriate settings for the calculation as well.

Please Note: Bearings cannot be positioned over a shaft segment.

4.2.7 Force Elements: Cylindrical Gear

The shaft module oers dierent possibilities to dene loads. Besides a direct input of forces and torques in
coordinate direction, so-called intelligent elements for application of load can be positioned on the shaft. Click
on the `Force elements' button and you can select cylindrical gear, bevel gear, coupling/motor and load.

At rst select the shaft segment on which you want to create the cylindrical gear. Click on the button `Force
elements' and select the menu item `Cylindrical gear'.

Figure 4.18: Select `Cylindrical gear'

The cylindrical gear is added to the shaft.

Figure 4.19: Add the cylindrical gear

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 75

For the positioning of the shaft, the relative position of the left shaft side is given. Based on further inputs for
pitch circle, helix angle, pressure angle, position of action and power/torque, the calculation of forces, that
inuence the shaft, is determined.

Figure 4.20: Dene the cylindrical gear

In particular the input of power of action is important for the point of application of load. The power of action
indicates the position of the point of the interference with the gear pair.

Figure 4.21: Power of action

For cylindrical gears with a prole shift modication, reference circle and pitch circle are not equal. When
you enter the reference circle of the cylindrical gear, the calculated forces are not completely accurate - in
particular with very large prole shift modications. For an exact calculation of the forces, you have to enter
the pitch circle diameter instead of the reference diameter and instead of the pressure angle you have to enter
the working transverse pressure angle.

The Button `T/P'

The `T/P' button allows you to enter either the power or torque. The description of the input eld will be
changed accordingly in torque or power.

Figure 4.22: Input of power or torque

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 76

Multiple Position of Action

Here you can dene a multiple position of action, that means that the cylindrical gear, which is on the shaft, is
in mesh with several cylindrical gears. Set a checkmark into the eld next to `Use multiple position of action'
and click on the button `Multiple position of action'.

Figure 4.23: Button `Multiple position of action'

Select the number of position of action from the listbox. Further you can indicate either `Power' or `Torque'.
Conrm your inputs with the button `Ok'.

Figure 4.24: Dene multiple position of action

Helix Angle and Direction of Helix Angle

If two helical gears are in mesh, both gears have the same, but opposite direction of the helix angle β. The
direction of the helix angle has to be opposite that a left-hand mates a right-hand. Therefore, you have
to dierentiate between right-handed helix angle and left-handed helix angle. Please specify here right or
left-hand helix angle.

Figure 4.25: Right-handed or left-handed

Driving and Driven Gear

A driving gear and a driven gear always co-operate and form a gear pair. For the most force elements the
direction of torques is specied by the input of driving and driven. The input `driving' means that the shaft
drives or that the moment counteracts the direction of rotation.

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 77

Dene here the driving and driven cylindrical gear. You can also dene it with the `Multiple position of action'.

Figure 4.26: Driving and driven cylindrical gear

4.2.8 Force Elements: Bevel Gear

To add a bevel gear, please mark the shaft segment onto which you want to generate the bevel gear. Then
click on the button `Force elements'. Select the menu item `Bevel gear'.

Figure 4.27: Select `Bevel gear'

The bevel gear is added to the shaft.

Figure 4.28: Add bevel gear

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 78

When you add a bevel gear, additionally inputs are available, for example an input for a bevel angle or for the
direction of the bevel angle.

Figure 4.29: Dene bevel gear

4.2.9 Force Elements: Coupling/Motor

The force element `Coupling/Motor' allows the input and output of torques. Just like the spur and bevel gears
you can enter a mass additionally. The positioning occurs relative to the selected shaft segment. The position
refers to the left side of the force element. First select a shaft segment to position the force element.

Figure 4.30: Select `Coupling'

The coupling is added to the shaft.

Figure 4.31: Add coupling

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 79

4.2.10 Force Element: Load

The general force element `Load' can be positioned freely on the shaft independently from a selected shaft
segment. Click on the button `Force elements' and select the menu item `Load'.

Figure 4.32: Select `Load'

The load is added to the shaft.

Figure 4.33: Add load

The specication of the position occurs absolutely to the point of origin (left shaft end) and refers, like the
other elements, to the left side of the element.

Figure 4.34: Dene load

The element can be dened as a concentrated load (width = 0) or as a stretch load. This general force
element oers the possibility to specify lateral forces in X and Z-direction, a axial forces as well as bending
moments around the X and Z-axis as a load. Further you can dene the power or the torque as driving and
driven. The meaning of driven and driving applies here similarly to the other force elements.

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4.2.11 Extra Mass

The button `Extra mass' allows you to add a several mass.

Figure 4.35: Select `Extra mass'

Please enter here position, width and mass. An extra mass can be dened as a concentrated load or as a
stretch load.

Figure 4.36: Add extra mass

4.2.12 Notch Eect

The denition of notch eects is necessary for the strength calculation according to DIN 743. In case you
have calculated the equivalent stress before, then it is not necessary to enter all notch eects. Based on the
tension peaks, which appear in the process of the equivalent stress, the critical cross sections can be identied
very easily and the notch factors can be dened only for these cross sections. All dened types of notch eect
according to DIN 743 are available.

The notch factors dened in DIN 743 apply to solid and hollow shafts with wall thicknesses where no interfer-
ence of the notch by the hole is existing. For rotating notches the condition is used, according to DIN 743-2
(eld of application),

D − di
≥3
2×t

for orientation (q.v. DIN 743-1, Appendix A)

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 81

Dimensions for Cross Sections

Figure 4.37: Dimensions for cross sections

When adding a notch eect, please select the shaft element and click the button `Notch eects'.

Figure 4.38: Select `Notch eects'

The notch eect is added to the shaft.

Figure 4.39: Add notch eect

To run a strength calculation for highly loaded smooth shafts, select the notch eect `Smooth shaft' from the
listbox. For this type of notch eect, the notch factor is set to `1'. Notch eects can be placed easily on the
shaft, independent of a shaft segment. The notch eects can be positioned absolutely to the point of origin
(to the left shaft end).

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 82

You can enter the exact position into the input eld `Position', use the two arrow keys to move the notch
eect from one shaft section to the other shaft section. With the left mouse button it is easy to place the
notch eects on the shaft.

Figure 4.40: Dene notch eects

Types of Notch Eects

Select the following types of notch eects from the listbox:

- Smooth shaft and parallel key keyway

Figure 4.41: Smooth shaft Figure 4.42: Parallel key keyway

- Interference t and splinded shaft

Figure 4.43: Interference t Figure 4.44: Splinded shaft

- Serrated shaft and involute splines

Figure 4.45: Serrated shaft Figure 4.46: Involute splines

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 83

- V-groove and square groove

Figure 4.47: V-groove Figure 4.48: Square groove

- Shoulder and round groove

Figure 4.49: Shoulder Figure 4.50: Round groove

- Shoulder with undercut and cross hole

Figure 4.51: Shoulder with undercut Figure 4.52: Cross hole

Set load and notch factors manually

The button `Set load and notch factors manually (optional)' allows you to enter notch factors manually (in
addition to the automatic calculation of the notch factors). Here the possibility exists to use experimentally
calculated notch factors.

Figure 4.53: Set load and notch factors manually

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 84

Click the button `Set load and notch factors manually (optional)', the following window opens.

Figure 4.54: Dene individual loads

Overlapping Notch Eects

For overlapping notch eects (two notches with notch factors β1 and β2 ), the notch factors can be estimated
according to Niemann `Maschinenelemente' Vol. 1, page 134, equation 3.115 (3rd Edition) as follows:

β = β1 + β2 − 1

Notches on the Inner Contour

Please note that you cannot use the notch factors according to DIN 743 for notches on the inner contour.

4.3 General Functions

4.3.1 How to Select an Element
Use your left mouse button to select the shaft or force elements. When choosing an element, the color of the
selected element changes and it is easier to recognize it.

Please Note: It is also possible to select individual elements by using your keyboard. If you would like to
change, for example from the value input of shaft segments to the selection mode, you have to press the
`Page-down' key. Afterwards, the two arrow keys enable you to move the elements to the left or to the right
side. To move from the shaft segments to the axial hole, please use the cursor keys `Up' and `Down'. By
using the `Page-up' key you can change to the input value of a selected element.

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 85

4.3.2 How to Shift an Element

If an element is selected, then dierent input possibilities for the element appear in the upper area of the
calculation module. The input eld `Position' helps to place an element on the shaft. For positioning the
element, you can also click on an element, continue holding the left mouse button and then drag the mouse.
The arrow keys below the element info allows you to move to the next segment. It is possible to skip certain
elements on the shaft. If a shaft segment is selected, then the segment can be shifted using the arrow key
including all elements sitting on the segment. Thus, you can easily re-sort shaft segments.

Figure 4.55: Arrow keys

4.3.3 How to Copy and Add an Element

The two buttons `Copy' and `Add' allow to copy and add segments, bearings or force elements. If you copy an
element, all inputs will be conrmed and you do not have to re-dene the element again. Place the element
by using the input eld `Position' or by clicking or dragging your left mouse button or by clicking the arrow
keys on your keyboard.

Figure 4.56: `Copy' and `Add'

Select an existing bearing which you would like to copy.

Figure 4.57: Select the rst bearing

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 86

Click on the button `Copy'.

Figure 4.58: Button `Copy'

Select the shaft segment on which you would like to place the bearing.

Figure 4.59: Select the shaft segment

Click on the button `Add'.

Figure 4.60: Button `Add'

The previously copied bearing is added.

Figure 4.61: Add the second bearing

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Please Note: If you select an element and click the right mouse button, a new context menu will open.
Choose the menu items `Copy' and `Add'.

Figure 4.62: Right-click to open context menu

4.3.4 How to Cut Out an Element

Select a segment or an element and click the right mouse button to open the context menu. Choose the menu
item `Cut out'.

Figure 4.63: Menu item `Cut out'

4.3.5 How to Delete an Element

This button allows you to delete an element. To delete an element, select the element and click the button
`Delete'. You can also click the right mouse button to open the context menu and to select the menu item
`Delete'.

Figure 4.64: Button `Delete'

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4.3.6 Menu Item `Delete All'

Clicking the `Delete all' button deletes not just one element but the entire shaft geometry. Right-clicking
opens the context menu where you can select the menu item `Delete all'.

Figure 4.65: Button `Delete all'

4.4 2D and 3D View

Clicking this button displays the three-dimensional presentation. This function is available in the geometry
part as well as in the calculation part. Using this button, the deection (inculding the selected planes) of the
shaft can be visualized in a three-dimensional manner.

Figure 4.66: 2D and 3D view

The three-dimensional view allows to modify the elements. Select the element and change, for example, the
position, length or diameter. To do so, please use the appropriate input elds. Click on the `2D / 3D view'
button again to switch back to the two-dimensional representation.

Figure 4.67: 3D view of the shaft

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4.5 Toolbar
The toolbar on the left side contains buttons that let you toggle between dierent views of your shaft quickly.
There are zoom options available that allow you to zoom in and out.

Figure 4.68: Toolbar

Reset view and show the entire shaft

Activate zoom selection with mouse click: By dragging the cursor with the left mouse button,
you can select parts of the shaft and enlarge them. Click the button `Reset view', then you can
restore the original view of the shaft.

Move view with mouse: Click into the graphical representation, hold the mouse button and move
the shaft.

Figure 4.69: Zoom selection with mouse

Orthogonal view

Perspective view

Perspective wide angle view

3D view of the shaft from left upside

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Frontal 3D view of the shaft

3D view of the shaft from right

3D view of the shaft from rear

3D view of the shaft from left

3D view of the shaft from upside

3D view of the shaft from downside

4.6 Message Window

The calculation module provides a message window. This message window displays detailed information,
helpful hints or warnings about problems. One of the main benets of the program is that the software
provides suggestions for correcting errors during the data input. If you check the message window carefully
for any errors or warnings and follow the hints, you are able to nd a solution to quickly resolve calculation
problems.

Figure 4.70: The message window

4.7 Quick Info

The quick info feature gives you additional information about all input elds and buttons. Move the mouse
pointer to an input eld or a button, then you will get some additional information. This information will be
displayed in the quick info line.

Figure 4.71: The quick info

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4.8 Calculation Part

After dening the entire shaft geometry, bearings, loads and notch eects, you can start your calculation. To
start the calculation, click the button `Calculate'. The button changes then its description into `Geometry'
and you get into the calculation part. The calculation part enables you to carry out the calculation. If you
want to modify the geometry of the shaft, you have to go back to the geometry part. To do so, please click
the button `Geometry'.

Figure 4.72: The calculation part

In addition to the determination of the bearing forces and static torsion, dierent diagrams for forces, moments,
deection, bending angle, equivalent stress or torque will be displayed. Move the mouse over the graphical
representation to see the values for the deection at any shaft position. With just one click, the following
calculations can be carried out:

- Bearing forces

- Deection, bending angle, bending moment,...

- Strength

- Critical speed (bending)

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 92

- Critical speed (torsion)

Figure 4.73: Dierent calculations

4.8.1 Bearing Forces

Click the button `Bearing forces' in order to start the calculation of the bearing forces.

Figure 4.74: Bearing forces

4.8.2 Deection
Click the button `Deection' in order to start the calculation of the deection, bending angle and bending
moment. Select the forces and moments for dierent planes.

Figure 4.75: Deection

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 93

The values for the deection can be selected directly from the graphical representation. The values appear in
the text eld. Click the button 3D view to toggle between the 2D and 3D view.

Figure 4.76: Select values with a mouse click

Please note: There is the possibility to compare dierent deections (e.g., for shafts with a modied geom-
etry) based on the graphical representation. Go back to the geometry part and change a value. Click on the
Calculate button to go to the calculation part again. Click on the `Redo' and `Undo' buttons in the menu bar.
Now you can compare the results

4.8.3 Strength
Click the button `Strength' in order to start the strength calculation. The strength calculation provides a
complete static and fatigue proof of strength according to DIN 743. The exact values appear in the text eld
and can be selected with a mouse click from the graphical representation.

Figure 4.77: Strength calculation according to DIN 743

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The calculation report provides all detailed calculation results. In addition, the results for the cross sections
are represented in three dierent colors:

- Red marked cross section: The minimum safety is not achieved.

- Green marked cross section: The safety is fullled (up to three times higher than the dened minimum
safety).

- Blue cross section: The saftey is more than three times higher than the minimum safety.

Figure 4.78: A graphical representation

Please note: Click the button `Options' to modify the settings for the minimum safety, the stress conditions
and mechanical kind of material treatment (see section 4.13 `The Button Options').

4.8.4 Critical Speed (Bending)

Click the button `Critical speed (bending)' in order to start the calculation of the critical speed. Gyroscopic
eects, moments of inertia, deection due to shear can be taken into consideration. To do so, please activate
the appropriate checkbox.

Figure 4.79: Calculation of critical speed (bending)

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 95

4.8.5 Critical Speed (Torsion)

Click the button `Critical speed (torsion)' in order to start the calculation of the critical speed.

Figure 4.80: Calculation of critical speed (torsion)

Please note: Please click the button `Options' to modify the default settings regarding the critical speeds
(see section 4.13 `The Button Options').

4.9 Documentation: Calculation Report

After the completion of your calculation, you can create a calculation report. Click on the `Report' button.

Figure 4.81: Button `Report'

First the report congurator appears. The report congurator allows you to select which diagrams should
appear in the calculation report and if the results of the strength calculation should be in the report, too.

Figure 4.82: Report conguration

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During the generation of the report, a waiting screen appears. But you can continue to work with the
calculation module. The length of time for the generation of the report depends on the number of diagrams
which have to be generated. You can navigate through the report via the table of contents that provides links
to the input values, results and gures. This calculation report contains all input data, the calculation method
as well as all detailed results. The report is available in HTML and PDF format. The calculation report saved
in HTML format, can be opened in a web browser or in Word for Windows. In HTML format, the gures
are displayed in `gif ' format. In case a SVG viewer is available, you can display all graphics in SVG format.
Right-clicking on the picture allows to zoom in and zoom out.

Figure 4.83: Calculation report

- To save the report in the HTML format, please select `File' ⇒ `Save as' from your browser menu bar.
Select the le type `Webpage complete', then just click on the button `Save'.

- If you click on the symbol `Print', then you can print the report very easily.

- When you click on the symbol `PDF', then the report appears in the PDF format. If you right-click on
the PDF symbol, you should see the `Save Target As' option. Click on that option and you will see the
dialog box for saving the report.

4.10 How to Save the Calculation

When the calculation is nished, it is easy to save the calculation. You can save your calculation either to the
eAssistant server or to your computer. Click on the button `Save'.

Figure 4.84: Button `Save'

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 97

Before you can save the calculation to your computer, you need to activate the checkbox `Local' in the
calculation module. A standard Windows dialog for saving les will appear. Now you will be able to save the
calculation to your computer.

Figure 4.85: Standard Windows dialog for saving the le

In case you do not activate the option in order to save your les locally, then a new window is opened and
you can save the calculation to the eAssistant server. Please enter a name into the input eld `Filename' and
click on the button `Save'.

Figure 4.86: Save the calculation

4.11 The Button `Redo' and `Undo'

The button `Undo' allows you to reset your input to an older state. The button `Redo' reverses the undo.

Figure 4.87: Button `Redo' and `Undo'

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4.12 The Button `CAD'

The top menu bar of the calculation module provides the button `CAD'.

Figure 4.88: Button `CAD'

The eAssistant plugin for various CAD systems (e.g., SOLIDWORKS, Solid Edge, Autodesk Inventor) enables
you to combine calculation and design fast and easily. Based on your eAssistant calculation, you can create
the shaft as a 3D part within seconds.

4.12.1 eAssistant 3D CAD Plugin

Solid and hollow shaft with an unlimited number of cylindrical and conical elements can be generated with
just a click. Click the button `CAD'. Please select the appropriate CAD system from the list, for example
SOLIDWORKS or Solid Edge.

Figure 4.89: Data output CAD plugin

Open your CAD system. The top menu bar of the CAD system shows a button called `eAssistant'. Please
click this button to start the generation of the 3D model.

Please note: Before you can start using the CAD plugin, you need to download and install the plugin from
www.eAssistant.eu.
our web site

A simple mouse-click allows to add all necessary manufacturing data of a gear wheel to the drawing.

In case you need further information about the eAssistant CAD plugin, please feel free to contact us. The web
site www.eAssistant.eu also contains detailed information. There you can also nd the CAD plugin manuals
for the various CAD systems.

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 99

4.13 The Button `Options'

Click the button `Options' in order to change the default settings for the strength calculation according to
DIN 743 as well as for the calculation of the critical speeds.

Figure 4.90: Button `Options'

Here are the default settings that you can modify:

(a) Settings for the strength calculation according to DIN 743:

- Stress condition

- Mechanical kind of material treatment

- Shaft diameter before treatment

- Dynamic safety

- Static safety

- Stress ratio

- Maximum load factor

(b) Settings for the calculation of the critical speeds:

- Increment

- Minimum increment

- Search of critical speeds

(c) Unit switch between the metric system and the U.S. customary unit system

(d) Activate consideration of shaft weight

(e) Adjust number of decimal places in calculation report

Figure 4.91: Additional settings

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4.14 Calculation Examples: Shaft According to DIN 743

4.14.1 Start the Calculation Module
Please login with your username and your password. To start the calculation module for shafts, please click
the menu item `Shaft/Bearings' on the left side and then select `Shaft'.

Figure 4.92: Start the calculation module

4.14.2 First Calculation Example

This calculation example shows a winding shaft with a xed and movable bearing and an extra mass.

Create Shaft Segments

Click the button `Segment' in order to create the rst shaft segment. Enter a length of 50 mm and a diameter
of 20 mm into the input elds.

Figure 4.93: Create the rst segment

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 101

The rst segment is represented.

Figure 4.94: Representation of the created and dened shaft segment

To create the second shaft segment, click the button `Segment' again. The second segment has a length of
400 mm and a diameter of 50 mm.

Figure 4.95: Create the second segment

This second segment is represented.

Figure 4.96: Representation of the second segment

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 102

The third shaft segment gets the same dimensions as the rst shaft segment. That is why we can use the
`Copy' and `Add' function to create the third segment. Click on the rst segment.

Figure 4.97: Select the rst segment

Click on the button `Copy'.

Figure 4.98: Copy the rst segment

Select the second segment and place the third segment next to it.

Figure 4.99: Select the second segment

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 103

Click on the button `Add'.

Figure 4.100: Add the segment

The copied segment is added as a third shaft segment.

Figure 4.101: Add the third shaft segment

Please note: If you select a segment and you click the right mouse button, a new context menu will open.
Choose the menu items `Copy' and `Add'.

Figure 4.102: Right-click to open context menu

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 104

Create Axial Hole

Click the button `Hole (axial)' in order to create the rst hole. Enter a length of 70 mm and a diameter of 0
mm into the input elds.

Figure 4.103: Create the rst axial hole

Click the button `Hole (axial)' again in order to create a second hole. Enter a length of 360 mm and a diameter
of 40 mm into the input elds.

Figure 4.104: Dene the second axial hole

The hollow shaft is represented.

Figure 4.105: Representation of the axial hole

Please note: Use your keyboard to select the individual elements. For example, if you want to change from
the value input of a shaft segment to the selection mode, then press the `Page down' key. Then use the two
arrow keys to select the elements. Use the cursor keys `Up' and `Down' to move from the shaft segments to
the axial holes. In order to change the input values of an element, press `Page up'.

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Add Bearing
Select the rst shaft segment to add the bearing to the shaft.

Figure 4.106: Select a segment

Click on the button `Bearing'.

Figure 4.107: Button `Bearing'

A bearing is added. Enter 20 mm for the bearing position, 10 mm for the bearing width and 40 mm for the
bearing diameter. As bearing arrangement, select `Fixed bearing' from the listbox.

Figure 4.108: Add the rst bearing

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 106

In order to add the second bearing, select the rst bearing and click the button `Copy'.

Figure 4.109: Select the rst bearing

Select the third shaft segment and click the `Add' button. Because the bearing is copied, it is not necessary
to dene the position, width and diameter of the bearing, you just need to dene the bearing arrangment.
Select `Movable bearing' from the listbox.

Figure 4.110: Dene the second bearing

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 107

Dene Load as Extra Mass

To position the load, select the second shaft segment.

Figure 4.111: Select a shaft segment

Click on the button `Extra mass'.

Figure 4.112: Button `Extra mass'

The extra mass will be positioned on the shaft segment. Please dene the extra mass with 50 mm for position,
300 mm for width and 950 kg for mass.

Figure 4.113: Extra mass is added

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Dene Notch Eect

Click on the button `Notch eect' in order to add the notch eects.

Figure 4.114: Button `Notch eect'

A notch eect is added and can be placed on the shaft. Enter the position of the notch eect or change the
postion with the two arrow keys. Selct the notch eect from the listbox.
Dene the following notch eects:

- First notch eect: On left shaft section - notch eect type `Shoulder' with roughness Rz = 5 mm and
radius r = 10 mm

- Second notch eect: On right shaft section - enter the same values as for the notch eect on the left
shaft section

- Third notch eect: On shaft center: select the notch eect type `Interference t'

Figure 4.115: Notch eects

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4.14.3 Start Calculation

After dening the entire shaft geometry with bearings, loads and notch eects, you can start your calculation.
To start the calculation, click the button `Calculate'. The button changes then its description into `Geometry'
and you get into the calculation part. The calculation part enables you to carry out the calculation. If you
want to modify the geometry of the shaft, you have to go back to the geometry part. To do so, please click
the button `Geometry'.

Figure 4.116: Calculation part

When you are in the calculation part of the module, it is not possible to change the geometry. In
order to change the geometry, please go back to the geometry part by clicking the `Geometry'
button.

Here, you can carry out the dierent calculations, e.g., the strength calculation according to DIN 743.

Figure 4.117: Dierent calculations

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 110

Calculation of Bearing Forces

In order to start the calculation of bearing forces, click the button `Bearing forces'.

Figure 4.118: Calculation of bearing forces

Calculation of Deection
Click the button `Deection' to start the calculation of the deection, bending angle and bending moment.
Open the dierent diagrams for forces and moments.

Figure 4.119: Interactive diagrams of forces and moments

You can select all values for deection directly from the representation with just a mouse click. The values
appear in the text eld.

Figure 4.120: Select values by mouse-click

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 111

Calculation of Strength According to DIN 743

Start the strength calculation by clicking the button `Strength'. The strength calculation provides a complete
static and fatigue proof of strength according to DIN 743. The exact values appear in the text eld and can
be selected with a mouse click from the graphical representation.

Figure 4.121: Strength calculation with a representation of the cross sections

The text eld shows the most important calculation results. The calculation report provides all detailed
calculation results. In addition, the results for the cross sections are represented in three dierent colors:

- Red marked cross section: The minimum safety is not achieved.

- Green marked cross section: The safety is fullled (up to three times higher than the dened minimum
safety).

- Blue cross section: The saftey is more than three times higher than the minimum safety.

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Calculation of Critical Speed (Bending)

Start the calculation of the critical speeds by clicking the button `Critical speed (bending)'. Gyroscopic eects,
moments of inertia, deection due to shear can be taken into consideration. To do so, please activate the
appropriate checkbox.

Figure 4.122: Critical speed (bending)

Calculation of Critical Speed (Torsion)

Click the button `Critical speed (torsion)' in order to start the calculation of the critical speed.

Figure 4.123: Critical speed (torsion)

4.14.4 Documentation: Calculation Report

Now you can create the calculation report. Click on the button `Report'.

Figure 4.124: Button `Report'

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First the report congurator appears. The report congurator allows you to select which diagrams should
appear in the calculation report and if the results of the strength calculation should be in the report, too.

Figure 4.125: Report conguration

During the generation of the report, a waiting screen appears. During the generation of the report, a waiting
screen appears. But you can continue to work with the calculation module. The length of time for the gener-
ation of the report depends on the number of diagrams which have to be generated.

You can navigate through the report via the table of contents that provides links to the input values, results
and gures. This calculation report contains all input data, the calculation method as well as all detailed
results. The report is available in HTML and PDF format. The calculation report saved in HTML format,
can be opened in a web browser or in Word for Windows. In HTML format, the gures are displayed in `gif '
format. In case a SVG viewer is available, you can display all graphics in SVG format. Right-clicking on the
picture allows to zoom in and zoom out.

Figure 4.126: Calculation report

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 114

You may also print or save the calculation report:

- To save the report in the HTML format, please select `File' ⇒ `Save as' from your browser menu bar.
Select the le type `Webpage complete', then just click on the button `Save'.

- If you click on the symbol `Print', then you can print the report very easily.

- When you click on the symbol `PDF', then the report appears in the PDF format. If you right-click on
the PDF symbol, you should see the `Save Target As' option. Click on that option and you will see the
dialog box for saving the report.

4.14.5 Save Calculation

When the calculation is nished, it is easy to save the calculation. You can save your calculation either to the
eAssistant server or to your computer. Click on the button `Save'.

Figure 4.127: The button `Save'

Before you can save the calculation to your computer, you need to activate the checkbox `Local' in the
calculation module. A standard Windows dialog for saving les will appear. Now you will be able to save the
calculation to your computer.

Figure 4.128: Standard Windows dialog for saving the le

In case you do not activate the option in order to save your les locally, then a new window is opened and
you can save the calculation to the eAssistant server. Please enter a name into the input eld `Filename' and
click on the button `Save'.

Figure 4.129: Save the calculation

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4.14.6 Second Calculation Example

Here you nd another example that shows how easy it is to create a shaft.

Figure 4.130: Shaft

Create Shaft Segments

Create three shaft segments. Please enter the following input values:

1. Shaft segment: Length l1 = 100 mm Diameter d1 = 30 mm

2. Shaft segment: Length l2 = 40 mm Diameter d2 = 45 mm
3. Shaft segment: Length l3 = 100 mm Diameter d3 = 30 mm

Figure 4.131: Shaft segments

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Add Bearings
Then add the two bearings. Please enter the following input values:

1. Bearing: Position = 10 mm Width b1 = 15 mm Diameter d1 = 60 mm Fixed bearing

2. bearing: Position = 80 mm Width b2 = 15 mm Diameter d2 = 60 mm Movable bearing

Figure 4.132: Bearing

Create First Cylindrical Gear

In order to create the cylindrical gear, select the rst shaft segment. Click on the button `Force elements' and
select the menu item `Cylindrical gear' from the submenu. Use the input mask to dene the cylindrical gear.
Enter the following input values:

Position = 60 mm
Width b1 = 40 mm
Reference circle dT 1 = 180 mm
Helix angle β1 25◦
=
◦
Pressure angle α1 = 20
◦
Position of action = 90
Torque T1 = 320 Nm
Mass m1 = 0.0 kg

Figure 4.133: Dene the rst cylindrical gear

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 117

The rst cylindrical gear is represented.

Figure 4.134: First cylindrical gear

Create Second Cylindrical Gear

To create the second cylindrical gear, select the third shaft segment. Click on the button `Force elements' and
select the menu item `Cylindrical gear' from the submenu. Please enter the following values into the input
mask:

Position = 0 mm
Width b2 = 40 mm
Reference circledT 2 = 80 mm
Helix angle β2 25◦
=
◦
Pressure angle α2 = 20
◦
Power of action = 270
Torque T2 = 320 Nm
Mass m2 = 0.0 kg

Figure 4.135: Dene the second cylindrical gear

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 118

Both cylindrical gears will be represented.

Figure 4.136: Two spur gears created

Then you can display the shaft in dierent views. Click the button `3D view' and select the dierent views
from the toolbar and zoom into the graphic. Click on the button `Calculate' and switch from the geometry
part into the calculation part. There you can run the calculations (nd detail information in the section `How
to start the calculation'). The button `Report' allows you to generate a report.

Result
Clicking the `3D view' button displays the three-dimensional presentation. The three-dimensional view allows
to modify the elements. Select the element and change, for example, the position, length or diameter. To do
so, please use the appropriate input elds. Click on the `2D / 3D view' button again to switch back to the
two-dimensional representation.

Figure 4.137: 3D view of the shaft

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4.14.7 Start Calculation

After dening the entire shaft geometry with the cylindrical gears and the bearings, you can start your cal-
culation. To start the calculation, click the button `Calculate'. The button changes then its description into
`Geometry' and you get into the calculation part. The calculation part enables you to carry out the calculation.
If you want to modify the geometry of the shaft, you have to go back to the geometry part. To do so, please
click the button `Geometry'. With just one click, the following calculations can be carried out:

- Bearing forces

- Deection, bending angle, bending moment,...

- Strength

- Critical speed (bending)

- Critical speed (torsion)

Figure 4.138: Start of calculation

When you are in the calculation part of the module, it is not possible to change the geometry. In
order to change the geometry, please go back to the geometry part by clicking the `Geometry'
button.

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4.14.8 Documentation: Calculation Report

Now you can create the calculation report. Click on the button `Report'.

Figure 4.139: Button `Report'

First the report congurator appears. The report congurator allows you to select which diagrams should
appear in the calculation report and if the results of the strength calculation should be in the report, too. You
can navigate through the report via the table of contents that provides links to the input values, results and
gures. This calculation report contains all input data, the calculation method as well as all detailed results.
The report is available in HTML and PDF format. The calculation report saved in HTML format, can be
opened in a web browser or in Word for Windows. In HTML format, the gures are displayed in `gif ' format.
In case a SVG viewer is available, you can display all graphics in SVG format. Right-clicking on the picture
allows to zoom in and zoom out.

Figure 4.140: Calculation report

You may also print or save the calculation report:

- To save the report in the HTML format, please select `File' ⇒ `Save as' from your browser menu bar.
Select the le type `Webpage complete', then just click on the button `Save'.

- If you click on the symbol `Print', then you can print the report very easily.

- When you click on the symbol `PDF', then the report appears in the PDF format. If you right-click on
the PDF symbol, you should see the `Save Target As' option. Click on that option and you will see the
dialog box for saving the report.

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4. Shafts with Strength According to DIN 743 121

4.14.9 Save Calculation

When the calculation is nished, it is easy to save the calculation. You can save your calculation either to the
eAssistant server or to your computer. Click on the button `Save'.

Figure 4.141: Button `Save'

Before you can save the calculation to your computer, you need to activate the the option `Local' in the
calculation module. A standard Windows dialog for saving les will appear. Now you will be able to save the
calculation to your computer.

Figure 4.142: Standard Windows dialog for saving the le

In case you do not activate the option in order to save your les locally, then a new window is opened and
you can save the calculation to the eAssistant server. Please enter a name into the input eld `Filename' and
click on the button `Save'.

Figure 4.143: Save the calculation

Our manual is improved continually. Of course we are always interested in your opinion, so
we would like to know what you think. We appreciate your feedback and we are looking
for ideas, suggestions or criticism. If you have anything to say or if you have any questions,
please let us know by phone +49 (0) 531 129 399-0 or email [email protected].

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Chapter 5

Rolling Bearings According to DIN

ISO 281

5.1 Start the Calculation Module

Please login with your username and your password. To start the calculation module for rolling bearings,
please click the menu item `Shaft/Bearings' on the left side and then select `Rolling bearings calculation'.

Figure 5.1: General overview

Please Note: All results will be calculated during every input and will be displayed in the result panel. A
recalculation occurs after every data input. Any changes that are made to the user interface take eect
immediately. Press the Enter key or move to the next input eld to complete the input. Alternatively, use the
Tab key to jump from eld to eld or click the `Calculate' button after every input.

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5. Rolling Bearings According to DIN ISO 281 123

5.2 General Inputs

5.2.1 Number of Bearings
The calculation module allows to dene any number of bearings.

Figure 5.2: General inputs

The following listbox `Current view' allows you to select between the several bearings.

Figure 5.3: Number of bearings

You can add a description or a short comment to the bearing.

Figure 5.4: Description of the respective bearing

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5. Rolling Bearings According to DIN ISO 281 124

5.2.2 How to Delete a Bearing

If you want to delete a bearing, please enter the new number of bearings and conrm the input with the Enter
key.

Figure 5.5: Reduce the number of bearings

Now select the bearing you want to delete and click the button `Delete the selected bearings!'.

Figure 5.6: Delete a bearing

Please note: If you want to delete multiple bearings at once, select the bearings you want to delete. Click
the button `Delete the selected bearings!'.

5.3 Selection of Manufacturer and Bearing Type

5.3.1 Bearing Manufacturer
The extensive bearing database provides over 20,000 bearings from dierent manufacturers. Select the bearing
manufacturer (NSK, SNR, SKF, KOYO) from the listbox.

Figure 5.7: Manufacturer

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5. Rolling Bearings According to DIN ISO 281 125

5.3.2 Fatigue Limit Load

The stress of the raceway fatigue depends primarily on the internal load distribution in the bearing. In order to
simplify the calculation, the fatigue limit load Cu was introduced. Usually, the bearing manufacturer species
the values for Cu . In case these values are missing, the equations dened in DIN ISO 281 will be used. These
equations apply for bearings Dpw < 150 mm.

Roller bearings:

1 1
Cur ≈ × C0r and Cua ≈ × C0a
8.2 8.2
Ball bearings:

1 1
Cur ≈ × C0r and Cua ≈ × C0a
27 27

The bearing selection allows to dene your own fatigue limit load. Open the bearing selection and activate
`User dened', select the option `Specify Cu '. Enter the value for the fatigue limit load. If you do not specify
the fatigue limit load or if the bearing selection does not include the fatigue limit load, then fatigue limit load
is calculated in accordance with DIN ISO 281.

Figure 5.8: Own input of Cu in bearing selection

5.3.3 Bearing Types

Rolling bearings are ready-to-t machine elements. Rolling bearings are an assembly of several parts - rings
with raceway, rolling elements (a set of balls or rollers) and a cage which separates the rolling elements and
holds them in place. The rings of radial rolling bearings are called inner and outer rings. Generally, the outer
ring ts on the housing, the inner ring on the shaft. For axial bearings, the inner ring is called shaft washer and
the outer ring is called housing washer. Because of the very small contact surface, balls cause high Hertzian
stresses. Rollers have lower Hertzian stresses and are suitable for high loads.

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5. Rolling Bearings According to DIN ISO 281 126

Rolling bearings can be also classied according to the direction in which the load is applied. Radial bearings
carry radial loads and axial bearings carry axial loads. Rolling bearings divide into two main classications:
ball bearings and roller bearings. A further feature is how the bearings guide a shaft. There are bearings that
allow axial displacements and bearings that guide a shaft in one or both axial directions. Types of rolling
bearings are given in the following gure below.

Figure 5.9: Classication of rolling bearings

The following bearing types can be selected from the listbox:

- Single row radial deep groove ball bearing: Can accommodate radial and axial loads and can be used at
high speed operations.

- Double row radial deep groove ball bearing: Manufactured with and without lling slots. Filling slot
bearings have low axial load capacity.

- Single row angular contact ball bearing: Can bear axial loads only in one direction. Bearings are adjusted
against a second bearing in O or X arrangement.

- Double row angular contact ball bearing: Is capable of bearing loads in both the radial and axial direction.
Design corresponds to a pair of single row angular contact ball bearings in O arrangement.

- Self-aligning ball bearing: Has two-row balls and one concave outer raceway, it is able to compensate
for misalignments, shaft deections and housing deformations up to 4◦ .

- Four-point contact bearing: Is one-row angular contact ball bearing, can support axial loads in both
directions. The inner ring is in two pieces. Bearings can accommodate a large number of balls.

- Single row tapered roller bearing: Is capable of supporting large loads and can take a combination
of radial and axial loads. The bearings can only support axial loads in one direction and a second,
symmetrically arranged tapered roller bearing is required for counter guidance.

- Single row cylindrical roller bearing: Designed for very high radial loads, only suitable for low axial loads.

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5. Rolling Bearings According to DIN ISO 281 127

- Spherical roller bearing: Is capable of supporting heavy loads, rollers are guided by solid ribs and the
bearing can accommodate a slight axial load.

- Single row axial ball bearing: Can support high axial loads while radial load is poorly supported.

- Axial spherical roller bearing: Is suitable for high axial loads and high speed operations. With the inclined
raceways, the bearing can carry radial loads, the radial load may not exceed 55 percent of the axial force.

Please Note: There is a graphical representation for every bearing type.

Figure 5.10: Representation of a deep groove ball bearing

5.4 Specication of Bearing Load

Here you can dene the radial force, the axial force and speed.

Figure 5.11: Radial force, axial force, speed

How to Change the Unit System

eAssistant provides two unit systems: the metric system and the U.S. customary unit system. You can quickly
switch between the units. To select the unit system, click the button `Options' and decide for a unit.

Figure 5.12: Change the unit

It is also possible to change the unit by clicking the label eld. When you click the label eld, a context menu
will open providing all available units within the unit system. The change should take eect immediately.
All settings will be saved to the calculation le. As soon as you select a unit, the current eld value will be
converted automatically into the chosen unit.

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5. Rolling Bearings According to DIN ISO 281 128

5.4.1 Calculation with Load Collectives

If you activate the option `Use load collective', you can consider load collectives for your calculation.

Figure 5.13: Use load collectives

You can dene any number of load cases. For every loading case a specication for time slice, speed, radial
force, axial force, temperature and cleanness is possible. A listbox shows you the degree of impurities.

Figure 5.14: Load collectives

The respective lubrication method or the contamination coecient is available by using the listbox. If you
select `User dened' from the listbox, you can enter your own contamination factor ec .

Figure 5.15: Degree of impurities

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5. Rolling Bearings According to DIN ISO 281 129

The load collectives can be opened and saved independently from the underlying bearing calculation. For that
purpose use the button `Open' and `Save'.

Figure 5.16: Open and save the load collectives

Please note: With the denition of the load cases, the entries for the modied rating life will be set.

5.4.2 Lubricant Contamination Factor

According to DIN ISO 281, contaminations in the lubricant cause dents in the raceways and can damage the
smooth surfaces of the bearing components. Rough surfaces tent to cause stress concentrations resulting in
shorter bearing life. The lubricant contamination factor ec considers the inuence of the contaminants on the
rating life.

Lubricant Contamination Factor ec According to DIN ISO 2811

Lubricant Contamination Factor ec
Grade of Contaminations
Dpw < 100 mm Dpw ≥ 100 mm
Extreme Cleanliness: 1 1

Particle size within the height of the lubricant lm under lab-
oratory conditions

High Cleanliness: 0.8 to 0.6 0.9 to 0.8

Oil is ltered by extremely ne lters, sealed, greased bearings

Standard Cleanliness: 0.6 to 0.5 0.8 to 0.6

Oil is ltered by ne lters, greased bearings with shields

Slight Contaminations: 0.5 to 0.3 0.6 to 0.4

Slight contamination of oil

Typical Contaminations: 0.3 to 0.1 0.4 to 0.2

Bearing contaminated with abraded material from other ma-

chine elements

Strong Contaminations: 0.1 to 0 0.1 to 0

Bearing environment is strongly contaminated, inadequate

sealing of bearing arrangement

Very strong contaminations 0 0

1 from: DIN ISO 281 Rolling Bearings - Dynamic Load Ratings and Rating Life (ISO 281: 2007),

2010, p. 33, table 13

The values given in the table above apply for solid particles. Other contaminations such as water or liquids
are not taken into account.

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5. Rolling Bearings According to DIN ISO 281 130

5.5 Nominal Rating Life

The following factors have a signicant inuence on the rating life of bearings:

- Bearing load

- Lubrication conditions (viscosity and type of lubricant, speed, bearing size, additives)

- Material properties (cleanliness, hardness, fatigue limit)

- Bearing type (internal load distribution, frictional conditions in the bearing)

- Residual stress in the material (from manufacturing and heat treatment)

- Ambient environment (contamination of lubricant, moisture)

The calculation method for the nominal rating life L10 is dened in DIN ISO 281. The rating life L10 of a
large group of identical ball bearings is the life in millions of revolutions that 90 percent of the group will
complete or exceed before material fatigue occurs.

Reference Values for Required Rating Life2

Vehicles (full load)
Passenger cars 900 to 1,600 hours

Trucks and busses 1,700 to 9,000 hours

Railway vehicles
Axle bearing mine cars 10,000 to 34,000 hours

Streetcars 30,000 to 50,000 hours

Passenger carriages 20,000 to 34,000 hours

Locomotives 30,000 to 100,000 hours

Gears for railway vehicles 15,000 to 70,000 hours

Agricultural machinery 2,000 to 5,000 hours

Construction machinery 1,000 to 5,000 hours

Electric motors for household appliances 1,500 to 4,000 hours

Series engines 20,000 to 40,000 hours

Large engines 50,000 to 100,000 hours

Machine tools 15,000 to 80,000 hours

Gears for general mechanical engineering 4,000 to 20,000 hours

Large gearboxes 20,000 to 80,000 hours

Ventilators, fans 12,000 to 80,000 hours

Gear pumps 500 to 8,000 hours

Crushers, mills, sieves 12,000 to 50,000 hours

Paper and printing machines 50,000 to 200,000 hours

Textile machinery 10,000 to 50,000 hours

2 from: Taschenbuch fuer den Maschinenbau/Dubbel, 1997, p. G173, appx. G4 table 2

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5. Rolling Bearings According to DIN ISO 281 131

5.6 Modied Rating Life Theory

In some cases it can be sucient to determine the nominal rating life. The nominal rating life is associated
with 90 percent reliability. But for some applications it can be very insightful to determine the rating life for
a higher reliability and to consider the inuence of the bearing quality and operating conditions. By using the
modied rating life, these criteria can be further investigated.

The modied rating life theory is activated by default. If the load collectives are not activated, then enter you
individual specications for the requisite reliability, operating temperature or cleanness. You can enter your
own cleanness factor for the grade of contaminations. Select `User-dened' from the listbox.

Figure 5.17: Modied rating life theory

5.6.1 Lubricant Selection

The purpose of lubricating the bearing is to cover the rolling and sliding contact surfaces with a thin oil lm
to avoid direct metal to metal contact. The most important function of a lubricant is to protect the sliding
and rolling surfaces from wear and friction. The extensive lubricant database provides dierent kind of oils
and greases for the calculation of the modied rating life. In case you are missing the right lubricant for your
calculation, please dene your own lubricant. The lubrication has a considerable inuence on the operating life
of the bearing. Oil and greases are the most common lubricants for rolling bearings. In special cases, rolling
bearings are lubricated with solid or dry lubricants. The choice of lubrication and lubricant depends on speed
and operating temperature of the bearing. The selection of the lubrication method depends on operating
conditions and environmental inuences.

Most rolling bearings are lubricated using grease. Grease lubrication consists of a base oil and a thickener.
There are two main types of base oil: mineral and synthetic oil. The thickener and the additives in the grease
enhance the lubricating eect so that no life reduction has to be expected. Calcium, aluminum, sodium and
lithium soap greases can be used for heavy-loaded rolling bearings. Most of greases contain additives in order
to improve the properties of the grease. It is necessary to renew the lubricating grease at regular intervals.
The lubrication interval depends on many factors, such as the grease type, bearing and working conditions.
Grease lubrication is easy to handle and provides excellent protection against contamination.

Grease lubrication is widely used. Approximately 90 percent of all bearings are lubricated with grease. The
main advantages of grease lubrication are (according to Braendlein `Die Waelzlagerpraxis'):

- Reasonable costs

- Simple construction

- Provides good sealing

- Long service life

- Low maintenance

- Low frictional torque

Oil lubrication is generally used for rolling bearings when adjacent system components are lubricated with oil
or when cooling is required. Oil lubrication is also used when very high speeds or very high loads preclude the
use of grease as a lubricant. The selection of the oil type depends on the requirements of the components. For
the lubrication of rolling bearings, mineral oils and synthetic oils are suitable. Oils with a mineral oil base are

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5. Rolling Bearings According to DIN ISO 281 132

most common. The better the contact surfaces are separated by the lubricating lm, the better the bearing
life and safety against wear. The lubricating lm thickness increases with the oil viscosity, so an oil with a
high operating viscosity should be selected.

The viscosity, as well the dependence of the density and viscosity on the pressure and the temperature play
an important role for the technical application of lubricants. Viscosity is one very important property of a lu-
bricant and determines the oils lubricating eciency. Thin oils have low viscosities while thicker oils have high
viscosities. In addition to the base oil viscosity, thickener and additives have a decisive inuence on greases.
The density of lubricating oils is between 0.86 and 0.93 kg/dm3 . The viscosity of the oil decreases with
increasing temperature. As the temperature falls, the viscosity of the oil increases. It is therefore necessary to
indicate the temperature dependence of an oil's kinematic viscosity. The viscosity at 40◦ C and at 100◦ C (for
thicker oils) are typical values.

About 150 products of the following manufacturer are available:

- Aral

- BP

- Fuchs Lubritech

- Klueber

- Lubricant Consult

Select a lubricant from the listbox.

Figure 5.18: Lubricants from a listbox

Select the lubricant directly from the listbox or click the button `Lubricant'.

Figure 5.19: Button `Lubricant'

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5. Rolling Bearings According to DIN ISO 281 133

The lubricant selection is opened. Here you get all information to the selected lubricant.

Figure 5.20: Lubricant selection

The two cursor keys `Up' and `Down' of your keyboard allows you to navigate through the lubricant database,
so you can compare the dierent lubricant values with each other.

5.6.2 Dene Your Own Lubricant

In case you cannot nd the lubricant you are looking for in our extensive database, simply dene your individual
lubricant. You will nd the entry `User-dened' in the listbox. If you select this option, the according input
elds will be enabled, so that you can specify your own input values or add a comment. In order to conrm
your inputs, click the button `OK'. Please be advised that changing the lubricant will delete your dened inputs
and you have to enter the inputs again.

Figure 5.21: Dene your own inputs

5.7 Bearing Selection

After you choose the manufacturer and the bearing type, please select the bearing from the list or use bearing
selection search to nd the right bearing. Click the button `Bearing selection'.

Figure 5.22: Bearing selection

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5. Rolling Bearings According to DIN ISO 281 134

5.7.1 Bearing Database

Click the button `Bearing selection' to open the bearing database.

Figure 5.23: Bearing selection

We have an extensive range of bearings but search lters have been developed to assist in searching the
extensive amount of bearings and to quickly nd the bearing you are looking for. You might lter bearing
types by diameter or rating life so that you can only see bearing types with this particular diameter or rating
life. The following parameters can be provided to further rene the search:

- Inner diameter of bearing

- Outer diameter of bearing

- Bearing width

- Calculated nominal and modied rating life (on the basis of the dened loads)

- Max. speed for oil and grease lubrication

Figure 5.24: Dierent parameters

Use the Tab key to move from input eld to input eld. The more values you enter into the input elds the
more you will narrow your search. If you have already entered values into the input elds and you now wish
to add again an arbitrary inner or outer diameter, then delete your own value and click on any input eld.
You can also press the Tab key. The option `Any' will then be used again and the number of bearings also
increases again. After entering all reqired data, click the `Search' button.

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5. Rolling Bearings According to DIN ISO 281 135

With the display of the found bearings you can re-sort the list by clicking on the column headers. If the
bearings are to be sorted in reverse order, then click on the column headers again.

Figure 5.25: Found bearings

Here you can get additional information on the selected bearing.

Figure 5.26: Bearing details

Please note: For radial deep groove ball bearings the selection for increased bearing clearance C3 or C4 is
additionally integrated in the bearing selection search, which is taken into account in the rating life calculation.
When using this option, it should be noted that the bearing clearance should be selected which is present in
operation after the bearing has been tted.

For SKF bearing data, there is a lter function that simplies nding common bearings (button `popular
item') in the bearing selection search. In addition, SKF Explorer bearings are marked accordingly and the
corresponding page of the SKF online catalog can be opened for the selected bearing. The appropriate button
is located in the bearing database in the lower left corner. After determining the desired bearing type, it may
be helpful to select a suitable bearing from the manufacturer's range of common bearings. Popular items have
a high level of availability and generally provide a cost-eective solution. SKF Explorer bearings are designed
for heavy-duty applications. They run with less friction and have longer rating lifes than standard rolling
bearings.

Figure 5.27: Popular item

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5. Rolling Bearings According to DIN ISO 281 136

5.7.2 Dene Your Own Bearing

You can select a bearing from the bearing database or you can dene your individual bearing. Activate the
option `User dened', the input elds will be enabled and you can enter your own input values. Please conrm
your inputs with the `OK' button.

Figure 5.28: Activate `User dened'

5.8 Message Window

The calculation module provides a message window. This message window displays detailed information,
helpful hints or warnings about problems. One of the main benets of the program is that the software
provides suggestions for correcting errors during the data input. If you check the message window carefully
for any errors or warnings and follow the hints, you are able to nd a solution to quickly resolve calculation
problems.

Figure 5.29: Message window

5.9 Quick Info: Tooltip

The quick info feature gives you additional information about all input elds and buttons. Move the mouse
pointer to an input eld or a button, then you will get some additional information. This information will be
displayed in the quick info line.

Figure 5.30: The quick info

5.10 Calculation Results

All results will be calculated during every input and will be displayed in the result panel. A recalculation occurs
after every data input. Any changes that are made to the user interface take eect immediately. Press the

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5. Rolling Bearings According to DIN ISO 281 137

`Enter' key or move to the next input eld to complete the input. Alternatively, use the Tab key to jump
from eld to eld or click the `Calculate' button after every input. Your entries will be also conrmed and the
calculation results will displayed automatically.

Figure 5.31: The results

5.11 Diagrams
For a further illustration the following diagrams are available:

- Radial force

- Axial force

- Speed

- Contamination factor

- Temperature

- Lubricant viscosity

The listbox contains the dierent diagrams and you can decide which diagram should be displayed.

Figure 5.32: Selection of diagrams

Choose the diagram and click on the button `Diagram' next to the listbox.

Figure 5.33: Button `Diagram'

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5. Rolling Bearings According to DIN ISO 281 138

The diagram with the values for the rating life and for the modied rating life will be displayed immediately.

Figure 5.34: Diagram radial force

Figure 5.35: Diagram axial force

5.12 Documentation: Calculation Report

After the completion of your calculation, you can create a calculation report. Click on the `Report' button.

Figure 5.36: Degree of impurities

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5. Rolling Bearings According to DIN ISO 281 139

You can navigate through the report via the table of contents that provides links to the input values, results
and gures. This calculation report contains all input data, the calculation method as well as all detailed
results. The report is available in HTML and PDF format. The calculation report saved in HTML format,
can be opened in a web browser or in Word for Windows.

Figure 5.37: Calculation report

You may also print or save the calculation report:

- To save the report in the HTML format, please select `File' ⇒ `Save as' from your browser menu bar.
Select the le type `Webpage complete', then just click on the button `Save'.

- If you click on the symbol `Print', then you can print the report very easily.

- When you click on the symbol `PDF', then the report appears in the PDF format. If you right-click on
the PDF symbol, you should see the `Save Target As' option. Click on that option and you will see the
dialog box for saving the report.

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5. Rolling Bearings According to DIN ISO 281 140

5.13 How to Save the Calculation

When the calculation is nished, it is easy to save the calculation. You can save your calculation either to the
eAssistant server or to your computer. Click on the button `Save'.

Figure 5.38: Button `Save'

Before you can save the calculation to your computer, you need to activate the checkbox `Local' in the
calculation module. A standard Windows dialog for saving les will appear. Now you will be able to save the
calculation to your computer.

Figure 5.39: Windows dialog for saving the le

In case you do not activate the option in order to save your les locally, then a new window is opened and
you can save the calculation to the eAssistant server. Please enter a name into the input eld `Filename' and
click on the button `Save'.

Figure 5.40: Save the calculation

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5. Rolling Bearings According to DIN ISO 281 141

5.14 The Button `Redo' and `Undo'

The button `Undo' allows you to reset your input to an older state. The button `Redo' reverses the undo.

Figure 5.41: The button `Redo' and `Undo'

5.15 The Button `Options'

Click the button `Options' to change the default settings, for example the unit system or the number of decimal
places for the calculation report. The unit can also be changed directly for each individual input value. Simply
click on the label of the corresponding input eld and select the unit from the context menu. You will see the
change of the unit of measurement immediately in the label of the input eld. The current eld value will be
converted to the corresponding unit.

Figure 5.42: Button `Options'

A new window opens up that provides a possibility to choose the diagrams that shall be added to the calculation
report.

Figure 5.43: Settings for the calculation report

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5.16 Calculation Examples: Rolling Bearing According to DIN

ISO 281
5.16.1 Start the Calculation Module
Please login with your username and your password. To start the calculation module for rolling bearings,
please click the menu item `Shaft/Bearings' on the left side and then select `Rolling bearings'.

Figure 5.44: Start the calculation module

5.16.2 First Calculation Example

Bearing for a Rope Sheave of a Pulley Block
The wrap angle for rope sheaves of pulley blocks is 180◦ . Therefore, the load on the bearing is twice the rope
pull. The axial forces and the resulting moments are low. When the diagonal pull is 5◦ , then the axial forces
have to be considered for the calculation of the rating life. Adequate bearing spread for load accommodation
is achieved by mounting either two bearings or one double-row bearing. In the following example the rating
life and modied rating life are to be calculated. We have taken this example from: J. Braendlein: Die
Waelzlagerpraxis: Handbuch zur Berechnung und Gestaltung von Waelzlagern (1995, p. 466-470).

Please enter the following input values:

Bearing load 65 kN
Type of bearing Tapered roller bearing (single row)
−1
Speed n 30 min
Built-in bearing Tapered roller bearing (100 x 150 x 67)
For-life lubrication Grease with EP-additive

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5. Rolling Bearings According to DIN ISO 281 143

Illustration of a rope sheave of a pulley block including the tapered roller bearing. (The following gure: J.
Braendlein: Die Waelzlagerpraxis, p. 467).

Figure 5.45: Rope sheave of a pulley block

5.16.3 The Calculation

Dene Number of Bearings
In this example we would like to calculate one bearing of a tapered roller bearing pair. When you open the
calculation module, usually one bearing is shown. So it is not necessary to change the number of the bearings.
You can enter a description into the comment eld, for example `Bearing of the rope sheave'.

Figure 5.46: Number of bearings

Select Manufacturer and Bearing Type

The extensive bearing database provides over 20,000 bearings from dierent manufacturers. Select the bearing
manufacturer `SKF 2007' from the listbox. Next, choose the bearing type `Tapered roller bearing (single row)'.

Figure 5.47: Select the manufacturer and bearing type

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5. Rolling Bearings According to DIN ISO 281 144

Specication of Bearing Load

Enter the values for the bearing load now. Please keep in mind that the values will be entered in `kN'.
Right-clicking allows you to change the unit.

Figure 5.48: Values for the bearing load in kN

Bearing Selection
Click on the button `Bearing selection' to open the bearing database.

Figure 5.49: Button `Bearing selection'

There are `578' bearings in the database right now. Search lters have been developed to assist in searching
this extensive amount of bearings and to quickly nd the bearing you are looking for. You can lter the bearing
types by the inner and outer diameter so that you can only see bearing types with this particular diameter.
Enter the inner and outer diameter and click the button `Search'.

Inner diameter of bearing = 100 mm

Outer diameter of bearing = 150 mm

Select the bearing `32020 X*' and conrm with the button `OK'.

Figure 5.50: Found bearings

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5.16.4 Calculation Results

Rating Life
All results will be calculated during every input and will be displayed in the result panel. A recalculation occurs
after every data input. Any changes that are made to the user interface take eect immediately. First, you
get the result for the rating life as well as the static identication number.

Figure 5.51: Result for the rating life

The result of the rating life is L10 = 27.258,6 h

For rope sheaves, a rating life from 5,000 to 20,000 hours is required. The bearing is suciently dimensioned.
You will nd a note in the message window but you can ignore this message. When the pair is tted together,
then the correct axial clearance and the necessary axial force for the tapered roller bearing occur.

Modied Rating Life Theory

After you get the result for the rating life, please have a look at the modied rating life theory Lnm regarding
the operating conditions (lubrication, clearance). The option `Use modied rating life theory' is activated by
default.

Now you an dene the requisite reliability and the cleanness as well as a lubricant. Please select the grease
`Klueber Kluebersynth BMQ 72-162 (094073)'. Select this lubricant directly from the listbox. If you need
detailed information, please click on the button `Lubricant'.

Figure 5.52: Modied rating life theory

Clicking the button `Lubricant' opens the lubricant database. Here you can see that the grease contains active
EP additive.

Figure 5.53: Lubricant database

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5. Rolling Bearings According to DIN ISO 281 146

Next, you have to estimate the inuence of possible impurities by using the cleanness factor. Actually, it is
assumed that the `highest cleanness' is used for sealed and greased bearings (for-life-lubrication). But during
the entire operating time, a certain wear of the seals could occur which can let light impurities into the bearing.
In this case you can assume light impurities. Therefore, choose `Light impurities' from the listbox.

Now you get immediately the result for the modied rating life.

Figure 5.54: Modied rating life

The result of the modied rating life is Lnm = 19.713,6 h. Finally, the modied rating life Lnm is in the range

of the rating life L10 .

Please note: Press the `Up' and `Down' arrow to move through the listbox of cleanness parameters. Moving
through the listbox changes the modied rating life and the results will be displayed immediately in the result
panel, making it very easy to compare the modied rating life with dierent levels of cleanness. You can also
navigate through the lubricant listbox.

Diagrams
Click on the button `Diagram' next to the listbox. The diagram includes the values for the rating life and for
the modied rating life. The exact values can be selected directly from the graphical representation. Clicking
the `Close' button leads you back to the main mask and you can open another diagram. Use the `Options'
button to specify which diagrams should be displayed in your calculation report.

Figure 5.55: Button `Diagram'

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5.16.5 Documentation: Calculation Report

After the completion of your calculation, you can create a calculation report. Click on the `Report' button.

Figure 5.56: Button `Report'

You can navigate through the report via the table of contents that provides links to the input values, results
and gures. This calculation report contains all input data, the calculation method as well as all detailed
results. The report is available in HTML and PDF format. The calculation report saved in HTML format,
can be opened in a web browser or in Word for Windows.

Figure 5.57: Calculation report

You may also print or save the calculation report:

- To save the report in the HTML format, please select `File' → `Save as' from your browser menu bar.
Select the le type `Webpage complete', then just click on the button `Save'.

- If you click on the symbol `Print', then you can print the report very easily.

- When you click on the symbol `PDF', then the report appears in the PDF format. If you right-click on
the PDF symbol, you should see the `Save Target As' option. Click on that option and you will see the
dialog box for saving the report.

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5.16.6 Save the Calculation

When the calculation is nished, it is easy to save the calculation. You can save your calculation either to the
eAssistant server or to your computer. Click on the button `Save'.

Figure 5.58: Button `Save'

Before you can save the calculation to your computer, you need to activate the checkbox `Local' in the
calculation module. A standard Windows dialog for saving les will appear. Now you will be able to save the
calculation to your computer.

Figure 5.59: Windows dialog for saving the le

In case you do not activate the option in order to save your les locally, then a new window is opened and
you can save the calculation to the eAssistant server. Please enter a name into the input eld `Filename' and
click on the button `Save'.

Figure 5.60: Save the calculation

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5.16.7 Second Calculation Example

Bearing of a Fan
The impeller of fans can be arranged either between two bearings or in an overhung position. The impeller of
small and medium-sized fans is generally overhung. Two separated plummer block housings are suitable for
supporting the fan drive shaft.

This calculation example we have taken from: J. Braendlein: Die Waelzlagerpraxis: Handbuch zur Berechnung
und Gestaltung von Waelzlagern (1995, p. 516-520, gures: p. 517).

Figure 5.61: Bearing unit for fan

The unit (gure 5.61) contains a cylindrical roller bearing A and a deep groove ball bearing B in one housing
(gure 5.62). The bearing diameter is 70 mm.

Figure 5.62: Bearing of a fan

Input Values
The input values for bearing A (Cylindrical roller bearing NU 314 ECP)

Load Case No. 1 Load Case No. 2

Time slice q1 = 50% Time slice q2 = 50%

Speed n1 = 3,000 min-1 Speed n2 = 4,500 min-1

Fr1
Radial force = 8,500 N Fr2
Radial force = 11,000 N

Fa1
Axial force = 0 N Fa2
Axial force = 0 N
◦
Temperature T1 = 70 C Temperature T2 = 70◦ C

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All input values for bearing B (deep groove ball bearing 6314)

Load Case No. 1 Load Case No. 2

Time slice q1 = 50% Time slice q2 = 50%

Speed n1 = 3,000 min-1 Speed n2 = 4,500 min-1

Fr1
Radial force = 2,000 N Fr2
Radial force = 5,000 N

Fa1
Axial force = 5,000 N Fa2
Axial force = 5,000 N
◦
Temperature T1 = 70 C Temperature T2 = 70◦ C

5.16.8 The Calculation

Dene the Number of Bearings
In this example we want to calculate the rating life of the cylindrical roller bearing and the deep groove ball
bearing. We have to dierent bearings and we need to change the number of bearings. So enter `2' into the
input eld `Number of bearings to calculate'. Please calculate the bearings one after another separately. The
listbox `Current view' allows you to switch between the two bearings.

Figure 5.63: Number of bearings and add a comment

Add a comment for the rst bearing.

Select Manufacturer and Bearing Type

Now select the manufacturer `SKF'. Choose the cylindrical roller bearing from the listbox.

Figure 5.64: Selection of the manufacturer and bearing type

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5. Rolling Bearings According to DIN ISO 281 151

Specication of Bearing Load with Load Collectives

Dene the load collective for the rst bearing. Activate the option `Use load collective'. The input options for
the radial and axial force as well as for the speed will be deactivated. Dene two load cases for the bearing.
Enter the time slice, the radial force, axial force, the temperature and cleanness for each load case. After you
made all entries, click the button `OK' to conrm your inputs.

Figure 5.65: Dene the load collective

Bearing Selection
Click on the button `Bearing selection'. It is increasingly convenient to use the search lter to quickly nd the
bearing you are looking for. Enter `70 mm' for the inner diameter and click the button `Search'. Now you
can choose the cylindrical roller bearing `NU 314 ECP' from the list. Clicking the button `OK' conrms the
bearing and leads you back to the main mask.

Figure 5.66: Bearing selection

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5. Rolling Bearings According to DIN ISO 281 152

5.16.9 Calculation Results

Rating Life of the Cylindrical Roller Bearing (Bearing Location A)
All results will be calculated during every input and will be displayed in the result panel. A recalculation occurs
after every data input. Any changes that are made to the user interface take eect immediately. First, you
get the result for the rating life as well as the static identication number.

Figure 5.67: Rating life

The result of the rating life is L10 = 188,391.8 h

The cylindrical roller bearing is suciently dimensioned.

Rating Life for the Deep Groove Ball Bearing (Single Row) (Bearing Location B)
Calculate now the rating life for the deep groove ball bearing. Please pay attention that you select `Bearing
No. 2' from the listbox `Current view'. Select the manufacturer `SKF' and the bearing type `Deep groove ball
bearing (single row)'.

Figure 5.68: Bearing selection

Activate the option `Use load collective' and dene the load cases. After you made all entries, click the button
`OK' to conrm your inputs.

Figure 5.69: Dene the load collective'

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5. Rolling Bearings According to DIN ISO 281 153

Click on the button `Bearing selection'. Choose the bearing `6314*' from the list. It is increasingly convenient
to use the search lter to quickly nd the bearing you are looking for. Enter `70 mm' for the inner diameter
and click the button `Search'. Then you can select the bearing `6314' from the list. Clicking the button `OK'
conrms the bearing and leads you back to the main mask.

Figure 5.70: Deep groove ball bearing

The result for the rating life is L10 = 5.928,1 h

Figure 5.71: Nominal rating life

The rating life of the deep groove ball bearing B is lower than the rating life of the cylindrical roller bearing
A. This means that bearing B is subjected to higher stresses than bearing A. At least 220,000 hours are
required for the rating life of deep groove ball bearings. But with this result, the rating life is not suciently
dimensioned. It is necessary to take a closer look at the modied rating life Lnm of bearing B.

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5. Rolling Bearings According to DIN ISO 281 154

Modied Rating Life of the Deep Groove Ball Bearing

The next step is to determine the modied rating life for the deep groove ball bearing. The option `Use
modied rating theory' is activated by default. Select the grease `Lubcon Turmogrease Highspeed L 252 (K
HC P 2/3 K-50)' from the listbox or click on the button `Lubricant' to open the lubricant selection. Choose
the lubricant and conrm with the button `OK'.

Figure 5.72: Modied rating life

The result of the modied rating life is Lnm = 49.223,4 h.

Figure 5.73: Result for the modied rating life

At least 22,000 hours are required and the bearing is suciently dimensioned. For the calculation with load
collectives, you cannot open all diagrams. But you can open the diagram for the lubricant viscosity.

5.16.10 Documentation: Calculation Report

After the completion of your calculation, you can create a calculation report. Click on the `Report' button.
Click the button `Options' and activate the diagram for the `Lubricant viscosity'. This diagram will then appear
in the calculation report.

Figure 5.74: Calculation report

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5. Rolling Bearings According to DIN ISO 281 155

You can navigate through the report via the table of contents that provides links to the input values, results
and gures. This calculation report contains all input data, the calculation method as well as all detailed
results. The report is available in HTML and PDF format. The calculation report saved in HTML format,
can be opened in a web browser or in Word for Windows. You may also print or save the calculation report:

- To save the report in the HTML format, please select `File' ⇒ `Save as' from your browser menu bar.
Select the le type `Webpage complete', then just click on the button `Save'.

- If you click on the symbol `Print', then you can print the report very easily.

- When you click on the symbol `PDF', then the report appears in the PDF format. If you right-click on
the PDF symbol, you should see the `Save Target As' option. Click on that option and you will see the
dialog box for saving the report.

5.16.11 Save the Calculation

When the calculation is nished, it is easy to save the calculation. You can save your calculation either to the
eAssistant server or to your computer. Click on the button `Save'. Before you can save the calculation to your
computer, you need to activate the checkbox `Local' in the calculation module. A standard Windows dialog
for saving les will appear. Now you will be able to save the calculation to your computer.

Figure 5.75: Windows dialog for saving the le

In case you do not activate the option in order to save your les locally, then a new window is opened and
you can save the calculation to the eAssistant server. Please enter a name into the input eld `Filename' and
click on the button `Save'.

Figure 5.76: Save the calculation

Our manual is improved continually. Of course we are always interested in your opinion, so
we would like to know what you think. We appreciate your feedback and we are looking
for ideas, suggestions or criticism. If you have anything to say or if you have any questions,
please let us know via telephone +49 (0) 531 129 399-0 or email [email protected].

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Chapter 6

Single External and Internal

Cylindrical Gears According to DIN
3960 and Other Standards

6.1 Start the Calculation Module

Please login with your username and your password. To start the calculation module for single cylindrical
gears, please click the menu item `Gear calculation' on the left side and then select `Cylindrical gear (external)'
or `Cylindrical gear (internal)'.

Figure 6.1: Single external cylindrical gear: General overview

The eAssistant module allows an easy and fast calculation of the geometry of single cylindrical gears according
to DIN 3960, DIN 3961, DIN 3964, DIN 3967, DIN 3977 and DIN 868. External spur and helical gears as well
as internal gears can be calculated. Prole shift or addendum chamfer will be taken into consideration. The

156
6. Single External and Internal Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3960 and Other Standards 157

geometry, test dimensions and allowances of a single external or internal cylindrical gear will be determined. In
order to calculate a single internal cylindrical gear, please open the module `Single cylindrical gear (internal)'.

Figure 6.2: Single internal cylindrical gear: General overview

6.2 Input of Geometry Data

All important calculation results will be calculated during every input and will be displayed in the result panel.
A recalculation occurs after every data input. Any changes that are made to the user interface take eect
immediately. Press the Enter key or move to the next input eld to complete the input. Alternatively, use
the Tab key to jump from eld to eld or click the `Calculate' button after every input. Your entries will be
also conrmed and the calculation results will displayed automatically. If the result exceeds certain values, the
result will be marked red.

6.2.1 Normal Module

The normal module mn is one of the basic parameters in the gear geometry and describes the size of a gear.
The module is dened as the ratio of the pitch diameter to the number of teeth of a gear. Note that the
larger the module the larger the teeth. The value of the module is dened in millimeters. In order to limit the
number of the gears, the module has been standardised in preferred series 1 and 2 (see following tables). The
calculation with the eAssistant software is possible with any modules including several decimal places.

Series of Modules in mm According to DIN 780 Series 1 (Part 1)

0,05 0,06 0,08 0,10 0,12 0,16 0,20 0,25

0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1

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Series of Modules in mm According to DIN 780 Series 1 (Part 2)

1,25 1,5 2 2,5 3 4 5 6 8

10 12 16 20 25 32 40 50 60

Series of Modules in mm According to DIN 780 Series 2 (Part 1)

0,055 0,07 0,09 0,11 0,14 0,18 0,22 0,28 0,35

0,45 0,55 0,65 0,75 0,85 0,95 1,125 1,375 1,75

Series of Modules in mm According to DIN 780 Series 2 (Part 2)

2,25 2,75 3,5 4,5 5,5 7 9 11

14 18 22 28 36 45 55 70

6.2.2 Pressure Angle

With an increasing distance from the base circle, the prole angles αy increase too. The most common pres-
sure angle now in use for spur gears is 20◦ . The default startup setting for the pressure angle is set to 20◦ .

6.2.3 Helix Angle

For spur gears the helix angle is β = 0◦ , for helical gears the angle β is up to 45◦ due to the fact that the
◦
teeth for a helical gear are inclined by the angle. 45 is also the maximum value that you can enter into the
input eld for the helix angle. For an external gearing a right-hand teeth and a left-hand teeth can only mesh
correctly. For internal gearings pinion and gear must have the same direction.

Helical Gears
Helical gears are used to transmit power or motion between parallel shafts. Helical gears dier from spur gears
in that they have teeth that are cut in the form of a helix on their pitch cylinders instead of parallel to the
axis of rotation. As two teeth on the gear engage, it starts a contact on one end of the tooth which gradually
spreads with the gear rotation, until the time when both the tooth are fully engaged. Finally, it recedes until
the teeth break contact at a single point on the opposite side of the wheel. Thus force is taken up and released
gradually. Helical gears oer a renement over spur gears. The angled teeth engage more gradually than do
spur gear teeth. This causes helical gears to run quieter and smoother than spur gears. Helical gears are used
in areas requiring high speeds, large power transmission or where noise prevention is important.

Figure 6.3: Module, pressure angle, helix angle

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6. Single External and Internal Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3960 and Other Standards 159

6.2.4 Direction of Helix Angle

Enter a value for the direction of the helix angle. When the gear is placed on a at surface, the teeth of a
left-hand gear lean to the left and the teeth of a right-hand gear lean to the right. It should be noted that a
pair of helical gears on parallel shafts must have the same helix angle β. However, the helix directions must
be opposite, i.e., a left-hand mates with a right-hand helix. For an external gear pair the engaged gearings
have dierent directions, internal gears have the same direction with the same helix angle.

Figure 6.4: Left and right-hand teeth

Entering an helix angle automatically activates the option to specify the direction of the helix angle and to
select the checkbox.

Figure 6.5: Direction of helix angle

6.2.5 Number of Teeth

The number of teeth of a gear describes the number of the teeth on the full rim. The number of teeth is
positive for external gears and negative for internal gears.

Figure 6.6: Number of teeth for single external cylindrical gear

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6. Single External and Internal Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3960 and Other Standards 160

Please note that the smaller the number of teeth the larger the inuence of the prole shift. By default, a
positive number of teeth appears when you open the module for single external cylindrical gears. A negative
number of teeth appears when you open the module for single internal cylindrical gears. Please see section
6.8.3 `Some Notes for Internal Gears' to get more information on this kind of gear.

6.2.6 Facewidth
The facewidth b is the length of the gear teeth as measured along a line parallel to the gear axis.

Figure 6.7: Facewidth

Enter a value for the facewidth. The following table shows some additional information about the facewidth
b as well as minimum number of teeth z.

Standard Values for the Facewidth b and Minimum Number of Teeth z 1

Gears on rigid shafts, that run in roller or excellent plain bearings,
b ≤ 30 . . . 40 · m
Teeth, machine-cut rigid substructure

Gears in usual gear boxes, roller or plain bearings b ≤ 25 · m

Gears on steel constructions, beams and suchlike b ≤ 15 · m
Gears with excellent bearing in high duty gearings b ≤ 2 · d1
Teeth, cast roughly Overhung gears b ≤ 10 · m
Gears with high circumferential velocity(υ > 4 m/s) and considerable z1 ≥ 16
power, when εα > 1.5
Gears with mean circumferential velocity(υ = 0.8 . . . 4 m/s) z1 ≥ 12
Gears with low circumferential velocity(υ < 0.8 m/s) or for low power for subor-
z1 ≥ 10
dinated purposes

Basically external gearings z1 + z2 ≥ 24

Basically internal gearings z2 ≥ z1 + 10
1 from: Karl-Heinz Decker: Maschinenelemente: Gestaltung und Berechnung, 1992, p. 506, table 23.2

6.2.7 Prole Shift Coecient

Prole shift can make spur gears or helical gears run more quietly and carry more load. If spacing errors
of some magnitude are present, proper prole shift will give the teeth a little clearance at the rst point of

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6. Single External and Internal Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3960 and Other Standards 161

contact. If a pair of teeth are spaced too close together, there is a bump as the tooth comes into mesh. With
the modication there is a little relief at the rst point of contact. The prole shift aects the tooth form
because the tool is shifted by the value xm towards or away from the tip circle. The calculation of the tip
diameter da and root diameter df includes the prole shift coecient x. According to DIN 3960 the prole
shift is

- positive if the prole reference line is shifted from the reference circle towards the tip circle,

- negative if the prole reference line is shifted from the reference circle towards the root circle.

Figure 6.8: Change the tooth form with the prole shift: number of teeth z = 10; tooth 1: x = 0.5; tooth 2:
x = 0; tooth 3: x = -0.5

Characteristics of the Prole Shift

- A positive prole shift increases the tooth thickness, a negative prole shift decreases the tooth thickness.

- With an increasing positive prole shift, the tooth tip thickness and the root llet become smaller, the
load capacity increase. This advantage occurs especially for a smaller number of teeth.

- The minimum permitted tooth tip thickness determines the limit for a very large prole shift, in particular
for very small number of teeth.

- The prole shift aects the operating pressure angle as well as the load capacity.

- For a small number of teeth and with a negative prole shift, an undercut becomes a problem (see above
gure). The undercut weakens the tooth root and a part of the tooth ank is cut o.

Here you have the option of dimensioning or optimizing the prole shift coecient. To optimize the prole
shift coecient, click on the `Calculator' button. In addition to the option `user-dened input', the following
two options are available for selection: `Geometric minimum' and `Geometric maximum'. Here the possible
limits of the prole shift, i.e. the minimum and maximum prole shift that can be executed with respect to
the undercut limit and topland limit.

Figure 6.9: Dimensioning of the prole shift

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6. Single External and Internal Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3960 and Other Standards 162

6.2.8 Tip Diameter

The tip diameter da depends on the module and will be determined by the program automatically. If you
change the prole shift, the tip diameter will change, too. There is the possibility to enable the tip circle
using the `Lock' button. Now you can add and modify the tip diameter very easily. Please note that the tip
diameter has an inuence on the modication of the tip diameter. Click on the button again to disable the
input eld. The value is determined again according to DIN. In case you use a special tool, the tip diameter can
be changed by a tool customization. Find out more about the tool data in the section `The input of tool data'.

6.2.9 Tip Diameter Allowance

The tip diameter allowance is determined according to DIN. Click on the `Lock' button to enable the input
eld and enter your own value. If your values are out of range of the DIN, you will get an information in
the message window. Click on the `Lock' button and the input eld is disabled again. The allowances are
determined according to DIN.

6.2.10 Modication of Tip Diameter

The modication of the tip diameter k is automatically determined by the program that a sucient tip
clearance is available. For external gears the modication of the tip diameter is k ≤ 0, for internal gears,
the value is often set to k=0 in order to avoid meshing interferences. Click on the `Lock' button to enable
the input eld and enter your own value. Such a modication of the tip diameter has an eect on the tip
diameter.

Figure 6.10: Tip diameter, tip diameter allowance, modication of tip diameter

6.2.11 Root Diameter

The root diameter df depends upon the module, the prole shift and addendum coecient of the basic rack
prole. The root diameter is determined by the program. Therefore, the root diameter occurs as a result of
the calculation.

6.2.12 Allowances of Root

The allowances of root result from your calculation and will be determined automatically. The allowances
depend upon the tooth thickness allowances. For instance, if you enter the value `0' for a gear, then the
allowances of root become `0' for this gear as well.

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6. Single External and Internal Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3960 and Other Standards 163

6.2.13 Innen and Outer Diameter

Here you can enter an inner diameter (for external gears) and outer diameter (for internal gears). It should be
kept in mind that the inner diameter has to be smaller than the root diameter df . In case the inner diameter
is larger than df , then the program automatically corrects the value and enters the maximum value for the
inner diameter. An appropriate message appears in the message window.

Figure 6.11: Inner and outer diameter

6.2.14 Web Width

The web width can be considered here. The web width is shown in the gure next to the input eld. There
is the possibility to modify the web width by using the `Lock' button.

Figure 6.12: Web width

The `Lock' button is still disabled. Enter the values for the inner or outer diameter into the input eld. Then
the `Lock' button is enabled and the web width gets the same value as the facewidth. In case the web width
is smaller than the facewidth, then the gear body stiness is aected due to the gear body coecient CR .
The tooth spring stiness changes which aects again the load capacity.

Figure 6.13: Web width

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6. Single External and Internal Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3960 and Other Standards 164

6.2.15 Chamfer
The chamfer can be considered. This reduces the calculated facewidth for the calculation of the load capacity
of the tooth root and tooth ank.

Figure 6.14: Chamfer

6.2.16 Addendum Chamfer

The tooth ends of a gear are often rounded or chamfered. A chamfer is a small angled surface added on
the end of a shaft along an edge. For the calculation you can consider the addendum chamfer. Meshing
interferences can be removed by the addendum chamfer.

Figure 6.15: Addendum chamfer

Please Note: If you dene the geometry of the gear , you are able to look at the tooth form. Click on the
button `Tooth form' and select `Total view' or `Detail view'. Click the button `Geometry' and you get to the
geometry input again.

As an alternative to the addendum chamfer, a tip corner radius can be specied. This can be dened either
as a radial amount or directly as a radius. The selection is marked by the colored arrow. The radius is entered
directly for the tip radius, the radial amount is entered for the tip radius (Rad.).

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6. Single External and Internal Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3960 and Other Standards 165

If you enter the tip radius directly as a value, you will receive the corresponding radial amount in the calculation
report.

Figure 6.16: Switch between input of addendum chamfer, tip corner radius (radial amount and radius)

In the case of tip corner radius or addendum chamfer, the tip form diameter is smaller than the tip circle
diameter by twice the radial amount hK .

Figure 6.17: Spur gear with addendum chamfer, hK = Radial amount of the tip corner radius, dF a = Tip form
diameter

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6.3 Input of Tool Data

For the selection of the manufacturing process you have to consider the material, size of the gear, quantity, gear
type (external or internal gears) and accuracy. The many methods of making gear teeth must be considered
as well. The calculation program distinguishes between gear-tooth cutting and gear hobbing.

Figure 6.18: Input mask for tool data

Please note: If you want to add some own notes, comments or a description, then use the comment line.

6.3.1 Tool
The most important manufacturing processes are gear hobbing and gear shaping. Select either the tool `Hob' or
`Gear shaper cutter' by clicking the listbox. A `Constructed involute' is also available. Basically, the selection
of the tool depends on the gear type (external or internal gears). The external gears can be produced by
cutting wherein the gear cutting tool is a hob. For internal gears a gear shaper cutter is used (see section 6.9
`Manufacturing Process for Internal Gears').

Figure 6.19: Selection of tool

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6. Single External and Internal Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3960 and Other Standards 167

Gear Hobbing
The hobbing is the most widely used method of cutting gear teeth. The hobbing process is quite advantageous
in cutting gears with very wide facewidth. A very high degree of tooth-spacing accuracy can be obtained with
hobbing. With regard to accuracy, hobbing is superior to the other cutting processes. A wide variety of sizes
and kinds of hobbing machines are used. The rotating hob has a series of rack teeth arranged in a spiral
around the outside of a cylinder, so it cuts several gear teeth at one time. To generate the full width of the
gear, the hob slowly traverses the face of the gear as it rotates. Thus, the hob has a basic rotary motion and
an unidirectional traverse at right angles. Both movements are relatively simple to eect, resulting in a very
accurate process.

Field of Application of the Hob:

- Recommended for gears with very wide facewidth

- Recommended for external spur and helical gears up to module `40' (Please keep in mind: it is an
expensive tool for large modules)

- Recommended for all basic rack proles

- The helix angle is arbitrary.

Figure 6.20: Hob and gear shaper cutter

Gear Shaping
The shaping process is a gear-cutting method in which the cutting tool is shaped like a pinion. If a gear is
provided with cutting clearance and is hardened, it may be used as a generating tool in a gear shaper. The
cutter reciprocates while it and the gear blank are rotated together at the angular-velocity ratio corresponding
to the number of teeth on the cutter and the gear. The teeth on the gear cutter are appropriately relieved
to form cutting edges on one face. Although the shaping process is not suitable for the direct cutting of
ultra-precision gears and generally is not as highly rated as hobbing, it can produce precision quality gears.
Usually it is a more rapid process than hobbing. Two outstanding features of shaping involve shouldered and
internal gears. For internal gears, the shaping process is the only basic method of tooth generation.

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6. Single External and Internal Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3960 and Other Standards 168

Field of Application of the Gear Shaper Cutter:

- Recommended for internal and external spur and helical gears

- Racks

- Special gearings, e.g., splined shaft connections, face or chain gears

Constructed Involute
In addition to the hob and the gear shaper cutter, you can also select the entry `Constructed involute' as a
tool. In case internal gears cannot be shaped with a gear shaper cutter, the tooth form calculation is still
possible by using the constructed involute. This specically applies for applications in the precision mechanics.
This method allows a generation of the tooth form with a constant root llet radius.

Figure 6.21: Constructed involute

Representation of Hob and Gear Shaper Cutter

The representation shows either the hob basic rack prole or the gear shaper cutter tooth prole. The radio
buttons enable you to choose one of the graphical representation.

Figure 6.22: Tool

6.3.2 Standard Basic Rack Tooth Prole

To mesh two gears with each other, the parameters have to be coordinated. The standard basic rack tooth
prole is standardized in DIN 867. A gear with an innite number of teeth will have straight lines for both

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6. Single External and Internal Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3960 and Other Standards 169

the pitch and the base circles. The involute prole will be a straight line. The rack can be used to determine
the basic parameters. Racks can be both spur and helical. A rack will mesh with all gears of the same pitch.
The pressure angle and the gears pitch radius remain constant regardless of changes in the relative position of
the gear and rack. The tool standard basic rack prole is the counter prole of the standard basic rack tooth
prole. The following standard basic rack proles are available for your calculation. Choose your prole from
the listbox.

Figure 6.23: Listbox for the basic rack prole

- ISO 53 Prole A: is recommended for gears transmitting high torques

- ISO 53 Prole B: is recommended for normal service

- ISO 53 Prole C: is recommended for normal service, type C may be applied for manufacturing with
some standard hobs.

- ISO 53 Prole D: is recommended for high-precision gears transmitting high torques and consequently
with tooth anks nished by grinding or shaving. Care should be taken to avoid creating notches in the
llet during nishing which could create stress concentrations.

- DIN 3972 Prole I

- DIN 3972 Prole II

- Prole 1 DIN 867 (Numerical example from DIN 867)

- Prole 2 DIN 867 (Numerical example from DIN 867)

- Prole 3 DIN 867 (Numerical example from DIN 867)

- Prole 4 DIN 867 (Numerical example from DIN 867)

- AGMA PT (for plastic gears)

- AGMA XPT-2 (for plastic gears)

- AGMA XPT-3 (for plastic gears)

- AGMA XPT-4 (for plastic gears)

In addition to the standard basic rack proles, you can also select a protuberance tool. When part of the
involute prole of a gear tooth is cut away near its base, the tooth is said to be undercut. By using a
protuberance tool an undercut near the root can be generated. Grinding notches at the tooth ank can
be avoided during the grinding. That provides relief for subsequent nishing operations (see section 6.3.6
`Protuberance').

Figure 6.24: Selection of the protuberance tools

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6. Single External and Internal Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3960 and Other Standards 170

You can select the following proles:

◦
- Prot 1.4-6 /0,085

◦
- Prot 1.5-6 0.02

◦
- Prot 1.6-6 /0.02

◦
- Prot 1.4-8 /0.04

◦
- Prot 1.4-8 /0,066

◦
- Prot 1.4-10 /0.05

◦
- Prot 1.5-10 /0.02

◦
- Prot 1.6-10 /0.02

◦
- Prot 1.25-14 /0,024

◦
- Prot 1.4-6

◦
- Prot 1.4-10 (Fette) (Protuberance tool with shifted prole reference line with the data of the tool
manufacturer LMT Fette)

◦
- TBK Prot 10 (Protuberance tool with shifted prole reference line with data analog TBK V22)

Please Note: If you select `user dened input', then the input elds for the edge radius, the addendum
coecient and the dedendum coecient are activated. Now you can modify the basic rack prole.

Figure 6.25: Own input

Determination of the Basic Rack Prole

In case you use special tools, the eAssistant software oers an easy and comfortable solution. The basic rack
prole can be determined by clicking the `Calculator' button. Here you can change the tip circle and the
root diameter for the gear. Conrm your entries with the button `OK'. The listbox for the basic rack proles
displays then `user dened input'. The modication of the tip diameter is set to '0'.

Figure 6.26: Tool dimensioning

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6.3.3 Tip Form

For the tip form you can choose between `Full radius' and `Radius with straight line'. Normally `Radius with
straight line' is used.

Figure 6.27: Listbox for tip form

6.3.4 Addendum Coecient

eAssistant provides a functionality for tools with a shifted prole reference line. Additionally to the addendum
coecient h∗aM P 0 of the shifted prole, the dedendum coecienth∗f M P 0 is displayed and visible in the
∗
calculation report. The dedendum coecient hf M P 0 can also be dened by clicking the `Lock' button so that
∗
the dedendum coecient hf P 0 of the converted, non-shifted basic rack prole is always 1.0 according to DIN
867.

Figure 6.28: Input of the addendum coecient for tool with shifted prole reference line

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6. Single External and Internal Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3960 and Other Standards 172

Shifted Prole Reference Line

Figure 6.29: Prole reference line according to DIN and shifted prole reference line

6.3.5 Semi Topping Flank and Topping

With the denition of the semi topping ank, corresponding hobs can then be specied. These generate an
addendum chamfer during the cutting process. The option `Topping' allows to dene the tip diameter directly
with the dedendum coecient of the tool, making it impossible to subsequently modiying the tip diameter.
The result, at the same time, will be tip diameter allowances analogous to the root diameter allowances directly
from the tooth thickness allowances. The eAssistant 3D CAD plugins for various CAD systems support the
function and the semi topping ank can be considered in the 3D CAD model.

6.3.6 Protuberance
Undercut may be deliberately introduced to facilitate nishing operations. Undercut is the loss of prole in
the vicinity of involute start at the base circle due to tool cutter action in generating teeth with low numbers
of teeth. The protuberance cuts an undercut at the root of the gear tooth. The protuberance design is also
used in some cases to permit the sides of gear teeth to be ground without having to grind the root llet.

Determination of the Amount of the Protuberance from the Height of the Protuberance Flank
The following equation determines the amount of the protuberance. In case the height of the protuberance
ank is given and not the amount of the protuberance, the amount of the protuberance may be calculated by
this equation.

(h∗prP 0 − ρ∗aP 0 · (1 − sin(αp ))) · sin(αn − αp )

prP∗ 0 = + ρ∗aP 0 · (1 − cos(αn − αp ))
cos(αp )

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6. Single External and Internal Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3960 and Other Standards 173

The following gure shows a representation:

Figure 6.30: Height of the protuberance ank

To avoid grinding steps, a deviation in the tooth root area of the prole is a common and allowed method.
Because of a grinding stock allowance, an undercut must be allowed. Hence, a larger tooth root thickness is
necessary. The following table shows some determination of the undercut dependent upon the module.

Undercut spr for Ground Gears Dependent upon Module2

Module Allowance Size of Protuberance Addendum Edge Radius

m q Undercut spr prP∗ 0 h∗aP 0 ρ∗aP 0

2 0,160 0,100 0,260 2,900 0,500

2,5 0,170 0,110 0,280 3,625 0,625

3 0,180 0,120 0,300 4,350 0,750

4 0,200 0,140 0,340 5,800 1,000

5 0,220 0,160 0,380 7,250 1,250

6 0,240 0,180 0,420 8,700 1,500

7 0,260 0,200 0,460 10,150 1,7500

2 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl Hanser Ver-

lag, Muenchen, Wien, 2nd ed. 2010, p. 68, table 2.1/2

6.3.7 Machining Allowance

You can consider an allowance for the tooth ank. The tool provides an allowance q on the ank and/or root
for the pre-cutting tool. The allowance is the smallest distance between the involutes and the pre-machining
having the same root diameter. In case you select the tool basic rack prole with protuberance, the allowance
refers to the tooth ank.

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6. Single External and Internal Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3960 and Other Standards 174

If the allowance of the tool basic rack prole is selected without protuberance, then tooth ank and tooth
root get the allowance.

Figure 6.31: The eAssistant software provides the following allowances for the grinding of a gear: a) Constant
allowance with bottom of the tooth space, b) Protuberance: Cutter tooth prole is built up on the tip to
provide an undercut near the root of the gear being generated.

Figure 6.32: Input of machining allowance

Maximum Machining Allowances3

Allowance per Tooth Flank Manufacturing Process

< 0.05 (0.10) mm Finishing operation by cold rolling, gear shaving, hon-
ing, lapping

0.05 to 0.5 (1.5) mm Grinding, prole grinding, (honing)

> 0.5 mm, pre-cutting Primary shaping, forming, cutting with geometrically
determined edges except shaving, grinding and prole
grinding in special cases

3 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl Hanser Ver-

lag, Muenchen, Wien, 1996, p. 638

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6. Single External and Internal Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3960 and Other Standards 175

6.4 Input of Data for the Determination of Allowances

A manufacturing of work-pieces with accurate nominal dimensions is impossible. Hence, a deviation from the
nominal size has to be allowed. For a lot of applications the gear and the pinion of a pair must be independently
manufactured and meshed without any modications. That means, the parts have to be separately replaceable.
In addition to DIN 3961 for gear tolerances/gear qualities, DIN 58405 for precision engineering as well as ISO
1328 and ANSI/AGMA 2015 are available.

Figure 6.33: Input of allowances

6.4.1 Gear Quality

The choice of the right toothing quality is determined by economical aspects depending upon the intended
purpose and manufacturing process. In all elds of gearing, the control of gear accuracy is essential. Several
classes or grades of accuracy can be set. 12 grades (12 to 1) are dened according to DIN standards. High
accuracy grades can be set for a long-life, high speed gears. Lower accuracy grades will cover medium- or
slow-speed grades. Accuracy grade `1' describes the highest possible accuracy, `12' a very low accuracy. The
gear accuracy `1 to 4' is mainly used for master gears, quality `5 to 12' is used for gear wheels (gure from:
Niemann, G.: Maschinenelemente, Vol. 2, Getriebe allgemein, Zahnradgetriebe-Grundlagen, Stirnradgetriebe,
1989, p. 73, gure 21.4/1).

Figure 6.34: Tolerances according to the manufacturing process

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6. Single External and Internal Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3960 and Other Standards 176

Select the appropriate quality between 1 and 12 by using the following listbox.

Figure 6.35: Listbox for the selection of quality

The following table provides some reference values for the selection of the quality, tolerances for gearings made
of metal and plastics:

Toothing Made of Metal4

ν Machining Quality Tolerance Sequence
to m/s of Tooth Flanks (Accuracy) DIN 3967
0.8 Cast, raw 12 2x30

0.8 Rough-machined 11 or 10 29 or 28

2 Finish milled 9 27

4 Finish milled 8 26

8 Fine nished 7 25

12 Shaved or ground 6 24

20 Precision-ground 5 23

40 Precision-machined 4 or 3 22

60 Precision-machined 3 22 or 21

Toothing Made of Injection Molding Plastics

Application d Quality Tolerance Sequence
in mm (Accuracy) DIN 3967
Gearings with high requirements to 10 9 27

Gearings with high requirements 10 to 50 10 28

Gearings with normal requirements 10 to 50 11 29

Gearings with low requirements to 280 12 2 x 30

Toothing made of plastic manufactured by cutting

Gearings with high requirements to 10 8 25 to 27

Gearings with high requirements 10 to 50 9 26 to 28

Gearings with normal requirements to 50 10 27, 28

Gearings with normal requirements 50 to 125 11 27, 28

Gearings with low requirements to 280 12 28

4 from: Karl-Heinz Decker: Maschinenelemente: Gestaltung und Berechnung, 1992, p.

512, table 23.3

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6. Single External and Internal Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3960 and Other Standards 177

For the gear tolerances/gear qualities, DIN 58405 for precision engineering as well as ISO 1328 and ANSI/AGMA
2015 are also available. For ISO 1328 and ANSI/AGMA 2015, two qualities can be selected in each case. The
rst quality is comparable with the tolerances permitted according to DIN 3961, the second value inuences
the radial composite deviation as well as the roll deviations.

6.4.2 Backlash Allowance and Tolerance Sequence

The system for gearings is very similar to the DIN system of ts and tolerances. For the system of ts for
gear transmissions letters are used to indicate the deviation from basic (nominal) size, a number denes the
width. There are clearance ts for gearings, therefore, lower case characters `h' to `a' appear. If you select
the entry `user dened input', the input eld for the tooth thickness allowances is enabled and you can dene
your individual values.

Figure 6.36: Own input

6.4.3 Tooth Thickness Allowance

One of the most important criteria of gear quality is the specication and control of tooth thickness. The
magnitude of tooth thickness and its tolerance is a direct measure of backlash when the gear is assembled
with its mate. Dimensional changes, due to thermal expansion, do not allow a zero-backlash assembly. The
tooth thickness allowance has to be determined that no jamming occurs. To prevent that jamming of gears
during the operation, it is necessary to decrease tooth thickness by a minimum amount (Asne and Asn ).

Figure 6.37: Lower and upper tooth thickness allowances

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6. Single External and Internal Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3960 and Other Standards 178

The eAssistant software oers the possibility to specify the tooth thickness allowances based on measured
data or given test dimensions. Click on the `Calculator' button.

Figure 6.38: `Calculator' button

A new window is opened.

Figure 6.39: Calculation of tooth thickness allowances

Activate gear 1 and gear 2 and enter the input values. Conrm with the button `OK'. The `Lock' button next
to the input eld for the tooth space allowances is enabled. Now you can change the tooth space allowances.

6.4.4 Tooth Space Allowance

The tooth space allowance AW is the dierence between the actual dimension and the nominal dimension of
the span measurement W k. The actual measurement of the span measurement gets smaller for external gears
by negative allowances for a zero-backlash assembly. The upper and lower tooth space allowance are displayed
as well. For an own input of the tooth thickness allowances, the tooth space allowances can be dened as
well. The `Lock' button next to the input eld of the tooth space allowances is enabled. Therefore, you can
change the tooth space allowances.

Figure 6.40: Tooth space allowance for the gear

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6.4.5 Measurement of Tooth Thickness

The tooth thickness of a gear may be measured directly with calipers or it may be determined indirectly by
diameter pins. The sizing of gears may be controlled by double-ank composite checks and centre distance
settings corresponding to maximum and minimum tooth thickness specications. Dierent measurement
methods are used:

- At pitch circle (chordal),

- Span measurement across several teeth,

- Measurement over pins or balls that are placed in diametrically opposed tooth spaces,

- Check of the centre distance allowance with zero-backlash engagement by using a master gear in a ank
roll tester.

In the following you get some information on the widely used measurement methods:

- Span measurement Wk
- Measurement by diameter over balls or pins, the measurement by using balls and pins

Span Measurement across Several Teeth

Span measurement Wk is the measurement of the distance across several teeth in a normal plane. As long as
the measuring device has parallel measuring surfaces that contact on an unmodied portion of the involute,
the measurement will be along a line tangent to the base cylinder. It is a widely used method for gauging the
tooth thickness by using the span measurement. The tooth thickness of spur or helical gears is often measured
with calipers. An advantage is that the dimensions can be inuenced during the manufacturing.

Figure 6.41: Span measurement

The calculation program determines the number of teeth for the span measurement (number of teeth across
the span measurement has to be gauged). By using the `Lock' button you are able to activate the input eld
and you can enter your own input value. If you click the button again, the previous input value appears.

Figure 6.42: Number of teeth for the span measurement

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6. Single External and Internal Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3960 and Other Standards 180

Tooth Thickness Measurement by Diameter over Pins or Balls

The tooth thickness is often checked by measurement over pins MdR or balls MdK . The pins or balls are
placed in diametrically opposed tooth spaces (even number of teeth) or nearest to it (odd number of teeth).
Measurement over pins is the measurement of the distance taken over a pin positioned in a tooth space and
a reference surface. The reference surface may be the reference axis of the gear, a datum surface or either
one or two pins positioned in the tooth space or spaces opposite the rst. The measurement over pins is only
used for spur gears and external helical gears. For the measurement values a distinction is made between:

- Measurement over balls MdK

- Measurement over pins MdR
- Measurement over pins for a spur gear

- Measurement over pins for external helical gears with even number of teeth

- Measurement over pins for external helical gears with odd number of teeth

For an external gear the measurement over balls MdK is the largest outer measure. The two balls are placed
in diametrically opposed tooth spaces. The balls have to be in the same plane perpendicular to a gear axis.
For an internal gear (see gure: `Internal spur gear with odd number of teeth') the measurement over balls is
the smallest inner measure between the balls. DM is the diameter of ball or pin. The internal gear is generally
checked for tooth thickness with measuring pins, like the external gear. However, the measurement is made
between the pins instead of over pins.

Measurement over balls:External spur gear with even num-

ber of teeth

Measurement over balls: External spur gear with odd num-

ber of teeth

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6. Single External and Internal Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3960 and Other Standards 181

Measurement over balls: Internal spur gear with odd num-

ber of teeth

The eAssistant software already species the diameter of ball or pin for the test dimensions. Enable the input
eld by clicking the `Lock' button. Enter your own input value for the diameter. If you click on the button
once again, the previous input value appears.

Figure 6.43: Diameter of ball or pin

Please Note: In the calculation report you can nd all results for the span measurement or measurement
over balls and pins in section `Test dimensions'.

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6.5 Representation of Gear Tooth Form

A special highlight of this calculation module is the presentation of the accurate gear tooth form with an
animation and simulation of the tooth mesh. For the presentation you can select the lower, upper and mean
allowances for the tooth thickness, tip diameter and centre distance. When you dene the geometry for the
gear pair, then you can have a look at the tooth form at any time. Click on the `Tooth form' button and you
get a general or detailed view of the tooth form. By clicking the `Geometry' or `Tool' button, you can open
the main input masks of the calculation module again.

Figure 6.44: Tooth form

Please Note: Please keep in mind that all values are later taken over to the DXF output and CAD generation.
In case you change the tooth thickness allowance or the centre distance allowance in the tooth form mask, then
the last modication is taken over to the DXF output. The section 6.17 contains some helpful information on
this function.

Figure 6.45: DXF output

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6.5.1 Representation of Cylindrical Gear Pair

Click on the `Tooth form' button to represent the gear tooth form.

Figure 6.46: Cylindrical gear pair

Please Note: Please keep in mind that you can check the backlash and the mesh ratio only in the presentation
of the mesh. The gear mesh will be discussed in the following section `Representation of Mesh'.

6.5.2 Representation of Tooth Mesh

Click on the `Detail view' button. You get a larger representation of the gear tooth form. Now you can see
the detailed tooth mesh. Click on the `Total view' button to obtain an entire view of the cylindrical gear pair.

Figure 6.47: Detail view of the mesh

Please Note: The representation of the tooth mesh allows you to look at the tooth thickness allowances, the
tip diameter and centre distance allowances as well the tooth mesh and to check the inuence of these values.
The tooth form mask provides various functions. Find a short description of these functions in the following
section.

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6. Single External and Internal Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3960 and Other Standards 184

6.5.3 Rotating Angle

Enter an rotating angle for the rotation of the spur gear pair.

Figure 6.48: Rotating angle

Rotation of the driving gear counter-clockwise

Rotation of the driving gear clockwise

6.5.4 Rotation
When you click on one of the two arrows, a continuous rotation of the spur gears occurs.

Figure 6.49: Rotation

Continuous rotation of the driving gear counter-clockwise

Continuous rotation of the driving gear clockwise

The rotation is stopped.

6.5.5 Tooth Thickness Allowance

Click on the `Detail view' button and the tooth mesh is represented in detail. Now you can change the tooth
thickness allowance, that is already given in the main mask for the `Allowances', within the tolerance limit.
All changes are displayed immediately. For the representation of the tooth mesh, select the lower, upper and
mean tooth thickness allowances for the gear.

Figure 6.50: Tooth thickness allowance in the main mask `Allowance'

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6. Single External and Internal Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3960 and Other Standards 185

Both arrows indicate the lower and upper allowance. The active input is grayed out and disabled. Click on
the left arrow and you will get the representation for the lower tooth thickness allowance. The right arrow
shows the representation for the upper tooth thickness allowance. The middle button displays the mean tooth
thickness allowance. At the rst start of the tooth form, you will get the mean tooth thickness allowance as
a standard feature.

Figure 6.51: Tooth thickness allowance

Please Note: In case you have specied the lower and upper tooth thickness allowance for gear the gear in
the input mask `Allowances' by using the `Calculator' button, then the manually dened values appear here
as lower and upper tooth thickness allowance.

6.5.6 Tip Diameter Allowance

Click the `Detail view' button and the tooth mesh is represented in detail. Now you can change the tip
diameter allowance, that is already given in the main mask for the `Geometry', within the tolerance limit. All
changes are displayed immediately. For the representation of the tooth mesh, select the lower, upper and mean
tip diameter allowances for the gear.

Figure 6.52: Tip diameter allowance in the main mask `Geometry'

Both arrows indicate the lower and upper allowance. The active input is grayed out and disabled. Click on
the left arrow and you will get the representation for the lower tip diameter allowance. The right arrow shows
the representation for the upper tip diameter allowance. The middle button displays the mean tip diameter
allowance. At the rst start of the tooth form, you will get the mean tip diameter allowance as a standard
feature.

Figure 6.53: Tip diameter allowance

Please Note: In case you have specied the lower and upper tip diameter allowance for the gear in the input
mask `Geometry' by using the `Lock' button, then the manually dened values appear here as lower and upper
tip diameter allowance.

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6.6 Input of Gear Tooth Prole and Gear Flank Modications

Manufacturing errors, misalignment in the assembly of the gears as well as displacement of the gears under
load lead to non-uniform load carrying across the facewidth and move a signicant concentration of load to
the tooth edges. Intentional deviations from the involute prole (prole modication) and from the theoretical
tooth trace (ank modication) are used to minimize the manufacturing inaccuracies and elastic deformations,
to improve the running behavior and to reduce the noise of the gear pair.

Figure 6.54: Input of prole and ank modications

There are dierent types of tooth corrections. Short and long linear or short and long circular tip and root relief
are typical tooth prole modications. Lead crowning and end relief are common ank modications. These
corrections tend to give better load distribution over the facewidth and can reduce the eects of misalignment.
Using prole or ank modication requires an appropriate degree of gear accuracy. The minimum required
gear manufacturing accuracy is DIN quality 7 or better. Design details should be based on a careful estimate
of the deformations and manufacturing deviations of the gearing.

6.6.1 Gear Tooth Prole Modication

In case of gear tooth prole modication, parts of the involute prole are changed to reduce the load in that
area. Prole modications help gears to run more quietly and to regulate transmission errors.

Figure 6.55: Gear tooth prole modication

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6. Single External and Internal Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3960 and Other Standards 187

Tip Relief and Root Relief

Tip relief is a modication whereby material is removed at the tips of the gear tooth. In case of root relief, a
small amount of material is removed near the root of the gear tooth. The modied tooth prole merges as
continuously as possible into the theoretical tooth prole. Prole crowning can be seen as a combination of
tip and root relief.

Figure 6.56: Tip relief and root relief

There are dierent types that can be chosen for the prole modication. A simple type of prole modication
is the linear tip relief on pinion and gear. However, it is also possible to execute only one gear with a tip and
root relief instead of both gears. The listbox allows to select linear and circular prole modication. The linear
relief results in the greatest material removal and thus the greatest relief in the eective ank area.

When determining the lengths of the prole correction, a distinction is made between short and long prole
modication. In case of long tip and root relief, the entire double contact area is corrected, while in the case
of short execution, only half of the double contact area is removed. Either long or short reliefs are used on a
gearing. The long prole modication is usually suitable for a quiet operation, while the short prole correction
has better load behavior. As long as the overlap ratio is sucient, a long prole correction is more suitable
for helical gearing.

Figure 6.57: Selection of tip relief

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Linear Tip and Root Relief

Figure 6.58: Linear tip relief Figure 6.59: Linear root relief

Circular Tip and Root Relief

Figure 6.60: Circular tip relief Figure 6.61: Circular root relief

The linear tip and root relief is executed in the eAssistant with a transition rounding from the modied to the
unmodied area. You can enter the start and end of the transition rounding in the corresponding input elds.
For circular relief, the input of the transition start and transition end is not required.

Figure 6.62: Selection of linear tip relief

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Linear Relief with Transition Radius

Figure 6.63: Linear relief with transition radius

In case you know the relief length, you can simply enter this value into the input eld. In case the length
is unknown, select `short' or `long' from the listbox. The eAssistant software determines the relief length
automatically. If a diameter is given on the drawing, it is possible to dene the diameter. Click the `d/l'
button on the right side to switch between the input for diameter or length.

Figure 6.64: Diameter and length

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6. Single External and Internal Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3960 and Other Standards 190

When you enable the checkbox `Use theoretical length of path of contact', then the theoretical path of contact
of a gear with a rack is used.

Figure 6.65: Use theoretical length of path of contact

Prole Crowning
Prole crowning can be seen as a combination of tip relief and root relief. Material is removed from the tip
and from the root of the tooth.

Figure 6.66: Prole modication

You can select symmetric prole crowning from the listbox and add a value for Cha to the input eld.

Figure 6.67: Symmetric modication

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6.6.2 Gear Flank Modications

Gear ank modications are intentional deviations from the theoretical tooth trace. Lead crowning and
end relief are typical gear ank modications and are advantageous for a better load distribution across the
facewidth of the gear. Both can compensate for misalignment so that the stresses do not rise at the tooth
ends.

Figure 6.68: Flank modication

End Relief
Due to mesh misalignments, an overloading of the tooth ends occurs. Therefore, end relief is used to protect
the tooth ends from overloading. Usually, the relief applied is the same at both ends of the teeth. In case
crown shaving and crown grinding are not possible, then end relief is recommended.

Figure 6.69: End relief (double-sided)

End relief can be applied to both tooth ends or to the left or right end of the tooth.

Figure 6.70: Selection of end relief

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End Relief: Double-sided, Left and Right Side

Figure 6.71: End relief (left side)

Figure 6.72: End relief (right side)

Figure 6.73: End relief (double-sided)

According to DIN 3990 Part 1, the height of end relief is calculated as follows:

- For through-hardened gears: Ce ≈ Fβxcv plus a manufacturing tolerance of 5 to 10 µm. Thus, by

analogy with Fβxcv (initial equivalent misalignment) in DIN 3990, Ce should be approximately:

Ce = fsh + 1, 5 · fHβ

- For surface hardened and nitrided gears: Ce ≈ 0, 5 · Fβxcv plus a manufacturing tolerance of 5 to 10
µm. Ce should be approximately:

Ce = 0, 5 · (fsh + 1, 5 · fHβ )

- When the gears are of such sti construction that fsh can for all practical purposes be neglected or
when the helices have been modied to compensate deformation, the following is appropriate:

Ce = fHβ

- 60% to 70% of the above values is appropriate for very accurate and reliable gears with high tangential
velocities.

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Figure 6.74: End relief

According to DIN 3990 Part 1, the width (or length) of end relief can be determined as follows:

- For approximately constant loading and higher tangential velocities:

le = smaller of the values 0, 1 · b or 1·m

- The following is appropriate for variable loading, low and average speeds:

bred = (0, 5 to 0, 7) · b

Lead Crowning
Lead crowning is a common way of crowning is the so-called lead crowning. This type is employed in order
to compensate for manufacturing deviations and load-induced deformations of the gears and in particular to
relieve the tooth-endloading.

Figure 6.75: Lead crowning

Gears are usually crowned symmetrically about the mid-facewidth and the tooth center is slightly thicker than
the tooth edges. The tooth anks of the gear have a slight outward bulge in its center area. It is possible to
select symmetrical and asymmetrical lead crowning from the listbox.

Figure 6.76: Symmetrical crowning Figure 6.77: Asymmetrical crowning

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6. Single External and Internal Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3960 and Other Standards 194

According to DIN 3990 Part 1, the height of lead crowning can be determined as follows:

Cb = 0, 5 · (fsh + 1, 5 · fHβ )

- When the gears are of such sti construction that fsh can for all practical purposes be neglected or
when the helices have been modied to compensate for deformation at mid-face width, the following
value can be substituted:

Cb = fHβ

- Subject to the restriction 10 ≤ Cb ≤ 25 µm plus a manufacturing tolerance of about 5 µm, 60% to

70% of the above values are adequate for extremely accurate and reliable high speed gears.

Figure 6.78: Height of lead crowning

6.7 Some Notes for Internal Gears

The eAssistant provides the calculation of internal gears.

Figure 6.79: Internal gear in eAssistant

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6. Single External and Internal Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3960 and Other Standards 195

A special feature of spur and helical gears is their capability of being made in an internal form, in which an
internal gear mates with an ordinary external gear. An internal involute gear has either spur or helical teeth
cut on the inside of a ring.

General advantages of internal gears:

- The centre distance is less than for external gears and makes it desirable in some applications where
space is very limited.

- Good surface endurance due to a convex prole surface working against a concave surface. The teeth
of an internal gearing are relatively thick and strong. Hence, a low tooth root stress occurs.

General disadvantages of internal gears:

- The assembly has to be considered. Due to a small dierence between the number of teeth in the pinion
and gear, internal gears will not assemble radially, but axially.

- Fewer types of machine tools can produce internal gearings, usually a special tooling is required.

- Low velocity ratios are unsuitable and in many cases impossible because of interferences. Interferences
for internal gears occur far more frequently than for external gearings.

- The use of rack-type tools is not possible for internal gearings. Only a few number of teeth provides
dened features. Hence, a check regarding meshing interferences is necessary.

6.8 Input of Geometry Data for Internal Gears

Some inputs for the internal gears dier from the inputs for external gears. Nevertheless, internal gears can
be calculated very fast. The following provides the most important changes for the input of internal gears.

Figure 6.80: Internal gearing

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6.8.1 Direction of Helix Angle

For an external gearing a right-hand teeth and a left-hand teeth can only mesh correctly. An internal gear
has the same helix angle in degrees and the same hand its mating pinion. A right-hand pinion meshes with a
right-hand gear and vice-versa.

Figure 6.81: Direction of helix angle

6.8.2 Internal Helical Gears

Internal gears may be either spur or helical. Internal helical gearings have their advantages and disadvantages
just like external helical gearings.

Figure 6.82: Internal helical gear created in 3D

General advantages over internal spur gears are:

- The gear pair oers a more quietly operation.

- Gears are capable transmitting heavier loads.

- A smaller number of teeth is possible than for internal spur gears.

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General disadvantages are:

- Axial loads cannot be avoided.

- Much more dicult to produce than internal spur gears.

For the creation of an internal helical gear, only the helix angle β has to be considered.

Figure 6.83: Helix angle

6.8.3 Number of Teeth

Because the internal gear is reversed relative to the external gear, the tooth parts are also reversed relative
to an ordinary external gear. Tooth proportions and standards are the same as for external gears except that
the addendum of the gear is reduced to avoid trimming of the teeth in the fabrication process. The number
of teeth is negative for internal gears. The tip, reference and root diameter are negative as well. By default,
a negative number of teeth appears when you open the module for single internal cylindrical gears.

Figure 6.84: Negative number of teeth

6.8.4 Prole Shift

For an internal gear the tooth tip is enlarged by shifting towards the tooth centre and the tooth root is enlarged
by shifting away from the tooth centre. The internal gear is reversed relative to the external gear. A prole
shift of an internal gear is positive in direction to the tooth tip and negative in direction to the tooth root. It
applies for both internal and external gearings:

- The prole shift is positive, x · mn > 0, when the prole reference line is shifted from the reference circle
to the pitch circle.

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- The prole shift is negative, x · mn < 0, when the prole reference line is shifted from the reference
circle to the root circle.

A positive prole shift has the following inuences:

- The tooth root becomes thinner, the dedendum hf gets smaller, the addendum ha gets larger. Due to
a thick and strong tooth root, there is no danger of tooth root breakage.

- The tip circle and the root diameter increase, but get smaller according to the absolute value. Thereby,
a smaller internal gear is developed.

The positive prole shift may be disadvantageous for internal gears. It is comparable with a negative prole
shift for external gears. A negative prole shift has the following inuences:

- The tip circle and root diameter become smaller, but get larger according to the absolute value. A larger
internal gear is developed.

- The spacewidth at the tooth root gets smaller. For a smaller number of teeth there is a risk that a
pointed tooth tip occurs, the risk of notch eects increases.

Figure 6.85: Changing the tooth form using prole shift: Number of teeth z = -50; tooth 1: x = -1.5; tooth
2: x = 0; tooth 3: x = +0.5

Please Note: A negative prole shift may be advantageous for internal gears. In this case, it is comparable
with a positive prole shift for external gears. For external and internal gear pairs the impacts of positive and
negative prole shift are similar.

Figure 6.86: Input of prole shift

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6.9 Manufacturing Process for Internal Gears

For internal gears, the shaping process is the only basic method of tooth generation. Internal gears cannot be
hobbed. Only in some very special cases rack-type tools can be used. They can be shaped, milled or cast. In
small sizes they can be broached. Both helical and spur internals can be nished by shaving, grinding, lapping
or burnishing. In case the gear shaper cutter itself is generated by using a rack tool, then the mesh of the
gear anks is limited by the proper tooth tip of the gear rack.

Figure 6.87: Selection of the tool for the gear

An internal gear mates with an ordinary external gear and the number of teeth of the external gear must
be less than that of the gear to be cut for the internal gear. A rack prole can be a basic rack prole for
internal gears. But the basic rack prole cannot be used for generating internal gears. Internal gears are
produced by a gear shaper cutter. The number of teeth of the gear shaper cutter must be, according to the
amount, smaller than the number of teeth of the internal gear. The shaping is a continuous process. The cut-
ting tool is a spur shaper cutter. During the machining, tool and gear roll on each other. A feed motion occurs.

6.10 Meshing Interferences for Internal Gears

The gear mesh of an internal gear pair can be much more dicult than for external gears. Interferences
for internal gears occur far more frequently than for external gearings. In case a meshing interference takes
place, a warning is displayed in the message window. The following meshing interferences can appear in the
calculation module:

- Generation meshing interference (tooth root meshing interference on the gear shaper cutter)

- Feed meshing interference

6.10.1 Generation meshing interference

When shaper cutter and internal gear are in mesh, the generation meshing interference occurs due to tool
cutter action in generating teeth with low numbers of teeth. Because of this interference there is a loss of the
involute prole at the tooth tip. The term of the mesh and the load capacity are decreased.

6.10.2 Feed Meshing Interference

If the chosen gear shaper cutter is too large and the teeth of the internal gear are cut o in the feed direction,
a feed meshing interference occurs. If the sum of the prole shift is decreased, feed meshing interferences can
be avoided. It is also possible to adjust the number of teeth of the gear shaper cutter.

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6.11 Message Window

The calculation module provides a message window. This message window displays detailed information,
helpful hints or warnings about problems. One of the main benets of the program is that the software
provides suggestions for correcting errors during the data input. If you check the message window carefully
for any errors or warnings and follow the hints, you are able to nd a solution to quickly resolve calculation
problems.

Figure 6.88: Message window

6.12 Quick Info: Tooltip

The quick info tooltip provides additional information about all input elds and buttons. Move the mouse
pointer over the input eld or button, then you will get the additional information. This information will be
displayed in the quick info line.

Figure 6.89: Quick info line

6.13 Calculation Results

All results will be calculated during every input and will be displayed in the result panel. A recalculation
occurs after every data input. Any changes that are made to the user interface take eect immediately. In
case a minimum safety is not fullled, the result will be marked red. Press the Enter key or move to the
next input eld to complete the input. Alternatively, use the Tab key to jump from eld to eld or click
the `Calculate' button after every input. Your entries will be also conrmed and the calculation results will
displayed automatically.

Figure 6.90: Calculation results

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6.14 Documentation: Calculation Report

After the completion of your calculation, you can create a calculation report. Click on the `Report' button.

Figure 6.91: Button `Report'

The calculation report contains a table of contents. You can navigate through the report via the table of
contents that provides links to the input values, results and gures. The report is available in HTML and PDF
format. Calculation reports, saved in HTML format, can be opened in a web browser or in Word for Windows.

Figure 6.92: Calculation report

You may also print or save the calculation report:

- To save the report in the HTML format, please select `File' ⇒ `Save as' from your browser menu bar.
Select the le type `Webpage complete', then just click on the `Save' button.

- If you click on the symbol `Print', then you can print the report very easily.

- If you click on the symbol `PDF', then the report appears in the PDF format. If you right-click on the
PDF symbol, you should see the `Save Target As' option. Click on that option and you will see the
Windows save dialog.

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6.15 How to Save the Calculation

When the calculation is nished, it is easy to save the calculation. You can save your calculation either to the
eAssistant server or to your computer. Click on the button `Save'.

Figure 6.93: Button `Save'

Before you can save the calculation to your computer, you need to activate the checkbox Local' in the
calculation module. A standard Windows dialog for saving les will appear. Now you will be able to save the
calculation to your computer.

Figure 6.94: Windows dialog for saving the le

In case you do not activate the option in order to save your les locally, then a new window is opened and
you can save the calculation to the eAssistant server. Please enter a name into the input eld `Filename' and
click on the button `Save'.

Figure 6.95: Save the calculation

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6.16 The Button `Redo' and `Undo'

The `Undo' button allows you to reset your inputs to an older state. The `Redo' button reverses the undo.

Figure 6.96: Button `Redo' and `Undo'

6.17 The Button `CAD'

The top menu bar of the eAssistant software provides the button `CAD'.

Figure 6.97: Button `CAD'

The eAssistant plugin for various CAD systems (e.g., SOLIDWORKS, Solid Edge, Autodesk Inventor) oers
a great way to combine calculation and design. On the basis of the eAssistant calculation, you can generate
single cylindrical gears in a 2D DXF format or create as a 3D part within seconds.

6.17.1 DXF Output for the Accurate Tooth Form

Click on the menu item `CAD ⇒ DXF Output'. Now you are able to create the accurate tooth form of any
involute gearing in the 2D DXF format. Use the various settings for the DXF output.

Figure 6.98: DXF output

For the DXF output the following options are possible:

- Output in normal section or transverse section (both options will be active when an helix angle is entered)

- DXF output with points

- DXF output with lines

- DXF output with polylines

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- DXF output with arcs

- Number of teeth

- Minimum point distance

- Input of a required layer name where the contour should be placed

- Save the DXF le including the header

Figure 6.99: Settings for the DXF output

When you have dened all settings, then click on the button `OK'. A standard Windows dialog is opened to
save the le.

Figure 6.100: Saving the DXF le

Now you can save the DXF le to your computer. Enter a name for the le and click on the button `Save'. It
is not necessary to specify the le extension. The le is identied automatically.

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6.17.2 STEP/IGES Format

Using this function allows to create the geometry of cylindrical gears as 3D CAD models in STEP or IGES
format. STEP as well as IGES are two standardised neutral le formats for CAD models. Almost every 3D
CAD system can import STEP les.

Figure 6.101: STEP format

The settings menu for the STEP and IGES output has a few dierent functions and allows to adjust the export
options as needed. The geometry can be generated as a solid model with one or all teeth or as a surface
model of the tooth space geometry. When exporting to a CAD system, you can also set the level of accuracy
to a desired value.

Figure 6.102: Inputs for STEP output

6.17.3 GDE Format

With the integration of the standardised GDE format into the modules for gears and involute splines, eAssistant
takes a step closer to a seamless data workow. GDE stands for Gear Data Exchange. This format, which is
dened in VDI/VDE guideline 2610, is already supported by many measuring machine manufacturers. With
the GDE format, geometries of cylindrical gears and involute splines can be loaded directly from the software
into the measuring machine. It only takes a few clicks to create a measuring program. This avoids transmission
errors and allows to work with standard measuring instructions.

Figure 6.103: GDE format

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6.17.4 eAssistant CAD-PlugIn

The eAssistant plugin for various CAD systems (e.g., SOLIDWORKS, Solid Edge, Autodesk Inventor) enables
you to combine calculation and design very easily and fast. Based on your eAssistant calculation, you can
generate external and internal spur and helical gears as a 3D part within seconds. Allowances, addendum
chamfer, prole shift and prole modications (tip and root relief ) are taken into consideration. A single menu
pick in the eAssistant software transfers the eAssistant calculation data to the CAD system. Based on these
parameters, the automatic creation of a 3D parametric model starts in the CAD system.

Figure 6.104: CAD plugin

The CAD model stores all features and dimensions as design parameters. The eAssistant calculation is linked
and associated to the part and can be opened at any time throughout the entire design phase. This is also
possible if one part contains dierent calculations. Click the button `CAD' and select the CAD plugin. Open
the CAD system and start the generation by clicking the integrated button `eAssistant'.

Please note: First you need to download and install the right CAD plugin for your CAD system. The plugin
is available on our web site www.eAssistant.eu. After installation, an integrated button called `eAssistant'
appears in the CAD system.

With just one click, the design table with all manufacturing details can be placed on the sheet. The appearance
and size of that table is individually congurable. There is no need to manually add all design table param-
eters to the drawing. For further information, please visit our web site www.eAssistant.eu or read the manual.

6.17.5 Manufacturing Data

The button `CAD ⇒ Manufacturing data' allows to save the manufacturing data to a text le.

Figure 6.105: Output of manufacturing data

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6.17.6 Coordinate Table

The gear tooth form geometry of a tooth space can be exported as a coordinate text le in transverse section
as well as in normal section.

Figure 6.106: Coordinate table

6.18 The Button `Options'

Click on the button `Options' in the top menu bar of the eAssistant software.

Figure 6.107: Button `Options'

This option allows you to change some general settings:

- Unit switch between the metric system and the U.S. customary unit system, the unit can also be changed
directly for each individual input value. Simply click on the label of the corresponding input eld and
select the unit from the context menu. You will see the change of the unit of measurement immediately
in the label of the input eld. The current eld value will be converted to the corresponding unit.

- Factor for minimal gear ring thickness: the factor can be specied by the user. This factor controls
the value for the largest possible bore diameter (inner diameter) for external gears and the smallest
possible outer diameter for internal gears. The default value 2.0 refers to forged gears (see main mask
`Geometry'), recommendations according to Schlecht (Maschinenelemente 2, 2010): gear ring thickness
for extreme lightweight constructions < 2 · m, cast constructions 5...8 · m, for welded constructions
3...5 · m.
- Number of decimal places for the calculation report

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Chapter 7

Rack/Pinion Pairings According to

DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other
Standards

7.1 Start the Calculation Module

Please login with your username and your password. To start the calculation module for gear racks, please
click the menu item `Gear calculation' on the left side and then select `Gear rack'.

Figure 7.1: General overview

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 209

This gear calculation module allows a simple calculation of the geometry and load capacity of rack-pinion
gear pairs. The geometry calculation is based on DIN 3960, DIN 3961, DIN 3964, DIN 3967, DIN 3977 and
DIN 868, the calculation of the load capacity is based on DIN 3990 Method B, ISO 6336 Method B and
ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04. Spur and helical involute pinions are possible to calculate. Prole shift, addendum
chamfer and allowances will be taken into consideration. The number of teeth or alternatively, the length of
the gear rack can be specied. Rectangular or round cross section gear rack designs are possible.

Figure 7.2: Gear rack with pinion

In theory a gear rack is a section of a spur gear with an innitely large pitch diameter, resulting in an involute
prole that is essentially a straight line. Gear-rack pairings are important components in that they are a
means of converting rotational motion into linear motion and vice versa. The rack can be used to determine
the basic gear parameters. Gear racks mate with an external spur gear (pinion) and can be both spur and helical.

7.2 Input of Geometry Data

All important calculation results will be calculated during every input and will be displayed in the result panel.
A recalculation occurs after every data input. Any changes that are made to the user interface take eect
immediately. Press the Enter key or move to the next input eld to complete the input. Alternatively, use
the Tab key to jump from eld to eld or click the `Calculate' button after every input. Your entries will be
also conrmed and the calculation results will displayed automatically. If the result exceeds certain values, the
result will be marked red.

7.2.1 Normal Module

The normal module mn is one of the basic parameters in the gear geometry and describes the size of a gear.
The module is dened as the ratio of the pitch diameter to the number of teeth of a gear. Note that the
larger the module the larger the teeth. The value of the module is dened in millimeters. In order to limit the
number of the gears, the module has been standardised in preferred series 1 and 2 (see following tables). The
calculation with the eAssistant software is possible with any modules including several decimal places.

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Series of Modules in mm According to DIN 780 Series 1 (Part 1)

0.05 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.25

0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Series of Modules in mm According to DIN 780 Series 1 (Part 2)

1.25 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 8

10 12 16 20 25 32 40 50 60

Series of Modules in mm According to DIN 780 Series 2 (Part 1)

0,055 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.14 0.18 0.22 0.28 0.35

0.45 0.55 0.65 0.75 0.85 0.95 1,125 1,375 1.75

Series of Modules in mm According to DIN 780 Series 2 (Part 2)

2.25 2.75 3.5 4.5 5.5 7 9 11

14 18 22 28 36 45 55 70

7.2.2 Pressure Angle

The pressure angle is the angle between the line-of-action and the common tangent to the pitch circles. With
an increasing distance from the base circle, the prole angles αy increase too. The most common pressure
angle now in use for spur gears is20◦ . This pressure angle is usually preferred due to its stronger tooth shape
and reduced undercutting. The 25◦ pressure angle has the highest load-carrying ability, but is more sensitive
to center-distance variation and hence runs less quietly. The choice is dependent on the application. The
default startup setting for the pressure angle is set to 20◦ .

7.2.3 Helix Angle

For spur gears the helix angle is β = 0◦ , for helical gears the angle β is up to 45◦ due to the fact that the
◦
teeth for a helical gear are inclined by the angle. 45 is also the maximum value that you can enter into the
input eld for the helix angle. For an external gearing a right-hand teeth and a left-hand teeth can only mesh
correctly. For internal gearings pinion and gear must have the same direction.

Figure 7.3: Racks with spur and helical teeth

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Please note: Calculation with helix angle greater than 45 degree is possible. If you want to use this option,
please contact us.

7.2.4 Centre Distance

The centre distance a is the distance between the axes. In case of changing the normal module mn , the centre
distance is determined automatically.

Figure 7.4: Centre distance

The centre distance can be determined from the prole shift of the pinion and vice versa. It is also possible to
specify the centre distance manually. This determines the prole shift coecient of the pinion. Click the `Lock'
button next to the input eld of the prole shift coecient. The input eld for the prole shift coecient will
be disabled and you can enter a value for the centre distance.

Figure 7.5: Centre distance

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7.2.5 Helix Direction

After adding an helix angle, you can specify the helix direction of pinion and gear rack. Please keep in mind
that both gears of a meshed pair must have the same helix angle β. However, the helix directions must be
opposite, i.e., a left-hand mates with a right-hand helix.

Figure 7.6: Helical gear rack with pinion

Select the option `left' for the pinion. That means: Pinion is left-handed, pinion is right-handed.

Figure 7.7: Option

Select the option `left' for the gear rack. That means: Pinion is right-handed, gear rack is left-handed.

Figure 7.8: Option

7.2.6 Number of Teeth

The number of teeth of a gear describes the number of the teeth on the full rim. The number of teeth is
positive for external gears and negative for internal gears. Please note that the smaller the number of teeth
the larger the inuence of the prole shift.

Please note: A calculation with non-integer number of teeth, i.e., number of teeth with decimal places. If
you want to use this option, please contact us.

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 213

Click the `Calculator' button to open the window and to dimension the length or, alternatively, the number of
teeth of the gear rack.

Figure 7.9: Button for the dimensioning of the gear rack length and number of teeth

Enter the number of teeth and conrm your input by clicking the Enter key. The optimal length of the gear
rack is shown. Alternatively, you can specify the length of the gear rack in order to get a recommendation for
the number of teeth of the gear rack. To do so, click the `Lock button' to enable the input eld and enter a
value. Conrm the value with Enter. The number of teeth of the gear rack is automatically determined.

Figure 7.10: Dimensioning of gear rack length and number of teeth

7.2.7 Facewidth
The facewidth b is the length of the gear teeth as measured along a line parallel to the gear axis.

Figure 7.11: Facewidth

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The following table shows some additional information about the facewidth b as well as minimum number of
teeth z.

Standard Values for the Facewidth b and Minimum Number of Teeth z 1

Gears on rigid shafts, that run in roller or excellent plain bearings,
b ≤ 30 . . . 40 · m
Teeth, machine-cut rigid substructure

Gears in usual gear boxes, roller or plain bearings b ≤ 25 · m

Gears on steel constructions, beams and suchlike b ≤ 15 · m
Gears with excellent bearing in high duty gearings b ≤ 2 · d1
Teeth, cast roughly Overhung gears b ≤ 10 · m
Gears with high circumferential velocity(υ > 4 m/s) and considerable z1 ≥ 16
power, when εα > 1.5
Gears with mean circumferential velocity(υ = 0.8 . . . 4 m/s) z1 ≥ 12
Gears with low circumferential velocity(υ < 0.8 m/s) or for low power for subor-
z1 ≥ 10
dinated purposes

Basically external gearings z1 + z2 ≥ 24

Basically internal gearings z2 ≥ z1 + 10
1 from: Karl-Heinz Decker: Maschinenelemente: Gestaltung und Berechnung, 1992, p. 506, table 23.2

7.2.8 Prole Shift on the Pinion

The tooth form of a gear rack cannot be changed by the prole shift. The prole shift is only applied to the
pinion. Prole-shifted gears can be meshed with the gear rack. A shift in the utilized prole range compared to
the normal position is called the prole shift. The prole shift aects the tooth form because the tool is shifted
by the value xm towards or away from the tip circle. A prole shift is used to avoid meshing interferences.
The calculation of the tip diameter da and root diameter df includes the prole shift coecient x. According
to DIN 3960 the prole shift is

- positive if the prole reference line is shifted from the reference circle towards the tip circle,

- negative if the prole reference line is shifted from the reference circle towards the root circle.

Figure 7.12: Change the tooth form with the prole shift: number of teeth z = 10; tooth 1: x = 0.5; tooth
2: x = 0; tooth 3: x = -0.5

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 215

The prole shift of the pinion can be freely chosen. Please note that no meshing interferences occur. Please
note that no meshing interferences occur. In case meshing interferences occur, you will get an appropriate
message in the message window.

Figure 7.13: Prole shift on the pinion

Characteristics of the Prole Shift

- A positive prole shift increases the tooth thickness, a negative prole shift decreases the tooth thickness.

- With an increasing positive prole shift, the tooth tip thickness and the root llet become smaller, the
axle load and the load capacity increase. This advantage occurs especially for a smaller number of teeth.

- The minimum permitted tooth tip thickness determines the limit for a very large prole shift, in particular
for very small number of teeth.

- The prole shift aects the operating pressure angle as well as the load capacity.

- For a small number of teeth and with a negative prole shift, an undercut becomes a problem (see above
gure). The undercut weakens the tooth root and a part of the tooth ank is cut o.

Here you have the option of dimensioning or optimizing the prole shift coecient. To optimize the prole
shift coecient, click on the `Calculator' button. In addition to the option `user-dened input', the following
two options are available for selection: `Geometric minimum' and `Geometric maximum'. Here the possible
limits of the prole shift, i.e. the minimum and maximum prole shift that can be executed with respect to
the undercut limit and topland limit.

Figure 7.14: Dimensioning of the prole shift

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7.2.9 Tip Diameter

The tip diameter da depends on the module and will be determined by the program automatically. If you
change the prole shift, the tip diameter will change, too. There is the possibility to enable the tip circle
using the `Lock' button. Now you can add and modify the tip diameter very easily. Please note that the tip
diameter has an inuence on the modication of the tip diameter. Click on the button again to disable the
input eld. The value is determined again according to DIN. In case you use a special tool, the tip diameter can
be changed by a tool customization. Find out more about the tool data in the section `The input of tool data'.

7.2.10 Tip Diameter Allowance

The tip diameter allowance is determined according to DIN. Click on the `Lock' button to enable the input
eld and enter your own value. If your values are out of range of the DIN, you will get an information in
the message window. Click on the `Lock' button and the input eld is disabled again. The allowances are
determined according to DIN.

Figure 7.15: Enable tip diameter and tip diameter allowance

7.2.11 Modication of Tip Diameter

The modication of the tip diameter k is automatically determined by the program that a sucient tip
clearance is available. For external gears the modication of the tip diameter is k ≤ 0. Click on the `Lock'
button to enable the input eld and enter your own value. Such a modication of the tip diameter has an
eect on the tip diameter.

Figure 7.16: Enable modication of tip diameter

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7.2.12 Tip Clearance

Clearance c is the distance between the root circle of a gear and the addendum circle of its mate. A certain
clearance between the gears is necessary for a smooth operation without jamming.

Figure 7.17: Tip clearance c

A distinction is made between two dierent kind of clearances. There is the tip clearance c and the backlash j .
Standard gears have got a basic rack prole with a addendum coecient ha = m or a tool basic rack prole
with hf p = m. The dedendum coecient hf of the basic rack prole or the addendum coecient hap of the
tool basic rack prole has to be larger due to ensure that tip and root circle of the gears are not in contact.

Backlash j
If the gears are of standard tooth proportion design and operate on standard center distance, they would
function ideally with neither backlash nor jamming. The general purpose of backlash is to prevent gears from
jamming and making contact on both sides of their teeth simultaneously. Any error in machining which tends
to increase the possibility of jamming makes it necessary to increase the amount of backlash. Consequently,
the smaller the amount of backlash, the more accurate must be the machining of the gears. Runout of both
gears, errors in prole, pitch, tooth thickness, helix angle and centre distance - all are factors to consider in
the specication of the amount of backlash. In order to obtain the amount of backlash desired, it is necessary
to change the tooth thickness or tooth space allowances (please see also section 7.4.8 `Backlash Normal Plane').

7.2.13 Root Diameter and Allowances of Root

The root diameter df depends upon the module, the prole shift and addendum coecient of the basic rack
prole. The root diameter is determined by the program. Therefore, the root diameter occurs as a result of
the calculation.

The allowances of root result from your calculation and will be determined automatically. The allowances
depend upon the tooth thickness allowances. For instance, if you enter the value `0' for a gear, then the
allowances of root become `0' for this gear as well.

Figure 7.18: Root diameter and allowances of root

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7.2.14 Gear Rack Height

Enter the height of the gear rack here. Rectangular or round cross section gear rack designs are possible.

Figure 7.19: Geometry of the basic body as rectangular or round cross section

Use the button `hz /rz ' to switch between the gear rack height hz and the gear rack radius rz . An illustration
appears right next to the button.

Figure 7.20: Gear rack height

7.2.15 Addendum Chamfer

The tooth ends of a gear are often rounded or chamfered. A chamfer is a small angled surface added on
the end of a shaft along an edge. For the calculation you can consider the addendum chamfer. Meshing
interferences can be removed by the addendum chamfer. As an alternative for the addendum chamfer, it is
possible to dene a tip corner radius instead of the addendum chamfer. Click the button to choose between
addendum chamfer and tip corner radius. The tip corner radius can be specied either as a radial size or as a
radius.

Figure 7.21: Input of addendum chamfer or tip corner radius

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 219

Please Note: If you dene the geometry of the gear pair, you are able to look at the tooth form. Click on
the button `Tooth form' and select `Total view' or `Detail view' (nd more information on the tooth form and
its functions in section 7.5 `Representation of Gear Tooth Form'). Click the button `Geometry' and you get
to the geometry input again.

Figure 7.22: Addendum chamfer

As an alternative to the addendum chamfer, a tip corner radius can be specied. This can be dened either
as a radial amount or directly as a radius. The selection is marked by the colored arrow. The radius is entered
directly for the tip radius, the radial amount is entered for the tip radius (Rad.). If you enter the tip radius
directly as a value, you will receive the corresponding radial amount in the calculation report. In the case of
tip corner radius or addendum chamfer, the tip form diameter is smaller than the tip circle diameter by twice
the radial amount hK . Please see section ?? to nd an illustration.

7.2.16 Inner Diameter for the Pinion

Click the button `Details' to open additional input options, for example the input of the inner diameter.

Figure 7.23: Inner diameter

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 220

The inner diameter can only be dened for the pinion. It should be kept in mind that the inner diameter
has to be smaller than the root diameter df . In case the inner diameter is larger than df , then the program
automatically corrects the value and enters the maximum value for the inner diameter. An appropriate message
appears in the message window.

7.2.17 Web Width

The web width can be considered here. The web width is shown in the gure next to the input eld. There
is the possibility to modify the web width by using the `Lock' button.

The `Lock' button is still disabled. Enter the values for the inner or outer diameter into the input eld. Then
the `Lock' button is enabled and the web width gets the same value as the facewidth. In case the web width
is smaller than the facewidth, then the gear body stiness is aected due to the gear body coecient CR .
The tooth spring stiness changes which aects again the load capacity.

Figure 7.24: Web width

7.2.18 Chamfer
The chamfer can be considered. This reduces the calculated facewidth for the calculation of the load capacity
of the tooth root and tooth ank.

Figure 7.25: Chamfer

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7.3 Input of Tool Data

For the selection of the manufacturing process you have to consider the material, size of the gear, quantity, gear
type (external or internal gears) and accuracy. The many methods of making gear teeth must be considered
as well. eAssistant distinguishes between gear-tooth cutting and gear hobbing.

Figure 7.26: Input mask for tool data

Please note: If you want to add some own notes, comments or a description, then use the comment line.

7.3.1 Tool
The most important manufacturing processes are gear hobbing and gear shaping. Select either the tool `Hob'
or `Gear shaper cutter' by clicking the listbox. A `Constructed involute' is also available. Basically, the selection
of the tool depends on the gear type (external or internal gears). The external gears can be produced by cutting
wherein the gear cutting tool is a hob.

Figure 7.27: Selection of tool

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 222

Gear Hobbing
The hobbing is the most widely used method of cutting gear teeth. The hobbing process is quite advantageous
in cutting gears with very wide facewidth. A very high degree of tooth-spacing accuracy can be obtained with
hobbing. With regard to accuracy, hobbing is superior to the other cutting processes. A wide variety of sizes
and kinds of hobbing machines are used. The rotating hob has a series of rack teeth arranged in a spiral
around the outside of a cylinder, so it cuts several gear teeth at one time. To generate the full width of the
gear, the hob slowly traverses the face of the gear as it rotates. Thus, the hob has a basic rotary motion and
an unidirectional traverse at right angles. Both movements are relatively simple to eect, resulting in a very
accurate process.

Field of Application of the Hob:

- Recommended for gears with very wide facewidth

- Recommended for external spur and helical gears up to module `40' (Please keep in mind: it is an
expensive tool for large modules)

- Recommended for all basic rack proles

- The helix angle is arbitrary.

Figure 7.28: Hob and gear shaper cutter

Gear Shaping
The shaping process is a gear-cutting method in which the cutting tool is shaped like a pinion. If a gear is
provided with cutting clearance and is hardened, it may be used as a generating tool in a gear shaper. The
cutter reciprocates while it and the gear blank are rotated together at the angular-velocity ratio corresponding
to the number of teeth on the cutter and the gear. The teeth on the gear cutter are appropriately relieved
to form cutting edges on one face. Although the shaping process is not suitable for the direct cutting of
ultra-precision gears and generally is not as highly rated as hobbing, it can produce precision quality gears.
Usually it is a more rapid process than hobbing. Two outstanding features of shaping involve shouldered and
internal gears. For internal gears, the shaping process is the only basic method of tooth generation.

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Field of Application of the Gear Shaper Cutter:

- Recommended for internal and external spur and helical gears

- Racks

- Special gearings, e.g., splined shaft connections, face or chain gears

Constructed Involute
In addition to the hob and the gear shaper cutter, you can also select the entry `Constructed involute' as a
tool. In case internal gears cannot be shaped with a gear shaper cutter, the tooth form calculation is still
possible by using the constructed involute. This specically applies for applications in the precision mechanics.
This method allows a generation of the tooth form with a constant root llet radius.

Figure 7.29: Constructed involute

Representation of Hob and Gear Shaper Cutter

The representation shows either the hob basic rack prole or the gear shaper cutter tooth prole. The radio
buttons enable you to choose one of the graphical representation.

Figure 7.30: Tool

7.3.2 Standard Basic Rack Tooth Prole

To mesh two gears with each other, the parameters have to be coordinated. The standard basic rack tooth
prole is standardized in DIN 867. A gear with an innite number of teeth will have straight lines for both
the pitch and the base circles. The involute prole will be a straight line. The rack can be used to determine
the basic parameters. Racks can be both spur and helical. A rack will mesh with all gears of the same pitch.
The pressure angle and the gears pitch radius remain constant regardless of changes in the relative position of
the gear and rack. The tool standard basic rack prole is the counter prole of the standard basic rack tooth
prole.

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 224

The following standard basic rack proles are available for your calculation. Choose your prole from the
listbox.

Figure 7.31: Listbox for the basic rack prole

- ISO 53 Prole A: is recommended for gears transmitting high torques

- ISO 53 Prole B: is recommended for normal service

- ISO 53 Prole C: is recommended for normal service, type C may be applied for manufacturing with
some standard hobs.

- ISO 53 Prole D: is recommended for high-precision gears transmitting high torques and consequently
with tooth anks nished by grinding or shaving. Care should be taken to avoid creating notches in the
llet during nishing which could create stress concentrations.

- DIN 3972 Prole I, II, III, IV

- Prole 1 DIN 867

- Prole 2 DIN 867

- Prole 3 DIN 867

- Prole 4 DIN 867

In addition to the standard basic rack proles, you can also select a protuberance tool. When part of the
involute prole of a gear tooth is cut away near its base, the tooth is said to be undercut. By using a
protuberance tool an undercut near the root can be generated. Grinding notches at the tooth ank can
be avoided during the grinding. That provides relief for subsequent nishing operations (see section 7.3.5
`Protuberance').

Figure 7.32: Selection of the protuberance tools

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 225

You can select the following proles:

◦
- Prot 1.4-6 /0,085

◦
- Prot 1.5-6 0.02

◦
- Prot 1.6-6 /0.02

◦
- Prot 1.4-8 /0.04

◦
- Prot 1.4-8 /0,066

◦
- Prot 1.4-10 /0.05

◦
- Prot 1.5-10 /0.02

◦
- Prot 1.6-10 /0.02

◦
- Prot 1.25-14 /0,024

Please Note: If you select `user dened input', then the input elds for the edge radius, the addendum
coecient and the dedendum coecient are activated. Now you can modify the basic rack prole.

Figure 7.33: Own input

Determination of the Basic Rack Prole

In case you use special tools, the eAssistant software oers an easy and comfortable solution. The basic rack
prole can be determined by clicking the `Calculator' button. Here you can change the tip circle and the root
diameter for gear 1, gear 2 and gear 3. Conrm your entries with the button `OK'. The listbox for the basic
rack proles displays then `user dened input'. The modication of the tip diameter is set to '0'.

Figure 7.34: Tool dimensioning

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 226

7.3.3 Tip Form

For the tip form you can choose between `Full radius' and `Radius with straight line'. Normally `Radius with
straight line' is used.

Figure 7.35: Listbox for tip form

7.3.4 Semi Topping Flank and Topping

With the denition of the semi topping ank, corresponding hobs can then be specied. These generate an
addendum chamfer during the cutting process. The option `Topping' allows to dene the tip diameter directly
with the dedendum coecient of the tool, making it impossible to subsequently modiying the tip diameter.
The result, at the same time, will be tip diameter allowances analogous to the root diameter allowances directly
from the tooth thickness allowances. The eAssistant 3D CAD plugins for various CAD systems support the
function and the semi topping ank can be considered in the 3D CAD model.

Figure 7.36: Semi topping ank

7.3.5 Protuberance
Undercut may be deliberately introduced to facilitate nishing operations. Undercut is the loss of prole in
the vicinity of involute start at the base circle due to tool cutter action in generating teeth with low numbers
of teeth. The protuberance cuts an undercut at the root of the gear tooth. The protuberance design is also
used in some cases to permit the sides of gear teeth to be ground without having to grind the root llet.

Determination of the Amount of the Protuberance from the Height of the Protuberance Flank
The following equation determines the amount of the protuberance. In case the height of the protuberance
ank is given and not the amount of the protuberance, the amount of the protuberance may be calculated by
this equation.

(h∗prP 0 − ρ∗aP 0 · (1 − sin(αp ))) · sin(αn − αp )

prP∗ 0 = + ρ∗aP 0 · (1 − cos(αn − αp ))
cos(αp )

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 227

The following gure shows a representation:

Figure 7.37: Height of the protuberance ank

To avoid grinding steps, a deviation in the tooth root area of the prole is a common and allowed method.
Because of a grinding stock allowance, an undercut must be allowed. Hence, a larger tooth root thickness is
necessary. The following table shows some determination of the undercut dependent upon the module.

Undercut spr for Ground Gears Dependent upon Module2

Module Allowance Size of Protuberance Addendum Edge Radius

m q Undercut spr prP∗ 0 h∗aP 0 ρ∗aP 0

2 0,160 0,100 0,260 2,900 0,500

2,5 0,170 0,110 0,280 3,625 0,625

3 0,180 0,120 0,300 4,350 0,750

4 0,200 0,140 0,340 5,800 1,000

5 0,220 0,160 0,380 7,250 1,250

6 0,240 0,180 0,420 8,700 1,500

7 0,260 0,200 0,460 10,150 1,7500

2 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl Hanser Ver-

lag, Muenchen, Wien, 2nd ed. 2010, p. 68, table 2.1/2

7.3.6 Machining Allowance

You can consider an allowance for the tooth ank. The tool provides an allowance q on the ank and/or root
for the pre-cutting tool. The allowance is the smallest distance between the involutes and the pre-machining
having the same root diameter. In case you select the tool basic rack prole with protuberance, the allowance
refers to the tooth ank.

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 228

If the allowance of the tool basic rack prole is selected without protuberance, then tooth ank and tooth
root get the allowance.

Figure 7.38: The eAssistant software provides the following allowances for the grinding of a gear: a) Constant
allowance with bottom of the tooth space, b) Protuberance: Cutter tooth prole is built up on the tip to
provide an undercut near the root of the gear being generated.

Figure 7.39: Input of machining allowance

Maximum Machining Allowances3

Allowance per Tooth Flank Manufacturing Process

< 0.05 (0.10) mm Finishing operation by cold rolling, gear shaving, hon-
ing, lapping

0.05 to 0.5 (1.5) mm Grinding, prole grinding, (honing)

> 0.5 mm, pre-cutting Primary shaping, forming, cutting with geometrically
determined edges except shaving, grinding and prole
grinding in special cases

3 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl Hanser Ver-

lag, Muenchen, Wien, 1996, p. 638

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 229

7.4 Input of Data for the Determination of Allowances

A manufacturing of work-pieces with accurate nominal dimensions is impossible. Hence, a deviation from the
nominal size has to be allowed. For a lot of applications the gear and the pinion of a pair must be independently
manufactured and meshed without any modications. That means, the parts have to be separately replaceable.
In addition to DIN 3961 for gear tolerances/gear qualities, DIN 58405 for precision engineering as well as ISO
1328 and ANSI/AGMA 2015 are available.

Figure 7.40: Input of allowances

7.4.1 Gear Quality

The choice of the right toothing quality is determined by economical aspects depending upon the intended
purpose and manufacturing process. In all elds of gearing, the control of gear accuracy is essential. Several
classes or grades of accuracy can be set. 12 grades (12 to 1) are dened according to DIN standards. High
accuracy grades can be set for a long-life, high speed gears. Lower accuracy grades will cover medium or
slow-speed grades. Accuracy grade `1' describes the highest possible accuracy, `12' a very low accuracy. The
gear accuracy `1 to 4' is mainly used for master gears, quality `5 to 12' is used for gear wheels (gure from:
Niemann, G.: Maschinenelemente, Vol. 2, Getriebe allgemein, Zahnradgetriebe-Grundlagen, Stirnradgetriebe,
1989, p. 73, gure 21.4/1).

Figure 7.41: Tolerances according to the manufacturing process

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 230

Select the appropriate quality between 1 and 12 by using the following listbox.

Figure 7.42: Listbox for the selection of quality

The following table provides some reference values for the selection of the quality, tolerances for gearings made
of metal and plastics:

Toothing Made of Metal4

ν Machining Quality Tolerance Sequence
to m/s of Tooth Flanks (Accuracy) DIN 3967
0.8 Cast, raw 12 2x30

0.8 Rough-machined 11 or 10 29 or 28

2 Finish milled 9 27

4 Finish milled 8 26

8 Fine nished 7 25

12 Shaved or ground 6 24

20 Precision-ground 5 23

40 Precision-machined 4 or 3 22

60 Precision-machined 3 22 or 21

Toothing Made of Injection Molding Plastics

Application d Quality Tolerance Sequence
in mm (Accuracy) DIN 3967
Gearings with high requirements to 10 9 27

Gearings with high requirements 10 to 50 10 28

Gearings with normal requirements 10 to 50 11 29

Gearings with low requirements to 280 12 2 x 30

Toothing made of plastic manufactured by cutting

Gearings with high requirements to 10 8 25 to 27

Gearings with high requirements 10 to 50 9 26 to 28

Gearings with normal requirements to 50 10 27, 28

Gearings with normal requirements 50 to 125 11 27, 28

Gearings with low requirements to 280 12 28

4 from: Karl-Heinz Decker: Maschinenelemente: Gestaltung und Berechnung, 1992, p.

512, table 23.3

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For the gear tolerances/gear qualities, DIN 58405 for precision engineering as well as ISO 1328 and ANSI/AGMA
2015 are also available. For ISO 1328 and ANSI/AGMA 2015, two qualities can be selected in each case. The
rst quality is comparable with the tolerances permitted according to DIN 3961, the second value inuences
the radial composite deviation as well as the roll deviations.

7.4.2 Backlash Allowance and Tolerance Sequence

The system for gearings is very similar to the DIN system of ts and tolerances. For the system of ts for
gear transmissions letters are used to indicate the deviation from basic (nominal) size, a number denes the
width. There are clearance ts for gearings, therefore, lower case characters `h' to `a' appear. If you select
the entry `user dened input', the input eld for the tooth thickness allowances is enabled and you can dene
your individual values.

Figure 7.43: Own input

7.4.3 Tooth Thickness Allowance

One of the most important criteria of gear quality is the specication and control of tooth thickness. The
magnitude of tooth thickness and its tolerance is a direct measure of backlash when the gear is assembled
with its mate. Dimensional changes, due to thermal expansion, do not allow a zero-backlash assembly. The
tooth thickness allowance has to be determined that no jamming occurs. To prevent that jamming of gears
during the operation, it is necessary to decrease tooth thickness by a minimum amount (Asne and Asn ).

Figure 7.44: Lower and upper tooth thickness allowances

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 232

The tooth thickness allowances for teeth of external and internal gearings have to be negative. Then a backlash
occurs (nd more information on the backlash in section 10.4.8 `Backlash Normal Plane'). The eAssistant
software oers the possibility to specify the tooth thickness allowances based on measured data or given test
dimensions. Click on the `Calculator' button.

Figure 7.45: `Calculator' button

A new window is opened.

Figure 7.46: Calculation of tooth thickness allowances

Activate pinion and gear rack and enter the input values. Conrm with the button `OK'. The `Lock' button
next to the input eld for the tooth space allowances is enabled. Now you can change the tooth space al-
lowances.

7.4.4 Tooth Space Allowance

The tooth space allowance AW is the dierence between the actual dimension and the nominal dimension of
the span measurement W k. The actual measurement of the span measurement gets smaller for external gears
by negative allowances for a zero-backlash assembly. The upper and lower tooth space allowance are displayed
as well. For an own input of the tooth thickness allowances, the tooth space allowances can be dened as
well. The `Lock' button next to the input eld of the tooth space allowances is enabled. Therefore, you can
change the tooth space allowances.

Figure 7.47: Tooth space allowance for pinion and gear rack

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7.4.5 Measurement of Tooth Thickness

The tooth thickness of a gear may be measured directly with calipers or it may be determined indirectly by
diameter pins. The sizing of gears may be controlled by double-ank composite checks and centre distance
settings corresponding to maximum and minimum tooth thickness specications. Dierent measurement
methods are used:

- At pitch circle (chordal),

- Span measurement across several teeth,

- Measurement over pins or balls that are placed in diametrically opposed tooth spaces,

- Check of the centre distance allowance with zero-backlash engagement by using a master gear in a ank
roll tester.

In the following you get some information on the widely used measurement methods:

- Span measurement Wk
- Measurement by diameter over balls or pins, the measurement by using balls and pins

Span Measurement across Several Teeth

Span measurement Wk is the measurement of the distance across several teeth in a normal plane. As long as
the measuring device has parallel measuring surfaces that contact on an unmodied portion of the involute,
the measurement will be along a line tangent to the base cylinder. It is a widely used method for gauging the
tooth thickness by using the span measurement. The tooth thickness of spur or helical gears is often measured
with calipers. An advantage is that the dimensions can be inuenced during the manufacturing.

Figure 7.48: Span measurement

The calculation program determines the number of teeth for the span measurement (number of teeth across
the span measurement has to be gauged). By using the `Lock' button you are able to activate the input eld
and you can enter your own input value. If you click the button again, the previous input value appears.

Figure 7.49: Number of teeth for the span measurement

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Tooth Thickness Measurement by Diameter over Pins or Balls

The tooth thickness is often checked by measurement over pins MdR or balls MdK . The pins or balls are
placed in diametrically opposed tooth spaces (even number of teeth) or nearest to it (odd number of teeth).
Measurement over pins is the measurement of the distance taken over a pin positioned in a tooth space and
a reference surface. The reference surface may be the reference axis of the gear, a datum surface or either
one or two pins positioned in the tooth space or spaces opposite the rst. The measurement over pins is only
used for spur gears and external helical gears. For the measurement values a distinction is made between:

- Measurement over balls MdK

- Measurement over pins MdR
- Measurement over pins for a spur gear

- Measurement over pins for external helical gears with even number of teeth

- Measurement over pins for external helical gears with odd number of teeth

For an external gear the measurement over balls MdK is the largest outer measure. The two balls are placed
in diametrically opposed tooth spaces. The balls have to be in the same plane perpendicular to a gear axis.
For an internal gear (see gure: `Internal spur gear with odd number of teeth') the measurement over balls is
the smallest inner measure between the balls. DM is the diameter of ball or pin. The internal gear is generally
checked for tooth thickness with measuring pins, like the external gear. However, the measurement is made
between the pins instead of over pins.

Measurement over balls: External spur gear with even num-

ber of teeth

Measurement over balls: External spur gear with odd num-

ber of teeth

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 235

Measurement over balls: Internal spur gear with odd num-

ber of teeth

The eAssistant software already species the diameter of ball or pin for the test dimensions. Enable the input
eld by clicking the `Lock' button. Enter your own input value for the diameter. If you click on the button
once again, the previous input value appears.

Figure 7.50: Diameter of ball or pin

Please Note: In the calculation report you can nd all results for the span measurement or measurement
over balls and pins in section `Test dimensions'.

7.4.6 Tolerance Field for Centre Distance

The general purpose of backlash is to prevent gears from jamming and making contact on both sides of their
teeth simultaneously. The center distance and the gear ts have an important inuence on the backlash.
The gear t selection denes the tolerances of the centre distance with the backlash. The gear t selection
provides only one tolerance eld. The allowances are indicated for the `JS' eld. These conform to the ISO
basic tolerances. The backlash is dependent upon the tooth thickness allowances, the tooth space allowances
and the centre distance. Hence, if you change the centre distance, then the backlash is changed, too.

Figure 7.51: Tolerance eld for the centre distance

Select the option `user dened input' from the listbox. Now you are able to enter your own centre distance
allowances. Conrm your entries with the Enter key. The backlashes are automatically determined.

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 236

7.4.7 Centre Distance Allowance

The centre distance allowance Aa is the allowed deviation of the centre distance from the nominal centre
distance. The allowances are indicated with ± to get no improper major allowances from the nominal centre
distances with gears having several axes.

Figure 7.52: Centre distance allowance

7.4.8 Backlash Normal Plane

A gear t has to be determined, so that two gears can be meshed. For that, a proper backlash must be provided
for the mesh to avoid jamming of the gears. The eAssistant software oers three dierent backlashes: the
backlash normal plane, the backlash pitch diameter and the radial backlash.

Figure 7.53: Backlash normal plane

Besides errors in manufacturing and assembling, the variation in backlash will depend considerably on the
tooth thickness tolerances and centre distance of the gears. The DIN system represents a standard centre
distance and provides the backlash by changing the tooth thickness. The backlash between the meshing teeth
adjusts the deviations of the tooth thicknesses, centre distance and tooth form using the tooth thickness
Asni and tooth space allowances Asne . The lowest tooth thickness allowance Asni indicates the maximum

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 237

backlash, the upper tooth thickness allowance indicates the minimum backlash Asne . In addition to the tooth
thickness allowance and centre distance allowance, errors in prole and pitch are also factors to consider in
the specication of the amount of backlash.

Please note: The backlash depends also on thermal expansions, deformation of elementes and displacement
of casing. These impacts must be considered for the determination of the tooth thickness.

7.4.9 Backlash Pitch Diameter

The backlash pitch diameter jt refers to the backlash at the pitch circle. The backlash pitch diameter may be
the length of the pitch circle arc in which the gear rotate against its mating gear.

Figure 7.54: Backlash pitch diameterl

7.4.10 Radial Backlash

The radial backlash is the dierence of the centre distance between the working condition and zero-backlash
engagement. The radial backlash jr matters especially for very small modules (m < 0.6 mm).

Figure 7.55: Radial backlash

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7.5 Representation of Gear Tooth Form

A special highlight of this calculation module is the presentation of the accurate gear tooth form with an
animation and simulation of the tooth mesh. For the presentation you can select the lower, upper and mean
allowances for the tooth thickness, tip diameter and centre distance. When you dene the geometry for the
gear pair, then you can have a look at the tooth form at any time. Click on the `Tooth form' button and you
get a general or detailed view of the tooth form. By clicking the `Geometry' or `Tool' button, you can open
the main input masks of the calculation module again.

Figure 7.56: Tooth form

Please Note: Please keep in mind that all values are later taken over to the DXF output and CAD generation.
In case you change the tooth thickness allowance or the centre distance allowance in the tooth form mask, then
the last modication is taken over to the DXF output. The section 7.15 contains some helpful information on
this function.

Figure 7.57: DXF output

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7.5.1 Rotating Angle

Enter an rotating angle for the rotation of gear pair.

Figure 7.58: Rotating angle

Rotation of the driving gear counter-clockwise

Rotation of the driving gear clockwise

7.5.2 Rotation
When you click on one of the two arrows, a continuous rotation of the spur gears occurs.

Figure 7.59: Rotation

Continuous rotation of the driving gear counter-clockwise

Continuous rotation of the driving gear clockwise

The rotation is stopped.

7.5.3 Tooth Thickness Allowance

Click on the `Detail view' button and the tooth mesh is represented in detail. Now you can change the tooth
thickness allowance, that is already given in the main mask for the `Allowances', within the tolerance limit.
All changes are displayed immediately. For the representation of the tooth mesh, select the lower, upper and
mean tooth thickness allowances for pinion and gear rack.

Figure 7.60: Tooth thickness allowance in the main mask `Allowance'

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 240

Both arrows indicate the lower and upper allowance. The active input is grayed out and disabled. Click on
the left arrow and you will get the representation for the lower tooth thickness allowance. The right arrow
shows the representation for the upper tooth thickness allowance. The middle button displays the mean tooth
thickness allowance. At the rst start of the tooth form, you will get the mean tooth thickness allowance as
a standard feature. The tooth thickness allowances can be dened between the lower and upper allowance.

Figure 7.61: Tooth thickness allowance

Please Note: In case you have specied the lower and upper tooth thickness allowance for pinion and gear
rack in the input mask `Allowances' by using the `Calculator' button, then the manually dened values appear
here as lower and upper tooth thickness allowance.

7.5.4 Tip Diameter Allowance

Click the `Detail view' button and the tooth mesh is represented in detail. Now you can change the tip
diameter allowance for pinion and gear rack, that is already given in the main mask for the `Geometry', within
the tolerance limit. All changes are displayed immediately. For the representation of the tooth mesh, select
the lower, upper and mean tip diameter allowances for pinion and gear rack.

Figure 7.62: Tip diameter allowance in the main mask `Geometry'

Both arrows indicate the lower and upper allowance. The active input is grayed out and disabled. Click on
the left arrow and you will get the representation for the lower tip diameter allowance. The right arrow shows
the representation for the upper tip diameter allowance. The middle button displays the mean tip diameter
allowance. At the rst start of the tooth form, you will get the mean tip diameter allowance as a standard
feature.

Figure 7.63: Tip diameter allowance

Please Note: In case you have specied the lower and upper tip diameter allowance for pinion and gear rack
in the input mask `Geometry' by using the `Lock' button, then the manually dened values appear here as
lower and upper tip diameter allowance.

7.5.5 Centre Distance Allowance

Click on the `Detail view' button and the tooth mesh is represented in detail. Now you can change the centre
distance allowance, that is already given in the main mask for the `Allowances', within the tolerance limit. All
changes are displayed immediately. You can check the operation of the gears by using various centre distance
settings.

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 241

For the representation of the tooth mesh, select the lower, upper and mean centre distance allowances for
pinion and gear rack.

Figure 7.64: Centre distance allowance in the main mask `Allowances'

Both arrows indicate the lower and upper allowance. The active input is grayed out and disabled. Click on
the left arrow and you will get the representation for the lower centre distance allowance. The right arrow
shows the representation for the upper centre distance allowance. The middle button displays the mean centre
distance allowance. At the rst start of the tooth form, you will get the mean centre distance allowance as a
standard feature.

Figure 7.65: Centre distance allowance

Please Note: In case you have specied the lower and upper centre distance allowance in the input mask
`Allowances' by using the `User dened input' option, then the manually dened values appear here as lower
and upper centre distance allowance.

7.6 Calculation of Gear Load Capacity

Gears fail by tooth breakage, pitting as well as by scung. The strength is determined by the loads, the
geometry of gearing as well as selected materials. The calculation of the load capacity is about the proof of
the following strength factors that result from the above-mentioned forms of damage:

- Load capacity of the tooth root (safety against failure of the toothing due tooth breakage)

- Load capacity of the tooth ank (safety against failure of the toothing due to pitting)

- Scung load capacity (safety against failure of the toothing due to scung)

Load Capacity of the Tooth Root - Tooth Breakage

Tooth breakage is a fatigue failure. Pitting, scung or wear may weaken the tooth so that it breaks. The slow
progress of the fracture apparently causes the metal to break like brittle material. A tear or grinding notch
may cause a tooth breakage. Gear tooth fractures ordinarily start in the root llet. The tooth breakage can
destroy an entire gearing and leads to a failure of the gearing. Sometimes a new tooth will break as a result
of severe overload or a serious defect in the tooth structure. According to DIN 3990, an operation with a
reduced load is possible after a tooth breakage, if just a small portion of a tooth broke o and the other parts
of the gearing are intact.

For a high load capacity of the tooth root, the following methods are advantageous: positive prole shift (for
small number of teeth), usage of hardened and tempered or case-hardened materials with larger load capacity
of the tooth root, larger root llet, larger module

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Load Capacity of the Tooth Flank - Pitting of Gear Teeth

Pitting is a fatigue failure and is characterized by little bits of metal breaking out of the surface and thereby
leaving small holes or pits, so that oil seeps into the pits. This is caused by high tooth loads leading to
excessive surface stress, a high local temperature due to high rubbing speeds or inadequate lubrication. The
cracking of the surface develops, spreads and ultimately results in small bits breaking out of the tooth surface.
But it is often possible to get some years of service out of gears that have pitted rather extensively.

For a high load capacity of the tooth ank, the following methods are advantageous: large number of teeth,
positive prole shift (for small number of teeth), higher pressure angle, large hardness of tooth ank, nitriding,
more viscous oil

Figure 7.66: Load capacity

Scung Load Capacity

Scung is a surface destruction and it can be caused by a lubrication failure. Tears and scratches appear on
the rubbing surface of the teeth. This form of damage is called `scung'. The terms of `scung' and `scoring'
are used interchangeably. Scung is an important form of damage leading to component replacements in
lubricated mechanical systems. Compared with tooth breakage and pitting, it is not a fatigue failure, it can
come very quickly. A short overload can lead to scung and the gearing fails. Scung is apt to occur when
the gears are rst put into operation because the teeth have not sucient operating time to develop smooth
surfaces. Due to the scung, the temperature, the forces and the noise increase, the gear teeth nally break
o. The following factors may inuence the occurrence of scung:

- Gear material

- Lubrication

- Surface condition of tooth anks

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 243

- Sliding velocity

- Load

- Impurities in a lubricant

After the occurrence of scung, high-speed gears apt to additional dynamic forces that cause usually pitting or
tooth breakage. The high surface temperature may cause a breakdown of the lubricating lm. The following
factors support scung:

- High loads

- Kind of lubrication: Non-alloy oil protects less against scung than E.P. oil (extreme pressure)

- High oil temperature

- Rough oil surface

- Low gear quality: Larger contact ratio and tooth alignment errors may cause local stresses by impacts
and unbalanced carrying.

For a high scung load capacity, the following methods are advantageous: E.P. oils (oil that contains chemical
additives), a careful running-in period of the gearing, low sliding velocity due to tip relief and a smaller module

Please note: There are two dierent types of scung - cold and hot scung. Both types describe a damage
on the ank. The scung problem is not limited to high-speed gears. Scung can also occur on slow-speed
gears. The slow-speed scung is called cold scung and the high-speed hot scung. Cold scung is not
often observed. Hence, all further comments and information refer to hot scung.

7.6.1 Activate Load Capacity

The calculation of load capacity of cylindrical gears is standardized according to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and
ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04. The standards give dierent methods to calculate the load capacity in DIN 3990,
ISO 6336 or ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04. The eAssistant software provides all calculations according to DIN 3990
Method B, ISO 6336 Method B and ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04. Hence, you can check the load capacity of tooth
root and tooth ank as well as the scung fast and easily. The scung safeties are determined according to
the integral and ash temperature method. The material properties, the endurance, face load factor, applica-
tion factor as well as the kind of lubrication and the selected lubrication are taken into consideration for the
calculation. There are extended input options to inuence the number of load changes or the roughness. A
grinding notch can be integrated into the calculation and the mode of operation can be selected.

Click on the `Load capacity' button to get to the calculation mask. You will notice that all input elds or
listboxes are disabled. When you select the entry `DIN 3990 Method B', `ISO 6336 Method B' or `ANSI/AGMA
2101-D04' from the listbox `Calculation method', all input elds are enabled. In case you do not need the
calculation for load capacity, the calculation can be disabled. Thus, the size of the calculation report becomes
smaller.

Figure 7.67: Activate load capacity

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 244

7.6.2 Inputs for Load Capacity According to DIN 3990 Method B

Comment
You can add a description or a short comment to pinion and gear rack. The notes will appear later in the
calculation report.

Figure 7.68: Add a comment

Material Selection
Select an appropriate material directly from the listbox or click on the button `Material' to open the material
database.

Figure 7.69: Listbox `Material'

The material database provides some detailed information on the several kinds of material. If the listbox is
active, the two arrow keys `Up' and `Down' of your keyboard allows you to search through the database, so
you can compare the dierent values with each other.

Figure 7.70: Material database

In order for gears to achieve their intended performance, life and reliability, the selection of a suitable material
is very important. Steel is the most common material that is used for gears. There are a number of steels

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 245

used for gears, ranging from plain carbon steels through the highly alloyed steels from low to high carbon
contents. The choice will depend upon a number of factors, including size, service and design. For pinion
and gear, the same hardened and tempered steel may be used. It has to be kept in mind that unhardened
gears with equal hardness should not be meshed with each other because scung is apt to occur. A hardened
or nidrided gear HRC > 50 smoothes the tooth anks of the hardened and tempered mating gear, reduces
the form deviations and increases the load capacity of the tooth ank. For a mating of hardened gears, no
hardness dierence is necessary. The nal selection of the material should be based upon an understanding of
the material properties and application requirements.

Hardening and tempering diers from hardening by annealing at high temperatures. The temperature range
for hardening and tempering ranges from 400◦ to 700◦ C while after hardening, parts are annealed at a low
temperature. On the other hand, a distinction is made between the material. For hardening, steel contains
more than 0.6 to 0.7% of carbon, for hardening and tempering less than 0.6% of carbon. However, there is
no well-dened limit between hardening and tempering and hardening.

Kind of Material
Steel casting: Steel casting belongs to the ferrous metals that include carbon (up to max. 2%) and are poured
into sand molds to produce several components. Due to a higher melting temperature, steel casting is more
dicult to cast than cast iron. Steel casting is cheaper than ground or forged gears.

Steel: Steel is the most common material and is used for medium and high-loaded gears.

Nidrided steel: Nitriding is adding nitrogen to solid iron-base alloys by heating the steel in contact with am-
monia gas or other suitable nitrogenous material. This process is used to harden the surface of gears.

Case-hardened steel: Case-hardened steel is a quality and high-grade steel with low carbon content. Case-
hardened steel is usually formed by diusing carbon (carburization), nitrogen (nitriding) into the outer layer
of the steel at high temperature and then heat treating the surface layer to the desired hardness. When the
steel is cooled rapidly by quenching, the higher carbon content on the outer surface becomes hard while the
core remains soft and tough.

Blackheart malleable cast iron (pearlitic structure): Malleable cast iron is a heat-treated iron carbon alloy.
Two groups of malleable cast iron are specied, whiteheart and blackheart cast iron. Blackheart malleable cast
iron is used for parts with a complex shape, in which a high durability, shock resistance and good machining
are important. Malleable cast iron is used for smaller dimensions and has got a higher strength and toughness
than steel castings.

Cast iron with spheroidal graphite (pearlitic structure, bainitic structure, ferritic structure): Cast iron usually
refers to gray cast iron but identies a large group of ferrous alloys that contain more than 2% of carbon. It
is extremely rare that the maximum carbon content is higher than 4.5%. Cast iron is a low-priced material.
However, cast iron has less toughness and ductility than steel. Cast iron with spheroidal graphite can be used
for parts with higher vibration stress.

Heat-treated steel: Hardening and tempering is a heat-treating technique for steels by quenching from the
hardness temperature and annealing at a high temperature so that the toughness is increased signicantly. At
the same time, a higher elastic limit is reached. Annealing temperatures and times dier for dierent materials
and with properties desired, steel is usually held for several hours at about 400◦ C to 700◦ C. Some steels have
to be cooled very quickly (Annealing: in order to achieve the intended properties of work pieces (e.g., desired
strength or toughness), reheating of the work pieces to certain temperatures is necessary.).

Gray cast iron: Gray cast iron is used for complex shapes and oers low cost and an easy machinability. It
provides excellent damping properties but it is a disadvantage that the load capacity is very low.

Please Note: In case there is no material that will fulll the design requirements, then simply dene your
individual material. Select the option `User dened input' and all inputs and options are enabled and you can
specify your individual material very easily. Your inputs will be saved to the calculation le.

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 246

Please be advised that changing the material will delete your dened inputs and you have to enter the inputs
again.

Figure 7.71: Own input of a material

Ovako´s Clean Steels

Ovako´s clean steels 159X and 159Q can be selected from the listbox. Both steels are based on the case-
hardening steel 18CrNiMo7-6. Due to signicantly lower levels of contamination, these steels have modied
Woehler curves. Within the static strength, both steels are comparable to 18CrNiMo7-6. However, in the
fatigue strength range the IQ-Steel 159Q (Isotropic Quality ultra clean steel) is designed to increase eciency
by 30 percent for the ank load capacity and 60 percent for the tooth root load capacity. The fatigue strength
values are based on Ovako´s in-house investigations and external verications at WZL of RWTH Aachen
University and at the Gear Research Centre (FZG) of Technical University of Munich.

Figure 7.72: Selection of clean steels from the material database

The BQ-Steel 159X (Bearing Quality clean steel) delivers slightly smaller performance gains compared to
18CrNiMo7-6 and can be taken to improve existing designs. The potential of the 159Q can be used particularly
in new designs. It can be advantageous to focus on optimized scung load capacity. This can be achieved by
increasing the number of teeth and simultaneously reducing the module. This generally results in better gear
eciency and lower power losses. These Ovako steels open up completely new design possibilities for gears
and have a high potential for further increasing the performance of gears and gear components.

Figure 7.73: 159Q with the material properties in the material database

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 247

Load Spectrum
The calculation of load spectra is in accordance with ISO 6336, Part 6. The determination is based on the
Palmgren-Miner rule and the load-dependent K-factors are calculated for each torque class. The safeties
are determined by way of iteration until the sum of damage parts is obtained. This method, demanded by
the wind energy industry, is very accurate. The linear damage accumulation model, which is also known as
Palmgren-Miner's rule, denes damage as the ratio of the number of cycles of operation to the number of
cycles to failure at any given stress level.

Figure 7.74: Load spectrum

Click the button `Load spectrum'. Once the option `Use load spectrum' has been activated, add any number
of load spectra with time ratio, torque and speed. The load spectra can be entered manually or imported from
les. The load spectra can be saved and loaded. To do this, use the two buttons `Open' and `Save'.

Figure 7.75: Dene load spectrum

Application Factor KA
The application factor KA evaluates the external dynamic forces that aect the gearing. These additional
forces are largely dependent on the characteristics of the driving and driven machines as well as the masses
and stiness of the system, including shafts and couplings used in service. Because scung is not a fatigue
failure, the application factor shall consider the stronger inuence of several load peaks during the calculation

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 248

of the scung load capacity. Several load peaks aect directly only the ank temperature. Because of that,
the same application factor KA can be used for the calculation of the scung load capacity as well as of
the load capacity of the tooth root and tooth ank. The application factor is determined by experience. An
application factor of `1.0' is best thought of a perfectly smooth operation. The following table gives some
values according to DIN 3990.

Application Factors KA According to DIN 3990-1: 1987-125

Working Characteristics Working Characteristics of the Driven Machine

of the Driving Machine

Uniform Light shocks Moderate shocks Heavy shocks

Uniform 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75

Light shocks 1.1 1.35 1.6 1.85

Moderate shocks 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0

Heavy shocks 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.25 or higher

5 from: DIN 3990 Part 1, December 1987, p. 55, table: A1

Working Characteristics of the Driving Machine

- Uniform: e.g., electric motor, steam or gas turbine (small, rarely occurring starting torques)

- Light shocks: e.g., electric motor, steam or gas turbine (large, frequently occurring starting torques)

- Moderate shocks: e.g., multiple cylinder internal combustion engines

- Heavy shocks: e.g., single cylinder internal combustion engines

Working Characteristics of the Driven Machines

- Uniform: e.g., steady load current generator, uniformly loaded conveyor belt or platform conveyor, worm
conveyor, light lifts, packing machinery, feed drives for machine tools, ventilators, centrifuges, centrifugal
pumps, agitators and mixers for light liquids or uniform density materials, shears, presses ...

- Light shocks: e.g., heavy lifts, crane slewing gear, industrial and mine ventilator, centrifugal pumps,
agitators and mixers for viscous liquids or substances of non-uniform density, multi-cylinder piston pumps
...

- Moderate shocks: e.g., rubber extruders, continuously mixers for rubber and plastics, wood-working
machine, lifting gear, single cylinder piston pumps ...

- Heavy shocks: e.g., excavators (bucket wheel drives), rubber kneaders, foundry machines, brick presses,
peeling machines, rotary drills ...

Please Note: You will nd a `Question mark' button next to the input eld. Click on this button and
the above-mentioned table opens. The `Question mark' button is an additional feature and provides further
information. You will nd this button next to several input elds.

Figure 7.76: The question mark button

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 249

Face Load Factor KHβ

The face load factor takes into account the eects of the non-uniform distribution of load over the gear
facewidth on the surface stress KHβ , on the tooth root stress KF β and on the scung KBβ . The face load
factor is determined according to DIN 3990, Part 1 Method B.

Figure 7.77: Face load factor for the surface pressure

When you start the calculation module, the value `1.25' is entered into the input eld. In case you already
use a dened face load factor, you can save the certain factor to a template le. Then the calculation module
starts with the individual face load factor. When you click on the `Calculator' symbol, the input mask for the
face load factor opens. In the top input eld `Face coe.' you can nd the default value `1.25'. You will
notice that the lower input elds and listboxes are disabled. By using the `OK' button you can take over the
default value to the main mask. There is a listbox next to the input eld for the face load factor. When you
open the listbox, the entry `DIN 3990 T1 Method B' appears.

Figure 7.78: Listbox with the selection of DIN

As soon as you select this entry from the listbox, the remaining input elds and listboxes are enabled. The
face load factor is determined automatically but you still cannot take over the value to the main mask. In
order to take over the calculated value, you have to add further inputs from the input mask for the face load
factor. When the button `OK' is activated, then the determined face load factor can be conrmed with the
button `OK'.

Please Note: However, there is the possibility to take over the value, determined according to DIN, to the
main mask without changing the extensive settings. When you click on the `Calculator' button next to the face
load factor, the above-mentioned input mask opens. The face load factor KHβ is displayed in the input eld.
Open the adjacent listbox and select the entry `DIN 3990 T1 method B'. The face load factor is calculated
but the button `OK' is still disabled.

Figure 7.79: Face load factor

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 250

Open the listbox again and select the entry `User dened'. Now the `OK` button is enabled and you can take
over the face load factor.

Figure 7.80: Take over of the face load factor

Mesh Misalignment Fβx

The path of teeth is marked by the path of tooth traces. The tooth trace is the section of a tooth ank with
the reference surface. The mesh misalignment Fβx considers all inuences of manufacturing, assembly and
deformation that may intensify and compensate each other.

Figure 7.81: Tooth trace

The mesh misalignment is determined according to DIN 3990, part 1 method C. Using this method, portions
of the mesh misalignment are considered caused by a deformation of pinion and pinion shaft as well as
manufacturing inaccuracies. Fβx consists of fsh and fma . fsh is the mesh misalignment due to bending
and torsion of the pinion and pinion shaft, therefore it is a mesh misalignment due to deformation. The
mesh misalignment fma is a misalignment due to manufacturing inaccuracies and is dependent upon the gear
accuracy and the facewidth of the gear.

Figure 7.82: Mesh misalignment

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 251

Please Note: Select the entry DIN 3990 method B from the listbox for the face load factor, then the factor
is determined according to DIN. The selection and input elds are enabled. User-dened inputs for the mesh
misalignment are also possible.

Figure 7.83: User-dened selection

Position of Tooth Contact Pattern

The tooth contact pattern gives some insight into the required geometry and accuracy of gears. While rolling
o each other, a tooth ank will not come into contact with every point of its mating ank. A tooth contact
pattern is a representation of contact surfaces of two engaged tooth anks of gear pair. Under operating
conditions, an even load distribution over the facewidth and tooth depth is to be accomplished. For a contact
pattern, a thin layer of a marking compound is applied to the anks. After that, the gear pair is rotated as
long as the tooth contact pattern appears. Then the gears are visually inspected to check the tooth contact
pattern which is indicated by a light wear pattern on the mating tooth surfaces. The optimization of the
contact pattern plays an important role for improving smoothness and quietness of operation. Click on the
`Question mark' button and you will get a representation of the contact pattern according to DIN 3990, Part
1.

Figure 7.84: Open contact pattern

Figure 7.85: Contact pattern according to DIN Figure 7.86: Contact pattern according to DIN
3990, Part 1, 1987 3990, Part 1, 1987

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Pinion Corrections
Errors in manufacturing and elastic deformations that may inuence the load capacity can be adjusted by
using intentional deviations from the involute (modication of the tooth depth) and theoretical tooth trace
(modication of the facewidth). Lead crowning and end relief are the most important pinion corrections and
are advantageous for a good load distribution over the facewidth of a gear. Due to lead crowning or end
relief, a non-uniform load distribution can be reduced. The calculation program allows you to select one of
the above-mentioned pinion corrections from the listbox.

Figure 7.87: Selection of the pinion correction

Lead Crowning
Lead crowning is a common modication that results in the ank of each gear tooth having a slight outward
bulge in its center area. A crowned tooth becomes gradually thinner towards the end of the teeth. The purpose
of lead crowning is to ensure that manufacturing inaccuracies and deformations are adjusted under load and
that the tooth ends are relieved. In general, lead crowning Cc is carried out symmetrically to the centre of the
facewidth.

Figure 7.88: Lead crowning

End Relief
Due to mesh misalignments, an overloading of the tooth ends occurs. Therefore, this kind of pinion correction
is used to protect the tooth ends against overloading. Generally, the size of the relief at both sides of the
tooth ank is equal. If crown shaving and crown grinding are not possible, then end relief is recommended.

Figure 7.89: End relief

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Pinion Arrangement - Stiening Eect

When d1 /dsh ≥ 1, 15, then stiening is assumed; when d1 /dsh < 1.15, there is no stiening; furthermore,
scarcely any or no stiening at all is to be expected when a pinion slides on a shaft and feather key or a similar
tting, nor when normally shrink tted (DIN 3990, part 1, edition December 1987, Beuth Verlag GmbH Berlin,
gure 6.8, p. 33).

Figure 7.90: Pinion arrangement

Transmitted Power - Power Distribution for the Dimensioning of the Face Load Factor kHβ
The transmitted power k is the percentage of the power which will be transmitted through the pinion tooth
mesh, in the ratio of the full power which is transmitted through the pinion shaft. For example: The power
input on a shaft is 10 kW. 60% is transmitted through the tooth mesh and the remaining 40% is transmitted
to the end of the shaft. Now you have to dene 6 kW for the pinion to dimension the gearing. To determine
the face load factor, you have to enter 60% of the transmitted power because the stronger deformation of the
shaft due to the full torque transmission (10 kW) is taken into consideration.

Figure 7.91: Transmitted power

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Reference Gear
The inputs for the power, speed and torque apply for the appropriate gear that is selected in the listbox. For
the other gear, speed and torque are determined from the reference gear.

Power and Torque

The power, torque and speed are dependent upon each other. Click on the adjacent button `T/P' to switch
between the input for the torque and the input for the power. If you click on the `TP' button, then you can
enter either the torque or the power. The values are converted. The description of the input eld changes
accordingly into `Torque' or `Power'.

Kind of Lubrication and Lubricant Selection

Lubrication serves several purposes but its basic and most important function is to protect the sliding and
rolling tooth surfaces from seizing, wear and friction. The friction of the tooth ank is responsible for ank
wear, gear heating and gear noise. A reduced ank friction improves the eciency that is dependent on the
tooth load, circumferential velocity, gear quality and the surface condition of the tooth anks. In order that
the gearing should work properly, the selection of a lubricant is an important choice. A liquid lubricant is a
good choice and can be easily introduced between the contacting surfaces. In addition, a lubrication has to
reduce frictional heat and has to protect the surfaces against corrosion. The bearings and clutches in a gearing
require also an appropriate lubricant. Therefore, the lubricant has to be suitable as well. Oil and greases
are the most common lubricants. The compounding of oils provides a combination and generation of various
properties. Oil oers a wider range of operating speeds than greases. They are easier to handle and are most
eective. Special E.P. (extreme pressure) oils have been developed for slow-speed, highly-loaded vehicle gears.
These oils develop chemical compounds on the contacting gear-tooth surfaces. Grease is a combination of
liquid and solids. Grease has the advantage of remaining in place and not spreading as oil. It can provide a
lubricant lm at heavily loads and at low speeds.

Figure 7.92: Open the selection of a lubricant

For the selection of liquid lubricants applies: the smaller circumferential velocity and larger the contact pres-
sure as well as the roughness of tooth anks, the higher the viscosity. A higher viscosity will result in a
higher hydrodynamic load capacity and an increased scung load limit where scratching and scung of the
tooth anks occur (Muhs/Wittel/Jannasch/Vossiek: Rolo/Matek Maschinenelemente, 17th revised edition,
published by Vieweg, Wiesbaden 2005).

Please Note: If the viscosity is too low, the oil lm will not be suciently formed and if the viscosity is too
high, the viscosity resistance will also be high and cause temperature rise. For higher speed, a lower viscosity
oil should be used and for heavy loads, a higher viscosity oil should be used.

Gears that are running primarily in a gearbox are lubricated with oil. A distinction is made between oil splash
lubrication and oil injection lubrication.

Oil splash lubrication: The oil splash lubrication is an easy, reliable and reasonable lubrication system. It is
a type of lubrication used in enclosed gear drives. In splash lubrication, the gear tooth dips into a tray of
lubricant and transfers the lubricant to the meshing gear as it rotates. As a result, oil reaches all of the places
where it is needed. The oil splash lubrication can be used for average speed applications.

Oil injection lubrication: With the oil injection lubrication, the oil can be ltered, cooled and checked and
the oil is directly fed to the bearings. The amount of oil can be controlled according to the heat dissipation
requirements. The gearbox is used as an oil tank reservoir from which several units can be supplied. The oil

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 255

is sprayed directly by a pump injector into the mating surfaces.

Grease lubrication: The selection of the grease is dependent upon the circumferential velocity, the kind of
application and the service temperature. A grease lubrication requires low maintenance and protects against
contamination. Grease lubrication is suitable for any gear system that is opened or enclosed, so long as it runs
at low speed. The grease should have a suitable viscosity with good uidity especially in a enclosed gear unit.
Click on the `Lubricant' button and open database. The extensive database contains the lubricants including
all detailed information about the oils and greases (e.g., density, viscosity, load stage of FZG test). Select
`User dened input' from the listbox to dene your individual lubricant.

Figure 7.93: Lubricant selection

7.6.3 Extended General Input Options

Click the corresponding button in the main screen of the load capacity to open the advanced input options. If
you do not change any entries in the following screen, the calculation continues with the default input values.

Figure 7.94: Selection of extended input options

If you do not change any entries in the following mask, the calculation continues with the default input values.

Figure 7.95: Extended general input options

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 256

Dynamic Coecient KV
The dynamic coecient KV considers additional inner dynamic forces. Inner dynamic forces are caused by
mesh alignments, lead crowning, deformation of teeth, the housing, shafts and gear bodies as well as oscillation
of the wheel masses. As the circumferential velocity of the gear rim increases, the dynamic forces increase. The
forces decrease with an increasing load of the teeth. Click the `Lock' button to change the dynamic coecient.

Transverse Coecient KHα

The transverse coecients account for the eect of the non-uniform distribution of transverse load between
several pairs of simultaneously contacting gear teeth on the surface pressure (KHα ), stress leading to scung
(KBα ) and loading of the tooth root (KF α ). Click the `Lock' button to change the transverse coecient.

Mesh Load Factor Kγ

The mesh load factor takes into account an uneven distribution of the total circumferential force for gearings
with multiple transmission paths or for planetary gear trains with more than three planets. For transmission
paths, the total circumferential force is distributed to several mesh. For gearings without transmission paths,
the value is set at `1.0'.

Carried Width
When the facewidth of pinion and gear is not equal, then a maximum overhang of `1 x m' at each tooth end is
assumed as a carried width. Unhardened portions of surface-hardened gear tooth anks (including transition
zone) consider only 50% as the carried width. However, if it is foreseen that because of crowning or end relief
the contact does not extend to the end of face, then the smaller facewidth shall be used for both pinion and
gear. Click the `Lock' button to change the carried width.

Permit Pitting
In specic cases, the development of pits on the gear ank is allowed. Use this option to permit several pits.
In general, initial pitting is considered normal and is not a cause for concern. In particular, case-hardened and
nitrided gears usually has the tendency to pit near the tooth root and lead eventually to fatigue breakage. Here
an individual assessment is necessary. In some cases (aerospace industry), pits are absolutely not permitted.
For turbo transmissions, pits may lead to oscillations and increased additional dynamic forces.

Figure 7.96: Permit pitting

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 257

7.6.4 Extended Input Options for Load Capacity of Tooth Root and Tooth Flank
The main mask of the load capacity provides the `Tooth root/ank' button, click on that button and the
extended input options appear. If you do not change any inputs in the following mask, then the default input
values are used.

Figure 7.97: Extended input options for tooth root and tooth ank

Roughness
The surface roughness of the tooth anks inuences the load capacity of the tooth anks. The average rough-
ness Rz is the arithemitc average of ve individually measured roughness values. The input of the roughness
occurs for root and ank of pinion and gear. The right choice of the surface roughness is determined by
economical aspects depending upon the intended purpose and manufacturing process. A ne surface can be
very expensive because of the high manufacturing costs. A surface that is too rough may not fulll the required
functionality.

Grinding Notch
A grinding notch may signicantly reduce the fatigue strength and a tooth breakage can occur due to a
grinding notch.

Figure 7.98: Grinding notch

Shot-peening can be used to increase the fatigue strength of gears that are damaged by a grinding notch. A
careful grinding of the notch is basically suitable. Click the question mark button to open the representation
of the grinding notch.

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 258

Hardening Depth Root/Flank

The hardening depth is signicantly for the pitting load capacity and is determined by the depth of surface layer
heated to hardening temperature, the hardenability of the material and the eect of the quenching method.
Case-hardening: Steels get their specic features by case-hardening. This combined heat treatment process
consists of the following subprocesses:

- Carburizing, i.e., using carbon for the surface

- Hardening, i.e., heat treatment to achieve a hardened and wear-resistant surface

- Annealing (stress relief )

Figure 7.99: Hardening depth

Please Note: The calculation module determines the optimal hardening depth automatically, but the hard-
ening depth can be dened also individually. If the individual hardening depth is smaller than the optimal
hardening depth, then the fatigue strength is reduced accordingly. The determination of the optimal hard-
ening depth and reduction of fatigue strength with reduced hardening depth is based on: `Tobie, Thomas:
Zur Gruebchen- und Zahnfusstragfaehigkeit einsatzgehaerteter Zahnraeder, Dissertation Technische Universi-
taet Muenchen (Lehrstuhl fuer Maschinenelemente, Forschungsstelle fuer Zahnraeder und Getriebebau) 2001,
Section. 10.3: Eingliederung der Versuchsergebnisse in das Rechenverfahren nach DIN 3990'.

Technology Factor YT
The technology factor YT considers the change of the strength of the tooth root by machining process.

σF lim = σF lim0 YT

σF lim0 Fatigue strength of the tooth root from material data

σF lim Fatigue strength of the tooth root with inuence of the technology factor

YT Technology factor (see following table)

Technology Factor YT According to Linke6

Kind of Manufacturing of the Tooth Root Technology Factor YT
Shot peening: 1.2 to 1.4

Applies for case-hardened or carbonitrided gears; not ground

in the hardened layer

Rolling: 1.3 to 1.5

Applies for ame and induction hardened gears; not ground in

the hardened layer

Grinding: General: 0.7

Applies for case-hardened or carbonitrided gears for CBN grinding wheel: 1

Shape cutting: 1

Does not apply for ground gears

6 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl Hanser Verlag

Muenchen Wien, 1996, p. 320, table 6.5/6

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 259

Click the `Question mark' button to open the tables for the technology factor and mode of operation factor.

Figure 7.100: Open the tables

Mode of Operation Factor YA

The fatigue strength of the tooth root σF lim is corrected with the inuence of the mode of operation.

σF lim = σF lim0 YA

σF lim0 Fatigue strength of the tooth root from material data

σF lim Fatigue strength of the tooth root with inuence of the mode of operation factor

YA Mode of operation factor (see following table)

The following reference values can be used for the mode of operation factor YA . DIN 3990 species identical
values for swelling and alternating load.

Mode of operation factor YA according to Linke7

Mode of Operation Mode of Operation Factor YA Direction of Load

Swelling 1

Alternating 0.7

lgNrev
0.85 - 0.15
6

Oscillating (for 1 ≤ Nrev ≤ 106 )

0.7 (for Nrev > 106 )

Please Note: Nrev = Number of load direction changes during operation time

7 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl Hanser Verlag

Muenchen Wien, 1996, p. 321, table 6.5/7

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 260

7.6.5 Extended Input Options for Scung Load Capacity

The scung load capacity oers dierent extended input options. Click on the `Scung' button and the
extended input options appear.

Figure 7.101: Extended input options `Scung'

Thermal Contact Coecient BM

The thermal contact coecient BM is required for the determination of the ash factor. The ash factor
considers the inuence of the material properties of gear and pinion on the ash temperature.

Figure 7.102: Thermal contact coecient

Relative Structure Factor XW relT

The relative structure factor XW relT is primarily intended to take into account inuence of the material
properties on the scung load capacity and is determined by:

XW
XW relT =
XW T

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 261

XW The lower table provides the empirically determined relative structure factor.

XW T The relative structure factor for the test gears that are used for the determination of the scung
temperature. XW T = 1.0 for the FZG gear test.

Structure Factor XW 8
Material/Heat Treatment Structure Factor XW
Through-hardened steel 1.00

Phosphated steel 1.25

Copper plated steel 1.50

Bath and gas nitrided steel 1.50

Hardened carburized steel, with austenite content:

- less than average 1.15

- average 1.00

- greater than average 0.85

Austenitic steel (stainless steel) 0.45

8 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl

Hanser Verlag Muenchen Wien, 1996, p. 367, table 6.5/16

Load Stage of Standard FZG Gear Test

Because scung is not a fatigue failure, a standard FZG gear test was developed to determine the scung load
capacity of a lubricant under certain operating conditions. The gear test, known as FZG gear test (Institute for
Machine Elements Gear Research Center, University Munich, Germany), is a standardized method according to
DIN 51354. At the FZG, the dierent inuences on scung are extensively investigated. The test is performed
on a standard FZG test machine using standard test gears. Standardized, case-hardened and ground spur gears
with a large one-side prole shift are used. The load is increased gradually on a FZG gear test rig with dened
technical parameters. There are 12 load stages and the gears are inspected for scung after every load
stage. Finally, the load stage is determined where scung of the gear teeth occurs and where the ank area
is damaged by scratches. The higher the load stages, the better the industrial gear lubricants resistance to
scung.

Figure 7.103: Selection of load stage

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 262

Type of Prole Modication

For high-duty gearings, it is possible to change the theoretical involute. Using the listbox to dene the type
of prole modication. You can select the following options:

- without prole modication

- for high-duty gearing

- for uniform mesh

Figure 7.104: Prole modication

The force distribution factor XΓ evaluates the inuence of the force distribution over several pairs of meshing
teeth. A polygon-like shape over the line of action represents the progress of the force distribution factor. The
values of the points A and E depend upon the type of prole modication. According to DIN 3990 (see Part
4, p. 17), the force distribution factor is as follows:

Force Distribution Factor Without Prole Modication and With Prole Modication for High-Duty
Gears

Figure 7.105: Without prole modication Figure 7.106: For high-duty gears (the pinion
drives)

Force Distribution Factor With Prole Modication for High-Duty Gears and for Uniform Mesh

Figure 7.107: For high duty gears (the gear Figure 7.108: For uniform mesh
drives)

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 263

Contact Temperature Along the Path of Contact

The contact temperature varies along the path of contact due to the progress of the ash temperature.

Contact Temperature Without Prole Modication

Figure 7.109: Contact temperature without prole modication

Contact Temperature With Prole Modication

Figure 7.110: Contact temperature with prole modication

Contact Temperature for Uniform Mesh

Figure 7.111: Create calculation report

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 264

Flash Temperature Method and Integral Temperature Method

High surface temperatures due to high loads and slidings speeds can cause a lubricant lm breakdown. Because
of that, there are two calculation methods in ISO/TR 13989 that are based on dierent criteria for the
development of a damage. The eAssistant software provides both the integral temperature method and ash
temperature method:

- Flash temperature method denes a variable contact temperature along the path of contact.

- Integral temperature method denes a weighted average of the surface temperature along the path of
contact.

Flash Temperature Method

The ash temperature is the temperature at which a gear-tooth surface is calculated to be hot enough to
destroy the oil lm and allow instantaneous welding at the contact point. The contact temperature ϑB in any
point of contact Y results from the sum of the bulk temperature ϑM and the ash temperature ϑf la :

ϑB = ϑM + ϑf la

According to the ash temperature method, there is no scung as long as the contact temperature ϑB (as the
sum of bulk temperature ϑM and ash temperature ϑf la ) does not exceed the scung contact temperature
in all points of contact. The scung temperature ϑS to be a characteristic value for the material-lubricant-
material system of a gear pair, to be determined by gear tests with the same material-lubricant-material
system.

Figure 7.112: Progress of contact temperature along the path of contact

Please note: Points A to E mark the important points from the beginning to the end of the mesh.

The safety against scung SB is determined according to the ash temperature method:

ϑS − ϑoil
SB = ≥ SBmin
ϑBmax − ϑoil

ϑBmax Maximum contact temperature along the path of contact

ϑoil Oil temperature before reaching the mesh

ϑS Scung temperature

The safety factor SBmin is dependent on whether the gearing is put into operation after a good running-in
period. With a careful running-in period, there is no scung damage up to SBmin ≈ 1. Without a running-in
period, there is no scung up to SBmin ≈ 3 (according to Linke).

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 265

Integral Temperature Method

According to the integral temperature method, scung occurs when the integral temperature exceeds the
scung integral temperature. The scung integral temperature is assumed as a characteristic value for
the material-lubricant-material system of a gear pair and is determined from gear tests. The scung safety
according the integral temperature method SintS is calculated as follows:

ϑintS
SintS = ≥ SSmin
ϑint

ϑintS Scung integral temperature

ϑint Integral temperature

As uncertainties and inaccuracies in the assumptions cannot be excluded, it is necessary to introduce a safety
factor. According to Linke, the following reference values can be used:

SintS < 1.0 In all probability, scung damages are expected to occur.

1.0 ≤ SintS ≤ 2.0 For a careful running-in period of the gearing, good contact pattern and real assumed
loads, there are no scung damages to be expected.

SintS > 2.0 There is no risk of scung.

7.6.6 Input Options for Load Capacity According to ISO 6336 Method B
In addition to DIN 3990 Method B, it is possible to calculate the load capacity of tooth root and tooth ank
according to ISO 6336 (2008) Method B. Select the ISO 6336 Method B from the listbox and the input elds
are enabled.

Figure 7.113: Activate load capacity according to ISO 6336 Method B

There is a strong similarity between the DIN 3990 standard and the ISO 6336 standard and most parts of the
load capacity calculation according to ISO 6336 correspond to DIN 3990. In fact, the ISO 6336 evolved from
the DIN 3990 standard. There are factors that inuence the tooth root stress and tooth ank strength, but
the dierences are minor and the inuence on the safety of root, ank and scung is very low. One large
dierence is the calculation of the helix angle factor Zβ as well as the calculation of the long life factors (ZN T
and YN T ) for the tooth root stress. Another dierence between DIN 3990 and ISO 6336 is the critical stress
point on the root llet. ISO 6336 uses the tangency point of a 60◦ angle as the most critically stressed point
on the root llet for internal gears. The DIN 3990 standard uses the tangency point of a 30◦ angle as the
critical stress point on the root llet for external and internal gears as the basis for the calculation of the
load capacity.

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 266

Life Factors ZN T and YN T

The long life factor YN T accounts the higher tooth root stress and the long life factor ZN T accounts the
higher contact stress including static stress, which may be tolerable for a limited life (number of load cycles).
The factors mainly depend on the quality of the material, heat treatment, number of load cycles as well as
notch sensitivity, surface conditions and gear dimensions. The life factors YN T and ZN T can be read from the
following graph for the static and reference stress as a function of material and heat treatment.

Figure 7.114: DIN 3990 and ISO 6336: Life factors

Long life factor YN T :

With optimum lubrication, material and manufacturing YN T = 1.0 may be used for the number of load cycles
NL = 3 · 106 . For static stresses NL ≤ 103 , the long life factor is 2.5.

Long life factor ZN T :

With optimum lubrication, material and manufacturing ZN T = 1.0 may be used for the number of load cycles
NL = 5 · 107 . For static stresses NL ≤ 105 , the long life factor is 1.6.

Figure 7.115: Input of life factors

There are signicant dierences in the calculation of the life factors YN T and ZN T when comparing DIN 3990
and ISO 6336. Values appropriate to the relevant number of load cycles, NL , are indicated by the S-N curve
(also known as a Woehler curve). The S-N approach is dierent. The long life factor for the load capacity
of the tooth root approaches 1.0 for the range of long life (depending on the material, usually at 3 · 106 load
cycles). In DIN 3990, the life factor remains 1.0 for higher number of load cycles. According to ISO 6336, the
factor for materials decreases from 1.0 to 0.85 at 1010 load cycles. Only after that, the factor remains 0.85 at
10
10 load cycles. For gears in the long life range, the calculations according to ISO 6336 result in signicantly
smaller safeties (15% lower) for tooth root and tooth ank. This also applies for the long life factor for anks.
Use the `Lock' button to modify the long life factors YN T and ZN T . The input elds are enabled and you can
dene your own value for the factors. Please remember to keep the modied input eld open or the default
values will be used again.

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 267

Face Load Factor KHβ

Another dierence between ISO and DIN is the determination of the mesh stiness cγ . The mesh stiness is
needed for the calculation of the face load factor KHβ . The factor KHβ takes into account uneven distribu-
tion of load over the facewidth due to mesh misalignment caused by inaccuracies in manufacture and elastic
deformations. For the calculation of the face load factor, ISO 6336 uses a mesh stiness cγ that is reduced by
15% in comparison to the mean stiness the DIN 3990 use for the calculation of KHβ . This results in slightly
lower face load factors.

Rim Thickness Factor

If the rim thickness is too thin and not sucient to provide full support for the tooth root (e.g., for planetary
gear trains or internal gears), then this can be accounted for by the rim thickness factor YB . YB is expressed
as a function of the tooth depth for external gears and as a function of the normal module for internal gears.
The load capacity decreases with a gear rim thickness sR < 1.2 · ht for external gears or 2.8 · mn , for internal
gears sR < 3.5 · mn (ISO 6336 Edition 2006 - Was ist neu?: Dr.-Ing. R. Hess, Dipl.-Ing. B. Kisters, A. Friedr.
Flender AG, Bocholt, Tagungsbeitrag Dresdener Maschinenelemente Kolloquium 2009).

Helix Angle Factor Zβ

Another dierence is the determination of the helix angle factor Zβ . Independent of the inuence of the helix
angle on the length of path of contact, this factor accounts for the inuence of the helix angle on the load
capacity of the tooth anks, allowing for such variables as the distribution of load along the lines of contact.
Zβ is dependent only on the helix angle, β. The given formulae for the determination of the helix angle factor
are dierent in DIN 3990 and ISO 6336. DIN 3990 gives the following formular to calculate the helix angle
factor (β is the helix angle at reference circle):

p
Zβ = cos β

In ISO 6336, the helix angle factor is dened as follows:

1
Zβ = √
cos β

Figure 7.116: Comparison of helix angle factor in DIN and ISO

Work Hardening Factor ZW

The work hardening factor ZW has been revised in ISO 6336. This factor is used to take into consideration the
Hertzian pressure which serves as a basis for the calculation of the load capacity of the tooth anks. The work
hardening factor accounts for the increase in surface durability due to meshing a steel gear with a hardened
or substantially harder pinion with smooth tooth anks. In DIN 3990 and the previous version of ISO 6336,

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 268

the work hardening factor was dependent solely on the ank hardness of the softer gear.

Surface Roughness
The increase in the surface durability of the soft gear depends not only on any work hardening of this gear, but
also on other inuences such as ank surface roughness. In addition, the inuence of the surface roughness
is addressed in ISO 6336. Tooth ank curvature, pitch line velocity and lubricant viscosity are taken into
account in the calculation. The work hardening factor is reduced for gears with hard, rough surface. Gear
teeth with rough surfaces may wear a softer mating teeth. Wear of the surface is not covered by ISO 6336.
Especially for rough pinion surfaces, values of ZW < 1 may be evaluated. As in this range eects of wear can
limit the surface durability, ZW is xed at ZW = 1.0 (ISO 6336 Edition 2006 - Was ist neu?: Dr.-Ing. R.
Hess, Dipl.-Ing. B. Kisters, A. Friedr. Flender AG, Bocholt, Tagungsbeitrag Dresdener Maschinenelemente
Kolloquium 2009).

7.6.7 Scung Load Capacity According to ISO/TR 13989

ISO 6336 does not provide a calculation method for scung. For the safety against scung, the Technical
Report ISO/TR 13989 shall be preferably used. ISO/TR 13989 is a Technical Report (March 2000). This
document is not to be regarded as an `International Standard'. It is proposed for provisional application so
that information and experience of its use in practice may be gathered. The scung load capacity is calculated
according to ISO/TR 13989 Part 1 (Flash temperature method) and Part 2 (Integral temperature method) as
soon as you select `ISO 6336 Method B'.

Figure 7.117: Scung load capacity according to ISO/TR 13989

Thermal Contact Coecient BM

The thermal contact coecient BM is required for the determination of the ash factor. The ash factor
considers the inuence of the material properties of gear and pinion on the ash temperature.

Lubricant Factor XL
The lubricant factor XL depends on the the type of lubricant. You can select the following types:

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 269

- Mineral oils XL = 1.0

- Water soluble polyglycols XL = 0.6

- Non-water soluble polyglycols XL = 0.7

- Polyalfaolens XL = 0.8

- Phosphate esters XL = 1.3

- Traction uids XL = 1.5

Figure 7.118: Type of lubricant

Relative Structure Factor XW relT

The relative structure factor XW relT is primarily intended to take into account inuence of the material
properties on the scung load capacity and is determined by:

XW
XW relT =
XW T

XW The lower table provides the empirically determined relative structure factor.

XW T The relative structure factor of test gears that are used for the determination of the scung
temperature. XW T = 1.0 for the FZG gear test.

Structural Factor XW 9
Material/Heat Treatment Structural Factor XW
Through-hardened steel 1.00

Phosphated steel 1.25

Copper plated steel 1.50

Bath and gas nitrided steel 1.50

Hardened carburized steel, with austenite content:

- less than average 1.15

- average (10% to 20%) 1.00

- greater than average 0.85

Austenitic steel (stainless steel) 0.45

9 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl Hanser Ver-

lag Muenchen Wien, 1996, p. 367, table 6.5/16

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 270

Load Stage of Standard FZG Gear Test

Because scung is not a fatigue failure, a standard FZG gear test was developed to determine the scung load
capacity of a lubricant under certain operating conditions. The gear test, known as FZG gear test (Institute for
Machine Elements Gear Research Center, University Munich, Germany), is a standardized method according to
DIN 51354. At the FZG, the dierent inuences on scung are extensively investigated. The test is performed
on a standard FZG test machine using standard test gears. Standardized, case-hardened and ground gears
with a large one-side prole shift are used. The load is increased gradually on a FZG gear test rig with
dened technical parameters. There are 12 load stages and the gears are inspected for scung after every
load stage. Finally, the load stage is determined where scung of the gear teeth occurs and where the ank
area is damaged by scratches. The higher the load stages, the better the industrial gear lubricants resistance
to scung. Click the `Lock' button in order to select a load stage.

Figure 7.119: Selection of load stage

Flash Temperature Method and Integral Temperature Method

High surface temperatures due to high loads and slidings speeds can cause a lubricant lm breakdown. Because
of that, there are two calculation methods in ISO/TR 13989 that are based on dierent criteria for the
development of a damage. The eAssistant software provides both the integral temperature method and ash
temperature method:

- Flash temperature method denes a variable contact temperature along the path of contact.

- Integral temperature method denes a weighted average of the surface temperature along the path of
contact.

Flash Temperature Method

The ash temperature is the temperature at which a gear-tooth surface is calculated to be hot enough to
destroy the oil lm and allow instantaneous welding at the contact point. The contact temperature ϑB in any
point of contact Y results from the sum of the bulk temperature ϑM and the ash temperature ϑf la :

ϑB = ϑM + ϑf la

According to the ash temperature method, there is no scung as long as the contact temperature ϑB (as the
sum of bulk temperature ϑM and ash temperature ϑf la ) does not exceed the scung contact temperature
in all points of contact. The scung temperature ϑS to be a characteristic value for the material-lubricant-
material system of a gear pair, to be determined by gear tests with the same material-lubricant-material
system.

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 271

Please note: Points A to E mark the important points from the beginning to the end of the mesh.

Figure 7.120: Progress of contact temperature along the path of contact

The safety against scung SB is determined according to the ash temperature method:

ϑS − ϑoil
SB = ≥ SBmin
ϑBmax − ϑoil

ϑBmax Maximum contact temperature along the path of contact

ϑoil Oil temperature before reaching the mesh

ϑS Scung temperature

The safety factor SBmin is dependent on whether the gearing is put into operation after a good running-in
period. With a careful running-in period, there is no scung damage up to SBmin ≈ 1. Without a running-in
period, there is no scung up to SBmin ≈ 3 (according to Linke).

Integral Temperature Method

According to the integral temperature method, scung occurs when the integral temperature exceeds the
scung integral temperature. The scung integral temperature is assumed as a characteristic value for
the material-lubricant-material system of a gear pair and is determined from gear tests. The scung safety
according the integral temperature method SintS is calculated as follows:

ϑintS
SintS = ≥ SSmin
ϑint

ϑintS Scung integral temperature

ϑint Integral temperature

As uncertainties and inaccuracies in the assumptions cannot be excluded, it is necessary to introduce a safety
factor. According to Linke, the following reference values can be used:

SintS < 1.0 In all probability, scung damages are expected to occur.

1.0 ≤ SintS ≤ 2.0 For a careful running-in period of the gearing, good contact pattern and real assumed
loads, there are no scung damages to be expected.

SintS > 2.0 There is no risk of scung.

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7.6.8 Input Options for Load Capacity According to ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04

The standard provides the calculation of safeties for the root and ank. Further the calculation of risk of
scung is also available. Additional to the DIN 3990 and ISO 6336 standard, the ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04
provides also the calculation of wear. The eAssistant software calculates the wear as failure probability. Select
ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04 from the listbox and the input elds are enabled. The following explains some factors
from the standard.

Figure 7.121: Activate load capacity according to ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04

Overload Factor KO
With the new edition of the ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04 (ANSI/AGMA 2001-D04 imperial unit edition, the ap-
plication factor from ANSI/AGMA 2101-C95 was replaced by overload factor KO .

Figure 7.122: Overload factor

The overload factor is intended to make allowance for all externally applied loads in excess of the nominal
tangential load, Ft , for a particular application. Overload factors can only be established after considerable
eld experience is gained in a particular application.

For an overload factor of unity, this rating method includes the capacity to sustain a limited number of up to
200 % momentary overload cycles (typically less than four starts in 8 hours, with a peak not exceeding one
second duration). Higher or more frequent momentary overloads shall be considered separately.

In determining the overload factor KO , consideration should be given to the fact that many prime movers and
driven equipment, individually or in combination, develop momentary peak torques appreciably greater than
those determined by the nominal ratings of either the prime mover or the driven equipment. There are many
possible sources of overload which should be considered. Some of these are: system vibrations, acceleration
torques, overspeeds, variations in system operation, split path load sharing among multiple primemovers, and
changes in process load conditions.

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Stress Cycle Factors ZN and YN

The stress cycle factors, ZN and YN , adjust the allowable stress numbers for the required number of cycles
of operation. For the purpose of this standard, nL , the number of stress cycles is dened as the number of
mesh contacts, under load, of the gear tooth being analyzed.

AGMA allowable stress numbers are established for 107 unidirectional tooth load cycles at 99 % reliability. The
stress cycle factor adjusts the allowable stress numbers for design lives other than 107 cycles. The stress cycle
factor accounts for the S-N characteristics of the gear material as well as for the gradual increased tooth stress
which may occur from tooth wear, resulting in increased dynamic eects and from shifting load distributions
which may occur during the design life of the gearing.

Surface Condition Factor ZR

Standard surface condition factor ZR for gear teeth have not yet been established for cases where there
is a detrimental surface nish eect. In such cases, some surface nish factor greater than unity should be
used. The surface condition factor can be taken as unity provided the appropriate surface condition is achieved.

Size Factor ZR
The size factor KS reects non-uniformity of material properties. It depends primarily on: tooth size, diameter
of parts, ratio of tooth size to diameter of part, facewidth, area of stress pattern, ratio of case depth to tooth
size, hardenability and heat treatment of materials Standard size factors for gear teeth have not yet been
established for cases where there is a detrimental size eect. In such cases, some size factor greater than unity
should be used. The size factor may be taken as unity for most gears, provided a proper choice of steel is
made for the size of the part and its heat treatment and hardening process.

Temperature Factor Yϑ
The temperature factor Yϑ is generally taken as unity when gears operate with temperatures of oil or gear
blank not exceeding 120°C. When operating temperatures result in gear blank temperatures below 0°C, special
care must be given. When operating at oil or gear blank temperature above 120°C, Yϑ is given a value greater
than 1.0 to allow for the eect of temperature on oil lm and material properties. Consideration must be
given to the loss of hardness and strength of some materials due to the tempering eect of temperatures over
150°C.

Figure 7.123: Additional options for calculation of load capacity

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Reliability Factor YZ
The reliability factors YZ account for the eect of the normal statistical distribution of failures found in
materials testing. The allowable stress numbers given in ANSI/AGMA (tables 3 through 6) are based upon a
statistical probability of one failure in 100 at 107 cycles. The following table contains reliability factors which
may be used to modify these allowable stresses to change that probability. These numbers are based upon
data developed for bending and pitting failure by the U.S. Navy. Other values may be used if specic data is
available.

Reliability Factor YZ 110

Requirements of Application YZ
Fewer than one failure in 10 000 1.50

Fewer than one failure in 1000 1.25

Fewer than one failure in 100 1.00

Fewer than one failure in 10 0.85

2

Fewer than one failure in 2 0.70

23

Notes: 1) Tooth breakage is sometimes considered a greater hazard than pitting.

In such cases a greater value of YZ is selected for bending. 2) At this value plastic
ow might occur rather than pitting. 3) From test data extrapolation.

10 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl

Hanser Verlag Muenchen Wien, 1996, p. 367, table 6.5/16

Service Factor CSF

The service factor CSF has been used in previous AGMA standards to include the combined eects of overload,
reliability, life and other application related factors. This standard provides a means to account for: variations
in load (with overload factor), statistical variations in S-N data (with reliability factor), and the number of
design stress cycles (with stress cycle factor).

The AGMA service factor as traditionally used in gear applications depends on experience acquired in each
specic application. Product application standards can be a good source for the appropriate value of service
factor. Equations 28 and 29 of AGMA 2101-D04 are used to establish power ratings for unity service factor
to which established service factors may be applied using equation 30. When this is done, the stress cycle
factor is calculated using the number of cycles equivalent to a specic number of hours at a specic speed, to
establish power rating for unity service factors.

Where specic experience and satisfactory performance has been demonstrated by successful use of established
service factors, values of ZN and YN of 1.0 may be appropriate.

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7.7 Input of Gear Tooth Prole and Gear Flank Modications

Manufacturing errors, misalignment in the assembly of the gears as well as displacement of the gears under
load lead to non-uniform load carrying across the facewidth and move a signicant concentration of load to
the tooth edges. Intentional deviations from the involute prole (prole modication) and from the theoretical
tooth trace (ank modication) are used to minimize the manufacturing inaccuracies and elastic deformations,
to improve the running behavior and to reduce the noise of the gear pair.

Figure 7.124: Input of prole and ank modications

There are dierent types of tooth corrections. Short and long linear or short and long circular tip and root relief
are typical tooth prole modications. Lead crowning and end relief are common ank modications. These
corrections tend to give better load distribution over the facewidth and can reduce the eects of misalignment.
Using prole or ank modication requires an appropriate degree of gear accuracy. The minimum required
gear manufacturing accuracy is DIN quality 7 or better. Design details should be based on a careful estimate
of the deformations and manufacturing deviations of the gearing.

7.7.1 Gear Tooth Prole Modication

In case of gear tooth prole modication, parts of the involute prole are changed to reduce the load in that
area. Prole modications help gears to run more quietly and to regulate transmission errors.

Figure 7.125: Gear tooth prole modication

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Tip Relief and Root Relief

Tip relief is a modication whereby material is removed at the tips of the gear tooth. In case of root relief, a
small amount of material is removed near the root of the gear tooth. The modied tooth prole merges as
continuously as possible into the theoretical tooth prole. Prole crowning can be seen as a combination of
tip and root relief.

Figure 7.126: Tip and root relief

There are dierent types that can be chosen for the prole modication. A simple type of prole modication
is the linear tip relief on pinion and gear. However, it is also possible to execute only one gear with a tip and
root relief instead of both gears. The listbox allows to select linear and circular prole modication. The linear
relief results in the greatest material removal and thus the greatest relief in the eective ank area.

When determining the lengths of the prole correction, a distinction is made between short and long prole
modication. In case of long tip and root relief, the entire double contact area is corrected, while in the case
of short execution, only half of the double contact area is removed. Either long or short reliefs are used on a
gearing. The long prole modication is usually suitable for a quiet operation, while the short prole correction
has better load behavior. As long as the overlap ratio is sucient, a long prole correction is more suitable
for helical gearing.

Figure 7.127: Selection of tip relief

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Linear and Circular Tip and Root Relief

Figure 7.128: Linear tip relief Figure 7.129: Linear root relief

Figure 7.130: Circular tip relief Figure 7.131: Circular root relief

The linear tip and root relief is executed in the eAssistant with a transition rounding from the modied to the
unmodied area. You can enter the start and end of the transition rounding in the corresponding input elds.
For circular relief, the input of the transition start and transition end is not required.

Figure 7.132: Selection of linear tip relief

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 278

Linear Relief with Transition Radius

Figure 7.133: Linear relief with transition radius

In case you know the relief length, you can simply enter this value into the input eld. In case the length
is unknown, select `short' or `long' from the listbox. The eAssistant software determines the relief length
automatically. If a diameter is given on the drawing, it is possible to dene the diameter. Click the `d/l'
button on the right side to switch between the input for diameter or length.

Figure 7.134: Diameter and length

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 279

When you enable the checkbox `Use theoretical length of path of contact', then the theoretical path of contact
of a gear with a rack is used.

Figure 7.135: Use theoretical length of path of contact

Prole Crowning
Prole crowning can be seen as a combination of tip relief and root relief. Material is removed from the tip
and from the root of the tooth.

Figure 7.136: Prole modication

You can select symmetric prole crowning from the listbox and add a value for Cha to the input eld.

Figure 7.137: Symmetric modication

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7.7.2 Gear Flank Modications

Gear ank modications are intentional deviations from the theoretical tooth trace. Lead crowning and
end relief are typical gear ank modications and are advantageous for a better load distribution across the
facewidth of the gear. Both can compensate for misalignment so that the stresses do not rise at the tooth
ends.

Figure 7.138: Flank modication

End Relief
Due to mesh misalignments, an overloading of the tooth ends occurs. Therefore, end relief is used to protect
the tooth ends from overloading. Usually, the relief applied is the same at both ends of the teeth. In case
crown shaving and crown grinding are not possible, then end relief is recommended.

Figure 7.139: End relief (double-sided)

End relief can be applied to both tooth ends or to the left or right end of the tooth.

Figure 7.140: Selection of end relief

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 281

End relief: Double-sided, Left and Right Side

Figure 7.141: End relief (left side)

Figure 7.142: End relief (right side)

Figure 7.143: End relief (double-sided)

According to DIN 3990 Part 1, the height of end relief is calculated as follows:

For through-hardened gears: Ce ≈ Fβxcv plus a manufacturing tolerance of 5 to 10 µm. Thus, by analogy
with Fβxcv (initial equivalent misalignment) in DIN 3990, Ce should be approximately:

Ce = fsh + 1, 5 · fHβ

For surface hardened and nitrided gears: Ce ≈ 0, 5 · Fβxcv plus a manufacturing tolerance of 5 to 10 µm.
Ce should be approximately:

Ce = 0, 5 · (fsh + 1, 5 · fHβ )

When the gears are of such sti construction that fsh can for all practical purposes be neglected or when the
helices have been modied to compensate deformation, the following is appropriate:

Ce = fHβ

60% to 70% of the above values is appropriate for very accurate and reliable gears with high tangential
velocities.

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According to DIN 3990 Part 1, the width (or length) of end relief can be determined as follows:

Figure 7.144: End relief

For approximately constant loading and higher tangential velocities:

le = kleinerer Wert von 0, 1 · b oder 1·m

The following is appropriate for variable loading, low and average speeds:

bred = (0, 5 to 0, 7) · b

Lead Crowning
Lead crowning is a common way of crowning is the so-called lead crowning. This type is employed in order
to compensate for manufacturing deviations and load-induced deformations of the gears and in particular to
relieve the tooth-endloading.

Figure 7.145: Lead crowning

Gears are usually crowned symmetrically about the mid-facewidth and the tooth center is slightly thicker than
the tooth edges. The tooth anks of the gear have a slight outward bulge in its center area. It is possible to
select symmetrical and asymmetrical lead crowning from the listbox.

Figure 7.146: Symmetrical crowning Figure 7.147: Asymmetrical crowning

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 283

According to DIN 3990 Part 1, the height of lead crowning can be determined as follows:

Cb = 0, 5 · (fsh + 1, 5 · fHβ )

When the gears are of such sti construction that fsh can for all practical purposes be neglected or when
the helices have been modied to compensate for deformation at mid-face width, the following value can be
substituted:

Cb = fHβ

Subject to the restriction 10 ≤ Cb ≤ 25 µm plus a manufacturing tolerance of about 5 µm, 60% to 70% of
the above values are adequate for extremely accurate and reliable high speed gears.

Figure 7.148: Height of lead crowning

7.8 Meshing Interferences for External Gears

If parts of the ank of gear and mating gear mesh outside of the path of contact or if the contact ratio is
γ < 1, then meshing interferences may occur. A large prole shift as well as a very small tip clearance may
cause meshing interferences. Interference takes place between the tip of the tooth of the gear and root llet
area of the mating tooth. In some cases, the interference may be eliminated by decreasing the addendum of
only one gear teeth. Due to meshing interferences, operating noise, gear failure (e.g., tooth breakage) and an
increased wear can occur. In case of a basic rack prole, meshing interferences can be manipulated or removed
by the following:

- Tip diameter modication,

- Addendum chamfer,

- Changing of prole shift,

- Other manufacturing tools

7.8.1 Meshing Interferences Due to Low Contact Ratio

To assure smooth continuous tooth action, a pair of teeth must already have come into engagement. Especially
for spur gear pairs a low contact ratio can appear:

- the prole shift is too large and a small number of teeth,

- the tip diameter modication is too large,

- an undercut occurs due to insucient prole shift and small number of teeth.

The condition for a smooth and continuous tooth action is:

γ = α + β > 1

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The result panel displays the total contact ratio. In case the condition γ = α + β > 1 is not fullled, the
total contact ratio will be marked in red. Furthermore, you will get an appropriate warning in the message
window.

Figure 7.149: Total contact ratio

7.9 Message Window

The calculation module provides a message window. This message window displays detailed information,
helpful hints or warnings about problems. One of the main benets of the program is that the software
provides suggestions for correcting errors during the data input. If you check the message window carefully
for any errors or warnings and follow the hints, you are able to nd a solution to quickly resolve calculation
problems.

Figure 7.150: Message window

7.10 Quick Info: Tooltip

The quick info tooltip provides additional information about all input elds and buttons. Move the mouse
pointer over the input eld or button, then you will get the additional information. This information will be
displayed in the quick info line.

Figure 7.151: Quick info line

7.11 Calculation Results

All results will be calculated during every input and will be displayed in the result panel. A recalculation
occurs after every data input. Any changes that are made to the user interface take eect immediately. In

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case a minimum safety is not fullled, the result will be marked red. Press the Enter key or move to the
next input eld to complete the input. Alternatively, use the Tab key to jump from eld to eld or click
the `Calculate' button after every input. Your entries will be also conrmed and the calculation results will
displayed automatically.

Figure 7.152: Calculation results

7.12 Dokumentation: Protokoll

After the completion of your calculation, you can create a calculation report. Click on the `Report' button.

Figure 7.153: Button `Report'

The calculation report contains a table of contents. You can navigate through the report via the table of
contents that provides links to the input values, results and gures.

Figure 7.154: Calculation report

The report is available in HTML and PDF format. Calculation reports, saved in HTML format, can be opened
in a web browser or in Word for Windows. You may also print or save the calculation report:

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 286

- To save the report in the HTML format, please select `File' ⇒ `Save as' from your browser menu bar.
Select the le type `Webpage complete', then just click on the `Save' button.

- If you click on the symbol `Print', then you can print the report very easily.

- If you click on the symbol `PDF', then the report appears in the PDF format. If you right-click on the
PDF symbol, you should see the `Save Target As' option. Click on that option and you will see the
Windows save dialog.

7.13 How to Save the Calculation

When the calculation is nished, it is easy to save the calculation. You can save your calculation either to the
eAssistant server or to your computer. Click on the button `Save'.

Figure 7.155: Button Speichern

Before you can save the calculation to your computer, you need to activate the checkbox `Local' in the
calculation module. A standard Windows dialog for saving les will appear. Now you will be able to save the
calculation to your computer.

Figure 7.156: Windows dialog for saving the le

In case you do not activate the option in order to save your les locally, then a new window is opened and
you can save the calculation to the eAssistant server. Please enter a name into the input eld `Filename' and
click on the button `Save'.

Figure 7.157: Save the calculation

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7.14 The Button `Redo' and `Undo'

The `Undo' button allows you to reset your inputs to an older state. The `Redo' button reverses the undo.

Figure 7.158: The button `Redo' and `Undo'

7.15 The Button `CAD'

The top menu bar of the eAssistant software provides the button `CAD'.

Figure 7.159: Button `CAD'

The eAssistant plugin for various CAD systems (e.g., SOLIDWORKS, Solid Edge or Autodesk Inventor) en-
ables you to combine calculation and design very easily. On the basis of the eAssistant calculation, you can
generate spur gears in a 2D DXF format or create as a 3D part within seconds.

7.15.1 DXF Output for the Accurate Tooth Form

Click on the menu item `CAD ⇒ DXF Output'. Now you are able to create the accurate tooth form of any
involute gearing in the 2D DXF format. Use the various settings for the DXF output.

Figure 7.160: DXF output

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7. Rack/Pinion Pairings According to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and Other Standards 288

For the DXF output the following options are possible:

- DXF output of pinion or gear rack

- Output in normal section or transverse section (both options will be active when an helix angle is entered)

- DXF output with points, lines, polylines, arcs

- Number of teeth

- Minimum point distance

- Input of a required layer name where the contour should be placed

- Save the DXF le including the header

Figure 7.161: Settings for the DXF output

When you have dened all settings, then click on the button `OK'. A standard Windows dialog is opened to
save the le.

Figure 7.162: Saving the DXF le

Now you can save the DXF le to your computer. Enter a name for the le and click on the button `Save'. It
is not necessary to specify the le extension. The le is identied automatically.

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7.15.2 GDE Format

With the integration of the standardised GDE format into the modules for gears and involute splines, eAssistant
takes a step closer to a seamless data workow. GDE stands for Gear Data Exchange. This format, which is
dened in VDI/VDE guideline 2610, is already supported by many measuring machine manufacturers. With
the GDE format, geometries of cylindrical gears and involute splines can be loaded directly from the software
into the measuring machine. It only takes a few clicks to create a measuring program. This avoids transmission
errors and allows to work with standard measuring instructions.

Figure 7.163: GDE format

7.15.3 eAssistant CAD Plugin

The eAssistant plugin for various CAD systems (e.g., SOLIDWORKS, Solid Edge, Autodesk Inventor) enables
you to combine calculation and design very easily and fast. Based on your eAssistant calculation, you can
generate external and internal spur and helical gears as a 3D part within seconds. A single menu pick in the
eAssistant software transfers the eAssistant calculation data to the CAD system. Based on these parameters,
the automatic creation of a 3D parametric model starts in the CAD system. Allowances, addendum chamfer,
prole shift and prole modications (tip and root relief ) are taken into consideration.

Figure 7.164: CAD plugin

The CAD model stores all features and dimensions as design parameters. The eAssistant calculation is linked
and associated to the part and can be opened at any time throughout the entire design phase. This is also
possible if one part contains dierent calculations. Click the button `CAD' and select the CAD plugin. Open
the CAD system and start the generation by clicking the integrated button `eAssistant'.

Please note: First you need to download and install the right CAD plugin for your CAD system. The plugin
is available on our web site www.eAssistant.eu. After installation, an integrated button called `eAssistant'
appears in the CAD system.

With just one click, the design table with all manufacturing details can be placed on the sheet. The appearance
and size of that table is individually congurable. There is no need to manually add all design table parameters
to the drawing. For further information, please visit our web site www.eAssistant.eu or read the manual.

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7.15.4 Manufaturing Data

The button `CAD ⇒ Manufacturing data' allows to save the manufacturing data to a text le.

Figure 7.165: Output of manufacturing data

7.15.5 Coordinate Table

The gear tooth form geometry of a tooth space can be exported as a coordinate text le in transverse section
as well as in normal section.

Figure 7.166: Coordinate table

7.16 The Button `Options'

Click on the button `Options' in the top menu bar of the eAssistant software.

Figure 7.167: Button `Options'

This option allows you to change some general settings:

- Unit switch between the metric system and the U.S. customary unit system, the unit can also be changed
directly for each individual input value. Simply click on the label of the corresponding input eld and

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select the unit from the context menu. You will see the change of the unit of measurement immediately
in the label of the input eld. The current eld value will be converted to the corresponding unit.

- Driving gear

- Minimum safety tooth root/tooth ank

- Minimum safety scung (integral)/scung (ash)

- Factor for minimal gear ring thickness: the factor can be specied by the user. This factor controls
the value for the largest possible bore diameter (inner diameter) for external gears and the smallest
possible outer diameter for internal gears. The default value 2.0 refers to forged gears (see main mask
`Geometry'), recommendations according to Schlecht (Maschinenelemente 2, 2010): gear ring thickness
for extreme lightweight constructions < 2 · m, cast constructions 5...8 · m, for welded constructions
3...5 · m.

- Chord of tooth root thickness analog FVA: this option has only eect on the calculation with protuberance
tools

- Complete calculation report

- Calculation report without load spectrum

Figure 7.168: Settings

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Chapter 8

Cylindrical Gears According to DIN

3990 and Other Standards

8.1 Start the Calculation Module

Please login with your username and your password. To start the calculation module for cylindrical gears,
please click the menu item `Gear calculation' on the left side and then select `Cylindrical gear pair'.

Figure 8.1: General overview

The eAssistant module allows an easy and fast calculation of the geometry of cylindrical gears according to
DIN 3960, DIN 3961, DIN 3964, DIN 3967, DIN 3977 and DIN 868. The load capacity according to DIN
3990, ISO 6336, ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04, ISO/TR 13989 (scung) and the load capacity for plastic gears
according to VDI 2736 is considered as well. You can calculate external and internal spur and helical gears.
The prole shift, the addendum chamfer and allowances are also integrated into the calculation.

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8.2 Input of Geometry Data

All important calculation results will be calculated during every input and will be displayed in the result panel.
A recalculation occurs after every data input. Any changes that are made to the user interface take eect
immediately. Press the Enter key or move to the next input eld to complete the input. Alternatively, use
the Tab key to jump from eld to eld or click the `Calculate' button after every input. Your entries will be
also conrmed and the calculation results will displayed automatically. If the result exceeds certain values, the
result will be marked red.

8.2.1 Normal Module

The normal module mn is one of the basic parameters in the gear geometry and describes the size of a gear.
The module is dened as the ratio of the pitch diameter to the number of teeth of a gear. Note that the
larger the module the larger the teeth. The value of the module is dened in millimeters. In order to limit the
number of the gears, the module has been standardised in preferred series 1 and 2 (see following tables). The
calculation with the eAssistant software is possible with any modules including several decimal places.

Series of Modules in mm According to DIN 780 Series 1 (Part 1)

0.05 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.25

0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Series of Modules in mm According to DIN 780 Series 1 (Part 2)

1.25 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 8

10 12 16 20 25 32 40 50 60

Series of Modules in mm According to DIN 780 Series 2 (Part 1)

0,055 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.14 0.18 0.22 0.28 0.35

0.45 0.55 0.65 0.75 0.85 0.95 1,125 1,375 1.75

Series of Modules in mm According to DIN 780 Series 2 (Part 2)

2.25 2.75 3.5 4.5 5.5 7 9 11

14 18 22 28 36 45 55 70

8.2.2 Pressure Angle

The pressure angle is the angle between the line-of-action and the common tangent to the pitch circles. With
an increasing distance from the base circle, the prole angles αy increase too. The most common pressure
angle αn (on reference circle) now in use for spur gears is 20◦ . This pressure angle is usually preferred due
◦
to its stronger tooth shape and reduced undercutting. The 25 pressure angle has the highest load-carrying
ability, but is more sensitive to center-distance variation and hence runs less quietly. The choice is dependent
on the application. The default startup setting for the pressure angle is set to 20◦ .

8.2.3 Helix Angle

For spur gears the helix angle is β = 0◦ , for helical gears the angle β is up to 45◦ due to the fact that the
◦
teeth for a helical gear are inclined by the angle. 45 is also the maximum value that you can enter into the
input eld for the helix angle. For an external gearing a right-hand teeth and a left-hand teeth can only mesh
correctly. For internal gearings pinion and gear must have the same direction.

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Helical Gears
Helical gears are used to transmit power or motion between parallel shafts. Helical gears dier from spur gears
in that they have teeth that are cut in the form of a helix on their pitch cylinders instead of parallel to the
axis of rotation. As two teeth on the gear engage, it starts a contact on one end of the tooth which gradually
spreads with the gear rotation, until the time when both the tooth are fully engaged. Finally, it recedes until
the teeth break contact at a single point on the opposite side of the wheel. Thus force is taken up and released
gradually. Helical gears oer a renement over spur gears. The angled teeth engage more gradually than do
spur gear teeth. This causes helical gears to run smoother than spur gears. Helical gears are used in areas
requiring high speeds, large power transmission or where noise prevention is important.

8.2.4 Standard Centre Distance

The centre distance is the distance between the centre of the shaft of one gear to the centre of the shaft of
the other gear. If you change the number of teeth, the standard centre distance ad is modied automatically.
The standard centre distance is an operand. If the sum of the prole shift coecients = 0, ad corresponds to
the working centre distance a.

8.2.5 Working Centre Distance

The working centre distance a is the distance between the axes. In case of changing the normal module mn ,
the working centre distance is determined automatically. If the prole shift is too large, the working centre
distance can be modied manually at any time. If the standard centre distance and the working centre distance
are equal, the prole shift coecients will be set to the value `0' automatically.

Figure 8.2: Standard centre distance and the working centre distance

Enter the value `13' for the number of teeth for gear 1 and the number of teeth `63' for the gear 2, a `5'
normal module and a helix angle of β = 15◦ . The standard centre distance and the working centre distance
are determined automatically.

Figure 8.3: Inputs

Enter the value `0' for the working centre distance into the input eld and conrm with Enter key or click on
the `Calculate' button.

Figure 8.4: Input `0'

The standard centre distance and the working distance are equal.

Figure 8.5: Centre distance

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8.2.6 Direction of Helix Angle

Enter a value for the direction of the helix angle. When the gear is placed on a at surface, the teeth of a
left-hand gear lean to the left and the teeth of a right-hand gear lean to the right. It should be noted that a
pair of helical gears on parallel shafts must have the same helix angle β. However, the helix directions must be
opposite, i.e., a left-hand mates with a right-hand helix. For an external gear pair the engaged gearings have
dierent directions, internal gears have the same direction with the same helix angle. Find further information
in the section 8.10.1 `Direction of Helix Angle'.

Figure 8.6: Left and right-hand teeth

Select the option `left' for gear 1. That means: Gear 1 is left-handed, gear 2 is right-handed (for external
gears).

Figure 8.7: Option

Select the option `left' for gear 2. That means: Gear 2 is left-handed, gear 1 is right-handed (for external
gears).

Figure 8.8: Option

8.2.7 Number of Teeth

The number of teeth of a gear describes the number of the teeth on the full rim. The number of teeth is
positive for external gears and negative for internal gears. Please note that the smaller the number of teeth
the larger the inuence of the prole shift. Find more information about the prole shift coecient in section
8.2.9 `Prole Shift Coecient'. In section `Internal gearings' you will get more information about the number
of teeth for internal gearings.

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8.2.8 Facewidth
The facewidth b is the length of the gear teeth as measured along a line parallel to the gear axis.

Figure 8.9: Facewidth

Enter a value for the facewidth. The following table shows some additional information about the facewidth
b as well as minimum number of teeth z.

Figure 8.10: Enter the facewidth

Standard Values for the Facewidth b and Minimum Number of Teeth z 1

Gears on rigid shafts, that run in roller or excellent plain bearings,
b ≤ 30 . . . 40 · m
Teeth, machine-cut rigid substructure

Gears in usual gear boxes, roller or plain bearings b ≤ 25 · m

Gears on steel constructions, beams and suchlike b ≤ 15 · m
Gears with excellent bearing in high duty gearings b ≤ 2 · d1
Teeth, cast roughly Overhung gears b ≤ 10 · m
Gears with high circumferential velocity(υ > 4 m/s) and considerable z1 ≥ 16
power, when εα > 1.5
Gears with mean circumferential velocity(υ = 0.8 . . . 4 m/s) z1 ≥ 12
Gears with low circumferential velocity(υ < 0.8 m/s) or for low power for subor-
z1 ≥ 10
dinated purposes

Basically external gearings z1 + z2 ≥ 24

Basically internal gearings z2 ≥ z1 + 10
1 from: Karl-Heinz Decker: Maschinenelemente: Gestaltung und Berechnung, 1992, p. 506, table 23.2

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8.2.9 Prole Shift

Prole shift can make spur gears or helical gears run more quietly and carry more load. If spacing errors
of some magnitude are present, proper prole shift will give the teeth a little clearance at the rst point of
contact. If a pair of teeth are spaced too close together, there is a bump as the tooth comes into mesh. With
the modication there is a little relief at the rst point of contact. The prole shift aects the tooth form
because the tool is shifted by the value xm towards or away from the tip circle. The calculation of the tip
diameter da and root diameter df includes the prole shift coecient x. According to DIN 3960 the prole
shift is

- positive if the prole reference line is shifted from the reference circle towards the tip circle,

- negative if the prole reference line is shifted from the reference circle towards the root circle.

You can select the prole shift coecients x1 and x2 . Please note that no meshing interferences occur. In
case meshing interferences occur, you will get an appropriate message in the message window.

Figure 8.11: Change the tooth form with the prole shift: number of teeth z = 10; tooth 1: x = 0.5; tooth
2: x = 0; tooth 3: x = -0.5

Characteristics of the Prole Shift

- A positive prole shift increases the tooth thickness, a negative prole shift decreases the tooth thickness.

- With an increasing positive prole shift, the tooth tip thickness and the root llet become smaller, the
axle load and the load capacity increase. This advantage occurs especially for a smaller number of teeth.

- The minimum permitted tooth tip thickness determines the limit for a very large prole shift, in particular
for very small number of teeth.

- The prole shift aects the operating pressure angle as well as the load capacity.

- For a small number of teeth and with a negative prole shift, an undercut becomes a problem (see above
gure). The undercut weakens the tooth root and a part of the tooth ank is cut o.

Here you get the possibility to dimension and optimize the prole shift coecient. To optimize the prole
shift coecient, click on the `Calculator' button.

Figure 8.12: Prole shift coecient

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 298

Enter either your own value for the prole shift coecients into the input eld or activate the option `Balanced
specic sliding'. The coecients will be modied. Enter either your own values for the prole shift coecients
or activate the option `Balanced specic sliding'. The factors are modied so that the specic sliding is
balanced. The tooth anks slide and roll on each other. The measure for the sliding velocity and the rubbing
wear of the tooth anks presents the relative sliding, the so-called specic sliding. The specic sliding is the
ratio of the sliding velocity and radial velocity. The specic sliding shows which of the two gears could be
damaged by the rubbing wear. In general, the value for the specic sliding should not exceed `3'.

Figure 8.13: Balanced specic sliding

Please Note: Activate the `Lock' button next to Σx and click the `OK' button. You will get to the geometry
mask and you will see that the input eld for the working centre distance is disabled. Enter the prole shift
coecients x1 and x2 and click the Enter key and the working centre distance is automatically determined
from x1 andx2 . Disable the `Lock' button again, then the input eld changes and you can add your value for
the working centre distance.

Figure 8.14: Enable `Lock' button

Further options are available for the distribution of the prole shift coecients: `Fixed working center distance
(recalculation)', `Minimum sliding speed', `Geometric minimum gear 1', `Geometric maximum gear 1', `Max-
imum root safety', `Maximum ank safety' and `Maximum scung load capacity (integral)'. The last three
options are only available for selection when the load capacity is activated.

Figure 8.15: Options for the distribution of the prole shift coecients

The calculation module provides the function Fixed working center distance (recalculation) for disconnecting
the prole shift sum and the center distance. With this function, the prole shift coecients can be can be
specied independently of the center distance. This enables, for example, the calculation of existing gear pairs
that are to be installed in the housing with the `wrong' centre distance. Transverse contact ratio, backlash
and load capacity are also calculated correctly in this case. This function can also be used for the calculation

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 299

of small-module gears.

8.2.10 Tip Diameter

The tip diameter da depends on the module and will be determined by the program automatically. If you
change the prole shift, the tip diameter will change, too. There is the possibility to enable the tip circle
using the `Lock' button. Now you can add and modify the tip diameter very easily. Please note that the tip
diameter has an inuence on the modication of the tip diameter. Click on the button again to disable the
input eld. The value is determined again according to DIN. In case you use a special tool, the tip diameter can
be changed by a tool customization. Find out more about the tool data in the section `The input of tool data'.

8.2.11 Tip Diameter Allowance

The tip diameter allowance is determined according to DIN. Click on the `Lock' button to enable the input
eld and enter your own value. If your values are out of range of the DIN, you will get an information in
the message window. Click on the `Lock' button and the input eld is disabled again. The allowances are
determined according to DIN.

Figure 8.16: Enable the input eld

8.2.12 Modication of Tip Diameter

The modication of the tip diameter k is automatically determined by the program that a sucient tip
clearance is available. For external gears the modication of the tip diameter is k ≤ 0, for internal gears,
the value is often set to k=0 in order to avoid meshing interferences. Click on the `Lock' button to enable
the input eld and enter your own value. Such a modication of the tip diameter has an eect on the tip
diameter.

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8.2.13 Tip Clearance

Clearance c is the distance between the root circle of a gear and the addendum circle of its mate. A certain
clearance between the gears is necessary for a smooth operation without jamming.

Figure 8.17: Tip clearance c

A distinction is made between two dierent kind of clearances. There is the tip clearance c and the backlash j .
Standard gears have got a basic rack prole with a addendum coecient ha = m or a tool basic rack prole
with hf p = m. The dedendum coecient hf of the basic rack prole or the addendum coecient hap of the
tool basic rack prole has to be larger due to ensure that tip and root circle of the gears are not in contact.

Backlash j
If the gears are of standard tooth proportion design and operate on standard center distance, they would
function ideally with neither backlash nor jamming. The general purpose of backlash is to prevent gears from
jamming and making contact on both sides of their teeth simultaneously. Any error in machining which tends
to increase the possibility of jamming makes it necessary to increase the amount of backlash. Consequently,
the smaller the amount of backlash, the more accurate must be the machining of the gears. Runout of both
gears, errors in prole, pitch, tooth thickness, helix angle and centre distance - all are factors to consider in
the specication of the amount of backlash. In order to obtain the amount of backlash desired, it is necessary
to change the tooth thickness or tooth space allowances (please see also section 8.4.8 `Backlash Normal Plane').

8.2.14 Root Diameter

The root diameter df depends upon the module, the prole shift and addendum coecient of the basic rack
prole. The root diameter is determined by the program. Therefore, the root diameter occurs as a result of
the calculation.

8.2.15 Allowances of Root

The allowances of root result from your calculation and will be determined automatically. The allowances
depend upon the tooth thickness allowances. For instance, if you enter the value `0' for a gear, then the
allowances of root become `0' for this gear as well.

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8.2.16 Inner and Outer Diameter

Here you can enter an inner diameter (for external gears) and outer diameter (for internal gears). It should
be kept in mind that the inner diameter has to be smaller than the root diameter df .

Figure 8.18: Inner diameter

In case the inner diameter is larger than df , then the program automatically corrects the value and enters the
maximum value for the inner diameter. An appropriate message appears in the message window.

8.2.17 Web Width

The web width can be considered here. The web width is shown in the gure next to the input eld. There
is the possibility to modify the web width by using the `Lock' button.

Figure 8.19: Input eld for the web width

The `Lock' button is still disabled. Enter the values for the inner or outer diameter into the input eld. Then
the `Lock' button is enabled and the web width gets the same value as the facewidth. In case the web width
is smaller than the facewidth, then the gear body stiness is aected due to the gear body coecient CR .
The tooth spring stiness changes which aects again the load capacity.

Figure 8.20: Web width

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 302

8.2.18 Chamfer
The chamfer can be considered. This reduces the calculated facewidth for the calculation of the load capacity
of the tooth root and tooth ank.

Figure 8.21: Chamfer

8.2.19 Addendum Chamfer

The tooth ends of a gear are often rounded or chamfered. A chamfer is a small angled surface added on
the end of a shaft along an edge. For the calculation you can consider the addendum chamfer. Meshing
interferences can be removed by the addendum chamfer.

Figure 8.22: Addendum chamfer

Please Note: If you dene the geometry of the gear pair, you are able to look at the tooth form. Click on
the button `Tooth form' and select `Total view' or `Detail view' (nd more information on the tooth form and
its functions in section 8.5 `Representation of Tooth Form'). Click the button `Geometry' and you get to the
geometry input again.

As an alternative to the addendum chamfer, a tip corner radius can be specied. This can be dened either
as a radial amount or directly as a radius. The selection is marked by the colored arrow. The radius is entered
directly for the tip radius, the radial amount is entered for the tip radius (Rad.).

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 303

If you enter the tip radius directly as a value, you will receive the corresponding radial amount in the calculation
report.

Figure 8.23: Switch between input of addendum chamfer, tip corner radius (radial amount and radius)

In the case of tip corner radius or addendum chamfer, the tip form diameter is smaller than the tip circle
diameter by twice the radial amount hK .

Figure 8.24: Spur gear with addendum chamfer, hK = Radial amount of the tip corner radius, dF a = Tip form
diameter

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 304

8.3 Input of Tool Data

For the selection of the manufacturing process you have to consider the material, size of the gear, quantity, gear
type (external or internal gears) and accuracy. The many methods of making gear teeth must be considered
as well. The calculation program distinguishes between gear-tooth cutting and gear hobbing.

Figure 8.25: Input mask for tool data

Please note: If you want to add some own notes, comments or a description, then use the comment line.

8.3.1 Tool
The most important manufacturing processes are gear hobbing and gear shaping. Select either the tool `Hob' or
`Gear shaper cutter' by clicking the listbox. A `Constructed involute' is also available. Basically, the selection
of the tool depends on the gear type (external or internal gears). The external gears can be produced by
cutting wherein the gear cutting tool is a hob. For internal gears a gear shaper cutter is used (see section 8.11
`Manufacturing Process for Internal Gears').

Figure 8.26: Selection of tool

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 305

Gear Hobbing
The hobbing is the most widely used method of cutting gear teeth. The hobbing process is quite advantageous
in cutting gears with very wide facewidth. A very high degree of tooth-spacing accuracy can be obtained with
hobbing. With regard to accuracy, hobbing is superior to the other cutting processes. A wide variety of sizes
and kinds of hobbing machines are used. The rotating hob has a series of rack teeth arranged in a spiral
around the outside of a cylinder, so it cuts several gear teeth at one time. To generate the full width of the
gear, the hob slowly traverses the face of the gear as it rotates. Thus, the hob has a basic rotary motion and
an unidirectional traverse at right angles. Both movements are relatively simple to eect, resulting in a very
accurate process.

Field of Application of the Hob:

- Recommended for gears with very wide facewidth

- Recommended for external spur and helical gears up to module `40' (Please keep in mind: it is an
expensive tool for large modules)

- Recommended for all basic rack proles

- The helix angle is arbitrary.

Figure 8.27: Hob and gear shaper cutter

Gear Shaping
The shaping process is a gear-cutting method in which the cutting tool is shaped like a pinion. If a gear is
provided with cutting clearance and is hardened, it may be used as a generating tool in a gear shaper. The
cutter reciprocates while it and the gear blank are rotated together at the angular-velocity ratio corresponding
to the number of teeth on the cutter and the gear. The teeth on the gear cutter are appropriately relieved
to form cutting edges on one face. Although the shaping process is not suitable for the direct cutting of
ultra-precision gears and generally is not as highly rated as hobbing, it can produce precision quality gears.
Usually it is a more rapid process than hobbing. Two outstanding features of shaping involve shouldered and
internal gears. For internal gears, the shaping process is the only basic method of tooth generation.

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 306

Field of Application of the Gear Shaper Cutter:

- Recommended for internal and external spur and helical gears

- Racks

- Special gearings, e.g., splined shaft connections, face or chain gears

Constructed Involute
In addition to the hob and the gear shaper cutter, you can also select the entry `Constructed involute' as a
tool. In case internal gears cannot be shaped with a gear shaper cutter, the tooth form calculation is still
possible by using the constructed involute. This specically applies for applications in the precision mechanics.
This method allows a generation of the tooth form with a constant root llet radius.

Figure 8.28: Constructed involute

Representation of Hob and Gear Shaper Cutter

The representation shows either the hob basic rack prole or the gear shaper cutter tooth prole. The radio
buttons enable you to choose one of the graphical representation.

Figure 8.29: Tool

8.3.2 Standard Basic Rack Tooth Prole

To mesh two gears with each other, the parameters have to be coordinated. The standard basic rack tooth
prole is standardized in DIN 867. A gear with an innite number of teeth will have straight lines for both

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 307

the pitch and the base circles. The involute prole will be a straight line. The rack can be used to determine
the basic parameters. Racks can be both spur and helical. A rack will mesh with all gears of the same pitch.
The pressure angle and the gears pitch radius remain constant regardless of changes in the relative position of
the gear and rack. The tool standard basic rack prole is the counter prole of the standard basic rack tooth
prole. The following standard basic rack proles are available for your calculation. Choose your prole from
the listbox.

Figure 8.30: Listbox for the basic rack prole

- ISO 53 Prole A: is recommended for gears transmitting high torques

- ISO 53 Prole B: is recommended for normal service

- ISO 53 Prole C: is recommended for normal service, type C may be applied for manufacturing with
some standard hobs.

- ISO 53 Prole D: is recommended for high-precision gears transmitting high torques and consequently
with tooth anks nished by grinding or shaving. Care should be taken to avoid creating notches in the
llet during nishing which could create stress concentrations.

- DIN 3972 Prole I

- DIN 3972 Prole II

- Prole 1 DIN 867 (Numerical example from DIN 867)

- Prole 2 DIN 867 (Numerical example from DIN 867)

- Prole 3 DIN 867 (Numerical example from DIN 867)

- Prole 4 DIN 867 (Numerical example from DIN 867)

- AGMA PT (for plastic gears)

- AGMA XPT-2 (for plastic gears)

- AGMA XPT-3 (for plastic gears)

- AGMA XPT-4 (for plastic gears)

In addition to the standard basic rack proles, you can also select a protuberance tool. When part of the
involute prole of a gear tooth is cut away near its base, the tooth is said to be undercut. By using a
protuberance tool an undercut near the root can be generated. Grinding notches at the tooth ank can
be avoided during the grinding. That provides relief for subsequent nishing operations (see section 8.3.6
`Protuberance').

Figure 8.31: Selection of the protuberance tools

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 308

You can select the following proles:

◦
- Prot 1.4-6 /0,085

◦
- Prot 1.5-6 0.02

◦
- Prot 1.6-6 /0.02

◦
- Prot 1.4-8 /0.04

◦
- Prot 1.4-8 /0,066

◦
- Prot 1.4-10 /0.05

◦
- Prot 1.5-10 /0.02

◦
- Prot 1.6-10 /0.02

◦
- Prot 1.25-14 /0,024

◦
- Prot 1.4-6

◦
- Prot 1.4-10 (Fette) (Protuberance tool with shifted prole reference line with the data of the tool
manufacturer LMT Fette)

◦
- TBK Prot 10 (Protuberance tool with shifted prole reference line with data analog TBK V22)

Please Note: If you select `user dened input', then the input elds for the edge radius, the addendum
coecient and the dedendum coecient are activated. Now you can modify the basic rack prole.

Figure 8.32: Own input

Determination of the Basic Rack Prole

In case you use special tools, the eAssistant software oers an easy and comfortable solution. The basic rack
prole can be determined by clicking the `Calculator' button.

Figure 8.33: Tool dimensioning

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 309

Here you can change the tip circle and the root diameter for gear 1 and gear 2. Conrm your entries with the
button `OK'. The listbox for the basic rack proles displays then `user dened input'. The modication of the
tip diameter is set to '0'.

8.3.3 Tip Form

For the tip form you can choose between `Full radius' and `Radius with straight line'. Normally `Radius with
straight line' is used.

Figure 8.34: Listbox for tip form

8.3.4 Addendum Coecient

eAssistant provides a functionality for tools with a shifted prole reference line. Additionally to the addendum
coecient h∗aM P 0 of the shifted prole, the dedendum coecienth∗f M P 0 is displayed and visible in the
∗
calculation report. The dedendum coecient hf M P 0 can also be dened by clicking the `Lock' button so that
∗
the dedendum coecient hf P 0 of the converted, non-shifted basic rack prole is always 1.0 according to DIN
867.

Figure 8.35: Input of the addendum coecient for tool with shifted prole reference line

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 310

Shifted Prole Reference Line

Figure 8.36: Prole reference line according to DIN and shifted prole reference line

8.3.5 Semi Topping Flank and Topping

With the denition of the semi topping ank, corresponding hobs can then be specied. These generate an
addendum chamfer during the cutting process. The option `Topping' allows to dene the tip diameter directly
with the dedendum coecient of the tool, making it impossible to subsequently modiying the tip diameter.
The result, at the same time, will be tip diameter allowances analogous to the root diameter allowances directly
from the tooth thickness allowances. The eAssistant 3D CAD plugins for various CAD systems support the
function and the semi topping ank can be considered in the 3D CAD model.

8.3.6 Protuberance
Undercut may be deliberately introduced to facilitate nishing operations. Undercut is the loss of prole in
the vicinity of involute start at the base circle due to tool cutter action in generating teeth with low numbers
of teeth. The protuberance cuts an undercut at the root of the gear tooth. The protuberance design is also
used in some cases to permit the sides of gear teeth to be ground without having to grind the root llet.

Determination of the Amount of the Protuberance from the Height of the Protuberance Flank
The following equation determines the amount of the protuberance. In case the height of the protuberance
ank is given and not the amount of the protuberance, the amount of the protuberance may be calculated by
this equation.

(h∗prP 0 − ρ∗aP 0 · (1 − sin(αp ))) · sin(αn − αp )

prP∗ 0 = + ρ∗aP 0 · (1 − cos(αn − αp ))
cos(αp )

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 311

The following gure shows a representation:

Figure 8.37: Height of the protuberance ank

To avoid grinding steps, a deviation in the tooth root area of the prole is a common and allowed method.
Because of a grinding stock allowance, an undercut must be allowed. Hence, a larger tooth root thickness is
necessary. The following table shows some determination of the undercut dependent upon the module.

Undercut spr for Ground Gears Dependent upon Module2

Module Allowance Size of Protuberance Addendum Edge Radius

m q Undercut spr prP∗ 0 h∗aP 0 ρ∗aP 0

2 0,160 0,100 0,260 2,900 0,500

2,5 0,170 0,110 0,280 3,625 0,625

3 0,180 0,120 0,300 4,350 0,750

4 0,200 0,140 0,340 5,800 1,000

5 0,220 0,160 0,380 7,250 1,250

6 0,240 0,180 0,420 8,700 1,500

7 0,260 0,200 0,460 10,150 1,7500

2 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl Hanser Ver-

lag, Muenchen, Wien, 2nd ed. 2010, p. 68, table 2.1/2

8.3.7 Machining Allowance

You can consider an allowance for the tooth ank. The tool provides an allowance q on the ank and/or root
for the pre-cutting tool. The allowance is the smallest distance between the involutes and the pre-machining
having the same root diameter. In case you select the tool basic rack prole with protuberance, the allowance
refers to the tooth ank.

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 312

If the allowance of the tool basic rack prole is selected without protuberance, then tooth ank and tooth
root get the allowance.

Figure 8.38: The eAssistant software provides the following allowances for the grinding of a gear: a) Constant
allowance with bottom of the tooth space, b) Protuberance: Cutter tooth prole is built up on the tip to
provide an undercut near the root of the gear being generated.

Figure 8.39: Input of machining allowance

Maximum Machining Allowances3

Allowance per Tooth Flank Manufacturing Process

< 0.05 (0.10) mm Finishing operation by cold rolling, gear shaving, hon-
ing, lapping

0.05 to 0.5 (1.5) mm Grinding, prole grinding, (honing)

> 0.5 mm, pre-cutting Primary shaping, forming, cutting with geometrically
determined edges except shaving, grinding and prole
grinding in special cases

3 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl Hanser Ver-

lag, Muenchen, Wien, 1996, p. 638

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 313

8.4 Input of Data for the Determination of Allowances

A manufacturing of work-pieces with accurate nominal dimensions is impossible. Hence, a deviation from the
nominal size has to be allowed. For a lot of applications the gear and the pinion of a pair must be independently
manufactured and meshed without any modications. That means, the parts have to be separately replaceable.
In addition to DIN 3961 for gear tolerances/gear qualities, DIN 58405 for precision engineering as well as ISO
1328 and ANSI/AGMA 2015 are available.

Figure 8.40: Input of allowances

8.4.1 Gear Quality

The choice of the right toothing quality is determined by economical aspects depending upon the intended
purpose and manufacturing process. In all elds of gearing, the control of gear accuracy is essential. Several
classes or grades of accuracy can be set. 12 grades (12 to 1) are dened according to DIN standards. High
accuracy grades can be set for a long-life, high speed gears. Lower accuracy grades will cover medium or
slow-speed grades. Accuracy grade `1' describes the highest possible accuracy, `12' a very low accuracy. The
gear accuracy `1 to 4' is mainly used for master gears, quality `5 to 12' is used for gear wheels (gure from:
Niemann, G.: Maschinenelemente, Vol. 2, Getriebe allgemein, Zahnradgetriebe-Grundlagen, Stirnradgetriebe,
1989, p. 73, gure 21.4/1).

Figure 8.41: Tolerances according to the manufacturing process

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 314

Select the appropriate quality between 1 and 12 by using the following listbox.

Figure 8.42: Listbox for the selection of quality

The following table provides some reference values for the selection of the quality, tolerances for gearings made
of metal and plastics:

Toothing Made of Metal4

ν Machining Quality Tolerance Sequence
to m/s of Tooth Flanks (Accuracy) DIN 3967
0.8 Cast, raw 12 2x30

0.8 Rough-machined 11 or 10 29 or 28

2 Finish milled 9 27

4 Finish milled 8 26

8 Fine nished 7 25

12 Shaved or ground 6 24

20 Precision-ground 5 23

40 Precision-machined 4 or 3 22

60 Precision-machined 3 22 or 21

Toothing Made of Injection Molding Plastics

Application d Quality Tolerance Sequence
in mm (Accuracy) DIN 3967
Gearings with high requirements to 10 9 27

Gearings with high requirements 10 to 50 10 28

Gearings with normal requirements 10 to 50 11 29

Gearings with low requirements to 280 12 2 x 30

Toothing made of plastic manufactured by cutting

Gearings with high requirements to 10 8 25 to 27

Gearings with high requirements 10 to 50 9 26 to 28

Gearings with normal requirements to 50 10 27, 28

Gearings with normal requirements 50 to 125 11 27, 28

Gearings with low requirements to 280 12 28

4 from: Karl-Heinz Decker: Maschinenelemente: Gestaltung und Berechnung, 1992, p.

512, table 23.3

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 315

For the gear tolerances/gear qualities, DIN 58405 for precision engineering as well as ISO 1328 and ANSI/AGMA
2015 are also available. For ISO 1328 and ANSI/AGMA 2015, two qualities can be selected in each case. The
rst quality is comparable with the tolerances permitted according to DIN 3961, the second value inuences
the radial composite deviation as well as the roll deviations.

8.4.2 Backlash Allowance and Tolerance Sequence

The system for gearings is very similar to the DIN system of ts and tolerances. For the system of ts for
gear transmissions letters are used to indicate the deviation from basic (nominal) size, a number denes the
width. There are clearance ts for gearings, therefore, lower case characters `h' to `a' appear. If you select
the entry `user dened input', the input eld for the tooth thickness allowances is enabled and you can dene
your individual values.

Figure 8.43: Own input

8.4.3 Tooth Thickness Allowance

One of the most important criteria of gear quality is the specication and control of tooth thickness. The
magnitude of tooth thickness and its tolerance is a direct measure of backlash when the gear is assembled
with its mate. Dimensional changes, due to thermal expansion, do not allow a zero-backlash assembly. The
tooth thickness allowance has to be determined that no jamming occurs. To prevent that jamming of gears
during the operation, it is necessary to decrease tooth thickness by a minimum amount (Asne and Asn ).

Figure 8.44: Lower and upper tooth thickness allowances for gear 1 and gear 2

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 316

The tooth thickness allowances for teeth of external and internal gearings have to be negative. Then a backlash
occurs (nd more information on the backlash in section 8.4.8 `Backlash Normal Plane').

The eAssistant software oers the possibility to specify the tooth thickness allowances based on measured
data or given test dimensions. Click on the `Calculator' button.

Figure 8.45: `Calculator' button

A new window is opened.

Figure 8.46: Calculation of tooth thickness allowances

Activate gear 1 and gear 2 and enter the input values. Conrm with the button `OK'. The `Lock' button next
to the input eld for the tooth space allowances is enabled. Now you can change the tooth space allowances.

8.4.4 Tooth Space Allowance

The tooth space allowance AW is the dierence between the actual dimension and the nominal dimension of
the span measurement W k. The actual measurement of the span measurement gets smaller for external gears
by negative allowances for a zero-backlash assembly. The upper and lower tooth space allowance are displayed
as well. For an own input of the tooth thickness allowances, the tooth space allowances can be dened as
well. The `Lock' button next to the input eld of the tooth space allowances is enabled. Therefore, you can
change the tooth space allowances.

Figure 8.47: Tooth space allowance for gear 1 and gear 2

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 317

8.4.5 Measurement of Tooth Thickness

The tooth thickness of a gear may be measured directly with calipers or it may be determined indirectly by
diameter pins. The sizing of gears may be controlled by double-ank composite checks and centre distance
settings corresponding to maximum and minimum tooth thickness specications. Dierent measurement
methods are used:

- At pitch circle (chordal),

- Span measurement across several teeth,

- Measurement over pins or balls that are placed in diametrically opposed tooth spaces,

- Check of the centre distance allowance with zero-backlash engagement by using a master gear in a ank
roll tester.

In the following you get some information on the widely used measurement methods:

- Span measurement Wk
- Measurement by diameter over balls or pins, the measurement by using balls and pins

Span Measurement across Several Teeth

Span measurement Wk is the measurement of the distance across several teeth in a normal plane. As long as
the measuring device has parallel measuring surfaces that contact on an unmodied portion of the involute,
the measurement will be along a line tangent to the base cylinder. It is a widely used method for gauging the
tooth thickness by using the span measurement. The tooth thickness of spur or helical gears is often measured
with calipers. An advantage is that the dimensions can be inuenced during the manufacturing.

Figure 8.48: Span measurement

The calculation program determines the number of teeth for the span measurement (number of teeth across
the span measurement has to be gauged). By using the `Lock' button you are able to activate the input eld
and you can enter your own input value. If you click the button again, the previous input value appears.

Figure 8.49: Number of teeth for the span measurement

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 318

Tooth Thickness Measurement by Diameter over Pins or Balls

The tooth thickness is often checked by measurement over pins MdR or balls MdK . The pins or balls are
placed in diametrically opposed tooth spaces (even number of teeth) or nearest to it (odd number of teeth).
Measurement over pins is the measurement of the distance taken over a pin positioned in a tooth space and
a reference surface. The reference surface may be the reference axis of the gear, a datum surface or either
one or two pins positioned in the tooth space or spaces opposite the rst. The measurement over pins is only
used for spur gears and external helical gears. For the measurement values a distinction is made between:

- Measurement over balls MdK

- Measurement over pins MdR

- Measurement over pins for a spur gear

- Measurement over pins for external helical gears with even number of teeth

- Measurement over pins for external helical gears with odd number of teeth

For an external gear the measurement over balls MdK is the largest outer measure. The two balls are placed
in diametrically opposed tooth spaces. The balls have to be in the same plane perpendicular to a gear axis.
For an internal gear (see gure: `Internal spur gear with odd number of teeth') the measurement over balls is
the smallest inner measure between the balls. DM is the diameter of ball or pin. The internal gear is generally
checked for tooth thickness with measuring pins, like the external gear. However, the measurement is made
between the pins instead of over pins.

Measurement over balls: External spur gear with even num-

ber of teeth

Measurement over balls: External spur gear with odd num-

ber of teeth

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 319

Measurement over balls: Internal spur gear with odd num-

ber of teeth

The eAssistant software already species the diameter of ball or pin for the test dimensions. Enable the input
eld by clicking the `Lock' button. Enter your own input value for the diameter. If you click on the button
once again, the previous input value appears.

Figure 8.50: Diameter of ball or pin

Please Note: In the calculation report you can nd all results for the span measurement or measurement
over balls and pins in section `Test dimensions'.

8.4.6 Tolerance Field for Centre Distance

The general purpose of backlash is to prevent gears from jamming and making contact on both sides of their
teeth simultaneously. The center distance and the gear ts have an important inuence on the backlash.
The gear t selection denes the tolerances of the centre distance with the backlash. The gear t selection
provides only one tolerance eld. The allowances are indicated for the `JS' eld. These conform to the ISO
basic tolerances. The backlash is dependent upon the tooth thickness allowances, the tooth space allowances
and the centre distance. Hence, if you change the centre distance, then the backlash is changed, too.

Figure 8.51: Tolerance eld for the centre distance

Select the option `user dened input' from the listbox. Now you are able to enter your own centre distance
allowances. Conrm your entries with the Enter key. The backlashes are automatically determined.

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 320

8.4.7 Centre Distance Allowance

The centre distance allowance Aa is the allowed deviation of the centre distance from the nominal centre
distance. The allowances are indicated with ± to get no improper major allowances from the nominal centre
distances with gears having several axes.

Figure 8.52: Centre distance allowance

8.4.8 Backlash Normal Plane

A gear t has to be determined, so that two gears can be meshed. For that, a proper backlash must be provided
for the mesh to avoid jamming of the gears. The eAssistant software oers three dierent backlashes: the
backlash normal plane, the backlash pitch diameter and the radial backlash.

Figure 8.53: Backlash normal plane

Besides errors in manufacturing and assembling, the variation in backlash will depend considerably on the
tooth thickness tolerances and centre distance of the gears. The DIN system represents a standard centre
distance and provides the backlash by changing the tooth thickness. The backlash between the meshing teeth
adjusts the deviations of the tooth thicknesses, centre distance and tooth form using the tooth thickness
Asni and tooth space allowances Asne . The lowest tooth thickness allowance Asni indicates the maximum

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 321

backlash, the upper tooth thickness allowance indicates the minimum backlash Asne . In addition to the tooth
thickness allowance and centre distance allowance, errors in prole and pitch are also factors to consider in
the specication of the amount of backlash.

Please note: The backlash depends also on thermal expansions, deformation of elementes and displacement
of casing. These impacts must be considered for the determination of the tooth thickness.

8.4.9 Backlash Pitch Diameter

The backlash pitch diameter jt refers to the backlash at the pitch circle. The backlash pitch diameter may be
the length of the pitch circle arc in which the gear rotate against its mating gear.

Figure 8.54: Backlash pitch diameter

8.4.10 Radial Backlash

The radial backlash is the dierence of the centre distance between the working condition and zero-backlash
engagement. The radial backlash jr matters especially for very small modules (m < 0.6 mm).

Figure 8.55: Radial backlash

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 322

8.5 Representation of Gear Tooth Form

A special highlight of this calculation module is the presentation of the accurate gear tooth form with an
animation and simulation of the tooth mesh. For the presentation you can select the lower, upper and mean
allowances for the tooth thickness, tip diameter and centre distance. When you dene the geometry for the
gear pair, then you can have a look at the tooth form at any time. Click on the `Tooth form' button and you
get a general or detailed view of the tooth form. By clicking the `Geometry' or `Tool' button, you can open
the main input masks of the calculation module again.

Figure 8.56: Tooth form

Please Note: Please keep in mind that all values are later taken over to the DXF output and CAD generation.
In case you change the tooth thickness allowance or the centre distance allowance in the tooth form mask,
then the last modication is taken over to the DXF output. The section 8.21 `CAD button' contains some
helpful information on this function.

Figure 8.57: DXF output

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 323

8.5.1 Representation of Cylindrical Gear Pair

Click on the `Tooth form' button to represent the gear tooth form.

Figure 8.58: Cylindrical gear pair

Please Note: Please keep in mind that you can check the backlash and the mesh ratio only in the presentation
of the mesh. The gear mesh will be discussed in section 8.5.2 `Representation of Mesh'.

8.5.2 Representation of Tooth Mesh

Click on the `Detail view' button. You get a larger representation of the gear tooth form. Now you can see
the detailed tooth mesh. Click on the `Total view' button to obtain an entire view of the cylindrical gear pair.

Figure 8.59: Detail view of the mesh

Please Note: The representation of the tooth mesh allows you to look at the tooth thickness allowances, the
tip diameter and centre distance allowances as well the tooth mesh and to check the inuence of these values.
The tooth form mask provides various functions. Find a short description of these functions in the following
section.

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 324

8.5.3 Rotating Angle

Enter an rotating angle for the rotation of the spur gear pair.

Figure 8.60: Rotating angle

Rotation of the driving gear counter-clockwise

Rotation of the driving gear clockwise

8.5.4 Rotation
When you click on one of the two arrows, a continuous rotation of the spur gears occurs.

Figure 8.61: Rotation

Continuous rotation of the driving gear counter-clockwise

Continuous rotation of the driving gear clockwise

The rotation is stopped.

8.5.5 Tooth Thickness Allowance

Click on the `Detail view' button and the tooth mesh is represented in detail. Now you can change the tooth
thickness allowance, that is already given in the main mask for the `Allowances', within the tolerance limit.
All changes are displayed immediately. For the representation of the tooth mesh, select the lower, upper and
mean tooth thickness allowances for gear 1 and gear 2.

Figure 8.62: Tooth thickness allowance in the main mask `Allowance'

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 325

Both arrows indicate the lower and upper allowance. The active input is grayed out and disabled. Click on
the left arrow and you will get the representation for the lower tooth thickness allowance. The right arrow
shows the representation for the upper tooth thickness allowance. The middle button displays the mean tooth
thickness allowance. At the rst start of the tooth form, you will get the mean tooth thickness allowance as
a standard feature. The tooth thickness allowances can be dened between the lower and upper allowance.

Figure 8.63: Tooth thickness allowance

Please Note: In case you have specied the lower and upper tooth thickness allowance for gear 1 and gear 2
in the input mask `Allowances' by using the `Calculator' button, then the manually dened values appear here
as lower and upper tooth thickness allowance.

8.5.6 Tip Diameter Allowance

Click the `Detail view' button and the tooth mesh is represented in detail. Now you can change the tip
diameter allowance, that is already given in the main mask for the `Geometry', within the tolerance limit. All
changes are displayed immediately. For the representation of the tooth mesh, select the lower, upper and mean
tip diameter allowances for gear 1 and gear 2.

Figure 8.64: Tip diameter allowance in the main mask `Geometry'

Both arrows indicate the lower and upper allowance. The active input is grayed out and disabled. Click on
the left arrow and you will get the representation for the lower tip diameter allowance. The right arrow shows
the representation for the upper tip diameter allowance. The middle button displays the mean tip diameter
allowance. At the rst start of the tooth form, you will get the mean tip diameter allowance as a standard
feature.

Figure 8.65: Tip diameter allowance

Please Note: In case you have specied the lower and upper tip diameter allowance for gear 1 and gear 2 in
the input mask `Geometry' by using the `Lock' button, then the manually dened values appear here as lower
and upper tip diameter allowance.

8.5.7 Centre Distance Allowance

Click on the `Detail view' button and the tooth mesh is represented in detail. Now you can change the centre
distance allowance, that is already given in the main mask for the `Allowances', within the tolerance limit.
All changes are displayed immediately. You can check the operation of the gears by using various centre

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 326

distance settings. For the representation of the tooth mesh, select the lower, upper and mean centre distance
allowances for gear 1 and gear 2.

Figure 8.66: Centre distance allowance in the main mask `Allowances'

Both arrows indicate the lower and upper allowance. The active input is grayed out and disabled. Click on
the left arrow and you will get the representation for the lower centre distance allowance. The right arrow
shows the representation for the upper centre distance allowance. The middle button displays the mean centre
distance allowance. At the rst start of the tooth form, you will get the mean centre distance allowance as a
standard feature.

Figure 8.67: Centre distance allowances

Please Note: In case you have specied the lower and upper centre distance allowance in the input mask
`Allowances' by using the `User dened input' option, then the manually dened values appear here as lower
and upper centre distance allowance.

8.6 Calculation of Gear Load Capacity

Gears fail by tooth breakage, pitting as well as by scung. The strength is determined by the loads, the
geometry of gearing as well as selected materials. The calculation of the load capacity is about the proof of
the following strength factors that result from the above-mentioned forms of damage:

- Load capacity of the tooth root (safety against failure of the toothing due tooth breakage)

- Load capacity of the tooth ank (safety against failure of the toothing due to pitting)

- Scung load capacity (safety against failure of the toothing due to scung)

Load Capacity of the Tooth Root - Tooth Breakage

Tooth breakage is a fatigue failure. Pitting, scung or wear may weaken the tooth so that it breaks. The slow
progress of the fracture apparently causes the metal to break like brittle material. A tear or grinding notch
may cause a tooth breakage. Gear tooth fractures ordinarily start in the root llet. The tooth breakage can
destroy an entire gearing and leads to a failure of the gearing. Sometimes a new tooth will break as a result
of severe overload or a serious defect in the tooth structure. According to DIN 3990, an operation with a
reduced load is possible after a tooth breakage, if just a small portion of a tooth broke o and the other parts
of the gearing are intact.

For a high load capacity of the tooth root, the following methods are advantageous: positive prole shift (for
small number of teeth), usage of hardened and tempered or case-hardened materials with larger load capacity
of the tooth root, larger root llet, larger module

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Load Capacity of the Tooth Flank - Pitting of Gear Teeth

Pitting is a fatigue failure and is characterized by little bits of metal breaking out of the surface and thereby
leaving small holes or pits, so that oil seeps into the pits. This is caused by high tooth loads leading to
excessive surface stress, a high local temperature due to high rubbing speeds or inadequate lubrication. The
cracking of the surface develops, spreads and ultimately results in small bits breaking out of the tooth surface.
But it is often possible to get some years of service out of gears that have pitted rather extensively.

For a high load capacity of the tooth ank, the following methods are advantageous: large number of teeth,
positive prole shift (for small number of teeth), higher pressure angle, large hardness of tooth ank, nitriding,
more viscous oil

Figure 8.68: Load capacity

Scung Load Capacity

Scung is a surface destruction and it can be caused by a lubrication failure. Tears and scratches appear on
the rubbing surface of the teeth. This form of damage is called `scung'. The terms of `scung' and `scoring'
are used interchangeably. Scung is an important form of damage leading to component replacements in
lubricated mechanical systems. Compared with tooth breakage and pitting, it is not a fatigue failure, it can
come very quickly. A short overload can lead to scung and the gearing fails. Scung is apt to occur when
the gears are rst put into operation because the teeth have not sucient operating time to develop smooth
surfaces. Due to the scung, the temperature, the forces and the noise increase, the gear teeth nally break
o. The following factors may inuence the occurrence of scung:

- Gear material

- Lubrication

- Surface condition of tooth anks

- Sliding velocity

- Load

- Impurities in a lubricant

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 328

After the occurrence of scung, high-speed gears apt to additional dynamic forces that cause usually pitting or
tooth breakage. The high surface temperature may cause a breakdown of the lubricating lm. The following
factors support scung:

- High loads

- Kind of lubrication: Non-alloy oil protects less against scung than E.P. oil (extreme pressure)

- High oil temperature

- Rough oil surface

- Low gear quality: Larger contact ratio and tooth alignment errors may cause local stresses by impacts
and unbalanced carrying.

For a high scung load capacity, the following methods are advantageous: E.P. oils (oil that contains chemical
additives), a careful running-in period of the gearing, low sliding velocity due to tip relief and a smaller module

Please note: There are two dierent types of scung - cold and hot scung. Both types describe a damage
on the ank. The scung problem is not limited to high-speed gears. Scung can also occur on slow-speed
gears. The slow-speed scung is called cold scung and the high-speed hot scung. Cold scung is not
often observed. Hence, all further comments and information refer to hot scung.

8.6.1 Activate Load Capacity

The calculation of load capacity of cylindrical gears is standardized according to DIN 3990, ISO 6336,
ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04 as well as VDI 2736 for plastic gears. The standards give dierent methods to
calculate the load capacity in DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04. The eAssistant software
provides all calculations according to DIN 3990 Method B, ISO 6336 Method B (2006, 2019), ANSI/AGMA
2101-D04 and VDI 2736. Hence, you can check the load capacity of tooth root and tooth ank as well as the
scung fast and easily. The scung safeties are determined according to the integral and ash temperature
method. The material properties, the endurance, face load factor, application factor as well as the kind of
lubrication and the selected lubrication are taken into consideration for the calculation. There are extended
input options to inuence the number of load changes or the roughness. A grinding notch can be integrated
into the calculation and the mode of operation can be selected.

Click on the `Load capacity' button to get to the calculation mask. You will notice that all input elds or
listboxes are disabled. When you select the entry `DIN 3990 Method B', `ISO 6336 Method B (2006, 2019)',
`ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04' or `VDI 2736' from the listbox `Calculation method', all input elds are enabled. In
case you do not need the calculation for load capacity, the calculation can be disabled. Thus, the size of the
calculation report becomes smaller.

Figure 8.69: Activate the calculation for load capacity

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 329

8.6.2 Input Options for Load Capacity According to DIN 3990 Method B
Comment
You can add a description or a short comment to gear 1 and gear 2. The notes will appear later in the
calculation report.

Figure 8.70: Add a comment

Material Selection
Select an appropriate material directly from the listbox or click on the button `Material' to open the material
database.

Figure 8.71: Listbox `Material'

The material database provides some detailed information on the several kinds of material. If the listbox is
active, the two arrow keys `Up' and `Down' of your keyboard allows you to search through the database, so
you can compare the dierent values with each other.

Figure 8.72: Material database

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 330

In order for gears to achieve their intended performance, life and reliability, the selection of a suitable material
is very important. Steel is the most common material that is used for gears. There are a number of steels
used for gears, ranging from plain carbon steels through the highly alloyed steels from low to high carbon
contents. The choice will depend upon a number of factors, including size, service and design. For pinion
and gear, the same hardened and tempered steel may be used. It has to be kept in mind that unhardened
gears with equal hardness should not be meshed with each other because scung is apt to occur. A hardened
or nidrided gear HRC > 50 smoothes the tooth anks of the hardened and tempered mating gear, reduces
the form deviations and increases the load capacity of the tooth ank. For a mating of hardened gears, no
hardness dierence is necessary. The nal selection of the material should be based upon an understanding of
the material properties and application requirements.

Hardening and tempering diers from hardening by annealing at high temperatures. The temperature range
for hardening and tempering ranges from 400◦ to 700◦ C while after hardening, parts are annealed at a low
temperature. On the other hand, a distinction is made between the material. For hardening, steel contains
more than 0.6 to 0.7% of carbon, for hardening and tempering less than 0.6% of carbon. However, there is
no well-dened limit between hardening and tempering and hardening.

Kind of Material
Steel casting: Steel casting belongs to the ferrous metals that include carbon (up to max. 2%) and are poured
into sand molds to produce several components. Due to a higher melting temperature, steel casting is more
dicult to cast than cast iron. Steel casting is cheaper than ground or forged gears.

Steel: Steel is the most common material and is used for medium and high-loaded gears.

Nidrided steel: Nitriding is adding nitrogen to solid iron-base alloys by heating the steel in contact with am-
monia gas or other suitable nitrogenous material. This process is used to harden the surface of gears.

Case-hardened steel: Case-hardened steel is a quality and high-grade steel with low carbon content. Case-
hardened steel is usually formed by diusing carbon (carburization), nitrogen (nitriding) into the outer layer
of the steel at high temperature and then heat treating the surface layer to the desired hardness. When the
steel is cooled rapidly by quenching, the higher carbon content on the outer surface becomes hard while the
core remains soft and tough.

Blackheart malleable cast iron (pearlitic structure): Malleable cast iron is a heat-treated iron carbon alloy.
Two groups of malleable cast iron are specied, whiteheart and blackheart cast iron. Blackheart malleable cast
iron is used for parts with a complex shape, in which a high durability, shock resistance and good machining
are important. Malleable cast iron is used for smaller dimensions and has got a higher strength and toughness
than steel castings.

Cast iron with spheroidal graphite (pearlitic structure, bainitic structure, ferritic structure): Cast iron usually
refers to gray cast iron but identies a large group of ferrous alloys that contain more than 2% of carbon. It
is extremely rare that the maximum carbon content is higher than 4.5%. Cast iron is a low-priced material.
However, cast iron has less toughness and ductility than steel. Cast iron with spheroidal graphite can be used
for parts with higher vibration stress.

Heat-treated steel: Hardening and tempering is a heat-treating technique for steels by quenching from the
hardness temperature and annealing at a high temperature so that the toughness is increased signicantly. At
the same time, a higher elastic limit is reached. Annealing temperatures and times dier for dierent materials
and with properties desired, steel is usually held for several hours at about 400◦ C to 700◦ C. Some steels have
to be cooled very quickly (Annealing: in order to achieve the intended properties of work pieces (e.g., desired
strength or toughness), reheating of the work pieces to certain temperatures is necessary.).

Gray cast iron: Gray cast iron is used for complex shapes and oers low cost and an easy machinability. It
provides excellent damping properties but it is a disadvantage that the load capacity is very low.

Please Note: In case there is no material that will fulll the design requirements, then simply dene your
individual material. Select the option `User dened input' and all inputs and options are enabled and you can

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 331

specify your individual material very easily. Your inputs will be saved to the calculation le. Please be advised
that changing the material will delete your dened inputs and you have to enter the inputs again.

Figure 8.73: Own input of a material

Ovako´s Clean Steels

Ovako´s clean steels 159X and 159Q can be selected from the listbox. Both steels are based on the case-
hardening steel 18CrNiMo7-6. Due to signicantly lower levels of contamination, these steels have modied
Woehler curves. Within the static strength, both steels are comparable to 18CrNiMo7-6. However, in the
fatigue strength range the IQ-Steel 159Q (Isotropic Quality ultra clean steel) is designed to increase eciency
by 30 percent for the ank load capacity and 60 percent for the tooth root load capacity. The fatigue strength
values are based on Ovako´s in-house investigations and external verications at WZL of RWTH Aachen
University and at the Gear Research Centre (FZG) of Technical University of Munich.

Figure 8.74: Selection of clean steels from the material database

The BQ-Steel 159X (Bearing Quality clean steel) delivers slightly smaller performance gains compared to
18CrNiMo7-6 and can be taken to improve existing designs. The potential of the 159Q can be used particularly
in new designs. It can be advantageous to focus on optimized scung load capacity. This can be achieved by
increasing the number of teeth and simultaneously reducing the module. This generally results in better gear
eciency and lower power losses. These Ovako steels open up completely new design possibilities for gears
and have a high potential for further increasing the performance of gears and gear components.

Figure 8.75: 159Q with the material properties in the material database

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Load Spectrum
The calculation of load spectra is in accordance with ISO 6336, Part 6. The determination is based on the
Palmgren-Miner rule and the load-dependent K-factors are calculated for each torque class. The safeties
are determined by way of iteration until the sum of damage parts is obtained. This method, demanded by
the wind energy industry, is very accurate. The linear damage accumulation model, which is also known as
Palmgren-Miner's rule, denes damage as the ratio of the number of cycles of operation to the number of
cycles to failure at any given stress level.

Figure 8.76: Load spectrum

Click the button `Load spectrum'. Once the option `Use load spectrum' has been activated, add any number
of load spectra with time ratio, torque, speed and, if required, with KHβ and temperature per load case. The
load spectra can be entered manually or imported from les. The load spectra can be saved and loaded. To
do this, use the two buttons `Open' and `Save'.

Figure 8.77: Dene load spectrum

Application Factor KA
The application factor KA evaluates the external dynamic forces that aect the gearing. These additional
forces are largely dependent on the characteristics of the driving and driven machines as well as the masses

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 333

and stiness of the system, including shafts and couplings used in service. Because scung is not a fatigue
failure, the application factor shall consider the stronger inuence of several load peaks during the calculation
of the scung load capacity. Several load peaks aect directly only the ank temperature. Because of that,
the same application factor KA can be used for the calculation of the scung load capacity as well as of
the load capacity of the tooth root and tooth ank. The application factor is determined by experience. An
application factor of `1.0' is best thought of a perfectly smooth operation. The following table gives some
values according to DIN 3990.

Application Factors KA According to DIN 3990-1: 1987-125

Working Characteristics Working Characteristics of the Driven Machine

of the Driving Machine

Uniform Light shocks Moderate shocks Heavy shocks

Uniform 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75

Light shocks 1.1 1.35 1.6 1.85

Moderate shocks 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0

Heavy shocks 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.25 or higher

5 from: DIN 3990 Part 1, December 1987, p. 55, table: A1

Working Characteristics of the Driving Machine

- Uniform: e.g., electric motor, steam or gas turbine (small, rarely occurring starting torques)

- Light shocks: e.g., electric motor, steam or gas turbine (large, frequently occurring starting torques)

- Moderate shocks: e.g., multiple cylinder internal combustion engines

- Heavy shocks: e.g., single cylinder internal combustion engines

Working Characteristics of the Driven Machines

- Uniform: e.g., steady load current generator, uniformly loaded conveyor belt or platform conveyor, worm
conveyor, light lifts, packing machinery, feed drives for machine tools, ventilators, centrifuges, centrifugal
pumps, agitators and mixers for light liquids or uniform density materials, shears, presses ...

- Light shocks: e.g., heavy lifts, crane slewing gear, industrial and mine ventilator, centrifugal pumps,
agitators and mixers for viscous liquids or substances of non-uniform density, multi-cylinder piston pumps
...

- Moderate shocks: e.g., rubber extruders, continuously mixers for rubber and plastics, wood-working
machine, lifting gear, single cylinder piston pumps ...

- Heavy shocks: e.g., excavators (bucket wheel drives), rubber kneaders, foundry machines, brick presses,
peeling machines, rotary drills ...

Please Note: You will nd a `Question mark' button next to the input eld. Click on this button and
the above-mentioned table opens. The `Question mark' button is an additional feature and provides further
information. You will nd this button next to several input elds.

Figure 8.78: The question mark button

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 334

Face Load Factor KHβ

The face load factor takes into account the eects of the non-uniform distribution of load over the gear
facewidth on the surface stress KHβ , on the tooth root stress KF β and on the scung KBβ . The face load
factor is determined according to DIN 3990, Part 1 Method B.

Figure 8.79: Face load factor for the surface pressure

When you start the calculation module, the value `1.25' is entered into the input eld. In case you already
use a dened face load factor, you can save the certain factor to a template le. Then the calculation module
starts with the individual face load factor. When you click on the `Calculator' symbol, the input mask for the
face load factor opens. In the top input eld `Face coe.' you can nd the default value `1.25'. You will
notice that the lower input elds and listboxes are disabled. By using the `OK' button you can take over the
default value to the main mask. There is a listbox next to the input eld for the face load factor. When you
open the listbox, the entry `DIN 3990 T1 Method B' appears.

Figure 8.80: Listbox with the selection of DIN

As soon as you select this entry from the listbox, the remaining input elds and listboxes are enabled. The
face load factor is determined automatically but you still cannot take over the value to the main mask. In
order to take over the calculated value, you have to add further inputs from the input mask for the face load
factor. When the button `OK' is activated, then the determined face load factor can be conrmed with the
button `OK'.

Please Note: However, there is the possibility to take over the value, determined according to DIN, to the
main mask without changing the extensive settings. When you click on the `Calculator' button next to the face
load factor, the above-mentioned input mask opens. The face load factor KHβ is displayed in the input eld.
Open the adjacent listbox and select the entry `DIN 3990 T1 method B'. The face load factor is calculated
but the button `OK' is still disabled.

Figure 8.81: Face load factor

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 335

Open the listbox again and select the entry `User dened'. Now the `OK` button is enabled and you can take
over the face load factor.

Figure 8.82: Take over the face load factor

Mesh Misalignment Fβx

The path of teeth is marked by the path of tooth traces. The tooth trace is the section of a tooth ank with
the reference surface. The mesh misalignment Fβx considers all inuences of manufacturing, assembly and
deformation that may intensify and compensate each other.

Figure 8.83: Tooth trace

The mesh misalignment is determined according to DIN 3990, part 1 method C. Using this method, portions
of the mesh misalignment are considered caused by a deformation of pinion and pinion shaft as well as
manufacturing inaccuracies. Fβx consists of fsh and fma . fsh is the mesh misalignment due to bending
and torsion of the pinion and pinion shaft, therefore it is a mesh misalignment due to deformation. The
mesh misalignment fma is a misalignment due to manufacturing inaccuracies and is dependent upon the gear
accuracy and the facewidth of the gear.

Figure 8.84: Mesh misalignment

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 336

Please Note: Select the entry DIN 3990 method B from the listbox for the face load factor, then the factor
is determined according to DIN. The selection and input elds are enabled. User-dened inputs for the mesh
misalignment are also possible.

Figure 8.85: User-dened selection

Position of Tooth Contact Pattern

The tooth contact pattern gives some insight into the required geometry and accuracy of gears. While rolling
o each other, a tooth ank will not come into contact with every point of its mating ank. A tooth contact
pattern is a representation of contact surfaces of two engaged tooth anks of gear pair. Under operating
conditions, an even load distribution over the facewidth and tooth depth is to be accomplished. For a contact
pattern, a thin layer of a marking compound is applied to the anks. After that, the gear pair is rotated as
long as the tooth contact pattern appears. Then the gears are visually inspected to check the tooth contact
pattern which is indicated by a light wear pattern on the mating tooth surfaces. The optimization of the
contact pattern plays an important role for improving smoothness and quietness of operation. Click on the
`Question mark' button and you will get a representation of the contact pattern according to DIN 3990, Part
1.

Figure 8.86: Open contact pattern

Figure 8.87: Contact pattern according to DIN Figure 8.88: Contact pattern according to DIN
3990, Part 1, 1987 3990, Part 1, 1987

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 337

Pinion Corrections
Errors in manufacturing and elastic deformations that may inuence the load capacity can be adjusted by
using intentional deviations from the involute (modication of the tooth depth) and theoretical tooth trace
(modication of the facewidth). Lead crowning and end relief are the most important pinion corrections and
are advantageous for a good load distribution over the facewidth of a gear. Due to lead crowning or end
relief, a non-uniform load distribution can be reduced. The calculation program allows you to select one of
the above-mentioned pinion corrections from the listbox.

Figure 8.89: Selection of the pinion correction

Lead Crowning
Lead crowning is a common modication that results in the ank of each gear tooth having a slight outward
bulge in its center area. A crowned tooth becomes gradually thinner towards the end of the teeth. The purpose
of lead crowning is to ensure that manufacturing inaccuracies and deformations are adjusted under load and
that the tooth ends are relieved. In general, lead crowning Cc is carried out symmetrically to the centre of the
facewidth.

Figure 8.90: Lead crowning

End Relief
Due to mesh misalignments, an overloading of the tooth ends occurs. Therefore, this kind of pinion correction
is used to protect the tooth ends against overloading. Generally, the size of the relief at both sides of the
tooth ank is equal. If crown shaving and crown grinding are not possible, then end relief is recommended.

Figure 8.91: End relief

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 338

Pinion Arrangement - Stiening Eect

DIN 3990 describes the stiening eect as follows: When d1 /dsh ≥ 1, 15, then stiening is assumed; when
d1 /dsh < 1.15, there is no stiening; furthermore, scarcely any or no stiening at all is to be expected when
a pinion slides on a shaft and feather key or a similar tting, nor when normally shrink tted (DIN 3990, part
1, edition December 1987, Beuth Verlag GmbH Berlin, gure 6.8, p. 33).

Figure 8.92: Pinion arrangement

Transmitted Power - Power Distribution for the Dimensioning of the Face Load Factor kHβ
The transmitted power k is the percentage of the power which will be transmitted through the pinion tooth
mesh, in the ratio of the full power which is transmitted through the pinion shaft. For example: The power
input on a shaft is 10 kW. 60% is transmitted through the tooth mesh and the remaining 40% is transmitted
to the end of the shaft. Now you have to dene 6 kW for the pinion to dimension the gearing. To determine
the face load factor, you have to enter 60% of the transmitted power because the stronger deformation of the
shaft due to the full torque transmission (10 kW) is taken into consideration.

Figure 8.93: Transmitted power

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 339

Reference Gear
The inputs for the power, speed and torque apply for the appropriate gear that is selected in the listbox. For
the other gear, speed and torque are determined from the reference gear.

Power and Torque

The power, torque and speed are dependent upon each other. Click on the adjacent button `T/P' to switch
between the input for the torque and the input for the power. If you click on the `TP' button, then you can
enter either the torque or the power. The values are converted. The description of the input eld changes
accordingly into `Torque' or `Power'.

Kind of Lubrication and Lubricant Selection

Lubrication serves several purposes but its basic and most important function is to protect the sliding and
rolling tooth surfaces from seizing, wear and friction. The friction of the tooth ank is responsible for ank
wear, gear heating and gear noise. A reduced ank friction improves the eciency that is dependent on the
tooth load, circumferential velocity, gear quality and the surface condition of the tooth anks. In order that
the gearing should work properly, the selection of a lubricant is an important choice. A liquid lubricant is a
good choice and can be easily introduced between the contacting surfaces. In addition, a lubrication has to
reduce frictional heat and has to protect the surfaces against corrosion. The bearings and clutches in a gearing
require also an appropriate lubricant. Therefore, the lubricant has to be suitable as well. Oil and greases
are the most common lubricants. The compounding of oils provides a combination and generation of various
properties. Oil oers a wider range of operating speeds than greases. They are easier to handle and are most
eective. Special E.P. (extreme pressure) oils have been developed for slow-speed, highly-loaded vehicle gears.
These oils develop chemical compounds on the contacting gear-tooth surfaces. Grease is a combination of
liquid and solids. Grease has the advantage of remaining in place and not spreading as oil. It can provide a
lubricant lm at heavily loads and at low speeds.

Figure 8.94: Open the selection of a lubricant

Liquid lubricants may be characterized in many dierent ways. Viscosity is one very important property of a
lubricant and determines the oils lubricating eciency.

For the selection of liquid lubricants applies: the smaller circumferential velocity and larger the contact pres-
sure as well as the roughness of tooth anks, the higher the viscosity. A higher viscosity will result in a
higher hydrodynamic load capacity and an increased scung load limit where scratching and scung of the
tooth anks occur (Muhs/Wittel/Jannasch/Vossiek: Rolo/Matek Maschinenelemente, 17th revised edition,
published by Vieweg, Wiesbaden 2005).

Please Note: If the viscosity is too low, the oil lm will not be suciently formed and if the viscosity is too
high, the viscosity resistance will also be high and cause temperature rise. For higher speed, a lower viscosity
oil should be used and for heavy loads, a higher viscosity oil should be used.

Gears that are running primarily in a gearbox are lubricated with oil. A distinction is made between oil splash
lubrication and oil injection lubrication.

Oil splash lubrication: The oil splash lubrication is an easy, reliable and reasonable lubrication system. It is
a type of lubrication used in enclosed gear drives. In splash lubrication, the gear tooth dips into a tray of
lubricant and transfers the lubricant to the meshing gear as it rotates. As a result, oil reaches all of the places
where it is needed. The oil splash lubrication can be used for average speed applications.

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 340

Oil injection lubrication: With the oil injection lubrication, the oil can be ltered, cooled and checked and
the oil is directly fed to the bearings. The amount of oil can be controlled according to the heat dissipation
requirements. The gearbox is used as an oil tank reservoir from which several units can be supplied. The oil
is sprayed directly by a pump injector into the mating surfaces.

Grease lubrication: The selection of the grease is dependent upon the circumferential velocity, the kind of
application and the service temperature. A grease lubrication requires low maintenance and protects against
contamination. Grease lubrication is suitable for any gear system that is opened or enclosed, so long as it runs
at low speed. The grease should have a suitable viscosity with good uidity especially in a enclosed gear unit.

Click on the `Lubricant' button and open database. The extensive database contains the lubricants including
all detailed information about the oils and greases (e.g., density, viscosity, load stage of FZG test). You can
nd out more about the FZG test in section 8.6.5 `Extended Input Options for Scung Load Capacity'. Select
`User dened input' from the listbox to dene your individual lubricant.

Figure 8.95: Lubricant selection

8.6.3 Extended General Input Options

Click the corresponding button in the main screen of the load capacity to open the advanced input options. If
you do not change any entries in the following screen, the calculation continues with the default input values.

Figure 8.96: Selection of extended input options

If you do not change any entries in the following mask, the calculation continues with the default input values.

Figure 8.97: Extended general input options

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 341

Dynamic Coecient KV
The dynamic coecient KV considers additional inner dynamic forces. Inner dynamic forces are caused by
mesh alignments, lead crowning, deformation of teeth, the housing, shafts and gear bodies as well as oscillation
of the wheel masses. As the circumferential velocity of the gear rim increases, the dynamic forces increase. The
forces decrease with an increasing load of the teeth. Click the `Lock' button to change the dynamic coecient.

Transverse Coecient KHα

The transverse coecients account for the eect of the non-uniform distribution of transverse load between
several pairs of simultaneously contacting gear teeth on the surface pressure (KHα ), stress leading to scung
(KBα ) and loading of the tooth root (KF α ). Click the `Lock' button to change the transverse coecient.

Mesh Load Factor Kγ

The mesh load factor takes into account an uneven distribution of the total circumferential force for gearings
with multiple transmission paths or for planetary gear trains with more than three planets. For transmission
paths, the total circumferential force is distributed to several mesh. For gearings without transmission paths,
the value is set at `1.0'.

Carried Width
When the facewidth of pinion and gear is not equal, then a maximum overhang of `1 x m' at each tooth end is
assumed as a carried width. Unhardened portions of surface-hardened gear tooth anks (including transition
zone) consider only 50% as the carried width. However, if it is foreseen that because of crowning or end relief
the contact does not extend to the end of face, then the smaller facewidth shall be used for both pinion and
gear. Click the `Lock' button to change the carried width.

Permit Pitting
In specic cases, the development of pits on the gear ank is allowed. Use this option to permit several pits.
In general, initial pitting is considered normal and is not a cause for concern. In particular, case-hardened and
nitrided gears usually has the tendency to pit near the tooth root and lead eventually to fatigue breakage. Here
an individual assessment is necessary. In some cases (aerospace industry), pits are absolutely not permitted.
For turbo transmissions, pits may lead to oscillations and increased additional dynamic forces.

Figure 8.98: Permit pitting

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 342

8.6.4 Extended Input Options for Load Capacity of Tooth Root and Tooth Flank
The main mask of the load capacity provides the `Tooth root/ank' button, click on that button and the
extended input options appear.

Figure 8.99: Extended input options for tooth root and tooth ank

Roughness
The surface roughness of the tooth anks inuences the load capacity of the tooth anks. The average rough-
ness Rz is the arithemitc average of ve individually measured roughness values. The input of the roughness
occurs for root and ank of pinion and gear. The right choice of the surface roughness is determined by
economical aspects depending upon the intended purpose and manufacturing process. A ne surface can be
very expensive because of the high manufacturing costs. A surface that is too rough may not fulll the required
functionality.

Grinding Notch
A grinding notch may signicantly reduce the fatigue strength and a tooth breakage can occur due to a
grinding notch. Shot-peening can be used to increase the fatigue strength of gears that are damaged by a
grinding notch. A careful grinding of the notch is basically suitable.

Figure 8.100: Grinding notch

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 343

Hardening Depth Root/Flank

The hardening depth is signicantly for the pitting load capacity and is determined by the depth of surface layer
heated to hardening temperature, the hardenability of the material and the eect of the quenching method.
Case-hardening: Steels get their specic features by case-hardening. This combined heat treatment process
consists of the following subprocesses:

- Carburizing, i.e., using carbon for the surface

- Hardening, i.e., heat treatment to achieve a hardened and wear-resistant surface

- Annealing (stress relief )

Please Note: The calculation module determines the optimal hardening depth automatically, but the hard-
ening depth can be dened also individually. If the individual hardening depth is smaller than the optimal
hardening depth, then the fatigue strength is reduced accordingly. The determination of the optimal hard-
ening depth and reduction of fatigue strength with reduced hardening depth is based on: `Tobie, Thomas:
Zur Gruebchen- und Zahnfusstragfaehigkeit einsatzgehaerteter Zahnraeder, Dissertation Technische Universi-
taet Muenchen (Lehrstuhl fuer Maschinenelemente, Forschungsstelle fuer Zahnraeder und Getriebebau) 2001,
Section. 10.3: Eingliederung der Versuchsergebnisse in das Rechenverfahren nach DIN 3990'.

Figure 8.101: Hardening depth

Technology Factor YT
The technology factor YT considers the change of the strength of the tooth root by machining process.

σF lim = σF lim0 YT

σF lim0 Fatigue strength of the tooth root from material data

σF lim Fatigue strength of the tooth root with inuence of the technology factor

YT Technology factor (see following table)

Technology Factor YT According to Linke6

Kind of Manufacturing of the Tooth Root Technology Factor YT
Shot peening: 1.2 to 1.4

Applies for case-hardened or carbonitrided gears; not ground

in the hardened layer

Rolling: 1.3 to 1.5

Applies for ame and induction hardened gears; not ground in

the hardened layer

Grinding: General: 0.7

Applies for case-hardened or carbonitrided gears for CBN grinding wheel: 1

Shape cutting: 1

Does not apply for ground gears

6 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl Hanser Verlag

Muenchen Wien, 1996, p. 320, table 6.5/6

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 344

Click the `Question mark' button to open the tables for the technology factor and mode of operation factor.

Figure 8.102: Open the tables

Mode of Operation Factor YA

The fatigue strength of the tooth root σF lim is corrected with the inuence of the mode of operation.

σF lim = σF lim0 YA

σF lim0 Fatigue strength of the tooth root from material data

σF lim Fatigue strength of the tooth root with inuence of the mode of operation factor

YA Mode of operation factor (see following table)

The following reference values can be used for the mode of operation factor YA . DIN 3990 species identical
values for swelling and alternating load.

Mode of operation factor YA according to Linke7

Mode of Operation Mode of Operation Factor YA Direction of Load

Swelling 1

Alternating 0.7

lgNrev
0.85 - 0.15
6

Oscillating (for 1 ≤ Nrev ≤ 106 )

0.7 (for Nrev > 106 )

Please Note: Nrev = Number of load direction changes during operation time

7 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl Hanser Verlag

Muenchen Wien, 1996, p. 321, table 6.5/7

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 345

8.6.5 Extended Input Options for Scung Load Capacity

The scung load capacity oers dierent extended input options. Click on the `Scung' button and the
extended input options appear.

Figure 8.103: Extended input options `Scung'

Thermal Contact Coecient BM

The thermal contact coecient BM is required for the determination of the ash factor. The ash factor
considers the inuence of the material properties of gear and pinion on the ash temperature.

Figure 8.104: Thermal contact coecient

Relative Structure Factor XW relT

The relative structure factor XW relT is primarily intended to take into account inuence of the material
properties on the scung load capacity and is determined by:

XW
XW relT =
XW T

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 346

XW The lower table provides the empirically determined relative structure factor.

XW T The relative structure factor for the test gears that are used for the determination of the scung
temperature. XW T = 1.0 for the FZG gear test.

Structure Factor XW 8
Material/Heat Treatment Structure Factor XW
Through-hardened steel 1.00

Phosphated steel 1.25

Copper plated steel 1.50

Bath and gas nitrided steel 1.50

Hardened carburized steel, with austenite content:

- less than average 1.15

- average 1.00

- greater than average 0.85

Austenitic steel (stainless steel) 0.45

8 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl

Hanser Verlag Muenchen Wien, 1996, p. 367, table 6.5/16

Load Stage of Standard FZG Gear Test

Because scung is not a fatigue failure, a standard FZG gear test was developed to determine the scung load
capacity of a lubricant under certain operating conditions. The gear test, known as FZG gear test (Institute for
Machine Elements Gear Research Center, University Munich, Germany), is a standardized method according to
DIN 51354. At the FZG, the dierent inuences on scung are extensively investigated. The test is performed
on a standard FZG test machine using standard test gears. Standardized, case-hardened and ground spur gears
with a large one-side prole shift are used. The load is increased gradually on a FZG gear test rig with dened
technical parameters. There are 12 load stages and the gears are inspected for scung after every load
stage. Finally, the load stage is determined where scung of the gear teeth occurs and where the ank area
is damaged by scratches. The higher the load stages, the better the industrial gear lubricants resistance to
scung.

Figure 8.105: Selection of load stage

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 347

Type of Prole Modication

For high-duty gearings, it is possible to change the theoretical involute. Using the listbox to dene the type
of prole modication. You can select the following options:

- without prole modication

- for high-duty gearing

- for uniform mesh

Figure 8.106: Prole modication

The force distribution factor XΓ evaluates the inuence of the force distribution over several pairs of meshing
teeth. A polygon-like shape over the line of action represents the progress of the force distribution factor. The
values of the points A and E depend upon the type of prole modication. According to DIN 3990 (see Part
4, p. 17), the force distribution factor is as follows:

Force Distribution Factor Without Prole Modication and With Prole Modication for High-Duty
Gears

Figure 8.107: Without prole modication Figure 8.108: For high-duty gears (the
pinion drives)

Force Distribution Factor With Prole Modication for High-Duty Gears and for Uniform Mesh

Figure 8.109: For high duty gears (the Figure 8.110: For uniform mesh
gear drives)

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 348

Contact Temperature Along the Path of Contact

The contact temperature varies along the path of contact due to the progress of the ash temperature.

Contact Temperature Without Prole Modication

Figure 8.111: Contact temperature without prole modication

Contact Temperature With Prole Modication

Figure 8.112: Contact temperature with prole modication

Contact Temperature for Uniform Mesh

Figure 8.113: Contact temperature for uniform mesh

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 349

Flash Temperature and Integral Temperature Method

High surface temperatures due to high loads and sliding speeds can cause a lubricant lm breakdown. Because
of that, there are two calculation methods in DIN 3990 that are based on dierent criteria for the development
of a damage. The eAssistant software provides both the integral temperature method and ash temperature
method:

- Flash temperature method denes a variable contact temperature along the path of contact.

- Integral temperature method denes a weighted average of the surface temperature along the path of
contact.

Flash Temperature Method

The ash temperature is the temperature at which a gear-tooth surface is calculated to be hot enough to
destroy the oil lm and allow instantaneous welding at the contact point. The contact temperature ϑB in any
point of contact Y results from the sum of the bulk temperature ϑM and the ash temperature ϑf la :

ϑB = ϑM + ϑf la

According to the ash temperature method, there is no scung as long as the contact temperature ϑB (as the
sum of bulk temperature ϑM and ash temperature ϑf la ) does not exceed the scung contact temperature
in all points of contact. The scung temperature ϑS to be a characteristic value for the material-lubricant-
material system of a gear pair, to be determined by gear tests with the same material-lubricant-material
system.

Figure 8.114: Progress of contact temperature along the path of contact

Please note: Points A to E mark the important points from the beginning to the end of the mesh.

The safety against scung SB is determined according to the ash temperature method:

ϑS − ϑoil
SB = ≥ SBmin
ϑBmax − ϑoil

ϑBmax Maximum contact temperature along the path of contact

ϑoil Oil temperature before reaching the mesh

ϑS Scung temperature

The safety factor SBmin is dependent on whether the gearing is put into operation after a good running-in
period. With a careful running-in period, there is no scung damage up to SBmin ≈ 1. Without a running-in
period, there is no scung up to SBmin ≈ 3 (according to Linke).

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 350

Integral Temperature Method

According to the integral temperature method, scung occurs when the integral temperature exceeds the
scung integral temperature. The scung integral temperature is assumed as a characteristic value for
the material-lubricant-material system of a gear pair and is determined from gear tests. The scung safety
according the integral temperature method SintS is calculated as follows:

ϑintS
SintS = ≥ SSmin
ϑint

ϑintS Scung integral temperature

ϑint Integral temperature

As uncertainties and inaccuracies in the assumptions cannot be excluded, it is necessary to introduce a safety
factor. According to Linke, the following reference values can be used:

SintS < 1.0 In all probability, scung damages are expected to occur.

1.0 ≤ SintS ≤ 2.0 For a careful running-in period of the gearing, good contact pattern and real assumed
loads, there are no scung damages to be expected.

SintS > 2.0 There is no risk of scung.

8.6.6 Input Options for Load Capacity According to ISO 6336 Method B
In addition to DIN 3990 Method B, it is possible to calculate the load capacity of tooth root and tooth ank
according to ISO 6336 (2006, 2019) Method B. Select the ISO 6336 Method B from the listbox and the input
elds are enabled.

Figure 8.115: Activate load capacity according to ISO 6336 Method B

There is a strong similarity between the DIN 3990 standard and the ISO 6336 standard and most parts of the
load capacity calculation according to ISO 6336 correspond to DIN 3990. In fact, the ISO 6336 evolved from
the DIN 3990 standard. There are factors that inuence the tooth root stress and tooth ank strength, but
the dierences are minor and the inuence on the safety of root, ank and scung is very low. One large
dierence is the calculation of the helix angle factor Zβ as well as the calculation of the long life factors (ZN T
and YN T ) for the tooth root stress. Another dierence between DIN 3990 and ISO 6336 is the critical stress
point on the root llet. ISO 6336 uses the tangency point of a 60◦ angle as the most critically stressed point
on the root llet for internal gears. The DIN 3990 standard uses the tangency point of a 30◦ angle as the
critical stress point on the root llet for external and internal gears as the basis for the calculation of the
load capacity.

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 351

60° Tangent for Internal Gears

The tooth form factor YF is the form factor, which represents the inuence on nominal tooth root stress of
the tooth form with load applied at the outer point of single pair tooth contact. According to DIN 3990, the
form factor for external and internal gears is calculated at the tooth root at the point of the 30◦ tangent.
This method appeared to be inaccurate, especially for internal gears. ISO 6336 uses the tangency point of a
60◦ angle as the most critically stressed point on the root llet for internal gears. This method is more precise
and leads to higher safeties for the tooth root.

Figure 8.116: 60◦ tangent for internal gears

Life Factors YN T and ZN T

The long life factor YN T accounts the higher tooth root stress and the long life factor ZN T accounts the
higher contact stress including static stress, which may be tolerable for a limited life (number of load cycles).
The factors mainly depend on the quality of the material, heat treatment, number of load cycles as well as
notch sensitivity, surface conditions and gear dimensions. The life factors YN T and ZN T can be read from the
following graph for the static and reference stress as a function of material and heat treatment.

Figure 8.117: DIN 3990 and ISO 6336: Life factors

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 352

Long life factor YN T :

With optimum lubrication, material and manufacturing YN T = 1.0 may be used for the number of load cycles
NL = 3 · 106 . For static stresses NL ≤ 103 , the long life factor is 2.5.

Long life factor ZN T :

With optimum lubrication, material and manufacturing ZN T = 1.0 may be used for the number of load cycles
NL = 5 · 107 . For static stresses NL ≤ 105 , the long life factor is 1.6.

There are signicant dierences in the calculation of the life factors YN T and ZN T when comparing DIN 3990
and ISO 6336. Values appropriate to the relevant number of load cycles, NL , are indicated by the S-N curve
(also known as a Woehler curve). The S-N approach is dierent. The long life factor for the load capacity
of the tooth root approaches 1.0 for the range of long life (depending on the material, usually at 3 · 106 load
cycles). In DIN 3990, the life factor remains 1.0 for higher number of load cycles. According to ISO 6336, the
factor for materials decreases from 1.0 to 0.85 at 1010 load cycles. Only after that, the factor remains 0.85 at
10
10 load cycles. For gears in the long life range, the calculations according to ISO 6336 result in signicantly
smaller safeties (15% lower) for tooth root and tooth ank. This also applies for the long life factor for anks.
Use the `Lock' button to modify the long life factors YN T and ZN T . The input elds are enabled and you can
dene your own value for the factors. Please remember to keep the modied input eld open or the default
values will be used again.

Figure 8.118: Input of life factors

Face Load Factor KHβ

Another dierence between ISO and DIN is the determination of the mesh stiness cγ . The mesh stiness is
needed for the calculation of the face load factor KHβ . The factor KHβ takes into account uneven distribu-
tion of load over the facewidth due to mesh misalignment caused by inaccuracies in manufacture and elastic
deformations. For the calculation of the face load factor, ISO 6336 uses a mesh stiness cγ that is reduced by
15% in comparison to the mean stiness the DIN 3990 use for the calculation of KHβ . This results in slightly
lower face load factors.

Rim Thickness Factor

If the rim thickness is too thin and not sucient to provide full support for the tooth root (e.g., for planetary
gear trains or internal gears), then this can be accounted for by the rim thickness factor YB . YB is expressed
as a function of the tooth depth for external gears and as a function of the normal module for internal gears.
The load capacity decreases with a gear rim thickness sR < 1.2 · ht for external gears or 2.8 · mn , for internal
gears sR < 3.5 · mn (ISO 6336 Edition 2006 - Was ist neu?: Dr.-Ing. R. Hess, Dipl.-Ing. B. Kisters, A. Friedr.
Flender AG, Bocholt, Tagungsbeitrag Dresdener Maschinenelemente Kolloquium 2009).

Helix Angle Factor Zβ

Another dierence is the determination of the helix angle factor Zβ . Independent of the inuence of the helix
angle on the length of path of contact, this factor accounts for the inuence of the helix angle on the load

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 353

capacity of the tooth anks, allowing for such variables as the distribution of load along the lines of contact.
Zβ is dependent only on the helix angle, β. The given formulae for the determination of the helix angle factor
are dierent in DIN 3990 and ISO 6336. DIN 3990 gives the following formular to calculate the helix angle
factor (β is the helix angle at reference circle):

p
Zβ = cos β

In ISO 6336, the helix angle factor is dened as follows:

1
Zβ = √
cos β

Figure 8.119: Comparison of helix angle factor in DIN and ISO

Work Hardening Factor ZW

The work hardening factor ZW has been revised in ISO 6336. This factor is used to take into consideration the
Hertzian pressure which serves as a basis for the calculation of the load capacity of the tooth anks. The work
hardening factor accounts for the increase in surface durability due to meshing a steel gear with a hardened
or substantially harder pinion with smooth tooth anks. In DIN 3990 and the previous version of ISO 6336,
the work hardening factor was dependent solely on the ank hardness of the softer gear.

Surface Roughness
The increase in the surface durability of the soft gear depends not only on any work hardening of this gear, but
also on other inuences such as ank surface roughness. In addition, the inuence of the surface roughness
is addressed in ISO 6336. Tooth ank curvature, pitch line velocity and lubricant viscosity are taken into
account in the calculation. The work hardening factor is reduced for gears with hard, rough surface. Gear
teeth with rough surfaces may wear a softer mating teeth. Wear of the surface is not covered by ISO 6336.
Especially for rough pinion surfaces, values of ZW < 1 may be evaluated. As in this range eects of wear can
limit the surface durability, ZW is xed at ZW = 1.0 (ISO 6336 Edition 2006 - Was ist neu?: Dr.-Ing. R.
Hess, Dipl.-Ing. B. Kisters, A. Friedr. Flender AG, Bocholt, Tagungsbeitrag Dresdener Maschinenelemente
Kolloquium 2009).

8.6.7 Scung Load Capacity According to ISO/TR 13989

ISO 6336 does not provide a calculation method for scung. For the safety against scung, the Technical
Report ISO/TR 13989 shall be preferably used. ISO/TR 13989 is a Technical Report (March 2000). This
document is not to be regarded as an `International Standard'. It is proposed for provisional application so
that information and experience of its use in practice may be gathered.

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 354

The scung load capacity is calculated according to ISO/TR 13989 Part 1 (Flash temperature method) and
Part 2 (Integral temperature method) as soon as you select `ISO 6336 Method B'.

Figure 8.120: Scung load capacity according to ISO/TR 13989

Thermal Contact Coecient BM

The thermal contact coecient BM is required for the determination of the ash factor. The ash factor
considers the inuence of the material properties of gear and pinion on the ash temperature.

Lubricant Factor XL
The lubricant factor XL depends on the the type of lubricant. You can select the following types:

- Mineral oils XL = 1.0

- Water soluble polyglycols XL = 0.6

- Non-water soluble polyglycols XL = 0.7

- Polyalfaolens XL = 0.8

- Phosphate esters XL = 1.3

- Traction uids XL = 1.5

Figure 8.121: Type of lubricant

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 355

Relative Structure Factor XW relT

The relative structure factor XW relT is primarily intended to take into account inuence of the material
properties on the scung load capacity and is determined by:

XW
XW relT =
XW T

XW The lower table provides the empirically determined relative structure factor.

XW T The relative structure factor of test gears that are used for the determination of the scung
temperature. XW T = 1.0 for the FZG gear test.

Structural Factor XW 9
Material/Heat Treatment Structural Factor XW
Through-hardened steel 1.00

Phosphated steel 1.25

Copper plated steel 1.50

Bath and gas nitrided steel 1.50

Hardened carburized steel, with austenite content:

- less than average 1.15

- average (10% to 20%) 1.00

- greater than average 0.85

Austenitic steel (stainless steel) 0.45

9 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl Hanser Ver-

lag Muenchen Wien, 1996, p. 367, table 6.5/16

Load Stage of Standard FZG Gear Test

Because scung is not a fatigue failure, a standard FZG gear test was developed to determine the scung load
capacity of a lubricant under certain operating conditions. The gear test, known as FZG gear test (Institute for
Machine Elements Gear Research Center, University Munich, Germany), is a standardized method according to
DIN 51354. At the FZG, the dierent inuences on scung are extensively investigated. The test is performed
on a standard FZG test machine using standard test gears. Standardized, case-hardened and ground gears
with a large one-side prole shift are used. The load is increased gradually on a FZG gear test rig with
dened technical parameters. There are 12 load stages and the gears are inspected for scung after every
load stage. Finally, the load stage is determined where scung of the gear teeth occurs and where the ank
area is damaged by scratches. The higher the load stages, the better the industrial gear lubricants resistance
to scung. Click the `Lock' button in order to select a load stage.

Figure 8.122: Selection of load stage

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 356

Flash Temperature Method and Integral Temperature Method

High surface temperatures due to high loads and slidings speeds can cause a lubricant lm breakdown. Because
of that, there are two calculation methods in ISO/TR 13989 that are based on dierent criteria for the
development of a damage. The eAssistant software provides both the integral temperature method and ash
temperature method:

- Flash temperature method denes a variable contact temperature along the path of contact.

- Integral temperature method denes a weighted average of the surface temperature along the path of
contact.

Flash Temperature Method

The ash temperature is the temperature at which a gear-tooth surface is calculated to be hot enough to
destroy the oil lm and allow instantaneous welding at the contact point. The contact temperature ϑB in any
point of contact Y results from the sum of the bulk temperature ϑM and the ash temperature ϑf la :

ϑB = ϑM + ϑf la

According to the ash temperature method, there is no scung as long as the contact temperature ϑB (as the
sum of bulk temperature ϑM and ash temperature ϑf la ) does not exceed the scung contact temperature
in all points of contact. The scung temperature ϑS to be a characteristic value for the material-lubricant-
material system of a gear pair, to be determined by gear tests with the same material-lubricant-material
system.

Figure 8.123: Progress of contact temperature along the path of contact

Please note: Points A to E mark the important points from the beginning to the end of the mesh.

The safety against scung SB is determined according to the ash temperature method:

ϑS − ϑoil
SB = ≥ SBmin
ϑBmax − ϑoil

ϑBmax Maximum contact temperature along the path of contact

ϑoil Oil temperature before reaching the mesh

ϑS Scung temperature

The safety factor SBmin is dependent on whether the gearing is put into operation after a good running-in
period. With a careful running-in period, there is no scung damage up to SBmin ≈ 1. Without a running-in
period, there is no scung up to SBmin ≈ 3 (according to Linke).

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 357

Integral Temperature Method

According to the integral temperature method, scung occurs when the integral temperature exceeds the
scung integral temperature. The scung integral temperature is assumed as a characteristic value for
the material-lubricant-material system of a gear pair and is determined from gear tests. The scung safety
according the integral temperature method SintS is calculated as follows:

ϑintS
SintS = ≥ SSmin
ϑint

ϑintS Scung integral temperature

ϑint Integral temperature

As uncertainties and inaccuracies in the assumptions cannot be excluded, it is necessary to introduce a safety
factor. According to Linke, the following reference values can be used:

SintS < 1.0 In all probability, scung damages are expected to occur.

1.0 ≤ SintS ≤ 2.0 For a careful running-in period of the gearing, good contact pattern and real assumed
loads, there are no scung damages to be expected.

SintS > 2.0 There is no risk of scung.

8.6.8 Input Options for Load Capacity According to ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04

The standard provides the calculation of safeties for the root and ank. Further the calculation of risk of
scung is also available. Additional to the DIN 3990 and ISO 6336 standard, the ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04
provides also the calculation of wear. The eAssistant software calculates the wear as failure probability. Select
ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04 from the listbox and the input elds are enabled. The following explains some factors
from the standard.

Figure 8.124: Activate load capacity according to ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04

Overload Factor KO
With the new edition of the ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04 (ANSI/AGMA 2001-D04 imperial unit edition, the ap-
plication factor from ANSI/AGMA 2101-C95 was replaced by overload factor KO .

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 358

The overload factor is intended to make allowance for all externally applied loads in excess of the nominal
tangential load, Ft , for a particular application. Overload factors can only be established after considerable
eld experience is gained in a particular application.

For an overload factor of unity, this rating method includes the capacity to sustain a limited number of up to
200 % momentary overload cycles (typically less than four starts in 8 hours, with a peak not exceeding one
second duration). Higher or more frequent momentary overloads shall be considered separately.

In determining the overload factor KO , consideration should be given to the fact that many prime movers and
driven equipment, individually or in combination, develop momentary peak torques appreciably greater than
those determined by the nominal ratings of either the prime mover or the driven equipment. There are many
possible sources of overload which should be considered. Some of these are: system vibrations, acceleration
torques, overspeeds, variations in system operation, split path load sharing among multiple primemovers, and
changes in process load conditions.

Figure 8.125: Overload factor

Stress Cycle Factors ZN and YN

The stress cycle factors, ZN and YN , adjust the allowable stress numbers for the required number of cycles
of operation. For the purpose of this standard, nL , the number of stress cycles is dened as the number of
mesh contacts, under load, of the gear tooth being analyzed.

AGMA allowable stress numbers are established for 107 unidirectional tooth load cycles at 99 % reliability. The
stress cycle factor adjusts the allowable stress numbers for design lives other than 107 cycles. The stress cycle
factor accounts for the S-N characteristics of the gear material as well as for the gradual increased tooth stress
which may occur from tooth wear, resulting in increased dynamic eects and from shifting load distributions
which may occur during the design life of the gearing.

Surface Condition Factor ZR

Standard surface condition factor ZR for gear teeth have not yet been established for cases where there
is a detrimental surface nish eect. In such cases, some surface nish factor greater than unity should be
used. The surface condition factor can be taken as unity provided the appropriate surface condition is achieved.

Size Factor KS
The size factor KS reects non-uniformity of material properties. It depends primarily on: tooth size, diameter
of parts, ratio of tooth size to diameter of part, facewidth, area of stress pattern, ratio of case depth to tooth
size, hardenability and heat treatment of materials Standard size factors for gear teeth have not yet been
established for cases where there is a detrimental size eect. In such cases, some size factor greater than unity
should be used. The size factor may be taken as unity for most gears, provided a proper choice of steel is
made for the size of the part and its heat treatment and hardening process.

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 359

Temperature Factor Yϑ
The temperature factor Yϑ is generally taken as unity when gears operate with temperatures of oil or gear
blank not exceeding 120°C. When operating temperatures result in gear blank temperatures below 0°C, special
care must be given. When operating at oil or gear blank temperature above 120°C, Yϑ is given a value greater
than 1.0 to allow for the eect of temperature on oil lm and material properties. Consideration must be
given to the loss of hardness and strength of some materials due to the tempering eect of temperatures over
150°C.

Figure 8.126: Additional options for calculation of load capacity

Reliability Factor YZ
The reliability factors YZ account for the eect of the normal statistical distribution of failures found in
materials testing. The allowable stress numbers given in ANSI/AGMA (tables 3 through 6) are based upon a
statistical probability of one failure in 100 at 107 cycles. The following table contains reliability factors which
may be used to modify these allowable stresses to change that probability. These numbers are based upon
data developed for bending and pitting failure by the U.S. Navy. Other values may be used if specic data is
available.

Reliability Factor YZ 110

Requirements of Application YZ
Fewer than one failure in 10 000 1.50

Fewer than one failure in 1000 1.25

Fewer than one failure in 100 1.00

Fewer than one failure in 10 0.85

2

Fewer than one failure in 2 0.70

23

Notes: 1) Tooth breakage is sometimes considered a greater hazard than pitting.

In such cases a greater value of YZ is selected for bending. 2) At this value plastic
ow might occur rather than pitting. 3) From test data extrapolation.

10 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl

Hanser Verlag Muenchen Wien, 1996, p. 367, table 6.5/16

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 360

Service Factor CSF

The service factor CSF has been used in previous AGMA standards to include the combined eects of overload,
reliability, life and other application related factors. This standard provides a means to account for: variations
in load (with overload factor), statistical variations in S-N data (with reliability factor), and the number of
design stress cycles (with stress cycle factor).

The AGMA service factor as traditionally used in gear applications depends on experience acquired in each
specic application. Product application standards can be a good source for the appropriate value of service
factor. Equations 28 and 29 of AGMA 2101-D04 are used to establish power ratings for unity service factor
to which established service factors may be applied using equation 30. When this is done, the stress cycle
factor is calculated using the number of cycles equivalent to a specic number of hours at a specic speed, to
establish power rating for unity service factors.

Where specic experience and satisfactory performance has been demonstrated by successful use of established
service factors, values of ZN and YN of 1.0 may be appropriate.

8.6.9 Input Options for Load Capacity According to VDI 2736 for Plastic Gears
For gears made of plastic, the load capacity can be calculated according to VDI 2736. Select VDI 2736
from the listbox. All input elds are activated. The load capacity calculation of cylindrical gears made of
thermoplastics is based on DIN 3990, which applies to metallic materials. The same damage can occur on
plastic gears as on steel gears: pitting, wear or tooth breakage.

Figure 8.127: Activate load capacity according to VDI 2736

Compared to metals, thermoplastics have some special features, e.g.

- Dependence of the mechanical strength on the operating temperature as well as on the stress level and
its duration and speed

- Thermal conductivity of the plastics is considerably lower

- Higher deformation

- Material properties of thermoplastics are very greatly dependent on temperature

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 361

Positive properties compared to steel gears:

- Very favorable noise and vibration behavior due to high internal friction, especially with plastic/plastic
pairing

- Relatively low weight due to low density

- Other sliding friction properties, thus dry running is possible

Plastic gears are used in particular where quiet running is important because plastics have a vibration-damping
eect. They are mainly used for precision engineering equipment, textile machines and domestic appliances.

It is recommended to calculate the load capacity for plastic gears according to VDI 2736. However, in eAssis-
tant it is also possible to calculate the load capacity using DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04.
The recalculation of the tooth root load capacity according to VDI 2736 is based on the tooth root stress
with force application on the tooth tip and on the assumption of pure bending stress. In DIN 3990 Method
B, the force is applied to the outer single contact point and the calculation is much more accurate. In VDI
2736, DIN 3990 is referred to in some places as an alternative. If reference is made to DIN 3990, then the
calculation of the load capacity in the eAssistant is carried out according to this standard.

The plastics can be selected from the general material database. For this, the temperature-dependent material
properties such as fatigue strength and E-module were approximated in detail from available diagrams in VDI
2736 and stored accordingly. These are used to determine the material properties for the calculation of the
load capacity using the tooth root and ank temperatures automatically calculated according to VDI 2736. If
the calculated tooth ank and tooth root temperatures exceed the maximum operating temperatures of the
plastics, you will get a corresponding warning in the message window. When calculating the load capacity
according to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04, the material parameters are selected on the
basis of the lubricant temperature.

Figure 8.128: Material database with plastics

Please Note: PA and POM gears have a higher load capacity and better heat dissipation when paired with
a metal wheel. If possible, never pair the same plastics. The noise behavior with pairing thermoplastic gears
is more favorable than with plastic/metal.

In order to calculate the tooth ank and tooth root temperature, you can modify the housing design, the
heat-dissipating surface as well as the heat transfer and heat resistance as an alternative to the automatic
default settings.

Both plastic/plastic and plastic/metal pairings are possible as material pairings. Furthermore, metal/metal
pairings are also available in order to compare calculation methods for metallic gears. The calculation of

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 362

load spectra is also possible for the load capacity calculation according to VDI 2736. Plastic gears are often
operated under dry running conditions. Select the option `Dry running' from the listbox `Kind of lubrication'.

Figure 8.129: General inputs

8.7 Input of Gear Tooth Prole and Gear Flank Modications

Manufacturing errors, misalignment in the assembly of the gears as well as displacement of the gears under
load lead to non-uniform load carrying across the facewidth and move a signicant concentration of load to
the tooth edges. Intentional deviations from the involute prole (prole modication) and from the theoretical
tooth trace (ank modication) are used to minimize the manufacturing inaccuracies and elastic deformations,
to improve the running behavior and to reduce the noise of the gear pair.

Figure 8.130: Input of prole and ank modications

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 363

There are dierent types of tooth corrections. Short and long linear or short and long circular tip and root relief
are typical tooth prole modications. Lead crowning and end relief are common ank modications. These
corrections tend to give better load distribution over the facewidth and can reduce the eects of misalignment.
Using prole or ank modication requires an appropriate degree of gear accuracy. The minimum required
gear manufacturing accuracy is DIN quality 7 or better. Design details should be based on a careful estimate
of the deformations and manufacturing deviations of the gearing.

8.7.1 Gear Tooth Prole Modication

In case of gear tooth prole modication, parts of the involute prole are changed to reduce the load in that
area. Prole modications help gears to run more quietly and to regulate transmission errors.

Figure 8.131: Gear tooth prole modication

Tip Relief and Root Relief

Tip relief is a modication whereby material is removed at the tips of the gear tooth. In case of root relief, a
small amount of material is removed near the root of the gear tooth. The modied tooth prole merges as
continuously as possible into the theoretical tooth prole. Prole crowning can be seen as a combination of
tip and root relief.

Figure 8.132: Tip and root relief

There are dierent types that can be chosen for the prole modication. A simple type of prole modication
is the linear tip relief on pinion and gear. However, it is also possible to execute only one gear with a tip and
root relief instead of both gears. The listbox allows to select linear and circular prole modication. The linear
relief results in the greatest material removal and thus the greatest relief in the eective ank area.

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 364

When determining the lengths of the prole correction, a distinction is made between short and long prole
modication. In case of long tip and root relief, the entire double contact area is corrected, while in the case
of short execution, only half of the double contact area is removed. Either long or short reliefs are used on a
gearing. The long prole modication is usually suitable for a quiet operation, while the short prole correction
has better load behavior. As long as the overlap ratio is sucient, a long prole correction is more suitable
for helical gearing.

Figure 8.133: Selection of tip relief

Linear and Circular Tip and Root Relief

Figure 8.134: Linear tip relief Figure 8.135: Linear root relief

Figure 8.136: Circular tip relief Figure 8.137: Circular root relief

The linear tip and root relief is executed in the eAssistant with a transition rounding from the modied to the
unmodied area. You can enter the start and end of the transition rounding in the corresponding input elds.
For circular relief, the input of the transition start and transition end is not required.

Figure 8.138: Selection of linear tip relief

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 365

Linear Relief with Transition Radius

Figure 8.139: Linear relief with transition radius

The % button can be used to set the power or torque to be used for the design of the tip relief amount. If the
operating conditions are known, the power percentage can be set accordingly. With a click on the calculator
button the amount Ca of the tip relief for gear 1 and gear 2 is then calculated. In case you know the relief
length, you can simply enter this value into the input eld. In case the length is unknown, select `short' or
`long' from the listbox. The eAssistant software determines the relief length automatically. If a diameter is
given on the drawing, it is possible to dene the diameter. Click the `d/l' button on the right side to switch
between the input for diameter or length.

Figure 8.140: Power, diameter and length

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 366

When you enable the checkbox `Use theoretical length of path of contact', then the theoretical path of contact
of a gear with a rack is used.

Figure 8.141: Use theoretical length of path of contact

Prole Crowning
Prole crowning can be seen as a combination of tip relief and root relief. Material is removed from the tip
and from the root of the tooth.

Figure 8.142: Prole modication

You can select symmetric prole crowning from the listbox and add a value for Cha to the input eld.

Figure 8.143: Symmetric modication

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 367

8.7.2 Gear Flank Modications

Gear ank modications are intentional deviations from the theoretical tooth trace. Lead crowning and
end relief are typical gear ank modications and are advantageous for a better load distribution across the
facewidth of the gear. Both can compensate for misalignment so that the stresses do not rise at the tooth
ends.

Figure 8.144: Flank modication

End Relief
Due to mesh misalignments, an overloading of the tooth ends occurs. Therefore, end relief is used to protect
the tooth ends from overloading. Usually, the relief applied is the same at both ends of the teeth. In case
crown shaving and crown grinding are not possible, then end relief is recommended.

Figure 8.145: End relief (double-sided)

End relief can be applied to both tooth ends or to the left or right end of the tooth.

Figure 8.146: Selection of end relief

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 368

End Relief: Double-sided, Left and Right Side

Figure 8.147: End relief (left side)

Figure 8.148: End relief (right side)

Figure 8.149: End relief (double-sided)

According to DIN 3990 Part 1, the height of end relief is calculated as follows:

For through-hardened gears: Ce ≈ Fβxcv plus a manufacturing tolerance of 5 to 10 µm. Thus, by analogy
with Fβxcv (initial equivalent misalignment) in DIN 3990, Ce should be approximately:

Ce = fsh + 1.5 · fHβ

For surface hardened and nitrided gears: Ce ≈ 0, 5 · Fβxcv plus a manufacturing tolerance of 5 to 10 µm.
Ce should be approximately:

Ce = 0.5 · (fsh + 1.5 · fHβ )

When the gears are of such sti construction that fsh can for all practical purposes be neglected or when the
helices have been modied to compensate deformation, the following is appropriate:

Ce = fHβ

60% to 70% of the above values is appropriate for very accurate and reliable gears with high tangential
velocities.

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According to DIN 3990 Part 1, the width (or length) of end relief can be determined as follows:

Figure 8.150: End relief

For approximately constant loading and higher tangential velocities:

le = smaller of the values 0.1 · b or 1·m

The following is appropriate for variable loading, low and average speeds:

bred = (0.5 to 0.7) · b

Lead Crowning
Lead crowning is a common way of crowning is the so-called lead crowning. This type is employed in order
to compensate for manufacturing deviations and load-induced deformations of the gears and in particular to
relieve the tooth-end loading.

Figure 8.151: Lead crowning

Gears are usually crowned symmetrically about the mid-facewidth and the tooth center is slightly thicker than
the tooth edges. The tooth anks of the gear have a slight outward bulge in its center area. It is possible to
select symmetrical and asymmetrical lead crowning from the listbox.

Figure 8.152: Symmetrical crowning Figure 8.153: Asymmetrical crowning

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 370

According to DIN 3990 Part 1, the height of lead crowning can be determined as follows:

Cb = 0.5 · (fsh + 1.5 · fHβ )

When the gears are of such sti construction that fsh can for all practical purposes be neglected or when
the helices have been modied to compensate for deformation at mid-face width, the following value can be
substituted:

Cb = fHβ

Subject to the restriction 10 ≤ Cb ≤ 25 µm plus a manufacturing tolerance of about 5 µm, 60% to 70% of
the above values are adequate for extremely accurate and reliable high speed gears.

Figure 8.154: Height of lead crowning

Some Information for Using Default Values (Rough Reference Values) for Lead Crowning Amounts
According to DIN 3990, the mesh misalignment fsh is determined without taking crowning into account. This
means that in the calculation of the load capacity (submask KHβ , `no correction' must be set. With regard
to the suggested value of lead crowning calculated according to DIN 3990, it is always a value related to the
eective sum of the modications of pinion and gear in the contact area. This means that the modications
can only be carried out on one gear or divided between the pair. Therefore, the default value calculation for
gear 1 and 2 always provides the same value. How this calculated value is then divided, if necessary, is decided
by the user. If the value is rst suggested for gear 1, it can then be divided between gear 1 and gear 2. This
also applies to gear 2. When splitting the crowning amount between both gears, there are various distribution
ratios. Often, the following approach is used here:

Cb2 = Cb1
2 2
+ Cb2

Therefore, only the value for the pairing is always generated as a default value via the calculator button.

8.8 Meshing Interferences for External Gears

If parts of the ank of gear and mating gear mesh outside of the path of contact or if the contact ratio is
γ < 1, then meshing interferences may occur. A large prole shift as well as a very small tip clearance may
cause meshing interferences. Interference takes place between the tip of the tooth of the gear and root llet
area of the mating tooth. In some cases, the interference may be eliminated by decreasing the addendum of
only one gear teeth. Due to meshing interferences, operating noise, gear failure (e.g., tooth breakage) and an
increased wear can occur. In case of a basic rack prole, meshing interferences can be manipulated or removed
by the following:

- Tip diameter modication,

- Addendum chamfer,

- Changing of prole shift,

- Other manufacturing tools

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8.8.1 Meshing Interferences Due to Low Contact Ratio

To assure smooth continuous tooth action, a pair of teeth must already have come into engagement. Especially
for spur gear pairs a low contact ratio can appear:

- the prole shift is too large and a small number of teeth,

- the tip diameter modication is too large,

- an undercut occurs due to insucient prole shift and small number of teeth.

The condition for a smooth and continuous tooth action is:

γ = α + β > 1

The result panel displays the total contact ratio. In case the condition γ = α + β > 1 is not fullled, the
total contact ratio will be marked in red. Furthermore, you will get an appropriate warning in the message
window.

Figure 8.155: Total contact ratio

8.8.2 Meshing Interferences Due to No Involute Area

For external gearings it is evident that interference is rst encountered by the addendum of the gear teeth
digging into the mating-pinion tooth ank. The accurate gear tooth form is helpful to check meshing inter-
ferences considering gear tolerances. The calculation module warns as soon as meshing interferences occur.
Opposed to external gearings, meshing interferences occur more often for internal gearings. The Section 8.12
`Meshing Interferences for Internal Gears' discusses this issue.

8.9 Internal Gears

The eAssistant provides the calculation of internal gears. A special feature of spur and helical gears is their
capability of being made in an internal form, in which an internal gear mates with an ordinary external gear.
An internal involute gear has either spur or helical teeth cut on the inside of a ring. Its most common use is
in a planetray gear train. The external gear must not be larger than about two-thirds the pitch diameter of
the internal gear when full-depth 20◦ pressure angle teeth are used. The axes on which the gears are mounted
must be parallel.

General advantages of internal gears:

- The centre distance is less than for external gears and makes it desirable in some applications where
space is very limited.

- Good surface endurance due to a convex prole surface working against a concave surface. The teeth
of an internal gearing are relatively thick and strong. Hence, a low tooth root stress occurs.

General disadvantages of internal gears:

- The assembly has to be considered. Due to a small dierence between the number of teeth in the pinion
and gear, internal gears will not assemble radially, but axially.

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- Fewer types of machine tools can produce internal gearings, usually a special tooling is required.

- Low velocity ratios are unsuitable and in many cases impossible because of interferences. Interferences
for internal gears occur far more frequently than for external gearings.

- The use of rack-type tools is not possible for internal gearings. Only a few number of teeth provides
dened features. Hence, a check regarding meshing interferences is necessary.

Figure 8.156: Beispiel einer Innenverzahnung im eAssistant

8.10 Input of Geometry Data for Internal Gears

Some inputs for the internal gears dier from the inputs for external gears. Nevertheless, internal gears can
be calculated very fast. The following provides the most important changes for the input of internal gears.

Figure 8.157: Internal gearing

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 373

8.10.1 Direction of Helix Angle

For an external gearing a right-hand teeth and a left-hand teeth can only mesh correctly. An internal gear
has the same helix angle in degrees and the same hand its mating pinion. A right-hand pinion meshes with a
right-hand gear and vice-versa.

Figure 8.158: Direction of helix angle

8.10.2 Internal Helical Gears

Internal gears may be either spur or helical. Internal helical gearings have their advantages and disadvantages
just like external helical gearings.

Figure 8.159: Internal helical gear created in 3D

General advantages over internal spur gears are:

- The gear pair oers a more quietly operation.

- Gears are capable transmitting heavier loads.

- A smaller number of teeth is possible than for internal spur gears.

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General disadvantages are:

- Axial loads cannot be avoided.

- Much more dicult to produce than internal spur gears.

For the creation of an internal helical gear, only the helix angle β has to be considered.

Figure 8.160: Helix angle

8.10.3 Number of Teeth

Because the internal gear is reversed relative to the external gear, the tooth parts are also reversed relative to
an ordinary external gear. Tooth proportions and standards are the same as for external gears except that the
addendum of the gear is reduced to avoid trimming of the teeth in the fabrication process. The number of
teeth is negative for internal gears. The tip, reference and root diameter are negative as well.

Please Note: Please note that you can enter a negative number of teeth only for gear 2.

Figure 8.161: Input of a negative number of teeth

8.10.4 Centre Distance

The working centre distance is always negative. As soon as you enter a negative number of teeth, the centre
of distance becomes negative as well. The diameters of internal gear pairs are negative. eAssistant modies
that during the input of a negative number of teeth for gear 2.

Figure 8.162: Negative centre distance

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 375

8.10.5 Prole Shift

For an internal gear the tooth tip is enlarged by shifting towards the tooth centre and the tooth root is enlarged
by shifting away from the tooth centre. The internal gear is reversed relative to the external gear. A prole
shift of an internal gear is positive in direction to the tooth tip and negative in direction to the tooth root. It
applies for both internal and external gearings:

- The prole shift is positive, x · mn > 0, when the prole reference line is shifted from the reference circle
to the pitch circle.

- The prole shift is negative, x · mn < 0, when the prole reference line is shifted from the reference
circle to the root circle.

A positive prole shift has the following inuences:

- The tooth root becomes thinner, the dedendum hf gets smaller, the addendum ha gets larger. Due to
a thick and strong tooth root, there is no danger of tooth root breakage.

- The tip circle and the root diameter increase, but get smaller according to the absolute value. Thereby,
a smaller internal gear is developed.

The positive prole shift may be disadvantageous for internal gears. It is comparable with a negative prole
shift for external gears. A negative prole shift has the following inuences:

- The tip circle and root diameter become smaller, but get larger according to the absolute value. A larger
internal gear is developed.

- The spacewidth at the tooth root gets smaller. For a smaller number of teeth there is a risk that a
pointed tooth tip occurs, the risk of notch eects increases.

Figure 8.163: Changing the tooth form using prole shift: Number of teeth z = -50; tooth 1: x = -1.5; tooth
2: x = 0; tooth 3: x = +0.5

Please Note: A negative prole shift may be advantageous for internal gears. In this case, it is comparable
with a positive prole shift for external gears. For external and internal gear pairs the impacts of positive and
negative prole shift are similar.

Figure 8.164: Input of prole shift

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8.11 Manufacturing Process for Internal Gears

For internal gears, the shaping process is the only basic method of tooth generation. Internal gears cannot be
hobbed. Only in some very special cases rack-type tools can be used. They can be shaped, milled or cast. In
small sizes they can be broached. Both helical and spur internals can be nished by shaving, grinding, lapping
or burnishing. In case the gear shaper cutter itself is generated by using a rack tool, then the mesh of the
gear anks is limited by the proper tooth tip of the gear rack.

Figure 8.165: Selection of the tool for gear 2

An internal gear mates with an ordinary external gear and the number of teeth of the external gear must
be less than that of the gear to be cut for the internal gear. A rack prole can be a basic rack prole for
internal gears. But the basic rack prole cannot be used for generating internal gears. Internal gears are
produced by a gear shaper cutter. The number of teeth of the gear shaper cutter must be, according to the
amount, smaller than the number of teeth of the internal gear. The shaping is a continuous process. The cut-
ting tool is a spur shaper cutter. During the machining, tool and gear roll on each other. A feed motion occurs.

8.12 Meshing Interferences for Internal Gears

The gear mesh of an internal gear pair can be much more dicult than for external gears. Interferences
for internal gears occur far more frequently than for external gearings. In case a meshing interference takes
place, a warning is displayed in the message window. The following meshing interferences can appear in the
calculation module:

- Tooth root meshing interference on the pinion

- Tooth root meshing interference on the internal gear

- Generation meshing interference (tooth root meshing interference on the gear shaper cutter)

- Tooth crest meshing interference

- Feed meshing interference

- Radial assembly interference

Please note: Meshing interferences may be eliminated or minimized by tip easing on the internal gear or on
the pinion by increasing the pressure angle or helix angle.

8.12.1 Tooth Root Meshing Interference on the Pinion

When the tooth tip of the internal gear interferes the root llet radius, then a tooth root meshing interference
on the pinion occurs.

8.12.2 Tooth Root Meshing Interference on the Internal Gear

When the tooth tip of the pinion interferes the root llet radius of the internal gear, then a tooth root meshing
interference occurs.

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8.12.3 Generation Meshing Interference

When shaper cutter and internal gear are in mesh, the generation meshing interference occurs due to tool
cutter action in generating teeth with low numbers of teeth. Because of this interference there is a loss of the
involute prole at the tooth tip. The term of the mesh and the load capacity are decreased.

8.12.4 Tooth Crest Meshing Interference

The tooth crest meshing interference may occur when the tooth crests of pinion and internal gear overlap
during the hobbing process outside of the plane of action. For number of teeth dierences of |z2 | − z1 < 10
this meshing interference may occur frequently. For the generation of internal gears with gear shaper cutter,
tooth crest meshing interference appears.

Please Note: Meshing interference can be avoided by changing the number of teeth and by a negative prole
shift.

8.12.5 Feed Meshing Interference

If the chosen gear shaper cutter is too large and the teeth of the internal gear are cut o in the feed direction,
a feed meshing interference occurs.

Please Note: If the sum of the prole shift is decreased, feed meshing interferences can be avoided. It is also
possible to adjust the number of teeth of the gear shaper cutter.

8.12.6 Radial Assembly Interference

When internal gearsets have a too small dierence between the number of teeth in the pinion and the number
of teeth in the gear, there may be interference between the tips of the teeth. The interference is most apt to
occur as the pinion is moved radially into mesh with the gear. It is possible to get around the radial-interference
diculty by assembling the set by an axial movement of the pinion.

Please Note: A radial assembly interference can be removed by decreasing the prole shift coecients and
addendum coecient of pinion and internal gear.

Figure 8.166: Radial assembly interference

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8.13 Examples for Internal Gears in eAssistant Software

For the pairing of external and internal gears the number of teeth of z1 ≥ 14 and |z2 | ≥ 40 is used, if possible
with a number of teeth dierence of more than 6 to 10 teeth. However, there are applications where the
number of teeth z1 is only `3'. The following three examples show that these cases are possible by using
the eAssistant software (Examples taken from: K. Roth: Zahnradtechnik: Vol. I, Stirnradverzahnungen -
Geometrische Grundlagen (1989, p. 198)).

8.13.1 Extremely Small Number of Teeth (Pinion)

Large gear transmission ratio with an extremely small number of teeth (pinion): z1 = 3; z2 = -28

Figure 8.167: Example

Figure 8.168: Small number of teeth

8.13.2 Standard Tooth Prole

z1 = 20; z2 = -28

Figure 8.169: Example

Figure 8.170: Standard tooth prole

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8.13.3 Small Dierence of Number of Teeth

A large gear transmission ratio with an extremely small dierence of number of teeth: z1 = 29; z2 = -30.
Meshing interferences can be avoided by a large modication of the tip diameter or negative prole shift.

Figure 8.171: Example

Figure 8.172: Small dierence of number of teeth

8.14 Dimensioning for Gear Pairs

If only a few input data are available, such as input speed, power and transmission ratio, the software can
provide corresponding suggestions for number of teeth and module at the push of a button.

Figure 8.173: Dimensioning of a gear pair

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 380

Before you start with the design, the load capacity must be activated, otherwise the design is not possible.
You can specify the material for gear 1 and gear 2 or adjust the application factor and the lubricant.

Figure 8.174: Activate load capacity and modify the input

Furthermore, the power data, allowances, tool data as well as the conguration can be modied via the cor-
responding main masks before the design layout. If you have dened all settings for the pre-design, then go
to the main mask `Dimensioning'.

However, before you continue with the further design data, please take a look at the ` Options' menu rst.
In this menu, the minimum safeties for the root and ank load capacity are stored. These specied minimum
safety factors are taken into account in the same way during design.

Figure 8.175: Options with minimum safeties

Please Note: For standard industrial applications, the standard values for minimum safety of 1.3 for the
tooth root load capacity and 1.1 for the ank load capacity can be adopted in this way. For applications with
a large damage eects or where personal injury may occur, larger minimum safeties should be selected. For a
smaller module range (< 1), for example in precision engineering, smaller minimum safeties are suitable.

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The remaining entries are now completed in the main screen for the design layout. A specic range can always
be specied for the transmission ratio, number of teeth gear 1 and ratio of facewidth/reference diameter
gear 1. A preset for the range of the working centre distance can be dened by using the lock button. The
corresponding button can also be used to switch between the facewidth/reference diameter ratio and the
facewidth/normal module ratio.

Figure 8.176: Input of working centre diameter and ratio facewidth/reference diameter/normal module

When you have made all the entries, click on the button `Dimensioning'. Now the software calculates all
possible variants and a list for possible solutions is displayed afterwards.

Figure 8.177: Possible variants are displayed

When displaying the found suggestions, you can re-sort the list by clicking on the respective column heading.
If you want to sort the column in reverse order, click the column heading again. Select a suggestion from the
list and click the `OK' button. The selected values will now be entered into the software, giving you an initial
calculation suggestion that can then be rened and processed further. This is a quick way to nd a usable
solution that you can start with. Later you can modify the design according to your own criteria.

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8.15 Message Window

The calculation module provides a message window. This message window displays detailed information,
helpful hints or warnings about problems. One of the main benets of the program is that the software
provides suggestions for correcting errors during the data input. If you check the message window carefully
for any errors or warnings and follow the hints, you are able to nd a solution to quickly resolve calculation
problems.

Figure 8.178: Message window

8.16 Quick Info: Tooltip

The quick info tooltip provides additional information about all input elds and buttons. Move the mouse
pointer over the input eld or button, then you will get the additional information. This information will be
displayed in the quick info line.

Figure 8.179: Quick info line

8.17 Calculation Results

All results will be calculated during every input and will be displayed in the result panel. A recalculation
occurs after every data input. Any changes that are made to the user interface take eect immediately. In
case a minimum safety is not fullled, the result will be marked red. Press the Enter key or move to the
next input eld to complete the input. Alternatively, use the Tab key to jump from eld to eld or click
the `Calculate' button after every input. Your entries will be also conrmed and the calculation results will
displayed automatically.

Figure 8.180: Calculation results

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8.18 Documentation: Calculation Report

After the completion of your calculation, you can create a calculation report. Click on the `Report' button.

Figure 8.181: Button `Report'

The calculation report contains a table of contents. You can navigate through the report via the table of
contents that provides links to the input values, results and gures. The report is available in HTML and PDF
format. Calculation reports, saved in HTML format, can be opened in a web browser or in Word for Windows.

Figure 8.182: Calculation report

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 384

You may also print or save the calculation report:

- To save the report in the HTML format, please select `File' ⇒ `Save as' from your browser menu bar.
Select the le type `Webpage complete', then just click on the `Save' button.

- If you click on the symbol `Print', then you can print the report very easily.

- If you click on the symbol `PDF', then the report appears in the PDF format. If you right-click on the
PDF symbol, you should see the `Save Target As' option. Click on that option and you will see the
Windows save dialog.

8.19 How to Save the Calculation

When the calculation is nished, it is easy to save the calculation. You can save your calculation either to the
eAssistant server or to your computer. Click on the button `Save'.

Figure 8.183: Button `Save'

Before you can save the calculation to your computer, you need to activate the option `Local' in the calculation
module. A standard Windows dialog for saving les will appear. Now you will be able to save the calculation
to your computer.

Figure 8.184: Windows dialog for saving the le

In case you do not activate the option in order to save your les locally, then a new window is opened and
you can save the calculation to the eAssistant server. Please enter a name into the input eld `Filename' and
click on the button `Save'.

Figure 8.185: Save the calculation

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 385

8.20 The Button `Redo' and `Undo'

The `Undo' button allows you to reset your inputs to an older state. The `Redo' button reverses the undo.

Figure 8.186: Button `Redo' and `Undo'

8.21 The Button `CAD'

The top menu bar of the eAssistant software provides the button `CAD'.

Figure 8.187: Button `CAD'

The eAssistant plugin for various CAD systems (e.g., SOLIDWORKS, Solid Edge, Autodesk Inventor) enables
you to combine calculation and design very easily. On the basis of the eAssistant calculation, you can generate
spur gears in a 2D DXF format or create as a 3D part within seconds.

8.21.1 DXF Output for the Accurate Tooth Form

Click on the menu item `CAD ⇒ DXF Output'. Now you are able to create the accurate tooth form of any
involute gearing in the 2D DXF format. Use the various settings for the DXF output.

Figure 8.188: DXF output

For the DXF output the following options are possible:

- DXF output of gear 1 or gear 2

- Output in normal section or transverse section (both options will be active when an helix angle is entered)

- DXF output as tooth space, tooth

- DXF output with points, lines, polylines, arcs

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- Angular position

- Number of teeth for output

- Minimum point distance

- Input of a required layer name where the contour should be placed

- Save the DXF le including the header

- Contour as block

Figure 8.189: Settings for the DXF output

When you have dened all settings, then click on the button `OK'. A standard Windows dialog is opened to
save the le.

Figure 8.190: Saving the DXF le

Now you can save the DXF le to your computer. Enter a name for the le and click on the button `Save'. It
is not necessary to specify the le extension. The le is identied automatically.

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8.21.2 STEP/IGES Format

Using this function allows to create the geometry of cylindrical gears as 3D CAD models in STEP or IGES
format. STEP as well as IGES are two standardised neutral le formats for CAD models. Almost every 3D
CAD system can import STEP les.

Figure 8.191: STEP format

The settings menu for the STEP and IGES output has a few dierent functions and allows to adjust the export
options as needed. The geometry can be generated as a solid model with one or all teeth or as a surface
model of the tooth space geometry. When exporting to a CAD system, you can also set the level of accuracy
to a desired value.

Figure 8.192: Inputs for STEP output

8.21.3 GDE Format

With the integration of the standardised GDE format into the modules for gears and involute splines, eAssistant
takes a step closer to a seamless data workow. GDE stands for Gear Data Exchange. This format, which is
dened in VDI/VDE guideline 2610, is already supported by many measuring machine manufacturers. With
the GDE format, geometries of cylindrical gears and involute splines can be loaded directly from the software
into the measuring machine. It only takes a few clicks to create a measuring program. This avoids transmission
errors and allows to work with standard measuring instructions.

Figure 8.193: GDE format

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 388

8.21.4 eAssistant CAD Plugin

The eAssistant plugin for various CAD systems (e.g., SOLIDWORKS, Solid Edge, Autodesk Inventor) enables
you to combine calculation and design very easily and fast. Based on your eAssistant calculation, you can
generate external and internal spur and helical gears as a 3D part within seconds. A single menu pick in the
eAssistant software transfers the eAssistant calculation data to the CAD system. Based on these parameters,
the automatic creation of a 3D parametric model starts in the CAD system. Allowances, addendum chamfer,
prole shift and prole modications (tip and root relief ) are taken into consideration.

Figure 8.194: CAD plugin

The CAD model stores all features and dimensions as design parameters. The eAssistant calculation is linked
and associated to the part and can be opened at any time throughout the entire design phase. This is also
possible if one part contains dierent calculations. Click the button `CAD' and select the CAD plugin. Open
the CAD system and start the generation by clicking the integrated button `eAssistant'.

Please note: First you need to download and install the right CAD plugin for your CAD system. The plugin
is available on our web site www.eAssistant.eu. After installation, an integrated button called `eAssistant'
appears in the CAD system.

With just one click, the design table with all manufacturing details can be placed on the sheet. The appearance
and size of that table is individually congurable. There is no need to manually add all design table parameters
to the drawing. For further information, please visit our web site www.eAssistant.eu or read the CAD plugin
manual.

8.21.5 Manufacturing Data

The button `CAD ⇒ Manufacturing data' allows to save the manufacturing data to a text le.

Figure 8.195: Output of manufacturing data

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8.21.6 Coordinate Table

The gear tooth form geometry of a tooth space can be exported as a coordinate text le in transverse section
as well as in normal section.

Figure 8.196: Coordinate table

8.22 The Button `Options'

Click on the button `Options' in the top menu bar of the eAssistant software to change some general settings.

Figure 8.197: Button `Options'

- Unit switch between the metric system and the U.S. customary unit system, the unit can also be changed
directly for each individual input value. Simply click on the label of the corresponding input eld and
select the unit from the context menu. You will see the change of the unit of measurement immediately
in the label of the input eld. The current eld value will be converted to the corresponding unit.

- Decimal places

- Driving gear

- Minimum safety tooth root/tooth ank

- Minimum safety scung (integral)/scung (ash)

- Factor for minimal gear ring thickness: the factor can be specied by the user. This factor controls
the value for the largest possible bore diameter (inner diameter) for external gears and the smallest
possible outer diameter for internal gears. The default value 2.0 refers to forged gears (see main mask
`Geometry'), recommendations according to Schlecht (Maschinenelemente 2, 2010): gear ring thickness
for extreme lightweight constructions < 2 · m, cast constructions 5...8 · m, for welded constructions
3...5 · m.
- Factor for minimum tooth tip thickness

- Chord of tooth root thickness analog FVA: this option has only eect on the calculation with protuberance
tools.

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- Load spectrum without application factor

- Number of decimal places for the calculation report

- Complete calculation report

- Calculation report without load spectrum

Figure 8.198: Options

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8.23 How to Calculate the Accurate Tooth Form of Involute Splines

by Using the Spur Gear Pair Calculation Module
8.23.1 Select Basic Data for Involute Spline
Please login with your username and your password. Open the module `Involute splines' by clicking the tree
structure on the left side. Now select the basic data for the geometry according to DIN 5480. In case you
have the DIN standard, then have a look at the standard. Click on the button `Selection' and you get to the
prole geometry selection.

Figure 8.199: Involute splines

The prole geometry selection provides you the basic data for the involute spline.

Figure 8.200: Prole geometry selection

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 392

8.23.2 Modify Basic Rack Prole

Now close the involute spline module and open the calculation module `Spur gear pair'. Click on the button
`Tool' and modify the basic rack prole.

Figure 8.201: Tool

Please enter all tool data for the involute spline for gear 1 and the tool data for the gear 2 (internal gearing
with a negative number of teeth). Select for gear 1 the entry `user dened input' from the listbox `Basic rack
prole' and enter the following data:

For hobbing according to DIN 5480:

Edge radius = 0.16

Addendum coe. = 0.6

Dedendum coe. = 0.45

For shaping according to DIN 5480:

Edge radius = 0.16

Addendum coe. = 0.65

Dedendum coe. = 0.45

For broaching according to DIN 5480:

Edge radius = 0.16

Addendum coe. = 0.55

Dedendum coe. = 0.45

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 393

Select the tool `Gear shaper cutter' from the listbox for gear 2 and change the `Basic rack prole' to `user
dened input' as well. Please enter the tool data as specied for gear 1.

Please Note: For the tip form you have to select `Radius with straight line'.

Figure 8.202: Inputs for the tool

Please note: In case the calculation of the gear tooth form does not work properly, please select `Constructed
involute' as a tool for gear 2.

8.23.3 Enter Data for Involute Spline

Now enter the data for the involute spline into the geometry mask of the gear module. Click on the `Geometry'
button. Begin to enter the normal module, the pressure angle and the number of teeth.

Figure 8.203: Geometry

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 394

Please Note: The pressure angle for involute splines is 30◦ according to DIN 5480. The number of teeth
for gear 1 is positive (for the shaft) and for gear 2 (for the hub) negative. If the modication tip is not set
automatically to the value `0', please click on the `Lock' button and enter the value `0' for both gear 1 and
gear 2. The tip allowances can be dened as well by clicking on the `Lock' symbol.

For the prole shift coecient x∗ for gear 1 you have to enter x∗ m/m = x∗ (Involute spline: x∗ is often
positive).

Figure 8.204: Inputs

8.23.4 Dene Tooth Thickness Allowances

Finally, you have to dene the tooth thickness tolerances. Click the `Allowances' button. An individual input
is also possible.

Figure 8.205: Allowances

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8. Cylindrical Gears According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 395

8.23.5 Accurate Tooth Form

Have a look at the accurate tooth form by clicking the `Tooth form' button. Click on the `Detail view' button.

Figure 8.206: Tooth form

Here the accurate tooth form is graphically represented and you can select the tooth thickness allowances
(lower, upper and mean allowances) and the tip diameter allowances (lower, upper and mean allowances).
Create also an DXF output via the menu item `CAD ⇒ DXF Output'.

Figure 8.207: Tooth form

Please note: We recommend you to dene a template le (e.g., for the tool data). Therefore, it is not
necessary to enter the tool data again at every start. That saves both time and work. All you have to do is
to dene a template. If you now open the calculation module, the module starts with your individual values
(e.g., a pressure angle of 30◦ ).

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Chapter 9

Planetary Gear Trains According to

DIN 3990 and Other Standards

9.1 Start the Calculation Module

Please login with your username and your password. To start the calculation module for planetary gear trains,
please click the menu item `Gear calculation' on the left side and then select `Planetary gear train'.

Figure 9.1: General overview

Planetary gear trains are a special type of cylindrical gears. There are dierent types of planetary gear trains -
simple and compound planetary gear trains. The eAssistant software calculates the simple and typical design of
a planetary gear train. The typical design of planetary gear trains consists of the following elements: external

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 397

gear (sun gear), one or more planet gears, an internal gear (annulus gear) and a planetary carrier. The planetary
carrier holds the planet gears. The gear tooth forces are distributed among several planets and are relatively
low. Due to the simple design and good characteristics, planetary gear trains are suitable for many applications.

Advantages of planetary gear trains:

- Compact design and small weight

- Resistance to impact loads and low noise level

- High load capacity because of the multiple meshing and same ank curvature of internal and external
gear

- Low sliding speeds and rolling speeds at the tooth anks

- Higher gear ratios in one stage (for three planets: approx. 3.5...13)

- Load splitting transmission

Disadvantages of planetary gear trains:

- Higher risk of failure due to tooth breakage

- Design complexity

- Dicult maintenance and repair

- Centrifugal force generates additional bearing load

9.2 Conguration of a Simple Planetary Gear Train

Figure 9.2: Representation of a planetary gear train

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 398

9.3 Basic Conguration of a Planetary Gear Train

The basic conguration starts with the input of the number of teeth for sun gear, planet gear and annulus
gear. The sun gear as well as the planet gears have external teeth and the number of teeth is positive. The
number of teeth of the annulus gear is negative. The user manual for cylindrical gears provides some reference
values for the selection of the minimum number of teeth and facewidth. The number of teeth of sun gear
and annulus gear is usually dened by the transmission ratio and normal module. The number of teeth of the
planet gears has no inuence on the transmission ratio and the gear characteristics.

Figure 9.3: Basic conguration of a planetary gear stage

Please note: All results will be calculated during every input and will be displayed in the result panel. A recal-
culation occurs after every data input. Any changes that are made to the user interface take eect immediately.
In case a minimum safety is not fullled, the result will be marked red. Press the Enter key or move to the next
input eld to complete the input. Alternatively, use the Tab key to jump from eld to eld or click the `Cal-
culate' button after every input. Your entries will be also conrmed and the calculation results will displayed
automatically. Click the `Tooth form' button during the conguration of the planetary gear train in order to
check the gear tooth form. Clicking the button `Geometry' and `Tooth form' leads you back to the main masks.

9.3.1 Direction of Helix Angle

As soon as you enter a helix angle, you can use the radiobuttons in order to dene the direction of the helix
angle. For an external gear pair the engaged gearings have dierent directions, internal gears have the same
direction with the same helix angle.

Figure 9.4: Direction of helix angle

If you select `left' for the direction of the helix angle of the sun, then the sun has a left-hand helix, the planet
gear has a right-hand helix, the annulus gear has a right-hand helix.

Figure 9.5: Option

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 399

If you select `left' for the direction of the planet gear, then the sun has a right-hand helix, the planet gear has
a left-hand helix angle, the annulus gear has a left-hand helix.

Figure 9.6: Option

Please note: The direction of the helix angle of the annulus gear cannot be specied directly. The direction
of the helix angle results automatically from the given helix direction of the sun gear or planet gear.

9.3.2 Reference Diameter

The reference diameter is automatically determined for the sun gear, planet gear and annulus gear. The size
of gears is determined in accordance with the reference diameter. With the display, you can easily keep an eye
on the gear size. If necessary, modify the gear size by changing the module or the number of teeth.

9.3.3 Standard Centre Distance and Working Centre Distance

The standard centre distance is an operand and the centre distance of meshing gears is the sum of their
pitch circle radii. The centre distances are automatically determined from module and number of teeth. The
standard centre distance ad for the pairing sun gear-planet gear and planet gear-annulus gear are displayed.
The working centre distance is automatically calculated but manual changes, if necessary, can also be made.
This makes it easy to modify the centre distance in a exible manner. For internal gears the centre distance is
always negative and therefore the value for the pairing planet gear-annulus gear is given a minus sign. If the
sum of the prole shift coecients = 0, then ad corresponds to the working centre distance a. If the standard
centre distance and the working centre distance are equal, the prole shift coecients will be set to the value
`0' automatically.

Please note: In order to get a valid conguration, the standard centre distances of the two pairings sun gear-
planet gear and planet gear-annulus gear should be nearly the same and should not be too dierent. There is
also the possibility to preset the prole shift coecients or their sum and to calculate the centre distance from it.

9.3.4 Number of Planets

There are always several planet gears in the planetary gear train. The purpose of the planet gears is to share
the tooth loads. This allows for a smaller module. Load sharing between the planet gears enables you to create
a compact design, thus increasing the load capacity of the gear train. You can enter any number of planet
gears you want. If the number of planet gears that are possible for the conguration is exceeded, a warning is
shown in the message window. The calculation of the planetary gear train is then no longer possible.

Figure 9.7: Conguration of planetary gear train

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 400

9.3.5 Minimum Distance Between the Planet Gears

Enter a minimum distance between the planet gears. The eAssistant software automatically checks the
minimum distance. If the minimum distance cannot be obtained, you will get an information in the message
window. It is preferable to use a symmetrical arrangement of the planet gears and if possible, the planet
gears should be arranged uniformly over the circumference. The calculation module checks, if a symmetrical
arrangement is possible and if the gear train can be mounted accurately. In case the symmetrical mounting is
not possible, you will be notied in the message window. The necessary angle distribution is also displayed.

Figure 9.8: Minimum distance

9.3.6 Normal Module

The normal module mn is one of the basic parameters in the gear geometry and describes the size of a gear.
The module is dened as the ratio of the pitch diameter to the number of teeth of a gear. Note that the
larger the module the larger the teeth. The value of the module is dened in millimeters. In order to limit the
number of the gears, the module has been standardised in preferred series 1 and 2 (please see section 8.2.1
`Normal module'). The calculation with the eAssistant software is possible with any modules including several
decimal places.

9.3.7 Pressure Angle

The most common pressure angle now in use for spur gears is 20◦ . The default startup setting for the pressure
◦
angle is set to 20 . For special applications, the pressure angle can be dened individually and you can enter
another pressure angle than 20◦ . Pressure angles above 20◦ give higher load capacity but may not run quite
as smoothly or quietly.

9.3.8 Motion State - Gearbox Fixed

Use the listbox in order to dene the motion state of the planetary gear train. There is usually one member
which is maintained in a xed position. If you choose the entry `Planet carrier', then the planetary carrier of
the gear train is held stationary. This is then a so-called stationary gear.

9.3.9 Helix Angle

For spur gears the helix angle is β = 0◦ , for helical gears the angle β is up to 45◦ due to the fact that the
◦
teeth for a helical gear are inclined by the angle. 45 is also the maximum value that you can enter into the
input eld for the helix angle.

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 401

9.3.10 Transmission Ratio

The transmission ratio i (inner ratio) is determined by the number of teeth on each gear in the gear train. If
a deviation from a given transmission ratio, for example, is too large, then small changes in the number of
teeth are enough to adjust the transmission ratio without signicantly increasing the planetary gear train. In
addition, the ratio is also dependent upon the motion state of the planetary gear train.

9.4 Input of Geometry Data

Following the basic conguration of the planetary gear train, you can go on with the input of the geometry
values. The calculation of the geometry is based on DIN standard, but with locking the input eld for the
tip circle diameter, tip diameter allowances and modication of tip diameter you can modify these values very
easily. If you add prole shift and addendum chamfer, then these values are taken into consideration, too.

Figure 9.9: Input of geometry

9.4.1 Facewidth
The facewidth b is the length of the gear teeth as measured along a line parallel to the gear axis. The facewidth
can be entered for the sun gear, planet gear and annulus gear.

9.4.2 Prole Shift and Balanced Specic Sliding

Prole shifting aects the gear tooth form and all properties of the gear because the tool is shifted by the value
xm towards or away from the tip circle. The prole shift can make gears run more quietly and carry more load.
It is used to avoid meshing interferences, to increase the load capacity and to improve the sliding conditions.
The prole shift is distributed between the sun gear, planet gear and annulus gear and can be positive or
negative. Prole shift is positive if the prole reference line is shifted from the reference circle towards the tip
circle and negative if the prole reference line is shifted from the reference circle towards the root circle. A
positive correction is eective to increase the load capacity of external gears and external gears usually have a

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 402

positive prole shift. The positive prole shift may be disadvantageous for internal gears, thus internal gears
get a negative prole shift. In order to optimize the prole shift coecient, just click the `Calculator' button.

Figure 9.10: Prole shift

In the calculation module, there are several options for optimizing the prole shift. Either enter your own values
for the prole shift coecients or specify the prole shift sum to have the centre distance calculated from it.
For an optimal design, activate `Balanced specic sliding' for the two pairings sun-planet or planet-annulus.
The balanced specic sliding is only possible for one pairing.Specic sliding is possible only for one pairing.
The factors are modied so that the specic sliding is balanced in order to maximize wear resistance. The
specic sliding has a positive eect on load capacity and low-noise operation. Please note that the smaller the
number of teeth the larger the inuence of the prole shift. If the values for the specic sliding are highlighted
in red, then a dimensioning is not possible. The sum of the prole shift coecients is distributed equally
between planet gear and annulus gear.

The calculation module provides the function `Fixed working center distance (recalculation)' for disconnecting
the prole shift sum and the center distance. With this function, the prole shift coecients can be can be
specied independently of the center distance. This enables, for example, the calculation of existing gear pairs
that are to be installed in the housing with the `wrong' centre distance. Transverse contact ratio, backlash
and load capacity are also calculated correctly in this case. This function can also be used for the calculation
of small-module gears.

Further options are available for the distribution of the prole shift coecients: `Fixed working center distance
(recalculation)', `Minimum sliding speed', `Geometric minimum gear 1', `Geometric maximum gear 1', `Max-
imum root safety', `Maximum ank safety' and `Maximum scung load capacity (integral)'. The last three
options are only available for selection when the load capacity is activated.

Figure 9.11: Optimizing prole shift

For planetary gear trains, it is recommended to determine the prole shift according to conventional methods
for external gearings (sun gear-planet gear) regardless of the internal gearing (annulus gear). Care must be
taken to ensure that no meshing interferences occur. A large prole shift may cause meshing interferences,
especially on the tooth root of the pinion. The calculation module warns as soon as meshing interferences
occur. Please have a look at the sections 8.2.9 and 8.10.5 for cylindrical gears to get more information on
prole shifting.

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 403

9.4.3 Tip Diameter

The tip diameter da depends on the module and will be determined by the program automatically. If you
change the prole shift, the tip diameter will change, too. There is the possibility to enable the tip circle
using the `Lock' button. Now you can add and modify the tip diameter very easily. Please note that the tip
diameter has an inuence on the modication of the tip diameter. Click on the button again to disable the
input eld. The value is determined again according to DIN.

Figure 9.12: Tip diameter

9.4.4 Tip Diameter Allowance

The tip diameter allowance is determined according to DIN. Click the `Lock' button to enable the input
eld and enter your own value. If your values are out of range of the DIN, you will get an information in
the message window. Click on the `Lock' button and the input eld is disabled again. The allowances are
determined according to DIN.

Figure 9.13: Modify tip diameter allowance

9.4.5 Modication of Tip Diameter

The modication of the tip diameter k is automatically determined by the program that a sucient tip
clearance is available. For external gears the modication of the tip diameter is k ≤ 0, for internal gears,
the value is often set to k=0 in order to avoid meshing interferences. Click on the `Lock' button to enable
the input eld and enter your own value. Such a modication of the tip diameter has an eect on the tip
diameter.

Figure 9.14: Modify modication of tip diameter

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 404

9.4.6 Tip Clearance

Clearance c is the distance between the root circle of a gear and the addendum circle of its mate. A certain
clearance between the gears is necessary for a smooth operation without jamming.

Figure 9.15: Tip clearance

9.4.7 Root Diameter

The root diameter df depends upon the module, the prole shift and addendum coecient of the basic rack
prole. The root diameter is determined by the program. Therefore, the root diameter occurs as a result of
the calculation.

9.4.8 Inner and Outer Diameter

Here you can enter an inner diameter (for sun gear and planet gear) and outer diameter (for annulus gear).

Figure 9.16: Planetary gear train Figure 9.17: Inner and outer diameter

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 405

9.4.9 Web Width

The web width can be considered here. The web width is shown in the gure next to the input eld. There
is the possibility to modify the web width by using the `Lock' button.

Figure 9.18: Input for web width

Enter an inner diameter for sun gear and planet gear. The web width is rst set to the same value as the
facewidth. In case the web width is smaller than the facewidth, then the gear body stiness is aected due
to the gear body coecient CR . The tooth spring stiness changes which aects again the load capacity. By
clicking on the `Lock' button, you can dene the web width.

Figure 9.19: Web width

9.4.10 Chamfer and Addendum Chamfer

The tooth ends of a gear are often rounded or chamfered. The chamfer and addendum chamfer can be
considered for sun gear, planet gear and annulus gear. An addendum chamfer is a small angled surface added
on the end of a shaft along an edge. Meshing interferences can be removed by the addendum chamfer. The
chamfer reduces the calculated tooth width when calculating the load capacity of the tooth root and ank.
As an alternative to the addendum chamfer, a tip corner radius can be specied. This can be dened either
as a radial amount or directly as a radius.

Figure 9.20: Addendum chamfer

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 406

The selection is marked by the colored arrow. The radius is entered directly for the tip radius, the radial
amount is entered for the tip radius (Rad.). If you enter the tip radius directly as a value, you will receive the
corresponding radial amount in the calculation report.

Figure 9.21: Switch between input of addendum chamfer, tip corner radius (radial amount and radius)

In the case of tip corner radius or addendum chamfer, the tip form diameter is smaller than the tip circle
diameter by twice the radial amount hK .

Figure 9.22: Spur gear with addendum chamfer, hK = Radial amount of the tip corner radius, dF a = Tip form
diameter

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 407

9.5 Input of Tool Data

Here, you can choose the type of tool for the sun gear, planet gear and annulus gear. A basic rack prole
according to ISO 53, DIN 867 and DIN 3972 can be selected from a listbox or can be dened individually. A
machining allowance can be taken into consideration.

Figure 9.23: Input of tool data

9.5.1 Selection of Sun Gear-Planet Gear and Planet Gear-Annulus Gear

You can use the arrow to quickly toggle between the gear pairing sun gear-planet gear or planet gear-annulus
gear.

Figure 9.24: Selection of gear pairing

Please note: You can add a description or a short comment to sun gear, planet gear and annulus gear. The
notes will appear later in the calculation report.

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 408

9.5.2 Tool
The most important manufacturing processes are gear hobbing and gear shaping. Select either the tool `Hob'
or `Gear shaper cutter' by clicking the listbox. A `Constructed involute' is also available. Basically, the selection
of the tool depends on the gear type (external or internal gears). The external gears can be produced by cutting
wherein the gear cutting tool is a hob. For internal gears a gear shaper cutter is used.

Figure 9.25: Selection of tool

Hob Generation
The hobbing is the most widely used method of cutting gear teeth. The hobbing process is quite advantageous
in cutting gears with very wide facewidth. A very high degree of tooth-spacing accuracy can be obtained with
hobbing. With regard to accuracy, hobbing is superior to the other cutting processes. A wide variety of sizes
and kinds of hobbing machines are used. The rotating hob has a series of rack teeth arranged in a spiral
around the outside of a cylinder, so it cuts several gear teeth at one time.

Gear Shaper Generation

Normally internal gears are manufactured by gear shaping method. The shaping process is a gear-cutting
method in which the cutting tool is shaped like a pinion. If a gear is provided with cutting clearance and is
hardened, it may be used as a generating tool in a gear shaper. The cutter reciprocates while it and the gear
blank are rotated together at the angular-velocity ratio corresponding to the number of teeth on the cutter
and the gear.

Constructed Involute
In addition to the hob and the gear shaper cutter, you can also select the entry `Constructed involute' as a
tool. In case internal gears cannot be shaped with a gear shaper cutter, the tooth form calculation is still
possible by using the constructed involute. This specically applies for applications in the precision mechanics.
This method allows a generation of the tooth form with a constant root llet radius.

Please note: Please take a look at the gure in section 8.3.1 to see the hob and the shaper and also to get
more information.

9.5.3 Standard Basic Rack Tooth Prole

The standard basic rack tooth prole is standardized in DIN 867. The tool standard basic rack prole is the
counter prole of the standard basic rack tooth prole. The following standard basic rack proles are available
for your calculation. Choose your prole from the listbox.

Figure 9.26: Selection of basic rack

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 409

- ISO 53 Prole A: is recommended for gears transmitting high torques

- ISO 53 Prole B: is recommended for normal service

- ISO 53 Prole C: is recommended for normal service, type C may be applied for manufacturing with
some standard hobs.

- ISO 53 Prole D: is recommended for high-precision gears transmitting high torques and consequently
with tooth anks nished by grinding or shaving. Care should be taken to avoid creating notches in the
llet during nishing which could create stress concentrations.

- DIN 3972 Prole I

- DIN 3972 Prole II

- Prole 1 DIN 867 (Numerical example from DIN 867)

- Prole 2 DIN 867 (Numerical example from DIN 867)

- Prole 3 DIN 867 (Numerical example from DIN 867)

- Prole 4 DIN 867 (Numerical example from DIN 867)

- AGMA PT (for plastic gears)

- AGMA XPT-2 (for plastic gears)

- AGMA XPT-3 (for plastic gears)

- AGMA XPT-4 (for plastic gears)

Protuberance
In addition to the standard basic rack proles, you can also select a protuberance tool. When part of the
involute prole of a gear tooth is cut away near its base, the tooth is said to be undercut. By using a
protuberance tool an undercut near the root can be generated. Grinding notches at the tooth ank can be
avoided during the grinding.

Figure 9.27: Selection of the protuberance tools

You can select the following proles:

◦
- Prot 1.4-6 /0,085

◦
- Prot 1.5-6 0.02

◦
- Prot 1.6-6 /0.02

◦
- Prot 1.4-8 /0.04

◦
- Prot 1.4-8 /0,066

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 410

◦
- Prot 1.4-10 /0.05

◦
- Prot 1.5-10 /0.02

◦
- Prot 1.6-10 /0.02

◦
- Prot 1.25-14 /0,024

◦
- Prot 1.4-6

◦
- Prot 1.4-10 (Fette) (Protuberance tool with shifted prole reference line with the data of the tool
manufacturer LMT Fette)

◦
- TBK Prot 10 (Protuberance tool with shifted prole reference line with data analog TBK V22)

Please note: If you select `user dened input', then the input elds for the edge radius, the addendum coef-
cient and the dedendum coecient are activated. Now you can modify the basic rack prole.

Modication of the Basic Rack Prole

In case you use special tools, the eAssistant software oers an easy and comfortable solution. As mentioned
above, the basic rack prole can be specied by the entry `user dened input'.

Figure 9.28: Button for tool dimensioning

Here you can change the tip circle and the root diameter for sun gear, planet gear and annulus gear. Conrm
your entries with the button `OK'. The listbox for the basic rack proles displays then `user dened input'.
The modication of tip is set to `0'.

Figure 9.29: Tool dimensioning

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 411

9.5.4 Tip Form

For the tip form you can choose between `Full radius' and `Radius with straight line'. Normally `Radius with
straight line' is used.

9.5.5 Addendum Coecient

eAssistant provides a functionality for tools with a shifted prole reference line. Additionally to the addendum
coecient h∗aM P 0 h∗f M P 0 is displayed and visible in the cal-
of the shifted prole, the dedendum coecient
∗
culation report. The dedendum coecient hf M P 0 can also be dened by clicking the `Lock' button so that
∗
the dedendum coecient hf P 0 of the converted, non-shifted basic rack prole is always 1.0 according to DIN
867. Section 8.3.4 shows an illustration.

9.5.6 Semi Topping Flank and Topping

With the denition of the semi topping ank, corresponding hobs can then be specied. These generate an
addendum chamfer during the cutting process. The option `Topping' allows to dene the tip diameter directly
with the dedendum coecient of the tool, making it impossible to subsequently modiying the tip diameter.
The result, at the same time, will be tip diameter allowances analogous to the root diameter allowances directly
from the tooth thickness allowances. The eAssistant 3D CAD plugins for various CAD systems support the
function and the semi topping ank can be considered in the 3D CAD model.

9.5.7 Protuberance
Undercut may be deliberately introduced to facilitate nishing operations. Undercut is the loss of prole in
the vicinity of involute start at the base circle due to tool cutter action in generating teeth with low numbers
of teeth. The protuberance cuts an undercut at the root of the gear tooth. The protuberance design is also
used in some cases to permit the sides of gear teeth to be ground without having to grind the root llet.
To avoid grinding steps, a deviation in the tooth root area of the prole is a common and allowed method.
Because of a grinding stock allowance, an undercut must be allowed. Hence, a larger tooth root thickness is
necessary. The following table shows some determination of the undercut dependent upon the module.

Undercut spr for Ground Gears Dependent upon Module1

Module Allowance Size of Protuberance Addendum Edge Radius

m q Undercut spr prP∗ 0 h∗aP 0 ρ∗aP 0

2 0,160 0,100 0,260 2,900 0,500

2,5 0,170 0,110 0,280 3,625 0,625

3 0,180 0,120 0,300 4,350 0,750

4 0,200 0,140 0,340 5,800 1,000

5 0,220 0,160 0,380 7,250 1,250

6 0,240 0,180 0,420 8,700 1,500

7 0,260 0,200 0,460 10,150 1,7500

1 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl Hanser Ver-

lag, Muenchen, Wien, 2nd ed. 2010, p. 68, table 2.1/2

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 412

9.5.8 Machining Allowance

You can consider an allowance for the tooth ank. The tool provides an allowance q on the ank and/or root
for the pre-cutting tool. The allowance is the smallest distance between the involutes and the pre-machining
having the same root diameter.

Figure 9.30: Machining allowance

In case you select the tool basic rack prole with protuberance, the allowance refers to the tooth ank. If the
allowance of the tool basic rack prole is selected without protuberance, then tooth ank and tooth root get
the allowance. The maximum machining allowance can be classied as follows:

Maximum Machining Allowances2

Allowance per Tooth Flank Manufacturing Process

< 0.05 (0.10) mm Finishing operation by cold rolling, gear shaving, hon-
ing, lapping

0.05 to 0.5 (1.5) mm Grinding, prole grinding, (honing)

> 0.5 mm, pre-cutting Primary shaping, forming, cutting with geometrically
determined edges except shaving, grinding and prole
grinding in special cases

2 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl Hanser Ver-

lag, Muenchen, Wien, 1996, p. 638

Please note: Please see section 8.3.6 and 8.3.7 to get more information on protuberance and machining
allowance.

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9.6 Input of Data for the Determination of Allowances

This input mask allows to dene the gear quality and the tolerance for the sun gear, planet gear and annulus
gear. In addition, the program determines the upper and lower tooth thickness and tooth space allowances. The
tooth thickness can be dened individually as well. The required number of teeth for the span measurement
and the ball/roller diameter will be calculated or can be also dened manually. A manufacturing of work-pieces
with accurate nominal dimensions is impossible. Hence, a deviation from the nominal size has to be allowed.
For a lot of applications the gear and the pinion of a pair must be independently manufactured and meshed
without any modications. That means, the parts have to be separately replaceable. In addition to DIN 3961
for gear tolerances/gear qualities, DIN 58405 for precision engineering as well as ISO 1328 and ANSI/AGMA
2015 are available.

Figure 9.31: Input of allowances

Please note: You can add a description or a short comment to sun gear, planet gear and annulus gear. The
notes will appear later in the calculation report.

9.6.1 Gear Quality

The choice of the right toothing quality is determined by economical aspects depending upon the intended
purpose and manufacturing process. In all elds of gearing, the control of gear accuracy is essential. Several
classes or grades of accuracy can be set. 12 grades (12 to 1) are dened according to DIN standards. High
accuracy grades can be set for a long-life, high speed gears. Lower accuracy grades will cover medium- or
slow-speed grades. Accuracy grade `1' describes the highest possible accuracy, `12' a very low accuracy. The
gear accuracy `1 to 4' is mainly used for master gears, quality `5 to 12' is used for gear wheels. Section 8.4.1
provides an overview of manufacturing process depending on the gear quality. You can also nd a table with
reference values for the selection of the quality and tolerances. The gear quality can be selected from the
listbox for the sun gear, planet gear and annulus gear.

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For the gear tolerances/gear qualities, DIN 58405 for precision engineering as well as ISO 1328 and ANSI/AGMA
2015 are also available. For ISO 1328 and ANSI/AGMA 2015, two qualities can be selected in each case. The
rst quality is comparable with the tolerances permitted according to DIN 3961, the second value inuences
the radial composite deviation as well as the roll deviations.

9.6.2 Backlash Allowance and Tolerance Sequence

The system for gearings is very similar to the DIN system of ts and tolerances. For the system of ts for
gear transmissions letters are used to indicate the deviation from basic (nominal) size, a number denes the
width. There are clearance ts for gearings, therefore, lower case characters `h' to `a' appear. If you select
the entry `user dened input', the input eld for the tooth thickness allowances is enabled and you can dene
your individual values.

Figure 9.32: Own input

9.6.3 Tooth Thickness Allowance

One of the most important criteria of gear quality is the specication and control of tooth thickness. The
magnitude of tooth thickness and its tolerance is a direct measure of backlash when the gear is assembled
with its mate. Dimensional changes, due to thermal expansion, do not allow a zero-backlash assembly. The
tooth thickness allowance has to be determined that no jamming occurs. To prevent that jamming of gears
during the operation, it is necessary to decrease tooth thickness by a minimum amount (Asne and Asn ). Click
the `Calculator' button in order to determine the tooth thickness allowances from measured data or given test
dimensions.

Figure 9.33: Tooth thickness allowance for sun gear, planet gear and annulus gear

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 415

A new window is opened.

Figure 9.34: Calculation of tooth thickness allowances

Activate sun gear, planet gear and annulus gear and enter the input values. Conrm with the button `OK'.
The `Lock' button next to the input eld for the tooth space allowances is enabled. Now you can change the
tooth space allowances.

9.6.4 Tooth Space Allowance

The tooth space allowance AW is the dierence between the actual dimension and the nominal dimension of
the span measurement W k. The actual measurement of the span measurement gets smaller for external gears
by negative allowances for a zero-backlash assembly. The upper and lower tooth space allowance are displayed
as well. For an own input of the tooth thickness allowances, the tooth space allowances can be dened as
well. The `Lock' button next to the input eld of the tooth space allowances is enabled. Therefore, you can
change the tooth space allowances.

Figure 9.35: Tooth space allowance

9.6.5 Measurement of Tooth Thickness

The tooth thickness of a gear may be measured directly with calipers or it may be determined indirectly by
diameter pins. The sizing of gears may be controlled by double-ank composite checks and centre distance
settings corresponding to maximum and minimum tooth thickness specications. Dierent measurement
methods are used:

- At pitch circle (chordal),

- Span measurement across several teeth,

- Measurement over pins or balls that are placed in diametrically opposed tooth spaces,

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 416

- Check of the centre distance allowance with zero-backlash engagement by using a master gear in a ank
roll tester.

Span Measurement across Several Teeth

Span measurement Wk is the measurement of the distance across several teeth in a normal plane. As long as
the measuring device has parallel measuring surfaces that contact on an unmodied portion of the involute,
the measurement will be along a line tangent to the base cylinder. It is a widely used method for gauging
the tooth thickness by using the span measurement. The tooth thickness of spur or helical gears is often
measured with calipers. An advantage is that the dimensions can be inuenced during the manufacturing.
The calculation program determines the number of teeth for the span measurement (number of teeth across
the span measurement has to be gauged). By using the `Lock' button you are able to activate the input eld
and you can enter your own input value. If you click the button again, the previous input value appears.

Figure 9.36: Number of teeth for the span measurement

Tooth Thickness Measurement by Diameter over Pins or Balls

The tooth thickness is often checked by measurement over pins MdR or balls MdK . The pins or balls are
placed in diametrically opposed tooth spaces (even number of teeth) or nearest to it (odd number of teeth).
Measurement over pins is the measurement of the distance taken over a pin positioned in a tooth space and
a reference surface. The reference surface may be the reference axis of the gear, a datum surface or either
one or two pins positioned in the tooth space or spaces opposite the rst. The measurement over pins is only
used for spur gears and external helical gears. For the measurement values a distinction is made between:

- Measurement over balls MdK

- Measurement over pins MdR
- Measurement over pins for a spur gear

- Measurement over pins for external helical gears with even number of teeth

- Measurement over pins for external helical gears with odd number of teeth

For an external gear the measurement over balls MdK is the largest outer measure. The two balls are placed
in diametrically opposed tooth spaces. The balls have to be in the same plane perpendicular to a gear axis.
For an internal gear (see gure: `Internal spur gear with odd number of teeth') the measurement over balls is
the smallest inner measure between the balls. DM is the diameter of ball or pin. The internal gear is generally
checked for tooth thickness with measuring pins, like the external gear. However, the measurement is made
between the pins instead of over pins.

Figure 9.37: Own input for ball diameter

Please note: Please see section 8.4.5 for gures of the span measurement and tooth thickness measurement.

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9.6.6 Tolerance Field for Centre Distance

The general purpose of backlash is to prevent gears from jamming and making contact on both sides of their
teeth simultaneously. The center distance and the gear ts have an important inuence on the backlash.
The gear t selection denes the tolerances of the centre distance with the backlash. The gear t selection
provides only one tolerance eld. The allowances are indicated for the `JS' eld. These conform to the ISO
basic tolerances. The backlash is dependent upon the tooth thickness allowances, the tooth space allowances
and the centre distance. Hence, if you change the centre distance, then the backlash is changed, too.

Figure 9.38: Tolerance eld for the centre distance

Select the option `user dened input' from the listbox. Now you are able to enter your own centre distance
allowances. Conrm your entries with the Enter key. The backlashes are automatically determined.

9.6.7 Centre Distance Allowance

The centre distance allowance Aa is the allowed deviation of the centre distance from the nominal centre
distance. The allowances are indicated with ± to get no improper major allowances from the nominal centre
distances with gears having several axes.

9.6.8 Backlash Normal Plane

A gear t has to be determined, so that two gears can be meshed. For that, a proper backlash must be provided
for the mesh to avoid jamming of the gears. The eAssistant software oers three dierent backlashes:

- backlash normal plane,

- backlash pitch diameter,

- radial backlash

9.6.9 Backlash Pitch Diameter and Radial Backlash

The backlash pitch diameter jt refers to the backlash at the pitch circle. The backlash pitch diameter may be
the length of the pitch circle arc in which the gear rotate against its mating gear. The radial backlash is the
dierence of the centre distance between the working condition and zero-backlash engagement. The radial
backlash jr matters especially for very small modules (m < 0.6 mm). Section 8.4.7 illustrates the dierent
backlashes.

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9.7 Representation of Gear Tooth Form

A special highlight of this calculation module is the presentation of the accurate gear tooth form with an
animation and simulation of the tooth mesh of the pairings sun gear-planet gear and planet gear-annulus gear.
For the presentation you can select the lower, upper and mean allowances for the tooth thickness, tip diameter
and centre distance.

Figure 9.39: Representation of gear tooth form

Please note: Please keep in mind that all values are later taken over to the DXF output and CAD generation.
In case you change the tooth thickness allowance or the centre distance allowance in the tooth form mask,
then the last modication is taken over to the DXF output. The section 9.20 `CAD button' contains some
helpful information on this function.

Figure 9.40: DXF output

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 419

9.7.1 Representation of Planetary Gear Train

Click on the `Tooth form' button to represent the planetary gear train.

Figure 9.41: Planetary gear train

9.7.2 Representation of Mesh of Sun Gear-Planet Gear and Planet Gear-Annulus

Gear
Click on the `Detail view' button. You get a larger representation of the gear tooth mesh of the pairing sun
gear-planet gear and planet gear-annulus gear. Now you can see the detailed tooth mesh. The representation
of the tooth mesh allows you to look at the tooth thickness allowances, the tip diameter and centre distance
allowances as well the tooth mesh and to check the inuence of these values. The tooth form mask provides
various functions. Click on the `Total view' button to obtain an entire view of the planetary gear train.

Figure 9.42: Detail view of the mesh

Click the button `Detail view', the gear mesh of sun gear-planet gear and planet gear-annulus gear is dis-
played. Each gear tooth mesh (i.e., sun gear-planet gear or planet gear-annulus gear) can be also be displayed
individually (see 9.7.5 `View').

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 420

9.7.3 Rotating Angle

Enter an rotating angle for the rotation of the gear pair.

Figure 9.43: Rotating angle

Rotation of the driving gear counter-clockwise

Rotation of the driving gear clockwise

9.7.4 Rotation
When you click on one of the two arrows, a continuous rotation of the gears occurs.

Figure 9.44: Rotation

Continuous rotation of the driving gear counter-clockwise

Continuous rotation of the driving gear clockwise

The rotation is stopped.

9.7.5 View
There are two ways to view the mesh: The tooth mesh of sun gear-planet gear and planet gear-annulus gear
can be displayed side by side or individually where you can see either the tooth mesh of sun gear-planet gear
or planet gear-annulus gear. The tooth mesh of each pairing can be viewed closer by clicking `Rotation' or
`Rotating angle'.

Figure 9.45: View

Show only tooth mesh of sun gear and planet gear.

Show tooth mesh of both pairings sun gear-planet gear and planet gear-annulus gear.

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 421

Show only tooth mesh of planet gear and annulus gear.

Figure 9.46: Tooth mesh of sun gear-planet gear Figure 9.47: Tooth mesh of planet gear-annulus
gear

9.7.6 Tooth Thickness Allowance

Click on the `Detail view' button and the tooth mesh is represented in detail. Now you can change the tooth
thickness allowance, that is already given in the main mask for the `Allowances', within the tolerance limit.
All changes are displayed immediately. For the representation of the tooth mesh, select the lower, upper and
mean tooth thickness allowances for sun gear, planet gear and annulus gear.

Figure 9.48: Tooth thickness allowance in the main mask `Allowance'

Both arrows indicate the lower and upper allowance. The active input is grayed out and disabled. Click on
the left arrow and you will get the representation for the lower tooth thickness allowance. The right arrow
shows the representation for the upper tooth thickness allowance. The middle button displays the mean tooth
thickness allowance. At the rst start of the tooth form, you will get the mean tooth thickness allowance.
The tooth thickness allowances can be dened between the lower and upper allowance.

Figure 9.49: Tooth thickness allowance

Please note: In case you have specied the lower and upper tooth thickness allowance for sun gear, planet
gear and annulus gear in the input mask `Allowances' by using the calculator button, then the manually dened
values appear here as lower and upper tooth thickness allowance.

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 422

9.7.7 Tip Diameter Allowance

Click the `Detail view' button and the tooth mesh is represented in detail. Now you can change the tip
diameter allowance, that is already given in the main mask for the `Geometry', within the tolerance limit. All
changes are displayed immediately. For the representation of the tooth mesh, select the lower, upper and mean
tip diameter allowances for sun gear, planet gear and annulus gear.

Figure 9.50: Tip diameter allowance in the main mask `Geometry'

Both arrows indicate the lower and upper allowance. The active input is grayed out and disabled. Click on
the left arrow and you will get the representation for the lower tip diameter allowance. The right arrow shows
the representation for the upper tip diameter allowance. The middle button displays the mean tip diameter
allowance. At the rst start of the tooth form, you will get the mean tip diameter allowance. The tip diameter
allowances can be dened between the lower and upper allowance.

Figure 9.51: Tip diameter allowance

Please note: In case you have specied the lower and upper tip diameter allowance for sun gear, planet gear
and annulus gear in the input mask `Geometry' by using the `Lock' button, then the manually dened values
appear here as lower and upper tip diameter allowance.

9.7.8 Centre Distance Allowance

Click on the `Detail view' button and the tooth mesh is represented in detail. Now you can change the centre
distance allowance, that is already given in the main mask for the `Allowances', within the tolerance limit.
All changes are displayed immediately. You can check the operation of the gears by using various centre
distance settings. For the representation of the tooth mesh, select the lower, upper and mean centre distance
allowances for sun gear, planet gear and annulus gear.

Figure 9.52: Centre distance allowance in the main mask `Allowances'

Both arrows indicate the lower and upper allowance. The active input is grayed out and disabled. Click on
the left arrow and you will get the representation for the lower centre distance allowance. The right arrow
shows the representation for the upper centre distance allowance. The middle button displays the mean centre

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 423

distance allowance. At the rst start of the tooth form, you will get the mean centre distance allowance. The
centre distance allowances can be dened between the lower and upper allowance.

Figure 9.53: Centre allowance

Please note: In case you have specied the lower and upper centre distance allowance in the input mask
`Allowances' by using the `User dened input' option, then the manually dened values appear here as lower
and upper centre distance allowance.

9.8 Input of Power Data

In addition to the geometry calculation, torque, speed including the relative speed of the planet as well as
the power, pitch power and coupling power will be determined. Tangential force of the planet carrier and the
centrifugal force of the planet are calculated as well. You can nd both values in the calculation report. The
main advantage of planetary gear trains is that the gear tooth forces are distributed among several planets,
thus increasing the load capacity of the gear train. Planetary gear trains can easily achieve larger transmission
ratio as well as higher torques. In the ideal case, the circumferential forces are distributed uniformly on the
tooth mesh of the planets. Forces and torques are transmitted by means of axes and shafts. The planet gears
of the gear train can be mounted on the axis or on a shaft.

Figure 9.54: Input of power data

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 424

9.8.1 Power and Torque

Click on the adjacent `T/P' button to toggle between the input for the torque and the input for the power.
If you click on the `TP' button, then you can enter either the torque or the power. The values are converted.
The description of the input eld changes accordingly into `Torque' or `Power'. There are three torques acting
on the planetary gear train. According to the principle of conservation of energy, the sum of all torques must
equal zero. The torques have positive and negative signs. Two of the three torques always have the same
sign. If one torque is given, then the other torques are automatically determined.

Figure 9.55: Switch between power and torque

9.8.2 Input Power and Output Power

The input power PA is always positive and the output power is always negative. Torque and speed have the
same sign for an input shaft but opposite signs for an output shaft. The external power `ows' from the input
shaft to the output shaft.

Figure 9.56: Speed, torque, power

9.8.3 Pitch Power

In a planetary gear train a dierence is made between shaft power, pitch power and coupling power. The
pitch power PW , the product of circumferential force Fu at pitch circle and sliding velocity, is an internal
power. The power is transmitted when the gears are in mesh and rotate. If the planetary carrier is locked,
the total power P is transmitted as pitch power by the gears. Then the pitch power PW is equal to the
shaft power P transmitted by the connected shafts. For a gear train with a revolving carrier, the pitch power
PW is not equal to the shaft power P. Shaft power and pitch power dier by the amount of the coupling power.

Please note: The pitch power causes tooth friction losses. The amount of the pitch power in the power
transmission should be kept as small as possible. The lower the pitch power, the better the gear eciency.

9.8.4 Coupling Power

Planetary gear trains transmit the external shaft power P as pitch power PW and coupling power Pk . The
coupling power is transmitted without loss.

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9.8.5 Relative Speed

Speeds relative to the stationary gear housing are known as absolute speeds. The speed relative to the shaft
is called relative speed.

9.9 Calculation of Gear Load Capacity of Planetary Gear Trains

The calculation of load capacity of cylindrical gears is standardized according to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 (2006,
2019), ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04 as well as VDI 2736 for plastic gears. The standards give dierent methods
to calculate the load capacity in DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04. The eAssistant software
provides all calculations according to DIN 3990 Method B, ISO 6336 Method B, ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04 and
VDI 2736.

Figure 9.57: Determination of load capacity

For planetary gear trains, the uneven load distribution of the planet gears must also be taken into consideration.
Gears fail by tooth breakage, pitting as well as by scung. The strength is determined by the loads, the
geometry of gearing as well as selected materials. The calculation of the load capacity is about the proof of
the following strength factors that result from the above-mentioned forms of damage:

- Load capacity of the tooth root (safety against failure of the toothing due tooth breakage)

- Load capacity of the tooth ank (safety against failure of the toothing due to pitting)

- Scung load capacity (safety against failure of the toothing due to scung)

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 426

You can check the load capacity of tooth root and tooth ank as well as the scung fast and easily. The
scung safeties are determined according to the integral and ash temperature method. The material prop-
erties, the endurance, face load factor, application factor as well as the kind of lubrication and the selected
lubrication are taken into consideration for the calculation. There are extended input options to inuence the
number of load changes or the roughness. A grinding notch can be integrated into the calculation and the
mode of operation can be selected.

The following factors consider the inuences of the load capacity calculation:

- Application factor KA evaluates the external dynamic forces that aect the gearing

- Dynamic factor KV considers additional inner dynamic forces

- Face load factors KF β and KHβ evaluate non-uniform load distribution across the facewidth

- Transverse factors KF α and KHα account for the eect of the non-uniform distribution of transverse
load between several pairs of simultaneously contacting gear teeth

Load Capacity of the Tooth Root - Tooth Breakage

Tooth breakage is a fatigue failure. Pitting, scung or wear may weaken the tooth so that it breaks. The slow
progress of the fracture apparently causes the metal to break like brittle material. A tear or grinding notch
may cause a tooth breakage. Gear tooth fractures ordinarily start in the root llet. The tooth breakage can
destroy an entire gearing and leads to a failure of the gearing. Sometimes a new tooth will break as a result
of severe overload or a serious defect in the tooth structure. According to DIN 3990, an operation with a
reduced load is possible after a tooth breakage, if just a small portion of a tooth broke o and the other parts
of the gearing are intact.

For a high load capacity of the tooth root, the following methods are advantageous: positive prole shift (for
small number of teeth), usage of hardened and tempered or case-hardened materials with larger load capacity
of the tooth root, larger root llet, larger module

Load Capacity of the Tooth Flank - Pitting of Gear Teeth

Pitting is a fatigue failure and is characterized by little bits of metal breaking out of the surface and thereby
leaving small holes or pits, so that oil seeps into the pits. This is caused by high tooth loads leading to
excessive surface stress, a high local temperature due to high rubbing speeds or inadequate lubrication. The
cracking of the surface develops, spreads and ultimately results in small bits breaking out of the tooth surface.
But it is often possible to get some years of service out of gears that have pitted rather extensively.

For a high load capacity of the tooth ank, the following methods are advantageous: large number of teeth,
positive prole shift (for small number of teeth), higher pressure angle, large hardness of tooth ank, nitriding,
more viscous oil

Scung Load Capacity

Scung is a surface destruction and it can be caused by a lubrication failure. Tears and scratches appear on
the rubbing surface of the teeth. This form of damage is called `scung'. The terms of `scung' and `scoring'
are used interchangeably. Scung is an important form of damage leading to component replacements in
lubricated mechanical systems. Compared with tooth breakage and pitting, it is not a fatigue failure, it can
come very quickly. A short overload can lead to scung and the gearing fails. Scung is apt to occur when
the gears are rst put into operation because the teeth have not sucient operating time to develop smooth
surfaces. Due to the scung, the temperature, the forces and the noise increase, the gear teeth nally break
o. The following factors may inuence the occurrence of scung:

- Gear material

- Lubrication

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 427

- Surface condition of tooth anks

- Sliding velocity

- Load

- Impurities in a lubricant

After the occurrence of scung, high-speed gears apt to additional dynamic forces that cause usually pitting or
tooth breakage. The high surface temperature may cause a breakdown of the lubricating lm. The following
factors support scung:

- High loads

- Kind of lubrication: Non-alloy oil protects less against scung than E.P. oil (extreme pressure)

- High oil temperature

- Rough oil surface

- Low gear quality: Larger contact ratio and tooth alignment errors may cause local stresses by impacts
and unbalanced carrying.

For a high scung load capacity, the following methods are advantageous: E.P. oils (oil that contains chemical
additives), a careful running-in period of the gearing, low sliding velocity due to tip relief and a smaller module

9.9.1 Activate Load Capacity

Click on the `Load capacity' button to get to the calculation mask. You will notice that all input elds or
listboxes are disabled. When you select the entry `DIN 3990 Method B', `ISO 6336 Method B (2006, 2019)',
`ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04' or `VDI 2736' from the listbox `Calculation method', all input elds are enabled. In
case you do not need the calculation for load capacity, the calculation can be disabled. Thus, the size of the
calculation report becomes smaller.

Figure 9.58: Activate the calculation for load capacity

9.9.2 Input for Load Capacity According to DIN 3990 Method B

Comment
You can add a description or a short comment to sun gear, planet gear and annulus gear. The notes will
appear later in the calculation report.

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Material Selection
Select an appropriate material directly from the listbox for the sun gear, planet gear and annulus gear or click
on the button `Material' to open the material database.

Figure 9.59: Listbox `Material'

The material database provides some detailed information on the several kinds of material. If the listbox is
active, the two arrow keys `Up' and `Down' of your keyboard allows you to search through the database, so
you can compare the dierent values with each other.

Figure 9.60: Material database

In order for gears to achieve their intended performance, life and reliability, the selection of a suitable material
is very important. Steel is the most common material that is used for gears. There are a number of steels
used for gears, ranging from plain carbon steels through the highly alloyed steels from low to high carbon
contents. The choice will depend upon a number of factors, including size, service and design. For pinion
and gear, the same hardened and tempered steel may be used. It has to be kept in mind that unhardened
gears with equal hardness should not be meshed with each other because scung is apt to occur. A hardened
or nidrided gear HRC > 50 smoothes the tooth anks of the hardened and tempered mating gear, reduces
the form deviations and increases the load capacity of the tooth ank. For a mating of hardened gears, no
hardness dierence is necessary. The nal selection of the material should be based upon an understanding of
the material properties and application requirements.

Kind of Material
Steel casting: Steel casting belongs to the ferrous metals that include carbon (up to max. 2%) and are poured
into sand molds to produce several components. Due to a higher melting temperature, steel casting is more

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 429

dicult to cast than cast iron. Steel casting is cheaper than ground or forged gears.

Steel: Steel is the most common material and is used for medium and high-loaded gears.

Nidrided steel: Nitriding is adding nitrogen to solid iron-base alloys by heating the steel in contact with am-
monia gas or other suitable nitrogenous material. This process is used to harden the surface of gears.

Case-hardened steel: Case-hardened steel is a quality and high-grade steel with low carbon content. Case-
hardened steel is usually formed by diusing carbon (carburization), nitrogen (nitriding) into the outer layer
of the steel at high temperature and then heat treating the surface layer to the desired hardness. When the
steel is cooled rapidly by quenching, the higher carbon content on the outer surface becomes hard while the
core remains soft and tough.

Blackheart malleable cast iron (pearlitic structure): Malleable cast iron is a heat-treated iron carbon alloy.
Two groups of malleable cast iron are specied, whiteheart and blackheart cast iron. Blackheart malleable cast
iron is used for parts with a complex shape, in which a high durability, shock resistance and good machining
are important. Malleable cast iron is used for smaller dimensions and has got a higher strength and toughness
than steel castings.

Cast iron with spheroidal graphite (pearlitic structure, bainitic structure, ferritic structure): Cast iron usually
refers to gray cast iron but identies a large group of ferrous alloys that contain more than 2% of carbon. It
is extremely rare that the maximum carbon content is higher than 4.5%. Cast iron is a low-priced material.
However, cast iron has less toughness and ductility than steel. Cast iron with spheroidal graphite can be used
for parts with higher vibration stress.

Heat-treated steel: Hardening and tempering is a heat-treating technique for steels by quenching from the
hardness temperature and annealing at a high temperature so that the toughness is increased signicantly. At
the same time, a higher elastic limit is reached. Annealing temperatures and times dier for dierent materials
and with properties desired, steel is usually held for several hours at about 400◦ C to 700◦ C. Some steels have
to be cooled very quickly (Annealing: in order to achieve the intended properties of work pieces (e.g., desired
strength or toughness), reheating of the work pieces to certain temperatures is necessary.).

Gray cast iron: Gray cast iron is used for complex shapes and oers low cost and an easy machinability. It
provides excellent damping properties but it is a disadvantage that the load capacity is very low.

Dene Your Own Material

In case there is no material that will fulll the design requirements, then simply dene your individual material.
Select the option `User dened input' and all inputs and options are activated and you can specify your
individual material very easily. Your inputs will be saved to the calculation le. Please be advised that
changing the material will delete your dened inputs and you have to enter the inputs again.

Figure 9.61: Own input of a material

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 430

Ovako´s Clean Steels

Ovako´s clean steels 159X and 159Q can be selected from the listbox. Both steels are based on the case-
hardening steel 18CrNiMo7-6. Due to signicantly lower levels of contamination, these steels have modied
Woehler curves. Within the static strength, both steels are comparable to 18CrNiMo7-6. However, in the
fatigue strength range the IQ-Steel 159Q (Isotropic Quality ultra clean steel) is designed to increase eciency
by 30 percent for the ank load capacity and 60 percent for the tooth root load capacity. The fatigue strength
values are based on Ovako´s in-house investigations and external verications at WZL of RWTH Aachen
University and at the Gear Research Centre (FZG) of Technical University of Munich.

Figure 9.62: Selection of clean steels from the material database

The BQ-Steel 159X (Bearing Quality clean steel) delivers slightly smaller performance gains compared to
18CrNiMo7-6 and can be taken to improve existing designs. The potential of the 159Q can be used particularly
in new designs. It can be advantageous to focus on optimized scung load capacity. This can be achieved by
increasing the number of teeth and simultaneously reducing the module. This generally results in better gear
eciency and lower power losses. These Ovako steels open up completely new design possibilities for gears
and have a high potential for further increasing the performance of gears and gear components.

Figure 9.63: 159Q with the material properties in the material database

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 431

Load Spectrum
The calculation of load spectra is in accordance with ISO 6336, Part 6. The determination is based on the
Palmgren-Miner rule and the load-dependent K-factors are calculated for each torque class. The safeties
are determined by way of iteration until the sum of damage parts is obtained. This method, demanded by
the wind energy industry, is very accurate. The linear damage accumulation model, which is also known as
Palmgren-Miner's rule, denes damage as the ratio of the number of cycles of operation to the number of
cycles to failure at any given stress level.

Figure 9.64: Load spectrum

Click the button `Load spectrum'. Once the option `Use load spectrum' has been activated, add any number
of load spectra with time ratio, torque and speed. The load spectra can be entered manually or imported from
les. The load spectra can be saved and loaded. To do this, use the two buttons `Open' and `Save'.

Figure 9.65: Dene load spectrum

Application Factor KA
The application factor KA evaluates the external dynamic forces that aect the gearing. These additional
forces are largely dependent on the characteristics of the driving and driven machines as well as the masses
and stiness of the system, including shafts and couplings used in service. Because scung is not a fatigue

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 432

failure, the application factor shall consider the stronger inuence of several load peaks during the calculation
of the scung load capacity. Several load peaks aect directly only the ank temperature. Because of that,
the same application factor KA can be used for the calculation of the scung load capacity as well as of
the load capacity of the tooth root and tooth ank. The application factor is determined by experience. An
application factor of `1.0' is best thought of a perfectly smooth operation. The following table gives some
values according to DIN 3990.

Application Factors KA According to DIN 3990-1: 1987-123

Working Characteristics Working Characteristics of the Driven Machine

of the Driving Machine

Uniform Light shocks Moderate shocks Heavy shocks

Uniform 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75

Light shocks 1.1 1.35 1.6 1.85

Moderate shocks 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0

Heavy shocks 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.25 or higher

3 from: DIN 3990 Part 1, December 1987, p. 55, table A1

Working Characteristics of the Driving Machine

- Uniform: e.g., electric motor, steam or gas turbine (small, rarely occurring starting torques)

- Light Shocks: e.g., electric motor, steam or gas turbine (large, frequently occurring starting torques)

- Moderate Shocks: e.g., multiple cylinder internal combustion engines

- Heavy Shocks: e.g., single cylinder internal combustion engines

Working Characteristics of the Driven Machines

- Uniform: e.g., steady load current generator, uniformly loaded conveyor belt or platform conveyor, worm
conveyor, light lifts, packing machinery, feed drives for machine tools, ventilators, centrifuges, centrifugal
pumps, agitators and mixers for light liquids or uniform density materials, shears, presses ...

- Light Shocks: e.g., heavy lifts, crane slewing gear, industrial and mine ventilator, centrifugal pumps,
agitators and mixers for viscous liquids or substances of non-uniform density, multi-cylinder piston pumps
...

- Moderate Shocks: e.g., rubber extruders, continuously mixers for rubber and plastics, wood-working
machine, lifting gear, single cylinder piston pumps ...

- Heavy Shocks: e.g., excavators (bucket wheel drives), rubber kneaders, foundry machines, brick presses,
peeling machines, rotary drills ...

Please Note: You will nd a `Question mark' button next to the input eld. Click on this button and
the above-mentioned table opens. The `Question mark' button is an additional feature and provides further
information. You will nd this button next to several input elds.

Figure 9.66: The question mark button

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 433

Face Load Factor KHβ

The face load factor takes into account the eects of the non-uniform distribution of load over the gear
facewidth on the surface stress KHβ , on the tooth root stress KF β and on the scung KBβ . The face
load factor for the pairing sun gear-planet gear and planet gear-annulus gear can be dened individually or
determined according to DIN 3990, Part 1 Method C. Click on the `Calculator' button to open the input mask
for the face load factor.

When you start the calculation module, the value `1.25' for both pairings sun gear-planet gear and planet
gear-annulus gear is entered into the input eld. In case you already use a dened face load factor, you can
save the certain factor to a template le. Then the calculation module starts with the individual face load
factor. When you click on the calculator symbol, the input mask for the face load factor opens.

Figure 9.67: Determination of face load factor

Select the entry `DIN 3990 T1 Method C'. As soon as you select this entry from the listbox, the remaining
input elds and listboxes are enabled. The face load factor is determined automatically. Click the button
`OK'.

Figure 9.68: Face load factor

Bearing of the planet gear: Bigger planet gears (for rolling bearings approx. from i > 4) are usually pivoted
about the drive axis. The free bending length is very small. For smaller gear trains (i.e., for smaller ratios) it
is often dicult to accommodate the bearings in the casing. The bearings are attached by means of lateral
pins. The pins are supported on both sides in the planet carrier.

Planetary gear train with or without pinion correction: Errors in manufacturing and elastic deformations
that may inuence the load capacity can be adjusted by using intentional deviations from the involute (modi-
cation of the tooth depth) and theoretical tooth trace (modication of the facewidth). Lead crowning and
end relief are the most important pinion corrections and are advantageous for a good load distribution over
the facewidth of a gear. Due to lead crowning or end relief, a non-uniform load distribution can be reduced.

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 434

Kind of Lubrication and Lubricant Selection

Lubrication serves several purposes but its basic and most important function is to protect the sliding and
rolling tooth surfaces from seizing, wear and friction. The friction of the tooth ank is responsible for ank
wear, gear heating and gear noise. A reduced ank friction improves the eciency that is dependent on the
tooth load, circumferential velocity, gear quality and the surface condition of the tooth anks. In order that
the gearing should work properly, the selection of a lubricant is an important choice. A liquid lubricant is a
good choice and can be easily introduced between the contacting surfaces. In addition, a lubrication has to
reduce frictional heat and has to protect the surfaces against corrosion. The bearings and clutches in a gearing
require also an appropriate lubricant. Therefore, the lubricant has to be suitable as well. Oil and greases
are the most common lubricants. The compounding of oils provides a combination and generation of various
properties. Oil oers a wider range of operating speeds than greases. They are easier to handle and are most
eective. Special E.P. (extreme pressure) oils have been developed for slow-speed, highly-loaded vehicle gears.
These oils develop chemical compounds on the contacting gear-tooth surfaces. Grease is a combination of
liquid and solids. Grease has the advantage of remaining in place and not spreading as oil. It can provide a
lubricant lm at heavily loads and at low speeds.

Figure 9.69: Open the selection of a lubricant

For the selection of liquid lubricants applies: the smaller circumferential velocity and larger the contact pres-
sure as well as the roughness of tooth anks, the higher the viscosity. A higher viscosity will result in a
higher hydrodynamic load capacity and an increased scung load limit where scratching and scung of the
tooth anks occur (Muhs/Wittel/Jannasch/Vossiek: Rolo/Matek Maschinenelemente, 17th revised edition,
published by Vieweg, Wiesbaden 2005).

Please Note: If the viscosity is too low, the oil lm will not be suciently formed and if the viscosity is too
high, the viscosity resistance will also be high and cause temperature rise. For higher speed, a lower viscosity
oil should be used and for heavy loads, a higher viscosity oil should be used.

Gears that are running primarily in a gearbox are lubricated with oil. A distinction is made between oil
splash lubrication and oil injection lubrication. The gear mesh and the bearings of planetary gear trains re-
ceive the oil from the shaft. The oil is supplied to the tooth mesh through holes in the tooth root of the pinion.

Oil splash lubrication: The oil splash lubrication is an easy, reliable and reasonable lubrication system. It is
a type of lubrication used in enclosed gear drives. In splash lubrication, the gear tooth dips into a tray of
lubricant and transfers the lubricant to the meshing gear as it rotates. As a result, oil reaches all of the places
where it is needed. The oil splash lubrication can be used for average speed applications.

Oil injection lubrication: With the oil injection lubrication, the oil can be ltered, cooled and checked and
the oil is directly fed to the bearings. The amount of oil can be controlled according to the heat dissipation
requirements. The gearbox is used as an oil tank reservoir from which several units can be supplied. The oil
is sprayed directly by a pump injector into the mating surfaces.

Grease lubrication: The selection of the grease is dependent upon the circumferential velocity, the kind of
application and the service temperature. A grease lubrication requires low maintenance and protects against
contamination. Grease lubrication is suitable for any gear system that is opened or enclosed, so long as it runs
at low speed. The grease should have a suitable viscosity with good uidity especially in a enclosed gear unit.

Click on the `Lubricant' button and open database. The extensive database contains the lubricants including
all detailed information about the oils and greases (e.g., density, viscosity, load stage of FZG test). You can
nd out more about the FZG test in section 9.9.5 `Extended Input Options for Scung Load Capacity'.

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 435

Select `User dened input' from the listbox to dene your individual lubricant.

Figure 9.70: Lubricant selection

9.9.3 Extended General Input Options

Click the corresponding button in the main screen of the load capacity to open the advanced input options. If
you do not change any entries in the following screen, the calculation continues with the default input values.

Figure 9.71: Extended input options for tooth root and tooth ank

If you do not change any entries in the following mask, the calculation continues with the default input values.

Figure 9.72: Extended general input options

Dynamic Coecient KV
The dynamic coecient KV considers additional inner dynamic forces. Inner dynamic forces are caused by
mesh alignments, lead crowning, deformation of teeth, the housing, shafts and gear bodies as well as oscillation
of the wheel masses. As the circumferential velocity of the gear rim increases, the dynamic forces increase.
The forces decrease with an increasing load of the teeth. Click the `Lock' button to change the dynamic
coecient for the gear pairing sun gear-planet gear and planet gear-annulus gear. Click the right or left arrow
to select the pair.

Transverse Coecient KHα

The transverse coecients account for the eect of the non-uniform distribution of transverse load between
several pairs of simultaneously contacting gear teeth on the surface pressure (KHα ), stress leading to scung

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 436

(KBα ) and loading of the tooth root (KF α ). Click the `Lock' button to change the transverse coecient for
the gear pairing sun gear-planet gear and planet gear-annulus gear.

Mesh Load Factor Kγ

In order to use the advantages of planetary gear trains in an optimal way, it is generally desirable to accomplish
an even load distribution. But backlash and unavoidable gear tooth manufacturing accuracy of the gearing can
lead to an uneven load distribution on the planet gears. The total circumferential force is unevenly distributed.
The mesh load factor Kγ takes into account an uneven distribution of the total circumferential force for
gearings with transmission paths or for planetary gear trains with more than three planets. For transmission
paths, the total circumferential force is distributed to several meshes. A high manufacturing quality can
improve the load distribution. In 2008, Germanische Lloyd required the following mesh load factors:

Mesh Load Factor

Number of planets Up to three planets 4 planets 5 planets 6 planets

Kγ 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.6

Niemann (Niemann, G.: Maschinenelemente Band II, Springer Verlag Berlin, 1989, p. 361, gure 22.5/2d)
recommends the following values (depending on the gear quality and the sliding velocity).

Figure 9.73: Mesh load factor

Carried Width
When the facewidth of pinion and gear is not equal, then a maximum overhang of `1 x m' at each tooth end is
assumed as a carried width. Unhardened portions of surface-hardened gear tooth anks (including transition
zone) consider only 50% as the carried width. However, if it is foreseen that because of crowning or end relief
the contact does not extend to the end of face, then the smaller facewidth shall be used for both pinion and
gear. Click the `Lock' button to change the carried width.

Permit Pitting
In specic cases, the development of pits on the gear ank is allowed. Use this option to permit several pits.
In general, initial pitting is considered normal and is not a cause for concern. In particular, case-hardened and
nitrided gears usually has the tendency to pit near the tooth root and lead eventually to fatigue breakage. Here
an individual assessment is necessary. In some cases (aerospace industry), pits are absolutely not permitted.
For turbo transmissions, pits may lead to oscillations and increased additional dynamic forces.

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 437

9.9.4 Extended Input Options for Load Capacity of Tooth Root and Tooth Flank
The main mask of the load capacity provides the `Tooth root/ank' button, click on that button and the
extended input options appear. If you do not change any inputs in the following mask, then the default input
values are used. You can use the arrow to quickly toggle between the gear pairing sun gear-planet gear or
planet gear-annulus gear.

Figure 9.74: Selection of the gear pairing

Roughness
The surface roughness of the tooth anks inuences the load capacity of the tooth anks. The average rough-
ness Rz is the arithemitc average of ve individually measured roughness values. The input of the roughness
occurs for root and ank of pinion and gear. The right choice of the surface roughness is determined by
economical aspects depending upon the intended purpose and manufacturing process. A ne surface can be
very expensive because of the high manufacturing costs. A surface that is too rough may not fulll the required
functionality.

Grinding Notch
A grinding notch may signicantly reduce the fatigue strength and a tooth breakage can occur due to a
grinding notch.

Figure 9.75: Grinding notch

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 438

Shot-peening can be used to increase the fatigue strength of gears that are damaged by a grinding notch. A
careful grinding of the notch is basically suitable. Click the `Question mark' button to open the gure.

Hardening Depth Root/Flank

The hardening depth is signicantly for the pitting load capacity and is determined by the depth of surface layer
heated to hardening temperature, the hardenability of the material and the eect of the quenching method.
Case-hardening: Steels get their specic features by case-hardening. This combined heat treatment process
consists of the following subprocesses:

- Carburizing, i.e., using carbon for the surface

- Hardening, i.e., heat treatment to achieve a hardened and wear-resistant surface

- Annealing (stress relief )

Please Note: The calculation module determines the optimal hardening depth automatically, but the hard-
ening depth can be dened also individually. If the individual hardening depth is smaller than the optimal
hardening depth, then the fatigue strength is reduced accordingly. The determination of the optimal hard-
ening depth and reduction of fatigue strength with reduced hardening depth is based on: Tobie, Thomas:
Zur Gruebchen- und Zahnfussragfaehigkeit einsatzgehaerteter Zahnraeder, Dissertation Technische Universi-
taet Muenchen (Lehrstuhl fuer Maschinenelemente, Forschungsstelle fuer Zahnraeder und Getriebebau) 2001,
Section. 10.3: Eingliederung der Versuchsergebnisse in das Rechenverfahren nach DIN 3990.

Technology Factor YT
The technology factor YT considers the change of the strength of the tooth root by machining process.

σF lim = σF lim0 YT

σF lim0 Fatigue strength of the tooth root from material data

σF lim Fatigue strength of the tooth root with inuence of the technology factor

YT Technology factor (see following table)

Technology Factor YT According to Linke4

Kind of Manufacturing of the Tooth Root Technology Factor YT
Shot peening: 1.2 to 1.4

Applies for case-hardened or carbonitrided gears; not ground

in the hardened layer

Rolling: 1.3 to 1.5

Applies for ame and induction hardened gears; not ground in

the hardened layer

Grinding: General: 0.7

Applies for case-hardened or carbonitrided gears for CBN grinding wheel: 1

Shape cutting: 1

Does not apply for ground gears

4 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl Hanser Verlag

Muenchen Wien, 1996, p. 320, table 6.5/6

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 439

Click the `Question mark' button to open the tables for the technology factor and mode of operation factor.

Figure 9.76: Open the tables

Mode of Operation Factor YA

The fatigue strength of the tooth root σF lim is corrected with the inuence of the mode of operation.

σF lim = σF lim0 YA

σF lim0 Fatigue strength of the tooth root from material data

σF lim Fatigue strength of the tooth root with inuence of the mode of operation factor

YA Mode of operation factor (see following table)

The following reference values can be used for the mode of operation factor YA . DIN 3990 species identical
values for swelling and alternating load.

Mode of operation factor YA according to Linke5

Mode of Operation Mode of Operation Factor YA Direction of Load

Swelling 1

Alternating 0.7

lgNrev
0.85 - 0.15
6

Oscillating (for 1 ≤ Nrev ≤ 106 )

0.7 (for Nrev > 106 )

Please Note: Nrev = Number of load direction changes during operation time

5 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl Hanser Verlag

Muenchen Wien, 1996, p. 321, table 6.5/7

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 440

9.9.5 Extended Input Options for Scung Load Capacity

The scung load capacity oers dierent extended input options. Click on the `Scung' button and the
extended input options appear.

Figure 9.77: Extended input options `Scung'

Thermal Contact Coecient BM

The thermal contact coecient BM is required for the determination of the ash factor. The ash factor
considers the inuence of the material properties of gear and pinion on the ash temperature.

Figure 9.78: Thermal contact coecient

Relative Structure Factor XW relT

The relative structure factor XW relT is primarily intended to take into account inuence of the material
properties on the scung load capacity and is determined by:

XW
XW relT =
XW T

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 441

XW The lower table provides the empirically determined relative structure factor.

XW T The relative structure factor for the test gears that are used for the determination of the scung
temperature. XW T = 1.0 for the FZG gear test.

Structure Factor XW 6
Material/Heat Treatment Structure Factor XW
Through-hardened steel 1.00

Phosphated steel 1.25

Copper plated steel 1.50

Bath and gas nitrided steel 1.50

Hardened carburized steel, with austenite content:

- less than average 1.15

- average 1.00

- greater than average 0.85

Austenitic steel (stainless steel) 0.45

6 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl

Hanser Verlag Muenchen Wien, 1996, p. 367, table 6.5/16

Load Stage of Standard FZG Gear Test

Because scung is not a fatigue failure, a standard FZG gear test was developed to determine the scung load
capacity of a lubricant under certain operating conditions. The gear test, known as FZG gear test (Institute for
Machine Elements Gear Research Center, University Munich, Germany), is a standardized method according to
DIN 51354. At the FZG, the dierent inuences on scung are extensively investigated. The test is performed
on a standard FZG test machine using standard test gears. Standardized, case-hardened and ground spur gears
with a large one-side prole shift are used. The load is increased gradually on a FZG gear test rig with dened
technical parameters. There are 12 load stages and the gears are inspected for scung after every load
stage. Finally, the load stage is determined where scung of the gear teeth occurs and where the ank area
is damaged by scratches. The higher the load stages, the better the industrial gear lubricants resistance to
scung. Not all lubricants have a dened load stage. If you click the `Lock' button next to the listbox of the
load stage, the input eld is enabled and you can choose a load stage.

Figure 9.79: Selection of load stage

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 442

Type of Prole Modication

For high-duty gearings, it is possible to change the theoretical involute. Using the listbox to dene the type of
prole modication. You can select the following options: without prole modication, for high-duty gearing
and for uniform mesh.

Figure 9.80: Prole modication

The force distribution factor XΓ evaluates the inuence of the force distribution over several pairs of meshing
teeth. A polygon-like shape over the line of action represents the progress of the force distribution factor. The
values of the points A and E depend upon the type of prole modication. According to DIN 3990 (see Part
4, p. 17), the force distribution factor is as follows:

Force Distribution Factor Without Prole Modication and With Prole Modication for High-Duty
Gears

Figure 9.81: Without prole modication Figure 9.82: For high-duty gears (the pinion
drives)

Force Distribution Factor With Prole Modication for High-Duty Gears and for Uniform Mesh

Figure 9.83: For high duty gears (the gear Figure 9.84: For uniform mesh
drives)

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 443

Contact Temperature Along the Path of Contact

The contact temperature varies along the path of contact due to the progress of the ash temperature.

Contact Temperature Without Prole Modication

Figure 9.85: Contact temperature without prole modication

Contact Temperature With Prole Modication

Figure 9.86: Contact temperature with prole modication

Contact Temperature for Uniform Mesh

Figure 9.87: Contact temperature for uniform mesh

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 444

Flash Temeperature Method and Integral Temperature Method

High surface temperatures due to high loads and slidings speeds can cause a lubricant lm breakdown. Because
of that, there are two calculation methods in ISO/TR 13989 that are based on dierent criteria for the
development of a damage. The eAssistant software provides both the integral temperature method and ash
temperature method:

- Flash temperature method denes a variable contact temperature along the path of contact.

- Integral temperature method denes a weighted average of the surface temperature along the path of
contact.

Flash Temperature Method

The ash temperature is the temperature at which a gear-tooth surface is calculated to be hot enough to
destroy the oil lm and allow instantaneous welding at the contact point. The contact temperature ϑB in any
point of contact Y results from the sum of the bulk temperature ϑM and the ash temperature ϑf la :

ϑB = ϑM + ϑf la

According to the ash temperature method, there is no scung as long as the contact temperature ϑB (as the
sum of bulk temperature ϑM and ash temperature ϑf la ) does not exceed the scung contact temperature
in all points of contact. The scung temperature ϑS to be a characteristic value for the material-lubricant-
material system of a gear pair, to be determined by gear tests with the same material-lubricant-material
system.

Figure 9.88: Progress of contact temperature along the path of contact

Please note: Points A to E mark the important points from the beginning to the end of the mesh.

The safety against scung SB is determined according to the ash temperature method:

ϑS − ϑoil
SB = ≥ SBmin
ϑBmax − ϑoil

ϑBmax Maximum contact temperature along the path of contact

ϑoil Oil temperature before reaching the mesh

ϑS Scung temperature

The safety factor SBmin is dependent on whether the gearing is put into operation after a good running-in
period. With a careful running-in period, there is no scung damage up to SBmin ≈ 1. Without a running-in
period, there is no scung up to SBmin ≈ 3 (according to Linke).

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 445

Integral Temperature Method

According to the integral temperature method, scung occurs when the integral temperature exceeds the
scung integral temperature. The scung integral temperature is assumed as a characteristic value for
the material-lubricant-material system of a gear pair and is determined from gear tests. The scung safety
according the integral temperature method SintS is calculated as follows:

ϑintS
SintS = ≥ SSmin
ϑint

ϑintS Scung integral temperature

ϑint Integral temperature

As uncertainties and inaccuracies in the assumptions cannot be excluded, it is necessary to introduce a safety
factor. According to Linke, the following reference values can be used:

SintS < 1.0 In all probability, scung damages are expected to occur.

1.0 ≤ SintS ≤ 2.0 For a careful running-in period of the gearing, good contact pattern and real assumed
loads, there are no scung damages to be expected.

SintS > 2.0 There is no risk of scung.

9.9.6 Input Options for Load Capacity According to ISO 6336 Method B
In addition to DIN 3990 Method B, it is possible to calculate the load capacity of tooth root and tooth ank
according to ISO 6336 (2006, 2019) Method B. Select the ISO 6336 Method B from the listbox and the input
elds are enabled.

Figure 9.89: Activate load capacity according to ISO 6336 Method B

There is a strong similarity between the DIN 3990 standard and the ISO 6336 standard and most parts of
the load capacity calculation according to ISO 6336 correspond to DIN 3990. In fact, the ISO 6336 evolved
from the DIN 3990 standard. There are factors that inuence the tooth root stress and tooth ank strength,
but the dierences are minor and the inuence on the safety of root, ank and scung is very low. Another
dierence between DIN 3990 and ISO 6336 is the critical stress point on the root llet. ISO 6336 uses the
tangency point of a 60◦ angle as the most critically stressed point on the root llet for internal gears. The
DIN 3990 standard uses the tangency point of a 30◦ angle as the critical stress point on the root llet for
external and internal gears as the basis for the calculation of the load capacity.

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 446

60◦ Tangent for Internal Gears

The tooth form factor YF is the form factor, which represents the inuence on nominal tooth root stress of
the tooth form with load applied at the outer point of single pair tooth contact. According to DIN 3990, the
form factor for external and internal gears is calculated at the tooth root at the point of the 30◦ tangent.
This method appeared to be inaccurate, especially for internal gears. ISO 6336 uses the tangency point of a
60◦ angle as the most critically stressed point on the root llet for internal gears. This method is more precise
and leads to higher safeties for the tooth root.

Figure 9.90: 60◦ tangent for internal gears

Life Factors YN T and ZN T

There are signicant dierences in the calculation of the life factors YN T and ZN T when comparing DIN 3990
and ISO 6336. The long life factor YN T accounts the higher tooth root stress and the long life factor ZN T
accounts the higher contact stress including static stress, which may be tolerable for a limited life (number of
load cycles). The factors mainly depend on the quality of the material, heat treatment, number of load cycles
as well as notch sensitivity, surface conditions and gear dimensions. The life factors YN T and ZN T can be
read from the following graph for the static and reference stress as a function of material and heat treatment.

Figure 9.91: Life factors

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 447

Long life factor YN T :

With optimum lubrication, material and manufacturing YN T = 1.0 may be used for the number of load cycles
NL = 3 · 106 . For static stresses NL ≤ 103 , the long life factor is 2.5.

Long life factor ZN T :

With optimum lubrication, material and manufacturing ZN T = 1.0 may be used for the number of load cycles
NL = 5 · 107 . For static stresses NL ≤ 105 , the long life factor is 1.6.

There are signicant dierences in the calculation of the life factors YN T and ZN T when comparing DIN 3990
and ISO 6336. Values appropriate to the relevant number of load cycles, NL , are indicated by the S-N curve
(also known as a Woehler curve). The S-N approach is dierent. The long life factor for the load capacity
of the tooth root approaches 1.0 for the range of long life (depending on the material, usually at 3 · 106 load
cycles). In DIN 3990, the life factor remains 1.0 for higher number of load cycles. According to ISO 6336, the
factor for materials decreases from 1.0 to 0.85 at 1010 load cycles. Only after that, the factor remains 0.85 at
10
10 load cycles. For gears in the long life range, the calculations according to ISO 6336 result in signicantly
smaller safeties (15% lower) for tooth root and tooth ank. This also applies for the long life factor for anks.
Use the `Lock' button to modify the long life factors YN T and ZN T . The input elds are enabled and you can
dene your own value for the factors. Please remember to keep the modied input eld open or the default
values will be used again.

Figure 9.92: Input of life factors

Face Load Factor KHβ

Another dierence between ISO and DIN is the determination of the mesh stiness cγ . The mesh stiness is
needed for the calculation of the face load factor KHβ . The factor KHβ takes into account uneven distribu-
tion of load over the facewidth due to mesh misalignment caused by inaccuracies in manufacture and elastic
deformations. For the calculation of the face load factor, ISO 6336 uses a mesh stiness cγ that is reduced by
15% in comparison to the mean stiness the DIN 3990 use for the calculation of KHβ . This results in slightly
lower face load factors.

Rim Thickness Factor

If the rim thickness is too thin and not sucient to provide full support for the tooth root (e.g., for planetary
gear trains or internal gears), then this can be accounted for by the rim thickness factor YB . YB is expressed
as a function of the tooth depth for external gears and as a function of the normal module for internal gears.
The load capacity decreases with a gear rim thickness sR < 1.2 · ht for external gears or 2.8 · mn , for internal
gears sR < 3.5 · mn (ISO 6336 Edition 2006 - Was ist neu?: Dr.-Ing. R. Hess, Dipl.-Ing. B. Kisters, A. Friedr.
Flender AG, Bocholt, Tagungsbeitrag Dresdener Maschinenelemente Kolloquium 2009).

Helix Angle Factor Zβ

Another dierence is the determination of the helix angle factor Zβ . Independent of the inuence of the helix
angle on the length of path of contact, this factor accounts for the inuence of the helix angle on the load

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 448

capacity of the tooth anks, allowing for such variables as the distribution of load along the lines of contact.
Zβ is dependent only on the helix angle, β. The given formulae for the determination of the helix angle factor
are dierent in DIN 3990 and ISO 6336. DIN 3990 gives the following formular to calculate the helix angle
factor (β is the helix angle at reference circle):

p
Zβ = cos β

In ISO 6336, the helix angle factor is dened as follows:

1
Zβ = √
cos β

Figure 9.93: Comparison of helix angle factor in DIN and ISO

Work Hardening Factor ZW

The work hardening factor ZW has been revised in ISO 6336. This factor is used to take into consideration the
Hertzian pressure which serves as a basis for the calculation of the load capacity of the tooth anks. The work
hardening factor accounts for the increase in surface durability due to meshing a steel gear with a hardened
or substantially harder pinion with smooth tooth anks. In DIN 3990 and the previous version of ISO 6336,
the work hardening factor was dependent solely on the ank hardness of the softer gear.

Surface Roughness
The increase in the surface durability of the soft gear depends not only on any work hardening of this gear, but
also on other inuences such as ank surface roughness. In addition, the inuence of the surface roughness
is addressed in ISO 6336. Tooth ank curvature, pitch line velocity and lubricant viscosity are taken into
account in the calculation. The work hardening factor is reduced for gears with hard, rough surface. Gear
teeth with rough surfaces may wear a softer mating teeth. Wear of the surface is not covered by ISO 6336.
Especially for rough pinion surfaces, values of ZW < 1 may be evaluated. As in this range eects of wear can
limit the surface durability, ZW is xed at ZW = 1.0 (ISO 6336 Edition 2006 - Was ist neu?: Dr.-Ing. R.
Hess, Dipl.-Ing. B. Kisters, A. Friedr. Flender AG, Bocholt, Tagungsbeitrag Dresdener Maschinenelemente
Kolloquium 2009).

9.9.7 Scung Load Capacity According to ISO/TR 13989

ISO 6336 does not provide a calculation method for scung. For the safety against scung, the Technical
Report ISO/TR 13989 shall be preferably used. ISO/TR 13989 is a Technical Report (March 2000). This
document is not to be regarded as an `International Standard'. It is proposed for provisional application so
that information and experience of its use in practice may be gathered.

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 449

The scung load capacity is calculated according to ISO/TR 13989 Part 1 (Flash temperature method) and
Part 2 (Integral temperature method) as soon as you select `ISO 6336 Method B'.

Figure 9.94: Scung load capacity according to ISO/TR 13989

Thermal Contact Coecient BM

The thermal contact coecient BM is required for the determination of the ash factor. The ash factor
considers the inuence of the material properties of gear and pinion on the ash temperature.

Lubricant Factor XL
The lubricant factor XL depends on the the type of lubricant. You can select the following types:

- Mineral oils XL = 1.0

- Soluble polyglycols XL = 0.6

- Water soluble polyglycols XL = 0.7

- Polyalfaolens XL = 0.8

- Phosphate esters XL = 1.3

- Traction uids XL = 1.5

Figure 9.95: Type of lubricant

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 450

Relative Structure Factor XW relT

The relative structure factor XW relT is primarily intended to take into account inuence of the material
properties on the scung load capacity and is determined by:

XW
XW relT =
XW T

XW The lower table provides the empirically determined relative structure factor.

XW T The relative structure factor for the test gears that are used for the determination of the scung
temperature. XW T = 1,0 for the FZG gear test.

Structure Factor XW 7
Material/Heat Treatment Structure Factor XW
Through-hardened steel 1.00

Phosphated steel 1.25

Copper plated steel 1.50

Bath and gas nitrided steel 1.50

Hardened carburized steel, with austenite content:

- less than average 1.15

- average 1.00

- greater than average 0.85

Austenitic steel (stainless steel) 0.45

7 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl

Hanser Verlag Muenchen Wien, 1996, p. 367, table 6.5/16

Load Stage of Standard FZG Gear Test

Because scung is not a fatigue failure, a standard FZG gear test was developed to determine the scung load
capacity of a lubricant under certain operating conditions. The gear test, known as FZG gear test (Institute for
Machine Elements Gear Research Center, University Munich, Germany), is a standardized method according to
DIN 51354. At the FZG, the dierent inuences on scung are extensively investigated. The test is performed
on a standard FZG test machine using standard test gears. Standardized, case-hardened and ground spur gears
with a large one-side prole shift are used. The load is increased gradually on a FZG gear test rig with dened
technical parameters. There are 12 load stages and the gears are inspected for scung after every load
stage. Finally, the load stage is determined where scung of the gear teeth occurs and where the ank area
is damaged by scratches. The higher the load stages, the better the industrial gear lubricants resistance to
scung. Not all lubricants have a dened load stage. If you click the `Lock' button next to the listbox of the
load stage, the input eld is enabled and you can choose a load stage.

Figure 9.96: Selection of load stage

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 451

Flash Temperature Method and Integral Temperature Method

High surface temperatures due to high loads and sliding speeds can cause a lubricant lm breakdown. Because
of that, there are two calculation methods in DIN 3990 that are based on dierent criteria for the development
of a damage. The eAssistant software provides both the integral temperature method and ash temperature
method:

- Flash temperature method denes a variable contact temperature along the path of contact.

- Integral temperature method denes a weighted average of the surface temperature along the path of
contact.

Flash Temperature Method

The ash temperature is the temperature at which a gear-tooth surface is calculated to be hot enough to
destroy the oil lm and allow instantaneous welding at the contact point. The contact temperature ϑB in any
point of contact Y results from the sum of the bulk temperature ϑM and the ash temperature ϑf la :

ϑB = ϑM + ϑf la

According to the ash temperature method, there is no scung as long as the contact temperature ϑB (as the
sum of bulk temperature ϑM and ash temperature ϑf la ) does not exceed the scung contact temperature
in all points of contact. The scung temperature ϑS to be a characteristic value for the material-lubricant-
material system of a gear pair, to be determined by gear tests with the same material-lubricant-material
system.

Figure 9.97: Progress of contact temperature along the path of contact

The safety against scung SB is determined according to the ash temperature method:

ϑS − ϑoil
SB =
ϑBmax − ϑoil

ϑBmax Maximum contact temperature along the path of contact

ϑoil Oil temperature before reaching the mesh

ϑS Scung temperature

The safety factor SBmin is dependent on whether the gearing is put into operation after a good running-in
period. With a careful running-in period, there is no scung damage up to SBmin ≈ 1. Without a running-in
period, there is no scung up to SBmin ≈ 3 (according to Linke).

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 452

Integral Temperature Method

According to the integral temperature method, scung occurs when the integral temperature exceeds the
scung integral temperature. The scung integral temperature is assumed as a characteristic value for
the material-lubricant-material system of a gear pair and is determined from gear tests. The scung safety
according the integral temperature method SintS is calculated as follows:

ϑintS
SintS = ≥ SSmin
ϑint

ϑintS Scung integral temperature

ϑint Integral temperature

As uncertainties and inaccuracies in the assumptions cannot be excluded, it is necessary to introduce a safety
factor. According to Linke, the following reference values can be used:

SintS < 1.0 In all probability, scung damages are expected to occur.

1.0 ≤ SintS ≤ 2.0 For a careful running-in period of the gearing, good contact pattern and real assumed
loads, there are no scung damages to be expected.

SintS > 2.0 There is no risk of scung.

9.9.8 Input Options for Load Capacity According to ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04

The standard provides the calculation of safeties for the root and ank. Further the calculation of risk of
scung is also available. Additional to the DIN 3990 and ISO 6336 standard, the ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04
provides also the calculation of wear. The eAssistant software calculates the wear as failure probability. Select
ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04 from the listbox and the input elds are enabled. The following explains some factors
from the standard.

Figure 9.98: Activate load capacity according to ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04

Overload Factor KO
With the new edition of the ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04 (ANSI/AGMA 2001-D04 imperial unit edition, the ap-
plication factor from ANSI/AGMA 2101-C95 was replaced by overload factor KO .

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 453

The overload factor is intended to make allowance for all externally applied loads in excess of the nominal
tangential load, Ft , for a particular application. Overload factors can only be established after considerable
eld experience is gained in a particular application.

For an overload factor of unity, this rating method includes the capacity to sustain a limited number of up to
200 % momentary overload cycles (typically less than four starts in 8 hours, with a peak not exceeding one
second duration). Higher or more frequent momentary overloads shall be considered separately.

In determining the overload factor KO , consideration should be given to the fact that many prime movers and
driven equipment, individually or in combination, develop momentary peak torques appreciably greater than
those determined by the nominal ratings of either the prime mover or the driven equipment. There are many
possible sources of overload which should be considered. Some of these are: system vibrations, acceleration
torques, overspeeds, variations in system operation, split path load sharing among multiple primemovers, and
changes in process load conditions.

Figure 9.99: Overload factor

Stress Cycle Factors ZN and YN

The stress cycle factors, ZN and YN , adjust the allowable stress numbers for the required number of cycles
of operation. For the purpose of this standard, nL , the number of stress cycles is dened as the number of
mesh contacts, under load, of the gear tooth being analyzed.

AGMA allowable stress numbers are established for 107 unidirectional tooth load cycles at 99 % reliability. The
stress cycle factor adjusts the allowable stress numbers for design lives other than 107 cycles. The stress cycle
factor accounts for the S-N characteristics of the gear material as well as for the gradual increased tooth stress
which may occur from tooth wear, resulting in increased dynamic eects and from shifting load distributions
which may occur during the design life of the gearing.

Surface Condition Factor ZR

Standard surface condition factor ZR for gear teeth have not yet been established for cases where there
is a detrimental surface nish eect. In such cases, some surface nish factor greater than unity should be
used. The surface condition factor can be taken as unity provided the appropriate surface condition is achieved.

Size Factor KS
The size factor KS reects non-uniformity of material properties. It depends primarily on: tooth size, diameter
of parts, ratio of tooth size to diameter of part, facewidth, area of stress pattern, ratio of case depth to tooth
size, hardenability and heat treatment of materials Standard size factors for gear teeth have not yet been
established for cases where there is a detrimental size eect. In such cases, some size factor greater than unity
should be used. The size factor may be taken as unity for most gears, provided a proper choice of steel is
made for the size of the part and its heat treatment and hardening process.

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 454

Temperature Factor Yϑ
The temperature factor Yϑ is generally taken as unity when gears operate with temperatures of oil or gear
blank not exceeding 120°C. When operating temperatures result in gear blank temperatures below 0°C, special
care must be given. When operating at oil or gear blank temperature above 120°C, Yϑ is given a value greater
than 1.0 to allow for the eect of temperature on oil lm and material properties. Consideration must be
given to the loss of hardness and strength of some materials due to the tempering eect of temperatures over
150°C.

Figure 9.100: Additional options for calculation of load capacity

Reliability Factor YZ
The reliability factors YZ account for the eect of the normal statistical distribution of failures found in
materials testing. The allowable stress numbers given in ANSI/AGMA (tables 3 through 6) are based upon a
statistical probability of one failure in 100 at 107 cycles. The following table contains reliability factors which
may be used to modify these allowable stresses to change that probability. These numbers are based upon
data developed for bending and pitting failure by the U.S. Navy. Other values may be used if specic data is
available.

Reliability Factor YZ 110

Requirements of Application YZ
Fewer than one failure in 10 000 1.50

Fewer than one failure in 1000 1.25

Fewer than one failure in 100 1.00

Fewer than one failure in 10 0.85

2

Fewer than one failure in 2 0.70

23

Notes: 1) Tooth breakage is sometimes considered a greater hazard than pitting.

In such cases a greater value of YZ is selected for bending. 2) At this value plastic
ow might occur rather than pitting. 3) From test data extrapolation.

10 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl

Hanser Verlag Muenchen Wien, 1996, p. 367, table 6.5/16

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 455

Service Factor CSF

The service factor CSF has been used in previous AGMA standards to include the combined eects of overload,
reliability, life and other application related factors. This standard provides a means to account for: variations
in load (with overload factor), statistical variations in S-N data (with reliability factor), and the number of
design stress cycles (with stress cycle factor).

The AGMA service factor as traditionally used in gear applications depends on experience acquired in each
specic application. Product application standards can be a good source for the appropriate value of service
factor. Equations 28 and 29 of AGMA 2101-D04 are used to establish power ratings for unity service factor
to which established service factors may be applied using equation 30. When this is done, the stress cycle
factor is calculated using the number of cycles equivalent to a specic number of hours at a specic speed, to
establish power rating for unity service factors.

Where specic experience and satisfactory performance has been demonstrated by successful use of established
service factors, values of ZN and YN of 1.0 may be appropriate.

9.9.9 Input Options for Load Capacity According to VDI 2736 for Plastic Gears
For gears made of plastic, the load capacity can be calculated according to VDI 2736. Select VDI 2736
from the listbox. All input elds are activated. The load capacity calculation of cylindrical gears made of
thermoplastics is based on DIN 3990, which applies to metallic materials. The same damage can occur on
plastic gears as on steel gears: pitting, wear or tooth breakage.

Figure 9.101: Activate load capacity according to VDI 2736

Compared to metals, thermoplastics have some special features, e.g.

- Dependence of the mechanical strength on the operating temperature as well as on the stress level and
its duration and speed

- Thermal conductivity of the plastics is considerably lower

- Higher deformation

- Material properties of thermoplastics are very greatly dependent on temperature

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 456

Positive properties compared to steel gears:

- Very favorable noise and vibration behavior due to high internal friction, especially with plastic/plastic
pairing

- Relatively low weight due to low density

- Other sliding friction properties, thus dry running is possible

Plastic gears are used in particular where quiet running is important because plastics have a vibration-damping
eect. They are mainly used for precision engineering equipment, textile machines and domestic appliances.

It is recommended to calculate the load capacity for plastic gears according to VDI 2736. However, in eAssis-
tant it is also possible to calculate the load capacity using DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04.
The recalculation of the tooth root load capacity according to VDI 2736 is based on the tooth root stress
with force application on the tooth tip and on the assumption of pure bending stress. In DIN 3990 Method
B, the force is applied to the outer single contact point and the calculation is much more accurate. In VDI
2736, DIN 3990 is referred to in some places as an alternative. If reference is made to DIN 3990, then the
calculation of the load capacity in the eAssistant is carried out according to this standard.

The plastics can be selected from the general material database. For this, the temperature-dependent material
properties such as fatigue strength and E-module were approximated in detail from available diagrams in VDI
2736 and stored accordingly. These are used to determine the material properties for the calculation of the
load capacity using the tooth root and ank temperatures automatically calculated according to VDI 2736. If
the calculated tooth ank and tooth root temperatures exceed the maximum operating temperatures of the
plastics, you will get a corresponding warning in the message window. When calculating the load capacity
according to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04, the material parameters are selected on the
basis of the lubricant temperature.

Figure 9.102: Material database with plastics

Please Note: PA and POM gears have a higher load capacity and better heat dissipation when paired with
a metal wheel. If possible, never pair the same plastics. The noise behavior with pairing thermoplastic gears
is more favorable than with plastic/metal.

In order to calculate the tooth ank and tooth root temperature, you can modify the housing design, the
heat-dissipating surface as well as the heat transfer and heat resistance as an alternative to the automatic
default settings.

Both plastic/plastic and plastic/metal pairings are possible as material pairings. Furthermore, metal/metal
pairings are also available in order to compare calculation methods for metallic gears. The calculation of

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 457

load spectra is also possible for the load capacity calculation according to VDI 2736. Plastic gears are often
operated under dry running conditions. Select the option `Dry running' from the listbox `Kind of lubrication'.

Figure 9.103: General inputs

9.10 Input of Gear Tooth Prole and Gear Flank Modications

Manufacturing errors, misalignment in the assembly of the gears as well as displacement of the gears under
load lead to non-uniform load carrying across the facewidth and move a signicant concentration of load to
the tooth edges. Intentional deviations from the involute prole (prole modication) and from the theoretical
tooth trace (ank modication) are used to minimize the manufacturing inaccuracies and elastic deformations,
to improve the running behavior and to reduce the noise of the gear pair.

Figure 9.104: Input of prole and ank modications

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 458

There are dierent types of tooth corrections. Short and long linear or short and long circular tip and root relief
are typical tooth prole modications. Lead crowning and end relief are common ank modications. These
corrections tend to give better load distribution over the facewidth and can reduce the eects of misalignment.
Using prole or ank modication requires an appropriate degree of gear accuracy. The minimum required
gear manufacturing accuracy is DIN quality 7 or better. Design details should be based on a careful estimate
of the deformations and manufacturing deviations of the gearing.

9.10.1 Gear Tooth Prole Modication

In case of gear tooth prole modication, parts of the involute prole are changed to reduce the load in that
area. Prole modications help gears to run more quietly and to regulate transmission errors.

Figure 9.105: Gear tooth prole modication

Tip Relief and Root Relief

Tip relief is a modication whereby material is removed at the tips of the gear tooth. In case of root relief, a
small amount of material is removed near the root of the gear tooth. The modied tooth prole merges as
continuously as possible into the theoretical tooth prole. Prole crowning can be seen as a combination of
tip and root relief.

Figure 9.106: Tip and root relief

There are dierent types that can be chosen for the prole modication. A simple type of prole modication
is the linear tip relief on pinion and gear. However, it is also possible to execute only one gear with a tip and
root relief instead of both gears. The listbox allows to select linear and circular prole modication. The linear
relief results in the greatest material removal and thus the greatest relief in the eective ank area.

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 459

When determining the lengths of the prole correction, a distinction is made between short and long prole
modication. In case of long tip and root relief, the entire double contact area is corrected, while in the case
of short execution, only half of the double contact area is removed. Either long or short reliefs are used on a
gearing. The long prole modication is usually suitable for a quiet operation, while the short prole correction
has better load behavior. As long as the overlap ratio is sucient, a long prole correction is more suitable
for helical gearing.

Figure 9.107: Selection of tip relief

Linear and Circular Tip and Root Relief

Figure 9.108: Linear tip relief Figure 9.109: Linear root relief

Figure 9.110: Circular tip relief Figure 9.111: Circular root relief

The linear tip and root relief is executed in the eAssistant with a transition rounding from the modied to the
unmodied area. You can enter the start and end of the transition rounding in the corresponding input elds.
For circular relief, the input of the transition start and transition end is not required.

Figure 9.112: Selection of linear tip relief

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 460

Linear Relief with Transition Radius

Figure 9.113: Linear relief with transition radius

The % button can be used to set the power or torque to be used for the design of the tip relief amount. If the
operating conditions are known, the power percentage can be set accordingly. With a click on the calculator
button the amount Ca of the tip relief for sun, planet and annulus is then calculated. In case you know the
relief length, you can simply enter this value into the input eld. In case the length is unknown, select `short'
or `long' from the listbox. The eAssistant software determines the relief length automatically. If a diameter is
given on the drawing, it is possible to dene the diameter. Click the `d/l' button on the right side to switch
between the input for diameter or length.

Figure 9.114: Power, diameter and length

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 461

When you enable the checkbox `Use theoretical length of path of contact', then the theoretical path of contact
of a gear with a rack is used.

Figure 9.115: Use theoretical length of path of contact

Prole Crowning
Prole crowning can be seen as a combination of tip relief and root relief. Material is removed from the tip
and from the root of the tooth.

Figure 9.116: Prole modication

You can select symmetric prole crowning from the listbox and add a value for Cha to the input eld.

Figure 9.117: Symmetric modication

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 462

9.10.2 Gear Flank Modications

Gear ank modications are intentional deviations from the theoretical tooth trace. Lead crowning and
end relief are typical gear ank modications and are advantageous for a better load distribution across the
facewidth of the gear. Both can compensate for misalignment so that the stresses do not rise at the tooth
ends.

Figure 9.118: Flank modication

End Relief
Due to mesh misalignments, an overloading of the tooth ends occurs. Therefore, end relief is used to protect
the tooth ends from overloading. Usually, the relief applied is the same at both ends of the teeth. In case
crown shaving and crown grinding are not possible, then end relief is recommended.

Figure 9.119: End relief (double-sided)

End relief can be applied to both tooth ends or to the left or right end of the tooth.

Figure 9.120: Selection of end relief

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 463

End Relief: Double-sided, Left and Right Side

Figure 9.121: End relief (left side)

Figure 9.122: End relief (right side)

Figure 9.123: End relief (double-sided)

According to DIN 3990 Part 1, the height of end relief is calculated as follows:

For through-hardened gears: Ce ≈ Fβxcv plus a manufacturing tolerance of 5 to 10 µm. Thus, by analogy
with Fβxcv (initial equivalent misalignment) in DIN 3990, Ce should be approximately:

Ce = fsh + 1.5 · fHβ

For surface hardened and nitrided gears: Ce ≈ 0, 5 · Fβxcv plus a manufacturing tolerance of 5 to 10 µm.
Ce should be approximately:

Ce = 0.5 · (fsh + 1.5 · fHβ )

When the gears are of such sti construction that fsh can for all practical purposes be neglected or when the
helices have been modied to compensate deformation, the following is appropriate:

Ce = fHβ

60% to 70% of the above values is appropriate for very accurate and reliable gears with high tangential
velocities.

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 464

According to DIN 3990 Part 1, the width (or length) of end relief can be determined as follows:

Figure 9.124: End relief

For approximately constant loading and higher tangential velocities:

le = smaller of the values 0.1 · b or 1·m

The following is appropriate for variable loading, low and average speeds:

bred = (0.5 to 0.7) · b

Lead Crowning
Lead crowning is a common way of crowning is the so-called lead crowning. This type is employed in order
to compensate for manufacturing deviations and load-induced deformations of the gears and in particular to
relieve the tooth-end loading.

Figure 9.125: Lead crowning

Gears are usually crowned symmetrically about the mid-facewidth and the tooth center is slightly thicker than
the tooth edges. The tooth anks of the gear have a slight outward bulge in its center area. It is possible to
select symmetrical and asymmetrical lead crowning from the listbox.

Figure 9.126: Symmetrical crowning Figure 9.127: Asymmetrical crowning

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 465

According to DIN 3990 Part 1, the height of lead crowning can be determined as follows:

Cb = 0.5 · (fsh + 1.5 · fHβ )

When the gears are of such sti construction that fsh can for all practical purposes be neglected or when
the helices have been modied to compensate for deformation at mid-face width, the following value can be
substituted:

Cb = fHβ

Subject to the restriction 10 ≤ Cb ≤ 25 µm plus a manufacturing tolerance of about 5 µm, 60% to 70% of
the above values are adequate for extremely accurate and reliable high speed gears.

Figure 9.128: Height of lead crowning

Some Information for Using Default Values (Rough Reference Values) for Lead Crowning Amounts
According to DIN 3990, the mesh misalignment fsh is determined without taking crowning into account. This
means that in the calculation of the load capacity (submask KHβ , `no correction' must be set. With regard
to the suggested value of lead crowning calculated according to DIN 3990, it is always a value related to the
eective sum of the modications of pinion and gear in the contact area. This means that the modications
can only be carried out on one gear or divided between the pair. Therefore, the default value calculation for
gear 1 and 2 always provides the same value. How this calculated value is then divided, if necessary, is decided
by the user. If the value is rst suggested for gear 1, it can then be divided between gear 1 and gear 2. This
also applies to gear 2. When splitting the crowning amount between both gears, there are various distribution
ratios. Often, the following approach is used here:

Cb2 = Cb1
2 2
+ Cb2

Therefore, only the value for the pairing is always generated as a default value via the calculator button.

9.11 Meshing Interferences for Planetary Gear Trains

The design of planetary gear trains requires special attention to meshing interferences in order to avoid gear
running noises or damages (e.g., tooth breakage or wear). For external gears, interference takes place between
the tip of the tooth of the gear and root llet area of the mating tooth which can lead to jamming of gear and
pinion. The gear mesh of an internal gear pair can be much more dicult than for external gears. Interferences
for internal gears occur far more frequently than for external gearings. In case a meshing interference takes
place, a warning is displayed in the message window. For internal gears, the general rule is that the minimum
number of teeth

z2 − z1 ≥ 10

should be followed. To avoid meshing interferences between the gear shaper cutter and internal gear, the
minimum number of teeth needs to be increased. The following meshing interferences can appear in the
calculation module:

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 466

- Tooth root meshing interference on the pinion

- Tooth root meshing interference on the internal gear

- Generation meshing interference (tooth root meshing interference on the gear shaper cutter)

- Tooth crest meshing interference

- Feed meshing interference

- Radial assembly interference

Please note: Meshing interferences may be eliminated or minimized by tip easing on the internal gear or on
the pinion by increasing the pressure angle or helix angle.

Tooth Root Meshing Interference on the Pinion

When the tooth tip of the internal gear interferes the root llet radius, then a tooth root meshing interference
on the pinion occurs.

Tooth Root Meshing Interference on the Internal Gear

When the tooth tip of the pinion interferes the root llet radius of the internal gear, then a tooth root meshing
interference occurs.

Generation Meshing Interference

When shaper cutter and internal gear are in mesh, the generation meshing interference occurs due to tool
cutter action in generating teeth with low numbers of teeth. Because of this interference there is a loss of the
involute prole at the tooth tip. The term of the mesh and the load capacity are decreased.

Tooth Crest Meshing Interference

The tooth crest meshing interference may occur when the tooth crests of pinion and internal gear overlap
during the hobbing process outside of the plane of action. For number of teeth dierences of |z2 | − z1 < 10
this meshing interference may occur frequently. For the generation of internal gears with gear shaper cutter,
tooth crest meshing interference appears.

Please Note: Meshing interference can be avoided by changing the number of teeth and by a negative prole
shift.

Feed Meshing Interference

If the chosen gear shaper cutter is too large and the teeth of the internal gear are cut o in the feed direction,
a feed meshing interference occurs.

Please Note: If the sum of the prole shift is decreased, feed meshing interferences can be avoided. It is also
possible to adjust the number of teeth of the gear shaper cutter.

Radial Assembly Interference

When internal gearsets have a too small dierence between the number of teeth in the pinion and the number
of teeth in the gear, there may be interference between the tips of the teeth. The interference is most apt to
occur as the pinion is moved radially into mesh with the gear. It is possible to get around the radial-interference
diculty by assembling the set by an axial movement of the pinion.

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Please Note: A radial assembly interference can be removed by decreasing the prole shift coecients and
addendum coecient of pinion and internal gear.

Figure 9.129: Radial assembly interference

9.12 Additional Information On Planetary Gear Trains

9.12.1 Gears
If there are no special requirements for the planetary gear train, then the design of the external gear is not
dierent from the design of the stationary gear. Small gears are ideal for a more compact design manufactured
as solid gears. For higher ratios, the gears are made in one piece with a shaft. Disc wheels are often used for
larger gears. Internal gears for high-duty gearings should be supported on both sides, for light loads overhung
gears can be used.

9.12.2 Bearing
The installation of bearings is often dicult because of the small space in the planetary gear. It is possible
to leave the central pinion unsupported. The torque is transmitted by toothed couplings. The elimination of
the bearing gives the advantage that the eciency is increased. An additional device for the lubrication of
the bearing is no longer necessary. The planet gear can be mounted on the planet gear pin which is rmly
connected to the carrier. However, the pin can also be supported on the carrier and can be rmly connected
to the planet gear. Plain bearings and rolling bearings are generally used.

9.12.3 Planetary Carrier

The planetary carrier of a gear train can have a split and non-split design. Split types consists of elements
made from sheets or rolled steel products. Planetary carriers for higher loads are cast. Non-split types are
torsionally very sti and resistant to thermal expansion. The planet gear pin can be rotatably supported or
can be rmly clamped. If the pins are connected to the carrier, pins and screws must be rmly tightened and
the entire gear train must be in safe working order.

9.12.4 Housing
According to economical aspects, the housing of a planetary gear train can be cast or welded. Welded housings
are often used for special gearboxes and gearings with low mass. In the case of batch production, cast housings
are commonly used. For larger gears with low mass, double-walled, welded steel housings are used.

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9.13 Dimensioning for Gear Pairs

If only a few input data are available, such as input speed, power and transmission ratio, the software can
provide corresponding suggestions for number of teeth and module at the push of a button.

Figure 9.130: Dimensioning of a gear pair

Before you start with the design, the load capacity must be activated, otherwise the design is not possible.
You can specify the material for the sun, planet or annulus or adjust the application factor and the lubricant.

Figure 9.131: Activate load capacity and modify the input

Furthermore, the power data, allowances, tool data as well as the conguration can be modied via the cor-
responding main masks before the design layout. If you have dened all settings for the pre-design, then go
to the main mask `Dimensioning'.

However, before you continue with the further design data, please take a look at the ` Options' menu rst.
In this menu, the minimum safeties for the root and ank load capacity are stored. These specied minimum

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 469

safety factors are taken into account in the same way during design.

Figure 9.132: Options with minimum safeties

Please Note: For standard industrial applications, the standard values for minimum safety of 1.3 for the
tooth root load capacity and 1.1 for the ank load capacity can be adopted in this way. For applications with
a large damage eects or where personal injury may occur, larger minimum safeties should be selected. For a
smaller module range (< 1), for example in precision engineering, smaller minimum safeties are suitable.

The remaining entries are now completed in the main screen for the design layout. A specic range can always
be specied for the transmission ratio, number of teeth of sun/annulus and ratio of facewidth/reference
diameter sun. The corresponding buttons can be used to switch between the number of teeth of sun and
annulus as well as the facewidth/reference diameter ratio and the facewidth/normal module ratio.

Figure 9.133: Input of number of teeth sun/annulus and ratio facewidth/reference diameter/normal module

When you have made all the entries, click on the button `Dimensioning'. Now the software calculates all
possible variants and a list for possible solutions is displayed afterwards.

When displaying the found suggestions, you can re-sort the list by clicking on the respective column heading.
If you want to sort the column in reverse order, click the column heading again. Select a suggestion from the

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 470

list and click the `OK' button. The selected values will now be entered into the software, giving you an initial
calculation suggestion that can then be rened and processed further. This is a quick way to nd a usable
solution that you can start with. Later you can modify the design according to your own criteria.

Figure 9.134: Possible variants are displayed

9.14 Message Window

The calculation module provides a message window. This message window displays detailed information,
helpful hints or warnings about problems. One of the main benets of the program is that the software
provides suggestions for correcting errors during the data input. If you check the message window carefully
for any errors or warnings and follow the hints, you are able to nd a solution to quickly resolve calculation
problems.

Figure 9.135: Message window

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 471

9.15 Quick Info: Tooltip

The quick info tooltip provides additional information about all input elds and buttons. Move the mouse
pointer over the input eld or button, then you will get the additional information. This information will be
displayed in the quick info line.

Figure 9.136: Quick info line

9.16 Calculation Results

All results will be calculated during every input and will be displayed in the result panel. A recalculation
occurs after every data input. Any changes that are made to the user interface take eect immediately. In
case a minimum safety is not fullled, the result will be marked red. Press the Enter key or move to the
next input eld to complete the input. Alternatively, use the Tab key to jump from eld to eld or click
the `Calculate' button after every input. Your entries will be also conrmed and the calculation results will
displayed automatically.

Figure 9.137: Calculation results

9.17 Documentation: Calculation Report

After the completion of your calculation, you can create a calculation report. Click on the `Report' button.

Figure 9.138: Button `Report'

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 472

The calculation report contains a table of contents. You can navigate through the report via the table of
contents that provides links to the input values, results and gures. The report is available in HTML and PDF
format. Calculation reports, saved in HTML format, can be opened in a web browser or in Word for Windows.

Figure 9.139: Calculation report

You may also print or save the calculation report:

- To save the report in the HTML format, please select `File' ⇒ `Save as' from your browser menu bar.
Select the le type `Webpage complete', then just click on the `Save' button.

- If you click on the symbol `Print', then you can print the report very easily.

- If you click on the symbol `PDF', then the report appears in the PDF format. If you right-click on the
PDF symbol, you should see the `Save Target As' option. Click on that option and you will see the
Windows save dialog.

9.18 How to Save the Calculation

When the calculation is nished, it is easy to save the calculation. You can save your calculation either to the
eAssistant server or to your computer. Click on the button `Save'.

Figure 9.140: Button `Save'

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 473

Before you can save the calculation to your computer, you need to activate the checkbox `Local' in the
calculation module. A standard Windows dialog for saving les will appear. Now you will be able to save the
calculation to your computer.

Figure 9.141: Windows dialog for saving the le

In case you do not activate the option in order to save your les locally, then a new window is opened and
you can save the calculation to the eAssistant server. Please enter a name into the input eld `Filename' and
click on the button `Save'.

Figure 9.142: Save the calculation

9.19 The Button `Redo' and `Undo'

The `Undo' button allows you to reset your inputs to an older state. The `Redo' button reverses the undo.

Figure 9.143: Button `Redo' and `Undo'

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 474

9.20 The Button `CAD'

The top menu bar of the eAssistant software provides the button `CAD'.

Figure 9.144: Button `CAD'

The eAssistant plugin for various CAD systems (e.g., SOLIDWORKS, Solid Edge, Autodesk Inventor) enables
you to combine calculation and design very easily. On the basis of the eAssistant calculation, you can generate
spur gears in a 2D DXF format or create as a 3D part within seconds.

9.20.1 DXF Output for Accurate Tooth Form

Click on the menu item `CAD ⇒ DXF Output'. Now you are able to create the accurate tooth form of any
involute gearing in the 2D DXF format. Use the various settings for the DXF output.

Figure 9.145: DXF output

For the DXF output the following options are possible:

- DXF output of sun, planet gear or annulus gear

- DXF output tooth form, hob prole

- Output in normal section or transverse section (both options will be active when an helix angle is entered)

- DXF output as tooth space, tooth

- DXF output with points, lines, polylines, arcs

- Angular position

- Number of teeth for output

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 475

- Minimum point distance

- Input of a required layer name where the contour should be placed

- Save the DXF le including the header

- Contour as block

Figure 9.146: Settings for the DXF output

When you have dened all settings, then click on the button `OK'. A standard Windows dialog is opened to
save the le.

Figure 9.147: Saving the DXF le

Now you can save the DXF le to your computer. Enter a name for the le and click on the button `Save'. It
is not necessary to specify the le extension. The le is identied automatically.

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 476

9.20.2 STEP/IGES Format

Using this function allows to create the geometry of cylindrical gears as 3D CAD models in STEP or IGES
format. STEP as well as IGES are two standardised neutral le formats for CAD models. Almost every 3D
CAD system can import STEP les.

Figure 9.148: STEP format

The settings menu for the STEP and IGES output has a few dierent functions and allows to adjust the export
options as needed. The geometry can be generated as a solid model with one or all teeth or as a surface
model of the tooth space geometry. When exporting to a CAD system, you can also set the level of accuracy
to a desired value.

Figure 9.149: Inputs for STEP output

9.20.3 GDE Format

With the integration of the standardised GDE format into the modules for gears and involute splines, eAssistant
takes a step closer to a seamless data workow. GDE stands for Gear Data Exchange. This format, which is
dened in VDI/VDE guideline 2610, is already supported by many measuring machine manufacturers. With
the GDE format, geometries of cylindrical gears and involute splines can be loaded directly from the software
into the measuring machine. It only takes a few clicks to create a measuring program. This avoids transmission
errors and allows to work with standard measuring instructions.

Figure 9.150: GDE format

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 477

9.20.4 eAssistant CAD Plugin

The eAssistant plugin for various CAD systems (e.g., SOLIDWORKS, Solid Edge, Autodesk Inventor) enables
you to combine calculation and design very easily and fast. Based on your eAssistant calculation, you can
generate spur and helical gears as a 3D part within seconds. A single menu pick in the eAssistant software
transfers the eAssistant calculation data to the CAD system. Based on these parameters, the automatic
creation of a 3D parametric model starts in the CAD system. Allowances, addendum chamfer and prole shift
are taken into consideration.

Figure 9.151: CAD plugin

The CAD model stores all features and dimensions as design parameters. The eAssistant calculation is linked
and associated to the part and can be opened at any time throughout the entire design phase. This is also
possible if one part contains dierent calculations. Click the button `CAD' and select the CAD plugin. Open
the CAD system and start the generation by clicking the integrated button `eAssistant'.

Please note: First you need to download and install the right CAD plugin for your CAD system. The plugin
is available on our web site www.eAssistant.eu. After installation, an integrated button called `eAssistant'
appears in the CAD system.

With just one click, the design table with all manufacturing details can be placed on the sheet. The appearance
and size of that table is individually congurable. There is no need to manually add all design table parameters
to the drawing. For further information, please visit our web site www.eAssistant.eu or read the CAD plugin
manual.

9.20.5 Manufacturing Data

The button `CAD ⇒ Manufacturing data' allows to save the manufacturing data to a text le.

Figure 9.152: Output of manufacturing data

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 478

9.20.6 Coordinate Table

The gear tooth form geometry of a tooth space can be exported as a coordinate text le in transverse section
as well as in normal section.

Figure 9.153: Coordinate table

9.21 The Button `Options'

Click on the button `Options' in the top menu bar of the eAssistant software to change some general settings.

Figure 9.154: Button `Options'

- Unit switch between the metric system and the U.S. customary unit system, the unit can also be changed
directly for each individual input value. Simply click on the label of the corresponding input eld and
select the unit from the context menu. You will see the change of the unit of measurement immediately
in the label of the input eld. The current eld value will be converted to the corresponding unit.

- Decimal places

- Minimum safety tooth root/tooth ank

- Minimum safety scung (integral)/scung (ash)

- Factor for minimal gear ring thickness: the factor can be specied by the user. This factor controls
the value for the largest possible bore diameter (inner diameter) for external gears and the smallest
possible outer diameter for internal gears. The default value 2.0 refers to forged gears (see main mask
`Geometry'), recommendations according to Schlecht (Maschinenelemente 2, 2010): gear ring thickness
for extreme lightweight constructions < 2 · m, cast constructions 5...8 · m, for welded constructions
3...5 · m.
- Chord of tooth root thickness analog FVA: this option has only eect on the calculation with protuberance
tools.

- Number of decimal places for the calculation report

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9. Planetary Gear Trains According to DIN 3990 and Other Standards 479

- Complete calculation report

- Calculation report without load spectrum

Figure 9.155: Options

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Chapter 10

Three- and Four-Gear Train Systems

10.1 Start the Calculation Module

Please login with your username and your password. To start the calculation module for three-and four gear
train systems, please click the menu item `Gear calculation' on the left side and then select `3-Gear train' or
`4-Gear train'.

Figure 10.1: General overview

The modules `Three-gear train system' and `Four-gear train system' allows to calculate a fast and easy cal-
culation of gear train systems with three or four spur or helical gears. To calculate the load capacity, the

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standards DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04 are available. Alternating stress of the tooth root
is automatically taken into account for the intermediate gears. Three- and four-gear train systems involve
multiple external gears that are connected so their teeth mesh with each other. Gear trains are used where are
a larger centre distance is required or to reverse the direction of rotation. The teeth on its outer rim push the
teeth on the second gear, causing that gear to rotate in the opposite direction (which is the same direction as
the rst).

10.2 Input of Geometry Data

All important calculation results will be calculated during every input and will be displayed in the result panel.
A recalculation occurs after every data input. Any changes that are made to the user interface take eect
immediately. Press the Enter key or move to the next input eld to complete the input. Alternatively, use
the Tab key to jump from eld to eld or click the `Calculate' button after every input. Your entries will be
also conrmed and the calculation results will displayed automatically. If the result exceeds certain values, the
result will be marked red.

10.2.1 Normal Module

The normal module mn is one of the basic parameters in the gear geometry and describes the size of a gear.
The module is dened as the ratio of the pitch diameter to the number of teeth of a gear. Note that the
larger the module the larger the teeth. The value of the module is dened in millimeters. In order to limit the
number of the gears, the module has been standardised in preferred series 1 and 2 (see following tables). The
calculation with the eAssistant software is possible with any modules including several decimal places.

Series of Modules in mm According to DIN 780 Series 1 (Part 1)

0.05 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.25

0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Series of Modules in mm According to DIN 780 Series 1 (Part 2)

1.25 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 8

10 12 16 20 25 32 40 50 60

Series of Modules in mm According to DIN 780 Series 2 (Part 1)

0,055 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.14 0.18 0.22 0.28 0.35

0.45 0.55 0.65 0.75 0.85 0.95 1,125 1,375 1.75

Series of Modules in mm According to DIN 780 Series 2 (Part 2)

2.25 2.75 3.5 4.5 5.5 7 9 11

14 18 22 28 36 45 55 70

10.2.2 Helix Angle and Helix Direction

For spur gears the helix angle is β = 0◦ , for helical gears the angle β is up to 45◦ due to the fact that the
◦
teeth for a helical gear are inclined by the angle. 45 is also the maximum value that you can enter into the
input eld for the helix angle. For an external gearing a right-hand teeth and a left-hand teeth can only mesh
correctly.

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It should be noted that a pair of helical gears on parallel shafts must have the same helix angle β. However,
the helix directions must be opposite, i.e., a left-hand mates with a right-hand helix.

Figure 10.2: Left and right-hand teeth

Helical Gears
Helical gears are used to transmit power or motion between parallel shafts. Helical gears dier from spur gears
in that they have teeth that are cut in the form of a helix on their pitch cylinders instead of parallel to the
axis of rotation. As two teeth on the gear engage, it starts a contact on one end of the tooth which gradually
spreads with the gear rotation, until the time when both the tooth are fully engaged. Finally, it recedes until
the teeth break contact at a single point on the opposite side of the wheel. Thus force is taken up and released
gradually. Helical gears oer a renement over spur gears. The angled teeth engage more gradually than do
spur gear teeth. This causes helical gears to run quieter and smoother than spur gears. Helical gears are used
in areas requiring high speeds, large power transmission or where noise prevention is important.

If you have dened the helix angle, you can specify the direction of the helix angle. The direction is specied
for gear 1.

- Select the option `left' for gear 1. That means: Gear 1 is left-handed, gear 2 is right-handed and gear 3
is left-handed.

Figure 10.3: Select the direction of the helix angle

- Select the option `right' for gear 1. That means: Gear 1 is right-handed, gear 2 is left-handed and gear
3 is right-handed.

10.2.3 Pressure Angle

The pressure angle is the angle between the line-of-action and the common tangent to the pitch circles. With
an increasing distance from the base circle, the prole angles αy increase too. The most common pressure

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angle αn (on reference circle) now in use for spur gears is 20◦ . This pressure angle is usually preferred due
◦ ◦
to its stronger tooth shape and reduced undercutting. There are other pressure angles such as 15 , 17,5 or
◦ ◦
25 could also be used. The 25 pressure angle has the highest load-carrying ability, but is more sensitive to
center-distance variation and hence runs less quietly. The choice is dependent on the application. The default
startup setting for the pressure angle is set to 20◦ .

10.2.4 Standard Centre Distance

The centre distance is the distance between the centre of the shaft of one gear to the centre of the shaft of
the other gear. If you change the number of teeth, the standard centre distance ad is modied automatically.
The standard centre distance is an operand. If the sum of the prole shift coecients = 0, ad corresponds to
the working centre distance a.

10.2.5 Working Centre Distance

The working centre distance a is the distance between the axes. In case of changing the normal module mn ,
the working centre distance is determined automatically. If the prole shift is too large, the working centre
distance can be modied manually at any time. If the standard centre distance and the working centre distance
are equal, the prole shift coecients will be set to the value `0' automatically.

Figure 10.4: Input `0'

10.2.6 Comment
You can add a description or a short comment to gear 1, gear 2 and gear 3. The notes will appear later in the
calculation report.

Figure 10.5: Comment line

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10.2.7 Number of Teeth

The number of teeth of a gear describes the number of the teeth on the full rim. The number of teeth is
positive for external gears. Please note that the smaller the number of teeth the larger the inuence of the
prole shift.

10.2.8 Facewidth
The facewidth b is the length of the gear teeth as measured along a line parallel to the gear axis.

Figure 10.6: Facewidth

The following table shows some additional information about the facewidth b as well as minimum number of
teeth z.

Standard Values for the Facewidth b and Minimum Number of Teeth z 1

Gears on rigid shafts, that run in roller or excellent plain bearings,
b ≤ 30 . . . 40 · m
Teeth, machine-cut rigid substructure

Gears in usual gear boxes, roller or plain bearings b ≤ 25 · m

Gears on steel constructions, beams and suchlike b ≤ 15 · m
Gears with excellent bearing in high duty gearings b ≤ 2 · d1
Teeth, cast roughly Overhung gears b ≤ 10 · m
Gears with high circumferential velocity(υ > 4 m/s) and considerable z1 ≥ 16
power, when εα > 1.5
Gears with mean circumferential velocity(υ = 0.8 . . . 4 m/s) z1 ≥ 12
Gears with low circumferential velocity(υ < 0.8 m/s) or for low power for subor-
z1 ≥ 10
dinated purposes

Basically external gearings z1 + z2 ≥ 24

Basically internal gearings z2 ≥ z1 + 10
1 from: Karl-Heinz Decker: Maschinenelemente: Gestaltung und Berechnung, 1992, p. 506, table 23.2

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10.2.9 Prole Shift

Prole shift can make spur gears or helical gears run more quietly and carry more load. If spacing errors
of some magnitude are present, proper prole shift will give the teeth a little clearance at the rst point of
contact. If a pair of teeth are spaced too close together, there is a bump as the tooth comes into mesh. With
the modication there is a little relief at the rst point of contact. The prole shift aects the tooth form
because the tool is shifted by the value xm towards or away from the tip circle. The calculation of the tip
diameter da and root diameter df includes the prole shift coecient x. According to DIN 3960 the prole
shift is

- positive if the prole reference line is shifted from the reference circle towards the tip circle,

- negative if the prole reference line is shifted from the reference circle towards the root circle.

You can select the prole shift coecients x1 , x2 , x3 and x4 . Please note that no meshing interferences occur.
In case meshing interferences occur, you will get an appropriate message in the message window.

Figure 10.7: Change the tooth form with the prole shift: number of teeth z = 10; tooth 1: x = 0.5; tooth
2: x = 0; tooth 3: x = -0.5

Characteristics of the Prole Shift

- A positive prole shift increases the tooth thickness, a negative prole shift decreases the tooth thickness.

- With an increasing positive prole shift, the tooth tip thickness and the root llet become smaller, the
axle load and the load capacity increase. This advantage occurs especially for a smaller number of teeth.

- The minimum permitted tooth tip thickness determines the limit for a very large prole shift, in particular
for very small number of teeth.

- The prole shift aects the operating pressure angle as well as the load capacity.

- For a small number of teeth and with a negative prole shift, an undercut becomes a problem (see above
gure). The undercut weakens the tooth root and a part of the tooth ank is cut o.

Here you get the possibility to dimension and optimize the prole shift coecient. To optimize the prole
shift coecient, click on the `Calculator' button.

Figure 10.8: Prole shift

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Enter either your own value for the prole shift coecients into the input eld or activate the option `Balanced
specic sliding'. The coecients will be modied. Enter either your own values for the prole shift coecients
or activate the option `Balanced specic sliding'. The factors are modied so that the specic sliding is
balanced. The tooth anks slide and roll on each other. The measure for the sliding velocity and the rubbing
wear of the tooth anks presents the relative sliding, the so-called specic sliding. The specic sliding is the
ratio of the sliding velocity and radial velocity. The specic sliding shows which of the two gears could be
damaged by the rubbing wear. In general, the value for the specic sliding should not exceed `3'.

Figure 10.9: Balanced specic sliding

10.2.10 Tip Diameter

The tip diameter da depends on the module and will be determined by the program automatically. If you
change the prole shift, the tip diameter will change, too. There is the possibility to enable the tip circle
using the `Lock' button. Now you can add and modify the tip diameter very easily. Please note that the tip
diameter has an inuence on the modication of the tip diameter. Click on the button again to disable the
input eld. The value is determined again according to DIN. In case you use a special tool, the tip diameter
can be changed by a tool customization.

10.2.11 Tip Diameter Allowance

The tip diameter allowance is determined according to DIN. Click on the `Lock' button to enable the input
eld and enter your own value. If your values are out of range of the DIN, you will get an information in
the message window. Click on the `Lock' button and the input eld is disabled again. The allowances are
determined according to DIN.

Figure 10.10: Enable the input eld

10.2.12 Modication of Tip Diameter

The modication of the tip diameter k is automatically determined by the program that a sucient tip clear-
ance is available. For external gears the modication of the tip diameter is k ≤ 0. Click on the `Lock' button
to enable the input eld and enter your own value. Such a modication of the tip diameter has an eect on
the tip diameter.

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10.2.13 Tip Clearance

Clearance c is the distance between the root circle of a gear and the addendum circle of its mate. A certain
clearance between the gears is necessary for a smooth operation without jamming.

Figure 10.11: Tip clearance c

A distinction is made between two dierent kind of clearances. There is the tip clearance c and the backlash j .
Standard gears have got a basic rack prole with a addendum coecient ha = m or a tool basic rack prole
with hf p = m. The dedendum coecient hf of the basic rack prole or the addendum coecient hap of the
tool basic rack prole has to be larger due to ensure that tip and root circle of the gears are not in contact.

Backlash j
If the gears are of standard tooth proportion design and operate on standard center distance, they would
function ideally with neither backlash nor jamming. The general purpose of backlash is to prevent gears from
jamming and making contact on both sides of their teeth simultaneously. Any error in machining which tends
to increase the possibility of jamming makes it necessary to increase the amount of backlash. Consequently,
the smaller the amount of backlash, the more accurate must be the machining of the gears. Runout of both
gears, errors in prole, pitch, tooth thickness, helix angle and centre distance - all are factors to consider in the
specication of the amount of backlash. In order to obtain the amount of backlash desired, it is necessary to
change the tooth thickness or tooth space allowances (please see also section 10.4.8 `Backlash Normal Plane').

10.2.14 Root Diameter

The root diameter df depends upon the module, the prole shift and addendum coecient of the basic rack
prole. The root diameter is determined by the program. Therefore, the root diameter occurs as a result of
the calculation.

10.2.15 Allowances of Root

Clicking the button `Details' leads you to the allowances of root.

Figure 10.12: Button `Details'

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The allowances of root result from your calculation and will be determined automatically. The allowances
depend upon the tooth thickness allowances. For instance, if you enter the value `0' for a gear, then the
allowances of root become `0' for this gear as well.

Figure 10.13: Allowances of root

Please note: The menu includes other input options, such as the web width or the addendum chamfer.

10.2.16 Inner Diameter

Here you can enter an inner diameter (for external gears). It should be kept in mind that the inner diameter
has to be smaller than the root diameter df . In case the inner diameter is larger than df , then the program
automatically corrects the value and enters the maximum value for the inner diameter. An appropriate message
appears in the message window. Use the two arrows to toggle between the gear pairs.

Figure 10.14: Inner diameter of gear pair 1 and gear pair 2

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10.2.17 Web Width

The web width can be considered here. The web width is shown in the gure next to the input eld. There
is the possibility to modify the web width by using the `Lock' button.

Figure 10.15: Input eld for the web width

The `Lock' button is still disabled. Enter the values for the inner or outer diameter into the input eld. Then
the `Lock' button is enabled and the web width gets the same value as the facewidth. In case the web width
is smaller than the facewidth, then the gear body stiness is aected due to the gear body coecient CR .
The tooth spring stiness changes which aects again the load capacity.

Figure 10.16: Web width

10.2.18 Chamfer
The chamfer can be considered. This reduces the calculated facewidth for the calculation of the load capacity
of the tooth root and tooth ank.

Figure 10.17: Chamfer

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10.2.19 Addendum Chamfer

The tooth ends of a gear are often rounded or chamfered. A chamfer is a small angled surface added on
the end of a shaft along an edge. For the calculation you can consider the addendum chamfer. Meshing
interferences can be removed by the addendum chamfer.

Figure 10.18: Addendum chamfer

Please Note: If you dene the geometry of the gear pair, you are able to look at the tooth form. Click on
the button `Tooth form' and select `Total view' or `Detail view' (nd more information on the tooth form and
its functions in section 10.5 `Representation of Gear Tooth Form'). Click the button `Geometry' and you get
to the geometry input again.

As an alternative to the addendum chamfer, a tip corner radius can be specied. This can be dened either
as a radial amount or directly as a radius. The selection is marked by the colored arrow. The radius is entered
directly for the tip radius, the radial amount is entered for the tip radius (Rad.). If you enter the tip radius
directly as a value, you will receive the corresponding radial amount in the calculation report. In the case of
tip corner radius or addendum chamfer, the tip form diameter is smaller than the tip circle diameter by twice
the radial amount hK . Please see section 8.2.19 to nd an illustration.

Figure 10.19: Switch between input of addendum chamfer, tip corner radius (radial amount and radius)

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10.3 Input of Tool Data

For the selection of the manufacturing process you have to consider the material, size of the gear, quantity, gear
type (external or internal gears) and accuracy. The many methods of making gear teeth must be considered
as well. The calculation program distinguishes between gear-tooth cutting and gear hobbing.

Figure 10.20: Input mask of tool data

Please note: If you want to add some own notes, comments or a description for gear 1, gear 2 or gear 3,
then use the comment line. Clicking the right arrow leads you to gear 3.

10.3.1 Tool
The most important manufacturing processes are gear hobbing and gear shaping. Select either the tool `Hob'
or `Gear shaper cutter' by clicking the listbox. A `Constructed involute' is also available. Basically, the selection
of the tool depends on the gear type (external or internal gears). The external gears can be produced by cutting
wherein the gear cutting tool is a hob.

Figure 10.21: Selection of tool

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Gear Hobbing
The hobbing is the most widely used method of cutting gear teeth. The hobbing process is quite advantageous
in cutting gears with very wide facewidth. A very high degree of tooth-spacing accuracy can be obtained with
hobbing. With regard to accuracy, hobbing is superior to the other cutting processes. A wide variety of sizes
and kinds of hobbing machines are used. The rotating hob has a series of rack teeth arranged in a spiral
around the outside of a cylinder, so it cuts several gear teeth at one time. To generate the full width of the
gear, the hob slowly traverses the face of the gear as it rotates. Thus, the hob has a basic rotary motion and
an unidirectional traverse at right angles. Both movements are relatively simple to eect, resulting in a very
accurate process.

Field of Application of the Hob:

- Recommended for gears with very wide facewidth

- Recommended for external spur and helical gears up to module `40' (Please keep in mind: it is an
expensive tool for large modules)

- Recommended for all basic rack proles

- The helix angle is arbitrary.

Figure 10.22: Hob and gear shaper cutter

Gear Shaper Cutter

The shaping process is a gear-cutting method in which the cutting tool is shaped like a pinion. If a gear is
provided with cutting clearance and is hardened, it may be used as a generating tool in a gear shaper. The
cutter reciprocates while it and the gear blank are rotated together at the angular-velocity ratio corresponding
to the number of teeth on the cutter and the gear. The teeth on the gear cutter are appropriately relieved
to form cutting edges on one face. Although the shaping process is not suitable for the direct cutting of
ultra-precision gears and generally is not as highly rated as hobbing, it can produce precision quality gears.
Usually it is a more rapid process than hobbing. Two outstanding features of shaping involve shouldered and
internal gears. For internal gears, the shaping process is the only basic method of tooth generation.

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Field of Application of the Gear Shaper Cutter:

- Recommended for internal and external spur and helical gears

- Racks

- Special gearings, e.g., splined shaft connections, face or chain gears

Constructed Involute
In addition to the hob and the gear shaper cutter, you can also select the entry `Constructed involute' as a
tool. In case internal gears cannot be shaped with a gear shaper cutter, the tooth form calculation is still
possible by using the constructed involute. This specically applies for applications in the precision mechanics.
This method allows a generation of the tooth form with a constant root llet radius.

Figure 10.23: Constructed involute

Representation of Hob and Gear Shaper Cutter

The representation shows either the hob basic rack prole or the gear shaper cutter tooth prole. The radio
buttons enable you to choose one of the graphical representation.

Figure 10.24: Tool

10.3.2 Standard Basic Rack Tooth Prole

To mesh two gears with each other, the parameters have to be coordinated. The standard basic rack tooth
prole is standardized in DIN 867. A gear with an innite number of teeth will have straight lines for both
the pitch and the base circles. The involute prole will be a straight line. The rack can be used to determine
the basic parameters. Racks can be both spur and helical. A rack will mesh with all gears of the same pitch.
The pressure angle and the gears pitch radius remain constant regardless of changes in the relative position of

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the gear and rack. The tool standard basic rack prole is the counter prole of the standard basic rack tooth
prole. The following standard basic rack proles are available for your calculation. Choose your prole from
the listbox.

Figure 10.25: Listbox for the basic rack prole

- ISO 53 Prole A: is recommended for gears transmitting high torques

- ISO 53 Prole B: is recommended for normal service

- ISO 53 Prole C: is recommended for normal service, type C may be applied for manufacturing with
some standard hobs.

- ISO 53 Prole D: is recommended for high-precision gears transmitting high torques and consequently
with tooth anks nished by grinding or shaving. Care should be taken to avoid creating notches in the
llet during nishing which could create stress concentrations.

- DIN 3972 Prole I

- DIN 3972 Prole II

- Prole 1 DIN 867 (Numerical example from DIN 867)

- Prole 2 DIN 867 (Numerical example from DIN 867)

- Prole 3 DIN 867 (Numerical example from DIN 867)

- Prole 4 DIN 867 (Numerical example from DIN 867)

- AGMA PT (for plastic gears)

- AGMA XPT-2 (for plastic gears)

- AGMA XPT-3 (for plastic gears)

- AGMA XPT-4 (for plastic gears)

In addition to the standard basic rack proles, you can also select a protuberance tool. When part of the
involute prole of a gear tooth is cut away near its base, the tooth is said to be undercut. By using a
protuberance tool an undercut near the root can be generated. Grinding notches at the tooth ank can
be avoided during the grinding. That provides relief for subsequent nishing operations (see section 10.3.6
`Protuberance').

Figure 10.26: Selection of the protuberance tools

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You can select the following proles:

◦
- Prot 1.4-6 /0,085

◦
- Prot 1.5-6 0.02

◦
- Prot 1.6-6 /0.02

◦
- Prot 1.4-8 /0.04

◦
- Prot 1.4-8 /0,066

◦
- Prot 1.4-10 /0.05

◦
- Prot 1.5-10 /0.02

◦
- Prot 1.6-10 /0.02

◦
- Prot 1.25-14 /0,024

◦
- Prot 1.4-6

◦
- Prot 1.4-10 (Fette) (Protuberance tool with shifted prole reference line with the data of the tool
manufacturer LMT Fette)

◦
- TBK Prot 10 (Protuberance tool with shifted prole reference line with data analog TBK V22)

Please Note: If you select `user dened input', then the input elds for the edge radius, the addendum
coecient and the dedendum coecient are activated. Now you can modify the basic rack prole.

Figure 10.27: Own input

Determination of the Basic Rack Prole

In case you use special tools, the eAssistant software oers an easy and comfortable solution. The basic rack
prole can be determined by clicking the `Calculator' button.

Figure 10.28: Button for the tool dimensioning

Here you can change the tip circle and the root diameter for gear 1, gear 2 and gear 3. Conrm your entries
with the button `OK'. The listbox for the basic rack proles displays then `user dened input'. The modication
of the tip diameter is set to '0'.

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10.3.3 Tip Form

For the tip form you can choose between `Full radius' and `Radius with straight line'. Normally `Radius with
straight line' is used.

Figure 10.29: Listbox for tip form

10.3.4 Addendum Coecient

eAssistant provides a functionality for tools with a shifted prole reference line. Additionally to the addendum
coecient h∗aM P 0 of the shifted prole, the dedendum coecient h∗f M P 0 is displayed and visible in the
calculation report. The dedendum coecient h∗f M P 0 can also be dened by clicking the `Lock' button so that
the dedendum coecient h∗f P 0 of the converted, non-shifted basic rack prole is always 1.0 according to DIN
867.

Figure 10.30: Input of the addendum coecient for tool with shifted prole reference line

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Shifted Prole Reference Line

Figure 10.31: Prole reference line according to DIN and shifted prole reference line

10.3.5 Semi Topping Flank and Topping

With the denition of the semi topping ank, corresponding hobs can then be specied. These generate an
addendum chamfer during the cutting process. The option `Topping' allows to dene the tip diameter directly
with the dedendum coecient of the tool, making it impossible to subsequently modiying the tip diameter.
The result, at the same time, will be tip diameter allowances analogous to the root diameter allowances directly
from the tooth thickness allowances. The eAssistant 3D CAD plugins for various CAD systems support the
function and the semi topping ank can be considered in the 3D CAD model.

10.3.6 Protuberance
Undercut may be deliberately introduced to facilitate nishing operations. Undercut is the loss of prole in
the vicinity of involute start at the base circle due to tool cutter action in generating teeth with low numbers
of teeth. The protuberance cuts an undercut at the root of the gear tooth. The protuberance design is also
used in some cases to permit the sides of gear teeth to be ground without having to grind the root llet.

Determination of the Amount of the Protuberance from the Height of the Protuberance Flank
The following equation determines the amount of the protuberance. In case the height of the protuberance
ank is given and not the amount of the protuberance, the amount of the protuberance may be calculated by
this equation.

(h∗prP 0 − ρ∗aP 0 · (1 − sin(αp ))) · sin(αn − αp )

prP∗ 0 = + ρ∗aP 0 · (1 − cos(αn − αp ))
cos(αp )

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The following gure shows a representation:

Figure 10.32: Height of the protuberance ank

To avoid grinding steps, a deviation in the tooth root area of the prole is a common and allowed method.
Because of a grinding stock allowance, an undercut must be allowed. Hence, a larger tooth root thickness is
necessary. The following table shows some determination of the undercut dependent upon the module.

Undercut spr for Ground Gears Dependent upon Module2

Module Allowance Size of Protuberance Addendum Edge Radius

m q Undercut spr prP∗ 0 h∗aP 0 ρ∗aP 0

2 0,160 0,100 0,260 2,900 0,500

2,5 0,170 0,110 0,280 3,625 0,625

3 0,180 0,120 0,300 4,350 0,750

4 0,200 0,140 0,340 5,800 1,000

5 0,220 0,160 0,380 7,250 1,250

6 0,240 0,180 0,420 8,700 1,500

7 0,260 0,200 0,460 10,150 1,7500

2 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl Hanser Ver-

lag, Muenchen, Wien, 2nd ed. 2010, p. 68, table 2.1/2

10.3.7 Machining Allowance

You can consider an allowance for the tooth ank. The tool provides an allowance q on the ank and/or root
for the pre-cutting tool. The allowance is the smallest distance between the involutes and the pre-machining
having the same root diameter.

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In case you select the tool basic rack prole with protuberance, the allowance refers to the tooth ank. If the
allowance of the tool basic rack prole is selected without protuberance, then tooth ank and tooth root get
the allowance.

Figure 10.33: The eAssistant software provides the following allowances for the grinding of a gear: a) Constant
allowance with bottom of the tooth space, b) Protuberance: Cutter tooth prole is built up on the tip to
provide an undercut near the root of the gear being generated.

Figure 10.34: Input of machining allowance

Maximum Machining Allowances3

Allowance per Tooth Flank Manufacturing Process

< 0.05 (0.10) mm Finishing operation by cold rolling, gear shaving, hon-
ing, lapping

0.05 to 0.5 (1.5) mm Grinding, prole grinding, (honing)

> 0.5 mm, pre-cutting Primary shaping, forming, cutting with geometrically
determined edges except shaving, grinding and prole
grinding in special cases

3 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl Hanser Ver-

lag, Muenchen, Wien, 1996, p. 638

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10.4 Input of Data for the Determination of Allowances

A manufacturing of work-pieces with accurate nominal dimensions is impossible. Hence, a deviation from the
nominal size has to be allowed. For a lot of applications the gear and the pinion of a pair must be independently
manufactured and meshed without any modications. That means, the parts have to be separately replaceable.
In addition to DIN 3961 for gear tolerances/gear qualities, DIN 58405 for precision engineering as well as ISO
1328 and ANSI/AGMA 2015 are available.

Figure 10.35: Input of allowances

10.4.1 Gear Quality

The choice of the right toothing quality is determined by economical aspects depending upon the intended
purpose and manufacturing process. In all elds of gearing, the control of gear accuracy is essential. Several
classes or grades of accuracy can be set. 12 grades (12 to 1) are dened according to DIN standards. High
accuracy grades can be set for a long-life, high speed gears. Lower accuracy grades will cover medium or
slow-speed grades. Accuracy grade `1' describes the highest possible accuracy, `12' a very low accuracy. The
gear accuracy `1 to 4' is mainly used for master gears, quality `5 to 12' is used for gear wheels (gure from:
Niemann, G.: Maschinenelemente, Vol. 2, Getriebe allgemein, Zahnradgetriebe-Grundlagen, Stirnradgetriebe,
1989, p. 73, gure 21.4/1).

Figure 10.36: Tolerances according to the manufacturing process

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Select the appropriate quality between 1 and 12 by using the following listbox.

Figure 10.37: Listbox for the selection of quality

The following table provides some reference values for the selection of the quality, tolerances for gearings made
of metal and plastics:

Toothing Made of Metal4

ν Machining Quality Tolerance Sequence
to m/s of Tooth Flanks (Accuracy) DIN 3967
0.8 Cast, raw 12 2x30

0.8 Rough-machined 11 or 10 29 or 28

2 Finish milled 9 27

4 Finish milled 8 26

8 Fine nished 7 25

12 Shaved or ground 6 24

20 Precision-ground 5 23

40 Precision-machined 4 or 3 22

60 Precision-machined 3 22 or 21

Toothing Made of Injection Molding Plastics

Application d Quality Tolerance Sequence
in mm (Accuracy) DIN 3967
Gearings with high requirements to 10 9 27

Gearings with high requirements 10 to 50 10 28

Gearings with normal requirements 10 to 50 11 29

Gearings with low requirements to 280 12 2 x 30

Toothing made of plastic manufactured by cutting

Gearings with high requirements to 10 8 25 to 27

Gearings with high requirements 10 to 50 9 26 to 28

Gearings with normal requirements to 50 10 27, 28

Gearings with normal requirements 50 to 125 11 27, 28

Gearings with low requirements to 280 12 28

4 from: Karl-Heinz Decker: Maschinenelemente: Gestaltung und Berechnung, 1992, p.

512, table 23.3

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For the gear tolerances/gear qualities, DIN 58405 for precision engineering as well as ISO 1328 and ANSI/AGMA
2015 are also available. For ISO 1328 and ANSI/AGMA 2015, two qualities can be selected in each case. The
rst quality is comparable with the tolerances permitted according to DIN 3961, the second value inuences
the radial composite deviation as well as the roll deviations.

10.4.2 Backlash Allowance and Tolerance Sequence

The system for gearings is very similar to the DIN system of ts and tolerances. For the system of ts for
gear transmissions letters are used to indicate the deviation from basic (nominal) size, a number denes the
width. There are clearance ts for gearings, therefore, lower case characters `h' to `a' appear. If you select
the entry `user dened input', the input eld for the tooth thickness allowances is enabled and you can dene
your individual values.

Figure 10.38: Own input

10.4.3 Tooth Thickness Allowance

One of the most important criteria of gear quality is the specication and control of tooth thickness. The
magnitude of tooth thickness and its tolerance is a direct measure of backlash when the gear is assembled
with its mate. Dimensional changes, due to thermal expansion, do not allow a zero-backlash assembly. The
tooth thickness allowance has to be determined that no jamming occurs. To prevent that jamming of gears
during the operation, it is necessary to decrease tooth thickness by a minimum amount (Asne and Asn ).

Figure 10.39: Lower and upper tooth thickness allowances

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The tooth thickness allowances for teeth of external and internal gearings have to be negative. Then a backlash
occurs (nd more information on the backlash in section 10.4.8 `Backlash Normal Plane'). The eAssistant
software oers the possibility to specify the tooth thickness allowances based on measured data or given test
dimensions. Click on the `Calculator' button.

Figure 10.40: `Calculator' button

A new window is opened.

Figure 10.41: Calculation of tooth thickness allowances

Activate gear 1, gear 2 and gear 3 and enter the input values. Conrm with the button `OK'. The `Lock'
button next to the input eld for the tooth space allowances is enabled. Now you can change the tooth space
allowances.

10.4.4 Tooth Space Allowance

The tooth space allowance AW is the dierence between the actual dimension and the nominal dimension of
the span measurement W k. The actual measurement of the span measurement gets smaller for external gears
by negative allowances for a zero-backlash assembly. The upper and lower tooth space allowance are displayed
as well. For an own input of the tooth thickness allowances, the tooth space allowances can be dened as
well. The `Lock' button next to the input eld of the tooth space allowances is enabled. Therefore, you can
change the tooth space allowances.

Figure 10.42: Tooth space allowance for gear 1, gear 2 and gear 3

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10.4.5 Measurement of Tooth Thickness

The tooth thickness of a gear may be measured directly with calipers or it may be determined indirectly by
diameter pins. The sizing of gears may be controlled by double-ank composite checks and centre distance
settings corresponding to maximum and minimum tooth thickness specications. Dierent measurement
methods are used:

- At pitch circle (chordal),

- Span measurement across several teeth,

- Measurement over pins or balls that are placed in diametrically opposed tooth spaces,

- Check of the centre distance allowance with zero-backlash engagement by using a master gear in a ank
roll tester.

In the following you get some information on the widely used measurement methods:

- Span measurement Wk
- Measurement by diameter over balls or pins, the measurement by using balls and pins

Span Measurement across Several Teeth

Span measurement Wk is the measurement of the distance across several teeth in a normal plane. As long as
the measuring device has parallel measuring surfaces that contact on an unmodied portion of the involute,
the measurement will be along a line tangent to the base cylinder. It is a widely used method for gauging the
tooth thickness by using the span measurement. The tooth thickness of spur or helical gears is often measured
with calipers. An advantage is that the dimensions can be inuenced during the manufacturing.

Figure 10.43: Span measurement

The calculation program determines the number of teeth for the span measurement (number of teeth across
the span measurement has to be gauged). By using the `Lock' button you are able to activate the input eld
and you can enter your own input value. If you click the button again, the previous input value appears.

Figure 10.44: Number of teeth for the span measurement

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Tooth Thickness Measurement by Diameter over Pins or Balls

The tooth thickness is often checked by measurement over pins MdR or balls MdK . The pins or balls are
placed in diametrically opposed tooth spaces (even number of teeth) or nearest to it (odd number of teeth).
Measurement over pins is the measurement of the distance taken over a pin positioned in a tooth space and
a reference surface. The reference surface may be the reference axis of the gear, a datum surface or either
one or two pins positioned in the tooth space or spaces opposite the rst. The measurement over pins is only
used for spur gears and external helical gears. For the measurement values a distinction is made between:

- Measurement over balls MdK

- Measurement over pins MdR
- Measurement over pins for a spur gear

- Measurement over pins for external helical gears with even number of teeth

- Measurement over pins for external helical gears with odd number of teeth

For an external gear the measurement over balls MdK is the largest outer measure. The two balls are placed
in diametrically opposed tooth spaces. The balls have to be in the same plane perpendicular to a gear axis.
For an internal gear (see gure: `Internal spur gear with odd number of teeth') the measurement over balls is
the smallest inner measure between the balls. DM is the diameter of ball or pin. The internal gear is generally
checked for tooth thickness with measuring pins, like the external gear. However, the measurement is made
between the pins instead of over pins.

Measurement over balls: External spur gear with even num-

ber of teeth

Measurement over balls: External spur gear with odd num-

ber of teeth

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Measurement over balls: Internal spur gear with odd num-

ber of teeth

The eAssistant software already species the diameter of ball or pin for the test dimensions. Enable the input
eld by clicking the `Lock' button. Enter your own input value for the diameter. If you click on the button
once again, the previous input value appears.

Figure 10.45: Diameter of ball or pin

Please Note: In the calculation report you can nd all results for the span measurement or measurement
over balls and pins in section `Test dimensions'.

10.4.6 Tolerance Field for Centre Distance

The general purpose of backlash is to prevent gears from jamming and making contact on both sides of their
teeth simultaneously. The center distance and the gear ts have an important inuence on the backlash.
The gear t selection denes the tolerances of the centre distance with the backlash. The gear t selection
provides only one tolerance eld. The allowances are indicated for the `JS' eld. These conform to the ISO
basic tolerances. The backlash is dependent upon the tooth thickness allowances, the tooth space allowances
and the centre distance. Hence, if you change the centre distance, then the backlash is changed, too.

Figure 10.46: Tolerance eld for the centre distance

Select the option `user dened input' from the listbox. Now you are able to enter your own centre distance
allowances. Conrm your entries with the Enter key. The backlashes are automatically determined.

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10.4.7 Centre Distance Allowance

The centre distance allowance Aa is the allowed deviation of the centre distance from the nominal centre
distance. The allowances are indicated with ± to get no improper major allowances from the nominal centre
distances with gears having several axes.

Figure 10.47: Centre distance allowance

10.4.8 Backlash Normal Plane

A gear t has to be determined, so that two gears can be meshed. For that, a proper backlash must be provided
for the mesh to avoid jamming of the gears. The eAssistant software oers three dierent backlashes: the
backlash normal plane, the backlash pitch diameter and the radial backlash.

Figure 10.48: Backlash normal plane

Besides errors in manufacturing and assembling, the variation in backlash will depend considerably on the
tooth thickness tolerances and centre distance of the gears. The DIN system represents a standard centre
distance and provides the backlash by changing the tooth thickness. The backlash between the meshing teeth
adjusts the deviations of the tooth thicknesses, centre distance and tooth form using the tooth thickness
Asni and tooth space allowances Asne . The lowest tooth thickness allowance Asni indicates the maximum

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backlash, the upper tooth thickness allowance indicates the minimum backlash Asne . In addition to the tooth
thickness allowance and centre distance allowance, errors in prole and pitch are also factors to consider in
the specication of the amount of backlash.

Please note: The backlash depends also on thermal expansions, deformation of elementes and displacement
of casing. These impacts must be considered for the determination of the tooth thickness.

10.4.9 Backlash Pitch Diameter

The backlash pitch diameter jt refers to the backlash at the pitch circle. The backlash pitch diameter may be
the length of the pitch circle arc in which the gear rotate against its mating gear.

Figure 10.49: Backlash pitch diameter

10.4.10 Radial Backlash

The radial backlash is the dierence of the centre distance between the working condition and zero-backlash
engagement. The radial backlash jr matters especially for very small modules (m < 0.6 mm).

Figure 10.50: Radial backlash

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10.5 Representation of Gear Tooth Form

A special highlight of this calculation module is the presentation of the accurate gear tooth form with an
animation and simulation of the tooth mesh. For the presentation you can select the lower, upper and mean
allowances for the tooth thickness, tip diameter and centre distance. When you dene the geometry for the
gear pair, then you can have a look at the tooth form at any time. Click on the `Tooth form' button and you
get a general or detailed view of the tooth form. By clicking the `Geometry' or `Tool' button, you can open
the main input masks of the calculation module again. Use the blue arrow buttons to toggle between gear
pair 1 and gear pair 2.

Figure 10.51: Tooth form

Please Note: Please keep in mind that all values are later taken over to the DXF output and CAD generation.
In case you change the tooth thickness allowance or the centre distance allowance in the tooth form mask, then
the last modication is taken over to the DXF output. The section 10.15 contains some helpful information
on this function.

Figure 10.52: DXF output

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10.5.1 Representation of Cylindrical Gear Pair

Click on the `Tooth form' button to represent the gear tooth form.

Figure 10.53: Gear pair 1

Please Note: Please keep in mind that you can check the backlash and the mesh ratio only in the presentation
of the mesh. The gear mesh is discussed in the following section.

10.5.2 Representation of Tooth Mesh

Click on the `Detail view' button. You get a larger representation of the gear tooth form. Now you can see
the detailed tooth mesh. Click on the `Total view' button to obtain an entire view of the cylindrical gear pair.

Figure 10.54: Detail view of the mesh

Please Note: The representation of the tooth mesh allows you to look at the tooth thickness allowances, the
tip diameter and centre distance allowances as well the tooth mesh and to check the inuence of these values.
The tooth form mask provides various functions. Find a short description of these functions in the following
section.

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10.5.3 Rotating Angle

Enter an rotating angle for the rotation of the gear pair.

Figure 10.55: Rotating angle

Rotation of the driving gear counter-clockwise

Rotation of the driving gear clockwise

10.5.4 Rotation
When you click on one of the two arrows, a continuous rotation of the gears occurs.

Figure 10.56: Rotation

Continuous rotation of the driving gear counter-clockwise

Continuous rotation of the driving gear clockwise

The rotation is stopped.

10.5.5 Tooth Thickness Allowance

Click on the `Detail view' button and the tooth mesh is represented in detail. Now you can change the tooth
thickness allowance, that is already given in the main mask for the `Allowances', within the tolerance limit.
All changes are displayed immediately. For the representation of the tooth mesh, select the lower, upper and
mean tooth thickness allowances for gear 1, gear 2 and gear 3.

Figure 10.57: Tooth thickness allowance in the main mask `Allowance'

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Both arrows indicate the lower and upper allowance. The active input is grayed out and disabled. Click on
the left arrow and you will get the representation for the lower tooth thickness allowance. The right arrow
shows the representation for the upper tooth thickness allowance. The middle button displays the mean tooth
thickness allowance. At the rst start of the tooth form, you will get the mean tooth thickness allowance as
a standard feature. The tooth thickness allowances can be dened between the lower and upper allowance.

Figure 10.58: Tooth thickness allowance

Please Note: In case you have specied the lower and upper tooth thickness allowance for gear 1, gear 2
and gear 3 in the input mask `Allowances' by using the `Calculator' button, then the manually dened values
appear here as lower and upper tooth thickness allowance.

10.5.6 Tip Diameter Allowance

Click the `Detail view' button and the tooth mesh is represented in detail. Now you can change the tip
diameter allowance for gear 1, gear 2 and gear 3, that is already given in the main mask for the `Geometry',
within the tolerance limit. All changes are displayed immediately. For the representation of the tooth mesh,
select the lower, upper and mean tip diameter allowances for gear 1, gear 2 and gear 3.

Figure 10.59: Tip diameter allowance in the main mask `Geometry'

Both arrows indicate the lower and upper allowance. The active input is grayed out and disabled. Click on
the left arrow and you will get the representation for the lower tip diameter allowance. The right arrow shows
the representation for the upper tip diameter allowance. The middle button displays the mean tip diameter
allowance. At the rst start of the tooth form, you will get the mean tip diameter allowance as a standard
feature.

Figure 10.60: Tip diameter allowance

Please Note: In case you have specied the lower and upper tip diameter allowance for gear 1, gear 2 and
gear 3 in the input mask `Geometry' by using the `Lock' button, then the manually dened values appear here
as lower and upper tip diameter allowance.

10.5.7 Centre Distance Allowance

Click on the `Detail view' button and the tooth mesh is represented in detail. Now you can change the centre
distance allowance, that is already given in the main mask for the `Allowances', within the tolerance limit.

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All changes are displayed immediately. You can check the operation of the gears by using various centre
distance settings. For the representation of the tooth mesh, select the lower, upper and mean centre distance
allowances for gear 1, gear 2 and gear 3.

Figure 10.61: Centre distance allowance in the main mask `Allowances'

Both arrows indicate the lower and upper allowance. The active input is grayed out and disabled. Click on
the left arrow and you will get the representation for the lower centre distance allowance. The right arrow
shows the representation for the upper centre distance allowance. The middle button displays the mean centre
distance allowance. At the rst start of the tooth form, you will get the mean centre distance allowance as a
standard feature.

Figure 10.62: Centre distance allowance

Please Note: In case you have specied the lower and upper centre distance allowance in the input mask
`Allowances' by using the `User dened input' option, then the manually dened values appear here as lower
and upper centre distance allowance.

10.6 Calculation of Gear Load Capacity

Gears fail by tooth breakage, pitting as well as by scung. The strength is determined by the loads, the
geometry of gearing as well as selected materials. The calculation of the load capacity is about the proof of
the following strength factors that result from the above-mentioned forms of damage:

- Load capacity of the tooth root (safety against failure of the toothing due tooth breakage)

- Load capacity of the tooth ank (safety against failure of the toothing due to pitting)

- Scung load capacity (safety against failure of the toothing due to scung)

Load Capacity of the Tooth Root - Tooth Breakage

Tooth breakage is a fatigue failure. Pitting, scung or wear may weaken the tooth so that it breaks. The slow
progress of the fracture apparently causes the metal to break like brittle material. A tear or grinding notch
may cause a tooth breakage. Gear tooth fractures ordinarily start in the root llet. The tooth breakage can
destroy an entire gearing and leads to a failure of the gearing. Sometimes a new tooth will break as a result
of severe overload or a serious defect in the tooth structure. According to DIN 3990, an operation with a
reduced load is possible after a tooth breakage, if just a small portion of a tooth broke o and the other parts
of the gearing are intact.

For a high load capacity of the tooth root, the following methods are advantageous: positive prole shift (for
small number of teeth), usage of hardened and tempered or case-hardened materials with larger load capacity
of the tooth root, larger root llet, larger module

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Load Capacity of the Tooth Flank - Pitting of Gear Teeth

Pitting is a fatigue failure and is characterized by little bits of metal breaking out of the surface and thereby
leaving small holes or pits, so that oil seeps into the pits. This is caused by high tooth loads leading to
excessive surface stress, a high local temperature due to high rubbing speeds or inadequate lubrication. The
cracking of the surface develops, spreads and ultimately results in small bits breaking out of the tooth surface.
But it is often possible to get some years of service out of gears that have pitted rather extensively.

For a high load capacity of the tooth ank, the following methods are advantageous: large number of teeth,
positive prole shift (for small number of teeth), higher pressure angle, large hardness of tooth ank, nitriding,
more viscous oil

Figure 10.63: Load capacity

Scung Load Capacity

Scung is a surface destruction and it can be caused by a lubrication failure. Tears and scratches appear on
the rubbing surface of the teeth. This form of damage is called `scung'. The terms of `scung' and `scoring'
are used interchangeably. Scung is an important form of damage leading to component replacements in
lubricated mechanical systems. Compared with tooth breakage and pitting, it is not a fatigue failure, it can
come very quickly. A short overload can lead to scung and the gearing fails. Scung is apt to occur when
the gears are rst put into operation because the teeth have not sucient operating time to develop smooth
surfaces. Due to the scung, the temperature, the forces and the noise increase, the gear teeth nally break
o. The following factors may inuence the occurrence of scung:

- Gear material

- Lubrication

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- Surface condition of tooth anks

- Sliding velocity

- Load

- Impurities in a lubricant

After the occurrence of scung, high-speed gears apt to additional dynamic forces that cause usually pitting or
tooth breakage. The high surface temperature may cause a breakdown of the lubricating lm. The following
factors support scung:

- High loads

- Kind of lubrication: Non-alloy oil protects less against scung than E.P. oil (extreme pressure)

- High oil temperature

- Rough oil surface

- Low gear quality: Larger contact ratio and tooth alignment errors may cause local stresses by impacts
and unbalanced carrying.

For a high scung load capacity, the following methods are advantageous: E.P. oils (oil that contains chemical
additives), a careful running-in period of the gearing, low sliding velocity due to tip relief and a smaller module

Please note: There are two dierent types of scung - cold and hot scung. Both types describe a damage
on the ank. The scung problem is not limited to high-speed gears. Scung can also occur on slow-speed
gears. The slow-speed scung is called cold scung and the high-speed hot scung. Cold scung is not
often observed. Hence, all further comments and information refer to hot scung.

10.6.1 Activate Load Capacity

The calculation of load capacity of cylindrical gears is standardized according to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 (2006,
2019), ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04 as well as VDI 2736 for plastic gears. The standards give dierent methods
to calculate the load capacity in DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04. The eAssistant software
provides all calculations according to DIN 3990 Method B, ISO 6336 Method B, ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04 and
VDI 2736. Hence, you can check the load capacity of tooth root and tooth ank as well as the scung fast
and easily. The scung safeties are determined according to the integral and ash temperature method. The
material properties, the endurance, face load factor, application factor as well as the kind of lubrication and
the selected lubrication are taken into consideration for the calculation. There are extended input options to
inuence the number of load changes or the roughness. A grinding notch can be integrated into the calculation
and the mode of operation can be selected.

Click on the `Load capacity' button to get to the calculation mask. You will notice that all input elds or
listboxes are disabled. When you select the entry `DIN 3990 Method B', `ISO 6336 Method B (2006, 2019)',
`ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04' or `VDI 2736' from the listbox `Calculation method', all input elds are enabled. In
case you do not need the calculation for load capacity, the calculation can be disabled. Thus, the size of the
calculation report becomes smaller.

Figure 10.64: Activate load capacity

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10.6.2 Inputs for Load Capacity According to DIN 3990 Method B

Comment
You can add a description or a short comment to gear 1, gear 2 and gear 3. The notes will appear later in the
calculation report.

Figure 10.65: Add a comment

Material Selection
Select an appropriate material directly from the listbox or click on the button `Material' to open the material
database.

Figure 10.66: Listbox `Material'

The material database provides some detailed information on the several kinds of material. If the listbox is
active, the two arrow keys `Up' and `Down' of your keyboard allows you to search through the database, so
you can compare the dierent values with each other.

Figure 10.67: Material database

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In order for gears to achieve their intended performance, life and reliability, the selection of a suitable material
is very important. Steel is the most common material that is used for gears. There are a number of steels
used for gears, ranging from plain carbon steels through the highly alloyed steels from low to high carbon
contents. The choice will depend upon a number of factors, including size, service and design. For pinion
and gear, the same hardened and tempered steel may be used. It has to be kept in mind that unhardened
gears with equal hardness should not be meshed with each other because scung is apt to occur. A hardened
or nidrided gear HRC > 50 smoothes the tooth anks of the hardened and tempered mating gear, reduces
the form deviations and increases the load capacity of the tooth ank. For a mating of hardened gears, no
hardness dierence is necessary. The nal selection of the material should be based upon an understanding of
the material properties and application requirements.

Hardening and tempering diers from hardening by annealing at high temperatures. The temperature range
for hardening and tempering ranges from 400◦ to 700◦ C while after hardening, parts are annealed at a low
temperature. On the other hand, a distinction is made between the material. For hardening, steel contains
more than 0.6 to 0.7% of carbon, for hardening and tempering less than 0.6% of carbon. However, there is
no well-dened limit between hardening and tempering and hardening.

Kind of Material
Steel casting: Steel casting belongs to the ferrous metals that include carbon (up to max. 2%) and are poured
into sand molds to produce several components. Due to a higher melting temperature, steel casting is more
dicult to cast than cast iron. Steel casting is cheaper than ground or forged gears.

Steel: Steel is the most common material and is used for medium and high-loaded gears.

Nidrided steel: Nitriding is adding nitrogen to solid iron-base alloys by heating the steel in contact with am-
monia gas or other suitable nitrogenous material. This process is used to harden the surface of gears.

Case-hardened steel: Case-hardened steel is a quality and high-grade steel with low carbon content. Case-
hardened steel is usually formed by diusing carbon (carburization), nitrogen (nitriding) into the outer layer
of the steel at high temperature and then heat treating the surface layer to the desired hardness. When the
steel is cooled rapidly by quenching, the higher carbon content on the outer surface becomes hard while the
core remains soft and tough.

Blackheart malleable cast iron (pearlitic structure): Malleable cast iron is a heat-treated iron carbon alloy.
Two groups of malleable cast iron are specied, whiteheart and blackheart cast iron. Blackheart malleable cast
iron is used for parts with a complex shape, in which a high durability, shock resistance and good machining
are important. Malleable cast iron is used for smaller dimensions and has got a higher strength and toughness
than steel castings.

Cast iron with spheroidal graphite (pearlitic structure, bainitic structure, ferritic structure): Cast iron usually
refers to gray cast iron but identies a large group of ferrous alloys that contain more than 2% of carbon. It
is extremely rare that the maximum carbon content is higher than 4.5%. Cast iron is a low-priced material.
However, cast iron has less toughness and ductility than steel. Cast iron with spheroidal graphite can be used
for parts with higher vibration stress.

Heat-treated steel: Hardening and tempering is a heat-treating technique for steels by quenching from the
hardness temperature and annealing at a high temperature so that the toughness is increased signicantly. At
the same time, a higher elastic limit is reached. Annealing temperatures and times dier for dierent materials
and with properties desired, steel is usually held for several hours at about 400◦ C to 700◦ C. Some steels have
to be cooled very quickly (Annealing: in order to achieve the intended properties of work pieces (e.g., desired
strength or toughness), reheating of the work pieces to certain temperatures is necessary.).

Gray cast iron: Gray cast iron is used for complex shapes and oers low cost and an easy machinability. It
provides excellent damping properties but it is a disadvantage that the load capacity is very low.

Please Note: In case there is no material that will fulll the design requirements, then simply dene your
individual material. Select the option `User dened input' and all inputs and options are enabled and you can
specify your individual material very easily. Your inputs will be saved to the calculation le. Please be advised

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that changing the material will delete your dened inputs and you have to enter the inputs again.

Figure 10.68: Own input of a material

Ovako´s Clean Steels

Ovako´s clean steels 159X and 159Q can be selected from the listbox. Both steels are based on the case-
hardening steel 18CrNiMo7-6. Due to signicantly lower levels of contamination, these steels have modied
Woehler curves. Within the static strength, both steels are comparable to 18CrNiMo7-6. However, in the
fatigue strength range the IQ-Steel 159Q (Isotropic Quality ultra clean steel) is designed to increase eciency
by 30 percent for the ank load capacity and 60 percent for the tooth root load capacity. The fatigue strength
values are based on Ovako´s in-house investigations and external verications at WZL of RWTH Aachen
University and at the Gear Research Centre (FZG) of Technical University of Munich.

Figure 10.69: Selection of clean steels from the material database

The BQ-Steel 159X (Bearing Quality clean steel) delivers slightly smaller performance gains compared to
18CrNiMo7-6 and can be taken to improve existing designs. The potential of the 159Q can be used particularly
in new designs. It can be advantageous to focus on optimized scung load capacity. This can be achieved by
increasing the number of teeth and simultaneously reducing the module. This generally results in better gear
eciency and lower power losses. These Ovako steels open up completely new design possibilities for gears
and have a high potential for further increasing the performance of gears and gear components.

Figure 10.70: 159Q with the material properties in the material database

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Application Factor KA
The application factor KA evaluates the external dynamic forces that aect the gearing. These additional
forces are largely dependent on the characteristics of the driving and driven machines as well as the masses
and stiness of the system, including shafts and couplings used in service. Because scung is not a fatigue
failure, the application factor shall consider the stronger inuence of several load peaks during the calculation
of the scung load capacity. Several load peaks aect directly only the ank temperature. Because of that,
the same application factor KA can be used for the calculation of the scung load capacity as well as of
the load capacity of the tooth root and tooth ank. The application factor is determined by experience. An
application factor of `1.0' is best thought of a perfectly smooth operation. The following table gives some
values according to DIN 3990.

Application Factors KA According to DIN 3990-1: 1987-125

Working Characteristics Working Characteristics of the Driven Machine

of the Driving Machine

Uniform Light shocks Moderate shocks Heavy shocks

Uniform 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75

Light shocks 1.1 1.35 1.6 1.85

Moderate shocks 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0

Heavy shocks 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.25 or higher

5 from: DIN 3990 Part 1, December 1987, p. 55, table: A1

Working Characteristics of the Driving Machine

- Uniform: e.g., electric motor, steam or gas turbine (small, rarely occurring starting torques)

- Light shocks: e.g., electric motor, steam or gas turbine (large, frequently occurring starting torques)

- Moderate shocks: e.g., multiple cylinder internal combustion engines

- Heavy shocks: e.g., single cylinder internal combustion engines

Working Characteristics of the Driven Machines

- Uniform: e.g., steady load current generator, uniformly loaded conveyor belt or platform conveyor, worm
conveyor, light lifts, packing machinery, feed drives for machine tools, ventilators, centrifuges, centrifugal
pumps, agitators and mixers for light liquids or uniform density materials, shears, presses ...

- Light shocks: e.g., heavy lifts, crane slewing gear, industrial and mine ventilator, centrifugal pumps,
agitators and mixers for viscous liquids or substances of non-uniform density, multi-cylinder piston pumps
...

- Moderate shocks: e.g., rubber extruders, continuously mixers for rubber and plastics, wood-working
machine, lifting gear, single cylinder piston pumps ...

- Heavy shocks: e.g., excavators (bucket wheel drives), rubber kneaders, foundry machines, brick presses,
peeling machines, rotary drills ...

Please Note: You will nd a `Question mark' button next to the input eld. Click on this button and
the above-mentioned table opens. The `Question mark' button is an additional feature and provides further
information. You will nd this button next to several input elds.

Figure 10.71: The question mark button

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Face Load Factor KHβ

The face load factor takes into account the eects of the non-uniform distribution of load over the gear
facewidth on the surface stress KHβ , on the tooth root stress KF β and on the scung KBβ . The face load
factor is determined according to DIN 3990, Part 1 Method B.

Figure 10.72: Face load factor for the surface pressure

When you start the calculation module, the value `1.25' is entered into the input eld. In case you already
use a dened face load factor, you can save the certain factor to a template le. Then the calculation module
starts with the individual face load factor. When you click on the `Calculator' symbol, the input mask for the
face load factor opens. In the top input eld `Face coe.' you can nd the default value `1.25'. You will
notice that the lower input elds and listboxes are disabled. By using the `OK' button you can take over the
default value to the main mask. There is a listbox next to the input eld for the face load factor. When you
open the listbox, the entry `DIN 3990 T1 Method B' appears.

Figure 10.73: Listbox with the selection of DIN

As soon as you select this entry from the listbox, the remaining input elds and listboxes are enabled. The
face load factor is determined automatically but you still cannot take over the value to the main mask. In
order to take over the calculated value, you have to add further inputs from the input mask for the face load
factor. When the button `OK' is activated, then the determined face load factor can be conrmed with the
button `OK'.

Please Note: However, there is the possibility to take over the value, determined according to DIN, to the
main mask without changing the extensive settings. When you click on the `Calculator' button next to the face
load factor, the above-mentioned input mask opens. The face load factor KHβ is displayed in the input eld.
Open the adjacent listbox and select the entry `DIN 3990 T1 method B'. The face load factor is calculated
but the button `OK' is still disabled.

Figure 10.74: Face load factor

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Open the listbox again and select the entry `User dened'. Now the `OK` button is enabled and you can take
over the face load factor.

Figure 10.75: Take over of the face load factor

Mesh Misalignment Fβx

The path of teeth is marked by the path of tooth traces. The tooth trace is the section of a tooth ank with
the reference surface. The mesh misalignment Fβx considers all inuences of manufacturing, assembly and
deformation that may intensify and compensate each other.

Figure 10.76: Tooth trace

The mesh misalignment is determined according to DIN 3990, part 1 method C. Using this method, portions
of the mesh misalignment are considered caused by a deformation of pinion and pinion shaft as well as
manufacturing inaccuracies. Fβx consists of fsh and fma . fsh is the mesh misalignment due to bending
and torsion of the pinion and pinion shaft, therefore it is a mesh misalignment due to deformation. The
mesh misalignment fma is a misalignment due to manufacturing inaccuracies and is dependent upon the gear
accuracy and the facewidth of the gear.

Figure 10.77: Mesh misalignment

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Please Note: Select the entry DIN 3990 method B from the listbox for the face load factor, then the factor
is determined according to DIN. The selection and input elds are enabled. User-dened inputs for the mesh
misalignment are also possible.

Figure 10.78: User-dened selection

Position of Tooth Contact Pattern

The tooth contact pattern gives some insight into the required geometry and accuracy of gears. While rolling
o each other, a tooth ank will not come into contact with every point of its mating ank. A tooth contact
pattern is a representation of contact surfaces of two engaged tooth anks of gear pair. Under operating
conditions, an even load distribution over the facewidth and tooth depth is to be accomplished. For a contact
pattern, a thin layer of a marking compound is applied to the anks. After that, the gear pair is rotated as
long as the tooth contact pattern appears. Then the gears are visually inspected to check the tooth contact
pattern which is indicated by a light wear pattern on the mating tooth surfaces. The optimization of the
contact pattern plays an important role for improving smoothness and quietness of operation.

Figure 10.79: Select contact pattern

Figure 10.80: Contact pattern according to DIN Figure 10.81: Contact pattern according to DIN
3990, Part 1, 1987 3990, Part 1, 1987

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Pinion Corrections
Errors in manufacturing and elastic deformations that may inuence the load capacity can be adjusted by
using intentional deviations from the involute (modication of the tooth depth) and theoretical tooth trace
(modication of the facewidth). Lead crowning and end relief are the most important pinion corrections and
are advantageous for a good load distribution over the facewidth of a gear. Due to lead crowning or end
relief, a non-uniform load distribution can be reduced. The calculation program allows you to select one of
the above-mentioned pinion corrections from the listbox.

Figure 10.82: Selection of the pinion correction

Lead Crowning
Lead crowning is a common modication that results in the ank of each gear tooth having a slight outward
bulge in its center area. A crowned tooth becomes gradually thinner towards the end of the teeth. The purpose
of lead crowning is to ensure that manufacturing inaccuracies and deformations are adjusted under load and
that the tooth ends are relieved. In general, lead crowning Cc is carried out symmetrically to the centre of the
facewidth.

Figure 10.83: Lead crowning

End Relief
Due to mesh misalignments, an overloading of the tooth ends occurs. Therefore, this kind of pinion correction
is used to protect the tooth ends against overloading. Generally, the size of the relief at both sides of the
tooth ank is equal. If crown shaving and crown grinding are not possible, then end relief is recommended.

Figure 10.84: End relief

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Pinion Arrangement - Stiening Eect

When d1 /dsh ≥ 1, 15, then stiening is assumed; when d1 /dsh < 1.15, there is no stiening;
furthermore, scarcely any or no stiening at all is to be expected when a pinion slides on a shaft
and feather key or a similar tting, nor when normally shrink tted (DIN 3990, part 1, edition
December 1987, Beuth Verlag GmbH Berlin, gure 6.8, p. 33).

Figure 10.85: Pinion arrangement

Transmitted Power - Power Distribution for the Dimensioning of the Face Load Factor kHβ
The transmitted power k is the percentage of the power which will be transmitted through the pinion tooth
mesh, in the ratio of the full power which is transmitted through the pinion shaft. For example: The power
input on a shaft is 10 kW. 60% is transmitted through the tooth mesh and the remaining 40% is transmitted
to the end of the shaft. Now you have to dene 6 kW for the pinion to dimension the gearing. To determine
the face load factor, you have to enter 60% of the transmitted power because the stronger deformation of the
shaft due to the full torque transmission (10 kW) is taken into consideration.

Figure 10.86: Transmitted power

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Reference Gear
The inputs for the power, speed and torque apply for the appropriate gear that is selected in the listbox. For
the other gear, speed and torque are determined from the reference gear.

Power and Torque

The power, torque and speed are dependent upon each other. Click on the adjacent button `T/P' to switch
between the input for the torque and the input for the power. If you click on the `TP' button, then you can
enter either the torque or the power. The values are converted. The description of the input eld changes
accordingly into `Torque' or `Power'.

Kind of Lubrication and Lubricant Selection

Lubrication serves several purposes but its basic and most important function is to protect the sliding and
rolling tooth surfaces from seizing, wear and friction. The friction of the tooth ank is responsible for ank
wear, gear heating and gear noise. A reduced ank friction improves the eciency that is dependent on the
tooth load, circumferential velocity, gear quality and the surface condition of the tooth anks. In order that
the gearing should work properly, the selection of a lubricant is an important choice. A liquid lubricant is a
good choice and can be easily introduced between the contacting surfaces. In addition, a lubrication has to
reduce frictional heat and has to protect the surfaces against corrosion. The bearings and clutches in a gearing
require also an appropriate lubricant. Therefore, the lubricant has to be suitable as well. Oil and greases
are the most common lubricants. The compounding of oils provides a combination and generation of various
properties. Oil oers a wider range of operating speeds than greases. They are easier to handle and are most
eective. Special E.P. (extreme pressure) oils have been developed for slow-speed, highly-loaded vehicle gears.
These oils develop chemical compounds on the contacting gear-tooth surfaces. Grease is a combination of
liquid and solids. Grease has the advantage of remaining in place and not spreading as oil. It can provide a
lubricant lm at heavily loads and at low speeds.

Figure 10.87: Open the selection of a lubricant

Liquid lubricants may be characterized in many dierent ways. Viscosity is one very important property of a
lubricant and determines the oils lubricating eciency.

For the selection of liquid lubricants applies: the smaller circumferential velocity and larger the contact pres-
sure as well as the roughness of tooth anks, the higher the viscosity. A higher viscosity will result in a
higher hydrodynamic load capacity and an increased scung load limit where scratching and scung of the
tooth anks occur (Muhs/Wittel/Jannasch/Vossiek: Rolo/Matek Maschinenelemente, 17th revised edition,
published by Vieweg, Wiesbaden 2005).

Please Note: If the viscosity is too low, the oil lm will not be suciently formed and if the viscosity is too
high, the viscosity resistance will also be high and cause temperature rise. For higher speed, a lower viscosity
oil should be used and for heavy loads, a higher viscosity oil should be used.

Gears that are running primarily in a gearbox are lubricated with oil. A distinction is made between oil splash
lubrication and oil injection lubrication.

Oil splash lubrication: The oil splash lubrication is an easy, reliable and reasonable lubrication system. It is
a type of lubrication used in enclosed gear drives. In splash lubrication, the gear tooth dips into a tray of
lubricant and transfers the lubricant to the meshing gear as it rotates. As a result, oil reaches all of the places
where it is needed. The oil splash lubrication can be used for average speed applications.

Oil injection lubrication: With the oil injection lubrication, the oil can be ltered, cooled and checked and
the oil is directly fed to the bearings. The amount of oil can be controlled according to the heat dissipation

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requirements. The gearbox is used as an oil tank reservoir from which several units can be supplied. The oil
is sprayed directly by a pump injector into the mating surfaces.

Grease lubrication: The selection of the grease is dependent upon the circumferential velocity, the kind of
application and the service temperature. A grease lubrication requires low maintenance and protects against
contamination. Grease lubrication is suitable for any gear system that is opened or enclosed, so long as it runs
at low speed. The grease should have a suitable viscosity with good uidity especially in a enclosed gear unit.

Click on the `Lubricant' button and open database. The extensive database contains the lubricants including
all detailed information about the oils and greases (e.g., density, viscosity, load stage of FZG test). You can
nd out more about the FZG test in section 10.6.5 `Extended Input Options for Scung Load Capacity'.
Select `User dened input' from the listbox to dene your individual lubricant.

Figure 10.88: Lubricant selection

10.6.3 Extended General Input Options

Click the corresponding button in the main screen of the load capacity to open the advanced input options. If
you do not change any entries in the following screen, the calculation continues with the default input values.

Figure 10.89: Selection of extended input options

If you do not change any entries in the following mask, the calculation continues with the default input values.

Figure 10.90: Extended general input options

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Dynamic Coecient KV
The dynamic coecient KV considers additional inner dynamic forces. Inner dynamic forces are caused by
mesh alignments, lead crowning, deformation of teeth, the housing, shafts and gear bodies as well as oscillation
of the wheel masses. As the circumferential velocity of the gear rim increases, the dynamic forces increase. The
forces decrease with an increasing load of the teeth. Click the `Lock' button to change the dynamic coecient.

Transverse Coecient KHα

The transverse coecients account for the eect of the non-uniform distribution of transverse load between
several pairs of simultaneously contacting gear teeth on the surface pressure (KHα ), stress leading to scung
(KBα ) and loading of the tooth root (KF α ). Click the `Lock' button to change the transverse coecient.

Mesh Load Factor Kγ

The mesh load factor takes into account an uneven distribution of the total circumferential force for gearings
with multiple transmission paths or for planetary gear trains with more than three planets. For transmission
paths, the total circumferential force is distributed to several mesh. For gearings without transmission paths,
the value is set at `1.0'.

Carried Width
When the facewidth of pinion and gear is not equal, then a maximum overhang of `1 x m' at each tooth end is
assumed as a carried width. Unhardened portions of surface-hardened gear tooth anks (including transition
zone) consider only 50% as the carried width. However, if it is foreseen that because of crowning or end relief
the contact does not extend to the end of face, then the smaller facewidth shall be used for both pinion and
gear. Click the `Lock' button to change the carried width.

Permit Pitting
In specic cases, the development of pits on the gear ank is allowed. Use this option to permit several pits.
In general, initial pitting is considered normal and is not a cause for concern. In particular, case-hardened and
nitrided gears usually has the tendency to pit near the tooth root and lead eventually to fatigue breakage. Here
an individual assessment is necessary. In some cases (aerospace industry), pits are absolutely not permitted.
For turbo transmissions, pits may lead to oscillations and increased additional dynamic forces.

Figure 10.91: Permit pitting

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10.6.4 Extended Input Options for Tooth Root and Tooth Flank
The main mask of the load capacity provides the `Tooth root/ank' button, click on that button and the
extended input options appear. If you do not change any inputs in the following mask, then the default input
values are used.

Figure 10.92: Extended input options for tooth root and tooth ank

Roughness
The surface roughness of the tooth anks inuences the load capacity of the tooth anks. The average rough-
ness Rz is the arithemitc average of ve individually measured roughness values. The input of the roughness
occurs for root and ank of pinion and gear. The right choice of the surface roughness is determined by
economical aspects depending upon the intended purpose and manufacturing process. A ne surface can be
very expensive because of the high manufacturing costs. A surface that is too rough may not fulll the required
functionality.

Grinding Notch
A grinding notch may signicantly reduce the fatigue strength and a tooth breakage can occur due to a
grinding notch.

Figure 10.93: Grinding notch

Shot-peening can be used to increase the fatigue strength of gears that are damaged by a grinding notch. A
careful grinding of the notch is basically suitable. Click the question mark button to open the representation
of the grinding notch.

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10. Three- and Four-Gear Train Systems 529

Hardening Depth Root/Flank

The hardening depth is signicantly for the pitting load capacity and is determined by the depth of surface layer
heated to hardening temperature, the hardenability of the material and the eect of the quenching method.
Case-hardening: Steels get their specic features by case-hardening. This combined heat treatment process
consists of the following subprocesses:

- Carburizing, i.e., using carbon for the surface

- Hardening, i.e., heat treatment to achieve a hardened and wear-resistant surface

- Annealing (stress relief )

Figure 10.94: Hardening depth

Please Note: The calculation module determines the optimal hardening depth automatically, but the hard-
ening depth can be dened also individually. If the individual hardening depth is smaller than the optimal
hardening depth, then the fatigue strength is reduced accordingly. The determination of the optimal harden-
ing depth and reduction of fatigue strength with reduced hardening depth is based on: `Tobie, Thomas: Zur
Gruebchen- und Zahnfusstragfaehigkeit einsatzgehaerteter Zahnraeder, Dissertation Technische Universitaet
Muenchen (Lehrstuhl fuer Maschinenelemente, Forschungsstelle fuer Zahnraeder und Getriebebau) 2001, Sec-
tion. 10.3: Eingliederung der Versuchsergebnisse in das Rechenverfahren nach DIN 3990'.

Technology Factor YT
The technology factor YT considers the change of the strength of the tooth root by machining process.

σF lim = σF lim0 YT

σF lim0 Fatigue strength of the tooth root from material data

σF lim Fatigue strength of the tooth root with inuence of the technology factor

YT Technology factor (see following table)

Technology Factor YT According to Linke6

Kind of Manufacturing of the Tooth Root Technology Factor YT
Shot peening: 1.2 to 1.4

Applies for case-hardened or carbonitrided gears; not ground

in the hardened layer

Rolling: 1.3 to 1.5

Applies for ame and induction hardened gears; not ground in

the hardened layer

Grinding: General: 0.7

Applies for case-hardened or carbonitrided gears for CBN grinding wheel: 1

Shape cutting: 1

Does not apply for ground gears

6 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl Hanser Verlag

Muenchen Wien, 1996, p. 320, table 6.5/6

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10. Three- and Four-Gear Train Systems 530

Click the `Question mark' button to open the tables for the technology factor and mode of operation factor.

Figure 10.95: Open the tables

Mode of Operation Factor YA

The fatigue strength of the tooth root σF lim is corrected with the inuence of the mode of operation.

σF lim = σF lim0 YA

σF lim0 Fatigue strength of the tooth root from material data

σF lim Fatigue strength of the tooth root with inuence of the mode of operation factor

YA Mode of operation factor (see following table)

The following reference values can be used for the mode of operation factor YA . DIN 3990 species identical
values for swelling and alternating load.

Mode of operation factor YA according to Linke7

Mode of Operation Mode of Operation Factor YA Direction of Load

Swelling 1

Alternating 0.7

lgNrev
0.85 - 0.15
6

Oscillating (for 1 ≤ Nrev ≤ 106 )

0.7 (for Nrev > 106 )

Please Note: Nrev = Number of load direction changes during operation time

7 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl Hanser Verlag

Muenchen Wien, 1996, p. 321, table 6.5/7

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10.6.5 Extended Input Options for Scung Load Capacity

The scung load capacity oers dierent extended input options. Click on the `Scung' button and the
extended input options appear.

Figure 10.96: Extended input options `Scung'

Thermal Contact Coecient BM

The thermal contact coecient BM is required for the determination of the ash factor. The ash factor
considers the inuence of the material properties of gear and pinion on the ash temperature.

Figure 10.97: Thermal contact coecient

Relative Structure Factor XW relT

The relative structure factor XW relT is primarily intended to take into account inuence of the material
properties on the scung load capacity and is determined by:

XW
XW relT =
XW T

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10. Three- and Four-Gear Train Systems 532

XW The lower table provides the empirically determined relative structure factor.

XW T The relative structure factor for the test gears that are used for the determination of the scung
temperature. XW T = 1.0 for the FZG gear test.

Structure Factor XW 8
Material/Heat Treatment Structure Factor XW
Through-hardened steel 1.00

Phosphated steel 1.25

Copper plated steel 1.50

Bath and gas nitrided steel 1.50

Hardened carburized steel, with austenite content:

- less than average 1.15

- average 1.00

- greater than average 0.85

Austenitic steel (stainless steel) 0.45

8 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl

Hanser Verlag Muenchen Wien, 1996, p. 367, table 6.5/16

Load Stage of Standard FZG Gear Test

Because scung is not a fatigue failure, a standard FZG gear test was developed to determine the scung load
capacity of a lubricant under certain operating conditions. The gear test, known as FZG gear test (Institute for
Machine Elements Gear Research Center, University Munich, Germany), is a standardized method according to
DIN 51354. At the FZG, the dierent inuences on scung are extensively investigated. The test is performed
on a standard FZG test machine using standard test gears. Standardized, case-hardened and ground spur gears
with a large one-side prole shift are used. The load is increased gradually on a FZG gear test rig with dened
technical parameters. There are 12 load stages and the gears are inspected for scung after every load
stage. Finally, the load stage is determined where scung of the gear teeth occurs and where the ank area
is damaged by scratches. The higher the load stages, the better the industrial gear lubricants resistance to
scung.

Figure 10.98: Selection of load stage

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Type of Prole Modication

For high-duty gearings, it is possible to change the theoretical involute. Using the listbox to dene the type
of prole modication. You can select the following options:

- without prole modication

- for high-duty gearing

- for uniform mesh

Figure 10.99: Prole modication

The force distribution factor XΓ evaluates the inuence of the force distribution over several pairs of meshing
teeth. A polygon-like shape over the line of action represents the progress of the force distribution factor. The
values of the points A and E depend upon the type of prole modication. According to DIN 3990 (see Part
4, p. 17), the force distribution factor is as follows:

Force Distribution Factor Without Prole Modication and With Prole Modication for High-Duty
Gears

Figure 10.100: Without prole modication Figure 10.101: For high-duty gears (the pin-
ion drives)

Force Distribution Factor With Prole Modication for High-Duty Gears and for Uniform Mesh

Figure 10.102: For high duty gears (the gear Figure 10.103: For uniform mesh
drives)

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Contact Temperature Along the Path of Contact

The contact temperature varies along the path of contact due to the progress of the ash temperature.

Contact Temperature Without Prole Modication

Figure 10.104: Contact temperature without prole modication

Contact Temperature With Prole Modication

Figure 10.105: Contact temperature with prole modication

Contact Temperature for Uniform Mesh

Figure 10.106: Contact temperature for uniform mesh

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10. Three- and Four-Gear Train Systems 535

Flash Temperature and Integral Temperature Method

High surface temperatures due to high loads and sliding speeds can cause a lubricant lm breakdown. Because
of that, there are two calculation methods in DIN 3990 that are based on dierent criteria for the development
of a damage. The eAssistant software provides both the integral temperature method and ash temperature
method:

- Flash temperature method denes a variable contact temperature along the path of contact.

- Integral temperature method denes a weighted average of the surface temperature along the path of
contact.

Flash Temperature Method

The ash temperature is the temperature at which a gear-tooth surface is calculated to be hot enough to
destroy the oil lm and allow instantaneous welding at the contact point. The contact temperature ϑB in any
point of contact Y results from the sum of the bulk temperature ϑM and the ash temperature ϑf la :

ϑB = ϑM + ϑf la

According to the ash temperature method, there is no scung as long as the contact temperature ϑB (as the
sum of bulk temperature ϑM and ash temperature ϑf la ) does not exceed the scung contact temperature
in all points of contact. The scung temperature ϑS to be a characteristic value for the material-lubricant-
material system of a gear pair, to be determined by gear tests with the same material-lubricant-material
system.

Figure 10.107: Progress of contact temperature along the path of contact

Please note: Points A to E mark the important points from the beginning to the end of the mesh.

The safety against scung SB is determined according to the ash temperature method:

ϑS − ϑoil
SB = ≥ SBmin
ϑBmax − ϑoil

ϑBmax Maximum contact temperature along the path of contact

ϑoil Oil temperature before reaching the mesh

ϑS Scung temperature

The safety factor SBmin is dependent on whether the gearing is put into operation after a good running-in
period. With a careful running-in period, there is no scung damage up to SBmin ≈ 1. Without a running-in
period, there is no scung up to SBmin ≈ 3 (according to Linke).

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10. Three- and Four-Gear Train Systems 536

Integral Temperature Method

According to the integral temperature method, scung occurs when the integral temperature exceeds the
scung integral temperature. The scung integral temperature is assumed as a characteristic value for
the material-lubricant-material system of a gear pair and is determined from gear tests. The scung safety
according the integral temperature method SintS is calculated as follows:

ϑintS
SintS = ≥ SSmin
ϑint

ϑintS Scung integral temperature

ϑint Integral temperature

As uncertainties and inaccuracies in the assumptions cannot be excluded, it is necessary to introduce a safety
factor. According to Linke, the following reference values can be used:

SintS < 1.0 In all probability, scung damages are expected to occur.

1.0 ≤ SintS ≤ 2.0 For a careful running-in period of the gearing, good contact pattern and real assumed
loads, there are no scung damages to be expected.

SintS > 2.0 There is no risk of scung.

10.6.6 Input Options for Load Capacity According to ISO 6336 Method B
In addition to DIN 3990 Method B, it is possible to calculate the load capacity of tooth root and tooth ank
according to ISO 6336 (2006, 2019) Method B. Select the ISO 6336 Method B from the listbox and the input
elds are enabled.

Figure 10.108: Activate load capacity according to ISO 6336 Method B

There is a strong similarity between the DIN 3990 standard and the ISO 6336 standard and most parts of the
load capacity calculation according to ISO 6336 correspond to DIN 3990. In fact, the ISO 6336 evolved from
the DIN 3990 standard. There are factors that inuence the tooth root stress and tooth ank strength, but
the dierences are minor and the inuence on the safety of root, ank and scung is very low. One large
dierence is the calculation of the helix angle factor Zβ as well as the calculation of the long life factors (ZN T
and YN T ) for the tooth root stress. Another dierence between DIN 3990 and ISO 6336 is the critical stress
point on the root llet. ISO 6336 uses the tangency point of a 60◦ angle as the most critically stressed point
on the root llet for internal gears. The DIN 3990 standard uses the tangency point of a 30◦ angle as the

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10. Three- and Four-Gear Train Systems 537

critical stress point on the root llet for external and internal gears as the basis for the calculation of the
load capacity.

Life Factors ZN T and YN T

The long life factor YN T accounts the higher tooth root stress and the long life factor ZN T accounts the
higher contact stress including static stress, which may be tolerable for a limited life (number of load cycles).
The factors mainly depend on the quality of the material, heat treatment, number of load cycles as well as
notch sensitivity, surface conditions and gear dimensions. The life factors YN T and ZN T can be read from the
following graph for the static and reference stress as a function of material and heat treatment.

Figure 10.109: DIN 3990 and ISO 6336: Life factors

Long life factor YN T :

With optimum lubrication, material and manufacturing YN T = 1.0 may be used for the number of load cycles
NL = 3 · 106 . For static stresses NL ≤ 103 , the long life factor is 2.5.

Long life factor ZN T :

With optimum lubrication, material and manufacturing ZN T = 1.0 may be used for the number of load cycles
NL = 5 · 107 . For static stresses NL ≤ 105 , the long life factor is 1.6.

Figure 10.110: Input of life factors

There are signicant dierences in the calculation of the life factors YN T andZN T when comparing DIN 3990
and ISO 6336. Values appropriate to the relevant number of load cycles, NL , are indicated by the S-N curve
(also known as a Woehler curve). The S-N approach is dierent. The long life factor for the load capacity
of the tooth root approaches 1.0 for the range of long life (depending on the material, usually at 3 · 106 load
cycles). In DIN 3990, the life factor remains 1.0 for higher number of load cycles. According to ISO 6336, the
factor for materials decreases from 1.0 to 0.85 at 1010 load cycles. Only after that, the factor remains 0.85 at
10
10 load cycles. For gears in the long life range, the calculations according to ISO 6336 result in signicantly

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smaller safeties (15% lower) for tooth root and tooth ank. This also applies for the long life factor for anks.
Use the `Lock' button to modify the long life factors YN T and ZN T . The input elds are enabled and you can
dene your own value for the factors. Please remember to keep the modied input eld open or the default
values will be used again.

Face Load Factor KHβ

Another dierence between ISO and DIN is the determination of the mesh stiness cγ . The mesh stiness is
needed for the calculation of the face load factor KHβ . The factor KHβ takes into account uneven distribu-
tion of load over the facewidth due to mesh misalignment caused by inaccuracies in manufacture and elastic
deformations. For the calculation of the face load factor, ISO 6336 uses a mesh stiness cγ that is reduced by
15% in comparison to the mean stiness the DIN 3990 use for the calculation of KHβ . This results in slightly
lower face load factors.

Rim Thickness Factor

If the rim thickness is too thin and not sucient to provide full support for the tooth root (e.g., for planetary
gear trains or internal gears), then this can be accounted for by the rim thickness factor YB . YB is expressed
as a function of the tooth depth for external gears and as a function of the normal module for internal gears.
The load capacity decreases with a gear rim thickness sR < 1.2 · ht for external gears or 2.8 · mn , for internal
gears sR < 3.5 · mn (ISO 6336 Edition 2006 - Was ist neu?: Dr.-Ing. R. Hess, Dipl.-Ing. B. Kisters, A. Friedr.
Flender AG, Bocholt, Tagungsbeitrag Dresdener Maschinenelemente Kolloquium 2009).

Helix Angle Factor Zβ

Another dierence is the determination of the helix angle factor Zβ . Independent of the inuence of the helix
angle on the length of path of contact, this factor accounts for the inuence of the helix angle on the load
capacity of the tooth anks, allowing for such variables as the distribution of load along the lines of contact.
Zβ is dependent only on the helix angle, β. The given formulae for the determination of the helix angle factor
are dierent in DIN 3990 and ISO 6336. DIN 3990 gives the following formular to calculate the helix angle
factor (β is the helix angle at reference circle):

p
Zβ = cos β

In ISO 6336, the helix angle factor is dened as follows:

1
Zβ = √
cos β

Figure 10.111: Comparison of helix angle factor in DIN and ISO

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Work Hardening Factor ZW

The work hardening factor ZW has been revised in ISO 6336. This factor is used to take into consideration the
Hertzian pressure which serves as a basis for the calculation of the load capacity of the tooth anks. The work
hardening factor accounts for the increase in surface durability due to meshing a steel gear with a hardened
or substantially harder pinion with smooth tooth anks. In DIN 3990 and the previous version of ISO 6336,
the work hardening factor was dependent solely on the ank hardness of the softer gear.

Surface Roughness
The increase in the surface durability of the soft gear depends not only on any work hardening of this gear, but
also on other inuences such as ank surface roughness. In addition, the inuence of the surface roughness
is addressed in ISO 6336. Tooth ank curvature, pitch line velocity and lubricant viscosity are taken into
account in the calculation. The work hardening factor is reduced for gears with hard, rough surface. Gear
teeth with rough surfaces may wear a softer mating teeth. Wear of the surface is not covered by ISO 6336.
Especially for rough pinion surfaces, values of ZW < 1 may be evaluated. As in this range eects of wear can
limit the surface durability, ZW is xed at ZW = 1.0 (ISO 6336 Edition 2006 - Was ist neu?: Dr.-Ing. R.
Hess, Dipl.-Ing. B. Kisters, A. Friedr. Flender AG, Bocholt, Tagungsbeitrag Dresdener Maschinenelemente
Kolloquium 2009).

10.6.7 Scung Load Capacity According to ISO/TR 13989

ISO 6336 does not provide a calculation method for scung. For the safety against scung, the Technical
Report ISO/TR 13989 shall be preferably used. ISO/TR 13989 is a Technical Report (March 2000). This
document is not to be regarded as an `International Standard'. It is proposed for provisional application so
that information and experience of its use in practice may be gathered. The scung load capacity is calculated
according to ISO/TR 13989 Part 1 (Flash temperature method) and Part 2 (Integral temperature method) as
soon as you select `ISO 6336 Method B'.

Figure 10.112: Scung load capacity according to ISO/TR 13989

Thermal Contact Coecient BM

The thermal contact coecient BM is required for the determination of the ash factor. The ash factor
considers the inuence of the material properties of gear and pinion on the ash temperature.

Lubricant Factor XL
The lubricant factor XL depends on the the type of lubricant. You can select the following types:

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10. Three- and Four-Gear Train Systems 540

- Mineral oils XL = 1.0

- Water soluble polyglycols XL = 0.6

- Non-water soluble polyglycols XL = 0.7

- Polyalfaolens XL = 0.8

- Phosphate esters XL = 1.3

- Traction uids XL = 1.5

Figure 10.113: Type of lubricant

Relative Structure Factor XW relT

The relative structure factor XW relT is primarily intended to take into account inuence of the material
properties on the scung load capacity and is determined by:

XW
XW relT =
XW T

XW The lower table provides the empirically determined relative structure factor.

XW T The relative structure factor of test gears that are used for the determination of the scung
temperature. XW T = 1.0 for the FZG gear test.

Structural Factor XW 9
Material/Heat Treatment Structural Factor XW
Through-hardened steel 1.00

Phosphated steel 1.25

Copper plated steel 1.50

Bath and gas nitrided steel 1.50

Hardened carburized steel, with austenite content:

- less than average 1.15

- average (10% to 20%) 1.00

- greater than average 0.85

Austenitic steel (stainless steel) 0.45

9 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl Hanser Ver-

lag Muenchen Wien, 1996, p. 367, table 6.5/16

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10. Three- and Four-Gear Train Systems 541

Load Stage of Standard FZG Gear Test

Because scung is not a fatigue failure, a standard FZG gear test was developed to determine the scung load
capacity of a lubricant under certain operating conditions. The gear test, known as FZG gear test (Institute for
Machine Elements Gear Research Center, University Munich, Germany), is a standardized method according to
DIN 51354. At the FZG, the dierent inuences on scung are extensively investigated. The test is performed
on a standard FZG test machine using standard test gears. Standardized, case-hardened and ground gears
with a large one-side prole shift are used. The load is increased gradually on a FZG gear test rig with
dened technical parameters. There are 12 load stages and the gears are inspected for scung after every
load stage. Finally, the load stage is determined where scung of the gear teeth occurs and where the ank
area is damaged by scratches. The higher the load stages, the better the industrial gear lubricants resistance
to scung. Click the `Lock' button in order to select a load stage.

Figure 10.114: Selection of load stage

Flash Temperature Method and Integral Temperature Method

High surface temperatures due to high loads and slidings speeds can cause a lubricant lm breakdown. Because
of that, there are two calculation methods in ISO/TR 13989 that are based on dierent criteria for the
development of a damage. The eAssistant software provides both the integral temperature method and ash
temperature method:

- Flash temperature method denes a variable contact temperature along the path of contact.

- Integral temperature method denes a weighted average of the surface temperature along the path of
contact.

Flash Temperature Method

The ash temperature is the temperature at which a gear-tooth surface is calculated to be hot enough to
destroy the oil lm and allow instantaneous welding at the contact point. The contact temperature ϑB in any
point of contact Y results from the sum of the bulk temperature ϑM and the ash temperature ϑf la :

ϑB = ϑM + ϑf la

According to the ash temperature method, there is no scung as long as the contact temperature ϑB (as the
sum of bulk temperature ϑM and ash temperature ϑf la ) does not exceed the scung contact temperature
in all points of contact. The scung temperature ϑS to be a characteristic value for the material-lubricant-
material system of a gear pair, to be determined by gear tests with the same material-lubricant-material
system.

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Please note: Points A to E mark the important points from the beginning to the end of the mesh.

Figure 10.115: Progress of contact temperature along the path of contact

The safety against scung SB is determined according to the ash temperature method:

ϑS − ϑoil
SB = ≥ SBmin
ϑBmax − ϑoil

ϑBmax Maximum contact temperature along the path of contact

ϑoil Oil temperature before reaching the mesh

ϑS Scung temperature

The safety factor SBmin is dependent on whether the gearing is put into operation after a good running-in
period. With a careful running-in period, there is no scung damage up to SBmin ≈ 1. Without a running-in
period, there is no scung up to SBmin ≈ 3 (according to Linke).

Integral Temperature Method

According to the integral temperature method, scung occurs when the integral temperature exceeds the
scung integral temperature. The scung integral temperature is assumed as a characteristic value for
the material-lubricant-material system of a gear pair and is determined from gear tests. The scung safety
according the integral temperature method SintS is calculated as follows:

ϑintS
SintS = ≥ SSmin
ϑint

ϑintS Scung integral temperature

ϑint Integral temperature

As uncertainties and inaccuracies in the assumptions cannot be excluded, it is necessary to introduce a safety
factor. According to Linke, the following reference values can be used:

SintS < 1.0 In all probability, scung damages are expected to occur.

1.0 ≤ SintS ≤ 2.0 For a careful running-in period of the gearing, good contact pattern and real assumed
loads, there are no scung damages to be expected.

SintS > 2.0 There is no risk of scung.

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10.6.8 Input Options for Load Capacity According to ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04

The standard provides the calculation of safeties for the root and ank. Further the calculation of risk of
scung is also available. Additional to the DIN 3990 and ISO 6336 standard, the ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04
provides also the calculation of wear. The eAssistant software calculates the wear as failure probability. Select
ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04 from the listbox and the input elds are enabled. The following explains some factors
from the standard.

Figure 10.116: Activate load capacity according to ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04

Overload Factor KO
With the new edition of the ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04 (ANSI/AGMA 2001-D04 imperial unit edition, the ap-
plication factor from ANSI/AGMA 2101-C95 was replaced by overload factor KO .

The overload factor is intended to make allowance for all externally applied loads in excess of the nominal
tangential load, Ft , for a particular application. Overload factors can only be established after considerable
eld experience is gained in a particular application.

Figure 10.117: Overload factor

For an overload factor of unity, this rating method includes the capacity to sustain a limited number of up to 200
% momentary overload cycles (typically less than four starts in 8 hours, with a peak not exceeding one second
duration). Higher or more frequent momentary overloads shall be considered separately. In determining the
overload factor KO , consideration should be given to the fact that many prime movers and driven equipment,
individually or in combination, develop momentary peak torques appreciably greater than those determined by
the nominal ratings of either the prime mover or the driven equipment. There are many possible sources of
overload which should be considered. Some of these are: system vibrations, acceleration torques, overspeeds,
variations in system operation, split path load sharing among multiple primemovers, and changes in process
load conditions.

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Stress Cycle Factors ZN and YN

The stress cycle factors, ZN and YN , adjust the allowable stress numbers for the required number of cycles
of operation. For the purpose of this standard, nL , the number of stress cycles is dened as the number of
mesh contacts, under load, of the gear tooth being analyzed.

AGMA allowable stress numbers are established for 107 unidirectional tooth load cycles at 99 % reliability. The
stress cycle factor adjusts the allowable stress numbers for design lives other than 107 cycles. The stress cycle
factor accounts for the S-N characteristics of the gear material as well as for the gradual increased tooth stress
which may occur from tooth wear, resulting in increased dynamic eects and from shifting load distributions
which may occur during the design life of the gearing.

Surface Condition Factor ZR

Standard surface condition factor ZR for gear teeth have not yet been established for cases where there
is a detrimental surface nish eect. In such cases, some surface nish factor greater than unity should be
used. The surface condition factor can be taken as unity provided the appropriate surface condition is achieved.

Size Factor KS
The size factor KS reects non-uniformity of material properties. It depends primarily on: tooth size, diameter
of parts, ratio of tooth size to diameter of part, facewidth, area of stress pattern, ratio of case depth to tooth
size, hardenability and heat treatment of materials Standard size factors for gear teeth have not yet been
established for cases where there is a detrimental size eect. In such cases, some size factor greater than unity
should be used. The size factor may be taken as unity for most gears, provided a proper choice of steel is
made for the size of the part and its heat treatment and hardening process.

Temperature Factor Yϑ
The temperature factor Yϑ is generally taken as unity when gears operate with temperatures of oil or gear
blank not exceeding 120°C. When operating temperatures result in gear blank temperatures below 0°C, special
care must be given. When operating at oil or gear blank temperature above 120°C, Yϑ is given a value greater
than 1.0 to allow for the eect of temperature on oil lm and material properties. Consideration must be
given to the loss of hardness and strength of some materials due to the tempering eect of temperatures over
150°C.

Figure 10.118: Additional options for calculation of load capacity

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Reliability Factor YZ
The reliability factors YZ account for the eect of the normal statistical distribution of failures found in
materials testing. The allowable stress numbers given in ANSI/AGMA (tables 3 through 6) are based upon a
statistical probability of one failure in 100 at 107 cycles. The following table contains reliability factors which
may be used to modify these allowable stresses to change that probability. These numbers are based upon
data developed for bending and pitting failure by the U.S. Navy. Other values may be used if specic data is
available.

Reliability Factor YZ 110

Requirements of Application YZ
Fewer than one failure in 10 000 1.50

Fewer than one failure in 1000 1.25

Fewer than one failure in 100 1.00

Fewer than one failure in 10 0.85

2

Fewer than one failure in 2 0.70

23

Notes: 1) Tooth breakage is sometimes considered a greater hazard than pitting.

In such cases a greater value of YZ is selected for bending. 2) At this value plastic
ow might occur rather than pitting. 3) From test data extrapolation.

10 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl

Hanser Verlag Muenchen Wien, 1996, p. 367, table 6.5/16

Service Factor CSF

The service factor CSF has been used in previous AGMA standards to include the combined eects of overload,
reliability, life and other application related factors. This standard provides a means to account for: variations
in load (with overload factor), statistical variations in S-N data (with reliability factor), and the number of
design stress cycles (with stress cycle factor).

The AGMA service factor as traditionally used in gear applications depends on experience acquired in each
specic application. Product application standards can be a good source for the appropriate value of service
factor. Equations 28 and 29 of AGMA 2101-D04 are used to establish power ratings for unity service factor
to which established service factors may be applied using equation 30. When this is done, the stress cycle
factor is calculated using the number of cycles equivalent to a specic number of hours at a specic speed, to
establish power rating for unity service factors.

Where specic experience and satisfactory performance has been demonstrated by successful use of established
service factors, values of ZN and YN of 1.0 may be appropriate.

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10.6.9 Input Options for Load Capacity According to VDI 2736 for Plastic Gears
For gears made of plastic, the load capacity can be calculated according to VDI 2736. Select VDI 2736
from the listbox. All input elds are activated. The load capacity calculation of cylindrical gears made of
thermoplastics is based on DIN 3990, which applies to metallic materials. The same damage can occur on
plastic gears as on steel gears: pitting, wear or tooth breakage.

Figure 10.119: Activate load capacity according to VDI 2736

Compared to metals, thermoplastics have some special features, e.g.

- Dependence of the mechanical strength on the operating temperature as well as on the stress level and
its duration and speed

- Thermal conductivity of the plastics is considerably lower

- Higher deformation

- Material properties of thermoplastics are very greatly dependent on temperature

Positive properties compared to steel gears:

- Very favorable noise and vibration behavior due to high internal friction, especially with plastic/plastic
pairing

- Relatively low weight due to low density

- Other sliding friction properties, thus dry running is possible

Plastic gears are used in particular where quiet running is important because plastics have a vibration-damping
eect. They are mainly used for precision engineering equipment, textile machines and domestic appliances. It
is recommended to calculate the load capacity for plastic gears according to VDI 2736. However, in eAssistant
it is also possible to calculate the load capacity using DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04. The
recalculation of the tooth root load capacity according to VDI 2736 is based on the tooth root stress with
force application on the tooth tip and on the assumption of pure bending stress. In DIN 3990 Method B, the
force is applied to the outer single contact point and the calculation is much more accurate. In VDI 2736, DIN
3990 is referred to in some places as an alternative. If reference is made to DIN 3990, then the calculation of
the load capacity in the eAssistant is carried out according to this standard.

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The plastics can be selected from the general material database. For this, the temperature-dependent material
properties such as fatigue strength and E-module were approximated in detail from available diagrams in VDI
2736 and stored accordingly. These are used to determine the material properties for the calculation of the
load capacity using the tooth root and ank temperatures automatically calculated according to VDI 2736. If
the calculated tooth ank and tooth root temperatures exceed the maximum operating temperatures of the
plastics, you will get a corresponding warning in the message window. When calculating the load capacity
according to DIN 3990, ISO 6336 and ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04, the material parameters are selected on the
basis of the lubricant temperature.

Figure 10.120: Material database with plastics

Please Note: PA and POM gears have a higher load capacity and better heat dissipation when paired with
a metal wheel. If possible, never pair the same plastics. The noise behavior with pairing thermoplastic gears
is more favorable than with plastic/metal.

In order to calculate the tooth ank and tooth root temperature, you can modify the housing design, the
heat-dissipating surface as well as the heat transfer and heat resistance as an alternative to the automatic
default settings. Both plastic/plastic and plastic/metal pairings are possible as material pairings. Furthermore,
metal/metal pairings are also available in order to compare calculation methods for metallic gears. The
calculation of load spectra is also possible for the load capacity calculation according to VDI 2736. Plastic
gears are often operated under dry running conditions. Select the option `Dry running' from the listbox `Kind
of lubrication'.

Figure 10.121: General inputs

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10.7 Input of Gear Tooth Prole and Gear Flank Modications

Manufacturing errors, misalignment in the assembly of the gears as well as displacement of the gears under
load lead to non-uniform load carrying across the facewidth and move a signicant concentration of load to
the tooth edges. Intentional deviations from the involute prole (prole modication) and from the theoretical
tooth trace (ank modication) are used to minimize the manufacturing inaccuracies and elastic deformations,
to improve the running behavior and to reduce the noise of the gear pair.

Figure 10.122: Input of prole and ank modications

There are dierent types of tooth corrections. Short and long linear or short and long circular tip and root relief
are typical tooth prole modications. Lead crowning and end relief are common ank modications. These
corrections tend to give better load distribution over the facewidth and can reduce the eects of misalignment.
Using prole or ank modication requires an appropriate degree of gear accuracy. The minimum required
gear manufacturing accuracy is DIN quality 7 or better. Design details should be based on a careful estimate
of the deformations and manufacturing deviations of the gearing.

10.7.1 Gear Tooth Prole Modication

In case of gear tooth prole modication, parts of the involute prole are changed to reduce the load in that
area. Prole modications help gears to run more quietly and to regulate transmission errors.

Figure 10.123: Gear tooth prole modication

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Tip Relief and Root Relief

Tip relief is a modication whereby material is removed at the tips of the gear tooth. In case of root relief, a
small amount of material is removed near the root of the gear tooth. The modied tooth prole merges as
continuously as possible into the theoretical tooth prole. Prole crowning can be seen as a combination of
tip and root relief.

Figure 10.124: Tip and root relief

There are dierent types that can be chosen for the prole modication. A simple type of prole modication
is the linear tip relief on pinion and gear. However, it is also possible to execute only one gear with a tip and
root relief instead of both gears. The listbox allows to select linear and circular prole modication. The linear
relief results in the greatest material removal and thus the greatest relief in the eective ank area.

When determining the lengths of the prole correction, a distinction is made between short and long prole
modication. In case of long tip and root relief, the entire double contact area is corrected, while in the case
of short execution, only half of the double contact area is removed. Either long or short reliefs are used on a
gearing. The long prole modication is usually suitable for a quiet operation, while the short prole correction
has better load behavior. As long as the overlap ratio is sucient, a long prole correction is more suitable
for helical gearing.

Figure 10.125: Selection of tip relief

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Linear and Circular Tip and Root Relief

Figure 10.126: Linear tip relief Figure 10.127: Linear root relief

Figure 10.128: Circular tip relief Figure 10.129: Circular root relief

The linear tip and root relief is executed in the eAssistant with a transition rounding from the modied to the
unmodied area. You can enter the start and end of the transition rounding in the corresponding input elds.
For circular relief, the input of the transition start and transition end is not required.

Figure 10.130: Selection of linear tip relief

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Linear Relief with Transition Radius

Figure 10.131: Linear relief with transition radius

In case you know the relief length, you can simply enter this value into the input eld. In case the length
is unknown, select `short' or `long' from the listbox. The eAssistant software determines the relief length
automatically. If a diameter is given on the drawing, it is possible to dene the diameter. Click the `d/l'
button on the right side to switch between the input for diameter or length.

Figure 10.132: Diameter and length

When you enable the checkbox `Use theoretical length of path of contact', then the theoretical path of contact
of a gear with a rack is used.

Figure 10.133: Use theoretical length of path of contact

Prole Crowning
Prole crowning can be seen as a combination of tip relief and root relief. Material is removed from the tip
and from the root of the tooth.

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Figure 10.134: Prole modication

You can select symmetric prole crowning from the listbox and add a value for Cha to the input eld.

Figure 10.135: Symmetric modication

10.7.2 Gear Flank Modications

Gear ank modications are intentional deviations from the theoretical tooth trace. Lead crowning and
end relief are typical gear ank modications and are advantageous for a better load distribution across the
facewidth of the gear. Both can compensate for misalignment so that the stresses do not rise at the tooth
ends.

Figure 10.136: Flank modication

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End Relief
Due to mesh misalignments, an overloading of the tooth ends occurs. Therefore, end relief is used to protect
the tooth ends from overloading. Usually, the relief applied is the same at both ends of the teeth. In case
crown shaving and crown grinding are not possible, then end relief is recommended.

Figure 10.137: End relief (double-sided)

End relief can be applied to both tooth ends or to the left or right end of the tooth.

Figure 10.138: Selection of end relief

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End relief: Double-sided, Left and Right Side

Figure 10.139: End relief (left side)

Figure 10.140: End relief (right side)

Figure 10.141: End relief (double-sided)

According to DIN 3990 Part 1, the height of end relief is calculated as follows:

For through-hardened gears: Ce ≈ Fβxcv plus a manufacturing tolerance of 5 to 10 µm. Thus, by analogy
with Fβxcv (initial equivalent misalignment) in DIN 3990, Ce should be approximately:

Ce = fsh + 1, 5 · fHβ

For surface hardened and nitrided gears: Ce ≈ 0, 5 · Fβxcv plus a manufacturing tolerance of 5 to 10 µm.
Ce should be approximately:

Ce = 0, 5 · (fsh + 1, 5 · fHβ )

When the gears are of such sti construction that fsh can for all practical purposes be neglected or when the
helices have been modied to compensate deformation, the following is appropriate:

Ce = fHβ

60% to 70% of the above values is appropriate for very accurate and reliable gears with high tangential
velocities.

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According to DIN 3990 Part 1, the width (or length) of end relief can be determined as follows:

Figure 10.142: End relief

For approximately constant loading and higher tangential velocities:

le = kleinerer Wert von 0, 1 · b oder 1·m

The following is appropriate for variable loading, low and average speeds:

bred = (0, 5 to 0, 7) · b

Lead Crowning
Lead crowning is a common way of crowning is the so-called lead crowning. This type is employed in order
to compensate for manufacturing deviations and load-induced deformations of the gears and in particular to
relieve the tooth-endloading.

Figure 10.143: Lead crowning

Gears are usually crowned symmetrically about the mid-facewidth and the tooth center is slightly thicker than
the tooth edges. The tooth anks of the gear have a slight outward bulge in its center area. It is possible to
select symmetrical and asymmetrical lead crowning from the listbox.

Figure 10.144: Symmetrical crowning Figure 10.145: Asymmetrical crowning

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According to DIN 3990 Part 1, the height of lead crowning can be determined as follows:

Cb = 0, 5 · (fsh + 1, 5 · fHβ )

When the gears are of such sti construction that fsh can for all practical purposes be neglected or when
the helices have been modied to compensate for deformation at mid-face width, the following value can be
substituted:

Cb = fHβ

Subject to the restriction 10 ≤ Cb ≤ 25 µm plus a manufacturing tolerance of about 5 µm, 60% to 70% of
the above values are adequate for extremely accurate and reliable high speed gears.

Figure 10.146: Height of lead crowning

10.8 Meshing Interferences for External Gears

If parts of the ank of gear and mating gear mesh outside of the path of contact or if the contact ratio is
γ < 1, then meshing interferences may occur. A large prole shift as well as a very small tip clearance may
cause meshing interferences. Interference takes place between the tip of the tooth of the gear and root llet
area of the mating tooth. In some cases, the interference may be eliminated by decreasing the addendum of
only one gear teeth. Due to meshing interferences, operating noise, gear failure (e.g., tooth breakage) and an
increased wear can occur. In case of a basic rack prole, meshing interferences can be manipulated or removed
by the following:

- Tip diameter modication,

- Addendum chamfer,

- Changing of prole shift,

- Other manufacturing tools

10.8.1 Meshing Interferences Due to Low Contact Ratio

To assure smooth continuous tooth action, a pair of teeth must already have come into engagement. Especially
for spur gear pairs a low contact ratio can appear:

- the prole shift is too large and a small number of teeth,

- the tip diameter modication is too large,

- an undercut occurs due to insucient prole shift and small number of teeth.

The condition for a smooth and continuous tooth action is:

γ = α + β > 1

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The result panel displays the total contact ratio. In case the condition γ = α + β > 1 is not fullled, the
total contact ratio will be marked in red. Furthermore, you will get an appropriate warning in the message
window.

Figure 10.147: Total contact ratio

10.9 Message Window

The calculation module provides a message window. This message window displays detailed information,
helpful hints or warnings about problems. One of the main benets of the program is that the software
provides suggestions for correcting errors during the data input. If you check the message window carefully
for any errors or warnings and follow the hints, you are able to nd a solution to quickly resolve calculation
problems.

Figure 10.148: Message window

10.10 Quick Info: Tooltip

The quick info tooltip provides additional information about all input elds and buttons. Move the mouse
pointer over the input eld or button, then you will get the additional information. This information will be
displayed in the quick info line.

Figure 10.149: Quick info line

10.11 Calculation Results

All results will be calculated during every input and will be displayed in the result panel. A recalculation
occurs after every data input. Any changes that are made to the user interface take eect immediately. In

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case a minimum safety is not fullled, the result will be marked red. Press the Enter key or move to the
next input eld to complete the input. Alternatively, use the Tab key to jump from eld to eld or click
the `Calculate' button after every input. Your entries will be also conrmed and the calculation results will
displayed automatically.

Figure 10.150: Calculation results

10.12 Documentation: Calculation Report

After the completion of your calculation, you can create a calculation report. Click on the `Report' button.

Figure 10.151: Button `Report'

The calculation report contains a table of contents. You can navigate through the report via the table of
contents that provides links to the input values, results and gures.

Figure 10.152: Calculation report

The report is available in HTML and PDF format. Calculation reports, saved in HTML format, can be opened
in a web browser or in Word for Windows. You may also print or save the calculation report:

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- To save the report in the HTML format, please select `File' ⇒ `Save as' from your browser menu bar.
Select the le type `Webpage complete', then just click on the `Save' button.

- If you click on the symbol `Print', then you can print the report very easily.

- If you click on the symbol `PDF', then the report appears in the PDF format. If you right-click on the
PDF symbol, you should see the `Save Target As' option. Click on that option and you will see the
Windows save dialog.

10.13 How to Save the Calculation

When the calculation is nished, it is easy to save the calculation. You can save your calculation either to the
eAssistant server or to your computer. Click on the button `Save'.

Figure 10.153: `Save' button

Before you can save the calculation to your computer, you need to activate the checkbox `Local' in the
calculation module. A standard Windows dialog for saving les will appear. Now you will be able to save the
calculation to your computer.

Figure 10.154: Windows dialog for saving the le

In case you do not activate the option in order to save your les locally, then a new window is opened and
you can save the calculation to the eAssistant server. Please enter a name into the input eld `Filename' and
click on the button `Save'.

Figure 10.155: Save the calculation

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10.14 The Button `Redo' and `Undo'

The `Undo' button allows you to reset your inputs to an older state. The `Redo' button reverses the undo.

Figure 10.156: The button `Redo' and `Undo'

10.15 The Button `CAD'

The top menu bar of the eAssistant software provides the button `CAD'.

Figure 10.157: Button `CAD'

The eAssistant plugin for various CAD systems (e.g., SOLIDWORKS, Solid Edge or Autodesk Inventor) en-
ables you to combine calculation and design very easily. On the basis of the eAssistant calculation, you can
generate spur gears in a 2D DXF format or create as a 3D part within seconds.

10.15.1 DXF Output for the Accurate Tooth Form

Click on the menu item `CAD ⇒ DXF Output'. Now you are able to create the accurate tooth form of any
involute gearing in the 2D DXF format. Use the various settings for the DXF output.

Figure 10.158: DXF output

For the DXF output the following options are possible:

- DXF output of gear 1, gear 2 or gear 3

- Output in normal section or transverse section (both options will be active when an helix angle is entered)

- DXF output with points, lines, polylines, arcs

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- Number of teeth

- Minimum point distance

- Input of a required layer name where the contour should be placed

- Save the DXF le including the header

Figure 10.159: Settings for the DXF output

When you have dened all settings, then click on the button `OK'. A standard Windows dialog is opened to
save the le.

Figure 10.160: Saving the DXF le

Now you can save the DXF le to your computer. Enter a name for the le and click on the button `Save'. It
is not necessary to specify the le extension. The le is identied automatically.

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10.15.2 STEP/IGES Format

Using this function allows to create the geometry of cylindrical gears as 3D CAD models in STEP or IGES
format. STEP as well as IGES are two standardised neutral le formats for CAD models. Almost every 3D
CAD system can import STEP les.

Figure 10.161: STEP format

The settings menu for the STEP and IGES output has a few dierent functions and allows to adjust the export
options as needed. The geometry can be generated as a solid model with one or all teeth or as a surface
model of the tooth space geometry. When exporting to a CAD system, you can also set the level of accuracy
to a desired value.

Figure 10.162: Inputs for STEP output

10.15.3 GDE Format

With the integration of the standardised GDE format into the modules for gears and involute splines, eAssistant
takes a step closer to a seamless data workow. GDE stands for Gear Data Exchange. This format, which is
dened in VDI/VDE guideline 2610, is already supported by many measuring machine manufacturers. With
the GDE format, geometries of cylindrical gears and involute splines can be loaded directly from the software
into the measuring machine. It only takes a few clicks to create a measuring program. This avoids transmission
errors and allows to work with standard measuring instructions.

Figure 10.163: GDE format

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10.15.4 eAssistant CAD Plugin

The eAssistant plugin for various CAD systems (e.g., SOLIDWORKS, Solid Edge, Autodesk Inventor) enables
you to combine calculation and design very easily and fast. Based on your eAssistant calculation, you can
generate external and internal spur and helical gears as a 3D part within seconds. A single menu pick in the
eAssistant software transfers the eAssistant calculation data to the CAD system. Based on these parameters,
the automatic creation of a 3D parametric model starts in the CAD system. Allowances, addendum chamfer,
prole shift and prole modications (tip and root relief ) are taken into consideration.

Figure 10.164: CAD plugin

The CAD model stores all features and dimensions as design parameters. The eAssistant calculation is linked
and associated to the part and can be opened at any time throughout the entire design phase. This is also
possible if one part contains dierent calculations. Click the button `CAD' and select the CAD plugin. Open
the CAD system and start the generation by clicking the integrated button `eAssistant'.

Please note: First you need to download and install the right CAD plugin for your CAD system. The plugin
is available on our web site www.eAssistant.eu. After installation, an integrated button called `eAssistant'
appears in the CAD system.

With just one click, the design table with all manufacturing details can be placed on the sheet. The appearance
and size of that table is individually congurable. There is no need to manually add all design table param-
eters to the drawing. For further information, please visit our web site www.eAssistant.eu or read the manual.

10.15.5 Manufaturing Data

The button `CAD ⇒ Manufacturing data' allows to save the manufacturing data to a text le.

Figure 10.165: Output of manufacturing data

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10.15.6 Coordinate Table

The gear tooth form geometry of a tooth space can be exported as a coordinate text le in transverse section
as well as in normal section.

Figure 10.166: Coordinate table

10.16 The Button `Options'

Click on the button `Options' in the top menu bar of the eAssistant software. This option allows you to change
some general settings:

- Unit switch between the metric system and the U.S. customary unit system

- Driving gear

- Minimum safety tooth root / tooth ank

- Minimum safety scung (integral) / scung (ash)

- Factor for minimal gear ring thickness: the factor can be specied by the user

- Chord of tooth root thickness analog FVA: this option has only eect on the calculation with protuberance
tools

- Number of decimal places for the calculation report

Figure 10.167: Settings

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Chapter 11

Straight and Helical Bevel Gears

According to ISO 23509

11.1 Start Calculation Module

Please login with your username and your password. To start the calculation module for straight or helical
bevel gears, please click the menu item `Gear calculation' on the left side and then select `Bevel gears -
straight/helical'.

Figure 11.1: General overview

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11. Straight and Helical Bevel Gears According to ISO 23509 566

11.2 Basic Conguration of a Bevel Gear Pair

The general calculation of bevel gears is based on the ISO 23509 standard. The bevel gear tooth system is
clearly determined by the reference cone angle δ and a basic crown gear. The crown gear is a bevel gear
where the reference cone angle is 90◦ . This causes the reference cone of the bevel gear to merge into the
crown gear reference plane perpendicular to the gear axis. The basic crown gear is an important factor for the
basic rack prole. The relation of a crown gear and bevel gear is similar to that of a rack and a spur gear.
The conguration part of the calculation module allows the input of the pressure angle, the number of teeth
and a desired reference cone diameter on the back cone of the gear. A recommended range of values for the
facewidth is displayed to the right of the corresponding input eld.

Figure 11.2: Bevel gear with crown gear

Please Note: All results will be calculated during every input and will be displayed in the result panel. A
recalculation occurs after every data input. Any changes that are made to the user interface take eect
immediately. In case a minimum safety is not fullled, the result will be marked red. Press the Enter key or
move to the next input eld to complete the input. Alternatively, use the Tab key to jump from eld to eld
or click the `Calculate' button after every input. Your entries will be also conrmed and the calculation results
will displayed automatically.

11.2.1 Type of Bevel Gears

Depending upon the tooth depth along the facewidth (constant or tapering tooth depth) or the curvature of
tooth traces, the bevel gears are categorized into the following types - straight, helical and spiral bevel gears.
The tooth form of bevel gears is slightly modied from the spherical involute tooth form. Bevel gear teeth are
said to have an octoid form. The line of action is a gure eight curve between the mating pair.

Straight Bevel Gears

Straight bevel gears are the simplest form and most widely used type of bevel gears. The teeth are straight
but their sides are tapered. At the end the tooth is large, while at the other end it is small. If the tooth
anks are extended inward they will intersect the axis in a common point called the reference cone apex. The
contact on the driven gear begins at the top of the tooth and progresses toward the root. It should be noted
that straight bevel gears tend to be noisy in operation. Errors in tooth prole, pitch or assembly limit the
capacity of bevel gears in high-speed applications. These gears are recommended at less speed and when loads
are light or where smoothness and quietness are not so important.

Helical Bevel Gears

A helical bevel gear is a toothed gear in an angular design. The teeth are inclined by the helix angle. Helical
bevel gears have signicantly better characteristics than straight bevel gears. The contact between the teeth
starts at one end of the gear and then spreads across the whole tooth. The teeth engage more gradually than

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11. Straight and Helical Bevel Gears According to ISO 23509 567

straight bevel gears, the total contact ratio is increased and causes the gears to run quieter and perfectly
smoother. They are mainly used in applications requiring high speeds, large power transmission or where noise
prevention is an important factor.

Figure 11.3: Straight and helical bevel gears

11.2.2 Form of Tooth Depth

The tooth depth along the facewidth is another distinguishing feature of bevel gears. The eAssistant software
allows to select either the tooth depth according to DIN 3971 - Figure 1, standard cone or the constant tooth
depth or from a listbox. A gure next to the listbox illustrates the dierence between the types.

Tooth Depth According to DIN 3971 - Figure 1

The tooth depth according to DIN 3971 - Figure 1 is the conguration where reference cone apex, tip cone
apex and root cone apex intersect in a common point.

Figure 11.4: Tooth depth according to DIN 3971 - Figure 1

Standard Depth Taper

The depth changes in proportion to the cone distance. If the root line is extended, it intersects the axis of the
pitch cone apex. Most straight bevel gears are often designed with a standard depth taper.

Figure 11.5: Standard depth taper

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11. Straight and Helical Bevel Gears According to ISO 23509 568

Constant Tooth Depth

The tooth depth remains constant along the facewidth and the face and root angle are identical and both
have the same value for the reference cone angle, disregarding the angle modication. The tooth root line is
parallel to an element of the face cone.

Figure 11.6: Constant tooth depth

11.2.3 Pressure Angle

The selection of a proper pressure angle depends on the purpose of the gearing. The most commonly used
design pressure angle for bevel gears is 20◦ . The following gures show the tooth form of a spur gear a), b)
and c) calculated with identical parameters.

Figure 11.7: a) αn = 15◦ Figure 11.8: b) αn = 20◦ Figure 11.9: c) αn = 27◦

For straight bevel gears, a lower pressure angle leads to higher overlap rates. The default startup setting for
the pressure angle is set to αn = 20◦ . Other angles may be used, but 45◦ is the maximum value that you can
enter into the input eld. To avoid undercut, the ISO 23509 recommends to use a nominal pressure angle of
20◦ or higher for pinions with 14 to 16 teeth and 25◦ for pinions with 12 or 13 teeth.

11.2.4 Shaft Angle

The shaft angle Σ of a bevel gear pair is the angle between the intersecting gear axes. The shaft angle can
be between 0◦ and 180◦ , but the shaft angle of 90◦ is normally used.

11.2.5 Oset
Bevel gears dier with regard to the oset. Bevel gears can have intersecting and non-intersecting axes. Bevel
gears without oset have intersecting axes, bevel gears with oset have non-intersecting axes and are hypoid
gears. Subsequently, this information refers to a bevel gear without oset, then a = 0.

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11.2.6 Number of Teeth

The number of teeth may inuence the tooth prole curvature, tooth depth and the manufacturing of the
gearing (e.g., undercut, pointed teeth). To prevent undercut, the minimum number on the pinion is `13'. `5'
is the smallest number you are allowed to enter into the input eld. Please keep in mind that the pinion always
gets the smaller number of teeth.

11.2.7 Reference Cone Diameter and Reference Cone Angle

The reference cone diameter de is the outer diameter of the reference cone. The reference cone is the reference
surface (rotational surface around the gear axis) of a bevel gear, a virtual surface that is used to determine
the basic parameters. The reference cone angle δ is the angle between the gear axis and the reference cone
envelope line. There is a `Lock' button next to the input eld for the reference cone diameter. This button
can be enabled or disabled. With locking the input eld for the reference cone diameter, the input eld for
the normal module is enabled. Now you can modify both the normal module and the helix angle. Clicking on
the `Lock' button next to the input eld of normal module or helix angle will enable the input eld for the
reference cone diameter.

Figure 11.10: `Lock' button

11.2.8 Facewidth
The facewidth b is dependent upon the kind of application of the gearing and the cone distance at the back
cone Re .

Figure 11.11: Facewidth

Please note: A facewidth of 25 to 30% of the mean cone distance Rm is a reasonable value for straight bevel
gears that works well in practice.

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11. Straight and Helical Bevel Gears According to ISO 23509 570

11.2.9 Mean Normal Module

The normal module mn is one of the basic parameters for the length dimensions of a bevel gear tooth system.
It is specied for a given cone distance. The normal module on the mean cone distance Rm is a common
parameter and the value of module is expressed in millimeters. It is recommended to use a module within a
range of m = b/8 to b/12. To be on the safe side and to avoid the risk of tooth breakage, you should stay
within that value range. It is possible to modify the normal module very easily. Disable the `Lock' button
behind the input eld for the helix angle. The input eld for the helix angle is disabled, the input eld for the
normal module is enabled. Now you can modify the normal module.

Figure 11.12: Facewidth, normal module and helix angle

11.2.10 Helix Angle

The helix angle β is the acute angle between the tangent to the reference tooth trace and the reference cone
envelope line through the tangent contact point. In straight bevel gears teeth have no helix angle, hence the
helix angle is β = 0◦ . For helical bevel gears the teeth are inclined by the angle β. The input eld for the
helix angle has a `Lock' button to modify the input values. The input eld is enabled by default. Click on
the `Lock' button, the input eld is diabled and the input eld for the normal module is enabled. The normal
module and helix angle aect each other (for a given outer reference cone diameter de ), so you can optimize
the values to meet your individual requirements.

11.3 Input of Tool Data

A basic rack prole can be selected from a listbox or can be dened individually by choosing `user dened
input'. Specic tools can be added to the list as well.

Figure 11.13: Input of tool data

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11. Straight and Helical Bevel Gears According to ISO 23509 571

Please note: You can add a description or a short comment to the cutter prole. The notes will appear later
in the calculation report.

11.3.1 Manufacturing of Straight and Helical Gears

When compared to spur gears, bevel gears are more dicult to manufacture due to their more complicated
geometry (e.g., cone-shaped teeth). The gear tooth form of a bevel gear is an octoidal tooth form, it is not
an involute. Most straight and helical bevel gears are produced by means of cutting processes like generate
planing, hobbing or broaching. Generate planing may be used for small series production or even for a few
pieces. The tooth prole is obtained by using a planing tool with a straight cutting edge that reciprocates
back and forth. The teeth are cut one after the other. The hobbing process is a much more popular process.
The tool consists of two intermeshing milling cutters representing the crown gear tooth. The cutting edges of
the milling cutter alternately machine the tooth gaps.

11.3.2 Standard Basic Rack Tooth Prole

In general, a standard basic rack tooth prole according to DIN 867 is used for bevel gears having a constant
tooth depth. The normal module is used as a reference length in the middle of the tooth width. The following
standard basic rack proles are available for your calculation. Choose the following proles from the listbox:

- ISO 53 Prol A

- ISO 53 Prol B

- ISO 53 Prol C

- ISO 53 Prol D

- DIN 3972 Prol I

- DIN 3972 Prol II

- Prol 1 DIN 867

- Prol 2 DIN 867

- Prol 3 DIN 867

- Prol 4 DIN 867

Please Note: If you select `user dened input', then the input elds for the edge radius, the addendum
coecient and the dedendum coecient are activated. Now it is easy to modify quickly the basic rack prole.

Figure 11.14: User dened input for the basic rack tooth prole

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11. Straight and Helical Bevel Gears According to ISO 23509 572

11.4 Input of Geometry Data

The input mask for the geometry data allows the specication of the helix angle direction as well as the prole
shift and thickness modication.

Figure 11.15: Input of geometry data

11.4.1 Helix Angle Direction

A left-hand pinion comes into mesh with a right-hand gear and vice-versa. When viewed the upright tooth
from the reference cone apex and the tooth leans to the right, then the tooth system is right-handed and
left-handed when the tooth leans to the left. The helix angle directions of pinion and gear are always opposite.
The pinion is usually the driving member of a meshing pair and denes the direction. The direction has no
inuence on the gear noise or eciency of the gears.

Figure 11.16: Helix angle direction

If you select `left' for the pinion, then the pinion is left-handed and the gear is right-handed. If you select `left'
for the gear, then the gear is left-handed and the pinion is right-handed.

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11. Straight and Helical Bevel Gears According to ISO 23509 573

11.4.2 Prole Shift

The bevel gear tooth system is designed as a gear pair with reference center distance. This means, a bevel
gear with a positive prole shift is always meshed with a bevel gear having an equally large negative prole
shift. Hence, the sum of the prole shift coecients is 0.

The prole shift is

- positive if the prole reference line is outside of the reference surface,

- negative if the prole reference line is inside of the reference surface.

The following factors may inuence the choice of the prole shift:

- Avoiding of undercut

- Adjustment of load capacity of the tooth root for pinion and gear via tooth thickness variation at the
basic rack prole

- Balanced specic sliding of the tooth anks

11.4.3 Thickness Modication

By using the thickness modication, the tooth root thickness is changed and this automatically changes the
tooth spacewidth. The thickness modication can be selected quite freely and is used to compensate the
dierences in the load capacity of the crown gear and the pinion. x∗S on pinion and gear is equal. This
modication oers a perfect opportunity to optimize the bevel gear toothing.

11.4.4 Angle Modication

By means of the angle modication, the pinion gets an additional prole modication at the small diameter
Ri to obtain a better tooth operation and to avoid cutter interference with a hub or shoulder. In general, the
value for the angle modication should not exceed 5◦ and should be used only for special cases.

Figure 11.17: Angle modication

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11. Straight and Helical Bevel Gears According to ISO 23509 574

11.4.5 Bottom Clearance

The buttom clearance c is the minimum distance between the tip of the tooth and root llet area of the mating
tooth. The size of the bottom clearance is usually between 0.2 to 0.3 · mean normal module.

Figure 11.18: Bottom clearance

11.4.6 Face Angle and Root Angle

The face angle δa is enclosed by the gear axis and the envelope line of the tip cone. The root angle δf is
enclosed by the gear axis and the envelope line of the root cone.

Figure 11.19: Face angle and root angle

11.4.7 Cone Distance

The cone distance R is the tip distance on the reference cone. The outer cone distance Re is the length of
the envelope lines of the reference cone bounded by the outer reference cone diameter.

Figure 11.20: Cone distance

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11. Straight and Helical Bevel Gears According to ISO 23509 575

The mean cone distance Rm describes the length of the envelope lines of the reference cone bounded by the
mean reference cone diameter or the outer cone distance diminished by half the facewidth b. The inner cone
distance Ri is the length of the envelope lines of the reference cone bounded by the inner reference cone
diameter or the outer cone distance diminished by the facewidth b.

11.5 Input of Data for the Gear Body

This input mask allows the input of the data for the gear body. This data can be used for the dimension sheet
or CAD model. In case a tooth tip chamfering is necessary, then the chamfering is carried out automatically
by the eAssistant software. By clicking on the `Tooth tip chamfering' button, the chamfering can be easily
modied manually if required.

Figure 11.21: Input of data for the gear body

11.5.1 Mounting Distance

The mounting distance tB is the distance between the reference cone apex and the reference face. The
mounting distance is required for the manufacturing, testing and mounting process of the bevel gear. There
is a `Lock' button next to the mounting distance. This button is disabled by default. By clicking on the
`Lock' button, you enable the input eld and you can modify the mounting distance. In case the input for the
mounting distance is enabled, the input eld for the test collar length is automatically disabled. If you click
again on the `Lock' button next to the test collar length, the input eld is enabled again.

11.5.2 Plane Distance

The plane distance is the distance between the reference face and a freely selectable plane perpendicular to
the gear axis and is denoted by tH .

11.5.3 Tip Circle Distance

The tip circle distance tE is the distance between tip circle on the back cone and the reference face.

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11. Straight and Helical Bevel Gears According to ISO 23509 576

11.5.4 Curve Radius

The Klingelnberg standard provides some reference values for the curve radius rr at the tooth ends selectable
for pinion and crown gear. The curve radius is set automatically by the module according to Klingelnberg.
There is the possibility to enable the curve radius using the `Lock' button. Now you can add and modify the
curve radius very easily. Click the button again to revert back to the default state.

Figure 11.22: Modication of curve radius

The following table shows the values set by the module (analogous to Klingelnberg Zyklo-Palloid
® spiral bevel
gears):

Typical Values for the Curve Radius rr 1

mn 1.0-2.0 2.0-3.5 3.5-5.0 5.0-6.0 6.0-7.0 7.0-9.0

rr 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

1 from: Klingelnberg KN3028: Auslegung eines Kegelradgetriebes ohne

Achsversatz mit Klingelnberg Zyklo-Palloid

® -Verzahnung, p. 33

Typical Values for the Curve Radius rr 1

mn 9.0-10 10-13 13-14 14-16 16-19 19-25

rr 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0

1 from: Klingelnberg KN3028: Auslegung eines Kegelradgetriebes ohne

Achsversatz mit Klingelnberg Zyklo-Palloid

® -Verzahnung, p. 33

11.5.5 Tooth Tip Chamfering

If the tip tooth thickness sa is smaller than 0.3 · mn , a tooth tip chamfering has to be carried out to avoid the
through-hardening. The risk of having a pointed tooth occurs at the smaller diameter of the pinion. For the
tooth tip chamfering the face angle δak is increased along the facewidth bk so that an approximately constant
tooth tip thickness of 0.3 · mn is obtained in this area.

Figure 11.23: Tooth tip chamfering

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11. Straight and Helical Bevel Gears According to ISO 23509 577

The tooth tip chamfering is carried out automatically by the eAssistant software. If this is the case, you will
receive a note in the message window. By clicking on the `Tooth tip chamfering' button, the values for the
chamfering are displayed. By clicking on the `Lock' button, you can dene the tooth tip thickness saik and
therefore inuence the tooth tip chamfering. Click the `Lock' button again to revert back to the default state.

Figure 11.24: Tooth tip chamfering

11.6 Input of Data for the Determination of Tolerances and Back-

lash
In addition to the class of shaft position accuracy, the calculation module provides proposals for the amount
of backlash according to Klingelnberg or Niemann. A backlash can be dened individually as well.

Figure 11.25: Input data for the determination of tolerances and backlash

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11. Straight and Helical Bevel Gears According to ISO 23509 578

11.6.1 Shaft Angle Deviation and Common Apex Deviation

The shaft angle deviation fΣ describes the dierence between the shaft angle of both gear axes in their actual
position and the theoretical value of this angle. The common apex deviation fa of a bevel gear pair is the
crossing distance of both gear axes in their actual position. The class of shaft position accuracy determines
the shaft angle deviation and the common apex deviation. The calculation is in accordance with DIN 3965.

Figure 11.26: Bevel gear pair: Position deviation of gear axes

11.6.2 Normal Backlash

The general purpose of backlash is to prevent the gears from jamming and manufacturing inaccuracies. For
that a proper backlash must be provided.

11.6.3 Circumferential Backlash

Errors in machining inuence the smooth and continuous tooth action. That makes it necessary to provide
a circumferential backlash to avoid jamming or interferences of the gearing. But please keep in mind that a
small circumferential backlash can cause jamming and using a too large circumferential backlash weakens the
tooth thickness. The choice of the right backlash will depend upon a number of factors, including the size of
the gearing, the tooth quality as well as the case of application. The normal and circumferential backlash are
determined according to Klingelnberg or Niemann. The corresponding method can be selected from the listbox.

Select the option `user dened input' from the listbox. Now you are able to enter your individual backlash.
Click the `Lock' button to enable the input eld and to specify your own value. If you select again one of the
methods, then the `Lock' button and the input elds are disabled.

Figure 11.27: Selection of `user dened input'

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11. Straight and Helical Bevel Gears According to ISO 23509 579

11.6.4 Tooth Quality

The ISO 17485 denes ten accuracy grades, numbered 2 to 11 in order of decreasing precision. Accuracy
grade `2' describes the highest possible accuracy, `11' is the lowest accuracy.

Figure 11.28: Denition of tooth quality

11.6.5 Application Factor q

ISO 17485 uses the application factor q in order to determine appropriate tolerance values for a required
accuracy grade. To avoid gear noise or prevent premature gear failure, the reference values for the application
factor that are shown in the following table should be used. Click the 'Question mark' button to open the
following table.

Figure 11.29: Application factor

Typical Values for the Application Factor q According to ISO2

Typical Values for Amplitudes of Single Flank Composite Tooth
Application Factor q
Mesh Component Deviations

Passenger car < 30 0.05

Truck 20 - 50 1.0

Industrial 40 - 100 2 to 2.5

Aircraft 40 - 200 (80 average) 2.0

2 from: ISO 17485: Bevel Gears - ISO System of Accuracy, p. 26, table B.1

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11.7 Calculation of Load Capacity of Straight and Helical Bevel

Gears
Gears fail by tooth breakage, pitting as well as by scung. The strength is determined by the loads, the
geometry of gearing as well as selected materials. The calculation of the load capacity is about the proof of
the following strength factors that result from the above-mentioned forms of damage:

- Load capacity of tooth root (safety against failure of the toothing due tooth breakage)

- Load capacity of tooth ank (safety against failure of the toothing due to pitting)

- Scung load capacity (safety against failure of the toothing due to scung)

Use the eAssistant software to check the load capacity of tooth root and tooth ank. The calculation of the
scung load capacity is not yet available. The material properties, endurance as well as the kind of lubrication
and the lubricant will be considered in the calculation. There are extended input options to inuence the
number of load changes or the roughness, the mode of operation can be selected.

Figure 11.30: Calculation of load capacity

The following factors consider the inuences of the load capacity calculation:

- Application factor KA evaluates the external dynamic forces that aect the gearing

- Dynamic factor KV considers additional inner dynamic forces

- Face load factors KF β and KHβ evaluate non-uniform load distribution across the facewidth

- Transverse factors KF α and KHα account for the eect of the non-uniform distribution of transverse
load between several pairs of simultaneously contacting gear teeth

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Load Capacity of the Tooth Root - Tooth Breakage

Tooth breakage is a fatigue failure. Pitting, scung or wear may weaken the tooth so that it breaks. The slow
progress of the fracture apparently causes the metal to break like brittle material. A tear or grinding notch
may cause a tooth breakage. Gear-tooth fractures ordinarily start in the root llet. The tooth breakage can
destroy an entire gearing and leads to a failure of the gearing. Sometimes a new tooth will break as a result
of severe overload or a serious defect in the tooth structure. According to DIN 3990, an operation with a
reduced load is possible after a tooth breakage, if just a small portion of a tooth broke o and the other parts
of the gearing are intact.

For a high load capacity of the tooth root, the following methods are advantageous: positive prole shift (for
small number of teeth), usage of hardened and tempered or case-hardened materials with larger load capacity
of the tooth root, larger root llet, larger module

Load Capacity of the Tooth Flank - Pitting of Gear Teeth

Pitting is a fatigue failure and is characterized by little bits of metal breaking out of the surface and thereby
leaving small holes or pits, so that oil seeps into the pits. This is caused by high tooth loads leading to
excessive surface stress, a high local temperature due to high rubbing speeds or inadequate lubrication. The
cracking of the surface develops, spreads and ultimately results in small bits breaking out of the tooth surface.
But it is often possible to get some years of service out of gears that have pitted rather extensively.

For a high load capacity of the tooth ank, the following methods are advantageous: large number of teeth,
positive prole shift (for small number of teeth), higher pressure angle, large hardness of tooth ank, nitriding,
more viscous oil

Scung Load Capacity

Scung is a surface destruction and it can be caused by a lubrication failure. Tears and scratches appear on
the rubbing surface of the teeth. This form of damage is called `scung'. The terms of `scung' and `scoring'
are used interchangeably. Scung is an important form of damage leading to component replacements in
lubricated mechanical systems. Compared with tooth breakage and pitting, it is not a fatigue failure, it can
come very quickly. A short overload can lead to scung and the gearing fails. Scung is apt to occur when
the gears are rst put into operation because the teeth have not sucient operating time to develop smooth
surfaces. Due to the scung, the temperature, the forces and the noise increase, the gear teeth nally break
o. The following factors may inuence the occurrence of scung:

- Gear material

- Lubrication

- Surface condition of tooth anks

- Sliding velocity

- Load

- Impurities in a lubricant

After the occurrence of scung, high-speed gears apt to additional dynamic forces that cause usually pitting or
tooth breakage. The high surface temperature may cause a breakdown of the lubricating lm. The following
factors support scung:

- High loads

- Kind of lubrication: Non-alloy oil protects less against scung than E.P. oil (extreme pressure)

- High oil temperature

- Rough oil surface

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11. Straight and Helical Bevel Gears According to ISO 23509 582

- Low gear quality: Larger contact ratio and tooth alignment errors may cause local stresses by impacts
and unbalanced carrying.

For a high scung load capacity, the following methods are advantageous: E.P. oils (oil that contains chemical
additives), a careful running-in period of the gearing, low sliding velocity due to tip relief and a smaller module

11.7.1 Activate Load Capacity

Click on the button `Load capacity' to get to the calculation mask. You will notice that all input elds
or listboxes are disabled. When you select the entry `ISO 10300 Method B1' from the listbox `Calculation
method', all input elds are enabled. In case you do not need the calculation for the load capacity, the
calculation can be deactivated. Thus, the size of the calculation report becomes smaller.

Figure 11.31: Activate the calculation for the load capacity

11.7.2 Inputs for Load Capacity According to ISO 10300 Method B1

Comment
You can add a description or a short comment to gear 1 and gear 2.

Figure 11.32: Add a description

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Material Selection
Select an appropriate material directly from the listbox. Clicking the button `Material' opens the material
database.

Figure 11.33: Listbox `Material'

The material database provides some detailed information on the several kinds of material. If the listbox is
active, the two arrow keys `Up' and `Down' of your keyboard allows you to search through the database, so
you can compare the dierent values with each other.

Figure 11.34: Material selection

In order for gears to achieve their intended performance, life and reliability, the selection of a suitable material
is very important. Steel is the most common material that is used for gears. There are a number of steels
used for gears, ranging from plain carbon steels through the highly alloyed steels from low to high carbon
contents. The choice will depend upon a number of factors, including size, service and design. For pinion
and gear, the same hardened and tempered steel may be used. It has to be kept in mind that unhardened
gears with equal hardness should not be meshed with each other because scung is apt to occur. A hardened
or nidrided gear HRC > 50 smoothes the tooth anks of the hardened and tempered mating gear, reduces
the form deviations and increases the load capacity of the tooth ank. For a mating of hardened gears, no
hardness dierence is necessary. The nal selection of the material should be based upon an understanding of
the material properties and application requirements.

Kind of Material
Steel casting : Steel casting belongs to the ferrous metals that include carbon (up to max. 2%) and are poured
into sand molds to produce several components. Due to a higher melting temperature, steel casting is more
dicult to cast than cast iron. Steel casting is cheaper than ground or forged gears.

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11. Straight and Helical Bevel Gears According to ISO 23509 584

Steel : Steel is the most common material and is used for medium and high-loaded gears.

Nidrided steel : Nitriding is adding nitrogen to solid iron-base alloys by heating the steel in contact with am-
monia gas or other suitable nitrogenous material. This process is used to harden the surface of gears.

Case-hardened steel : Case-hardened steel is a quality and high-grade steel with low carbon content. Case-
hardened steel is usually formed by diusing carbon (carburization), nitrogen (nitriding) into the outer layer
of the steel at high temperature and then heat treating the surface layer to the desired hardness. When the
steel is cooled rapidly by quenching, the higher carbon content on the outer surface becomes hard while the
core remains soft and tough.

Blackheart malleable cast iron (pearlitic structure): Malleable cast iron is a heat-treated iron carbon alloy.
Two groups of malleable cast iron are specied, whiteheart and blackheart cast iron. Blackheart malleable cast
iron is used for parts with a complex shape, in which a high durability, shock resistance and good machining
are important. Malleable cast iron is used for smaller dimensions and has got a higher strength and toughness
than steel castings.

Cast iron with spheroidal graphite (pearlitic structure, bainitic structure, ferritic structure): Cast iron usually
refers to gray cast iron but identies a large group of ferrous alloys that contain more than 2% of carbon. It
is extremely rare that the maximum carbon content is higher than 4.5%. Cast iron is a low-priced material.
However, cast iron has less toughness and ductility than steel. Cast iron with spheroidal graphite can be used
for parts with higher vibration stress.

Heat-treated steel : Hardening and tempering is a heat-treating technique for steels by quenching from the
hardness temperature and annealing at a high temperature so that the toughness is increased signicantly. At
the same time, a higher elastic limit is reached. Annealing temperatures and times dier for dierent materials
and with properties desired, steel is usually held for several hours at about 400◦ C to 700◦ C . Some steels have
to be cooled very quickly (Annealing: in order to achieve the intended properties of work pieces (e.g., desired
strength or toughness), reheating of the work pieces to certain temperatures is necessary.).

Gray cast iron: Gray cast iron is used for complex shapes and oers low cost and an easy machinability. It
provides excellent damping properties but it is a disadvantage that the load capacity is very low.

Dene Your Own Material

In case there is no material that will fulll the design requirements, then simply dene your individual material.
Select the option `User dened input' and all inputs and options are activated and you can specify your
individual material very easily. Your inputs will be saved to the calculation le. Please be advised that
changing the material will delete your dened inputs and you have to enter the inputs again.

Figure 11.35: Own input of a material

Application Factor KA
The application factor KA evaluates the external dynamic forces that aect the gearing. These additional
forces are largely dependent on the characteristics of the driving and driven machines as well as the masses

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11. Straight and Helical Bevel Gears According to ISO 23509 585

and stiness of the system, including shafts and couplings used in service. Because scung is not a fatigue
failure, the application factor shall consider the stronger inuence of several load peaks during the calculation
of the scung load capacity. Several load peaks aect directly only the ank temperature. Because of that,
the same application factor KA can be used for the calculation of the scung load capacity as well as of
the load capacity of the tooth root and tooth ank. The application factor is determined by experience. An
application factor of `1.0' is best thought of a perfectly smooth operation. The following table gives some
values according to DIN 3990.

Application Factors KA According to DIN 3990-1: 1987-125

Working Characteristics Working Characteristics of the Driven Machine

of the Driving Machine

Uniform Light shocks Moderate shocks Heavy shocks

Uniform 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75

Light shocks 1.1 1.35 1.6 1.85

Moderate shocks 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0

Heavy shocks 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.25 or higher

5 from: DIN 3990 Part 1, December 1987, p. 55, table A1

Working Characteristics of the Driving Machine

- Uniform: e.g., electric motor, steam or gas turbine (small, rarely occurring starting torques)

- Light Shocks: e.g., electric motor, steam or gas turbine (large, frequently occurring starting torques)

- Moderate Shocks: e.g., multiple cylinder internal combustion engines

- Heavy Shocks: e.g., single cylinder internal combustion engines

Working Characteristics of the Driven Machines

- Uniform: e.g., steady load current generator, uniformly loaded conveyor belt or platform conveyor, worm
conveyor, light lifts, packing machinery, feed drives for machine tools, ventilators, centrifuges, centrifugal
pumps, agitators and mixers for light liquids or uniform density materials, shears, presses ...

- Light Shocks: e.g., heavy lifts, crane slewing gear, industrial and mine ventilator, centrifugal pumps,
agitators and mixers for viscous liquids or substances of non-uniform density, multi-cylinder piston pumps
...

- Moderate Shocks: e.g., rubber extruders, continuously mixers for rubber and plastics, wood-working
machine, lifting gear, single cylinder piston pumps ...

- Heavy Shocks: e.g., excavators (bucket wheel drives), rubber kneaders, foundry machines, brick presses,
peeling machines, rotary drills ...

Please Note: You will nd a `Question mark' button next to the input eld. Click on this button and
the above-mentioned table opens. The `Question mark' button is an additional feature and provides further
information. You will nd this button next to several input elds.

Figure 11.36: Open table with application factor

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11. Straight and Helical Bevel Gears According to ISO 23509 586

Face Load Factors KF β and KHβ

The face load factor takes into account the eects of the non-uniform distribution of load over the gear
facewidth on the surface stress KHβ , on the tooth root stress KF β and on the scung KBβ . The face load
factor can be entered manually or can determined according to ISO 10300 Part 1 Method C. Click on the
`Calculator' button to open the input mask for the face load factor.

Figure 11.37: Dimensioning of the face load factor

The listbox already displays the entry `ISO 10300 Part 1 Method C' and the input eld for the mounting
factor KHβ−be is active. The table provides some reference values for the mounting factor KHβ−be . Enter a
value from this table into the input eld click the button `Ok'. The face load factor is determined and applied
automatically to the main mask.

Figure 11.38: Face load factor

The following table shows reference values for the mounting factor. The inuence of the deections, and thus
of the bearing arrangement, is accounted for by the mounting factor KHβ−be :

Reference Values for the Mounting Factor KHβ−be 6

Mounting Conditions of Pinion and Gear
Verication of the Contact Pattern

Neither Mem- One Member Both Members

ber Cantilever Cantilever Cantilever
Mounted Mounted Mounted

For each gear set in its housing under full load 1.00 1.00 1.00

For each gear set under light test load 1.05 1.10 1.25

For sample gear set and estimated for full load 1.20 1.32 1.50

6 from: ISO 10300 Part 1, 2001, p. 26, table 3

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11. Straight and Helical Bevel Gears According to ISO 23509 587

In case you already use a dened face load factor, you can enter this factor. Simply click on the `Calculator'
button to open the window for the determination of the face oad factor. Select `User-dened input` from
the listbox and click on the `OK' button.

Figure 11.39: Own input of the face load factor

The input eld for the face load factor is enabled and you can add your own values. If you need this factor
for several calculations, we recommend you to dene a template le. That saves both time and work. Enter
the value for the face load factor and click on the `Save' button. Please name the le `standard'. If you now
open the eAssistant software, then module starts with your dened face load factor.

Figure 11.40: Face load factor

Kind of Lubrication and Selection of a Lubricant

Lubrication serves several purposes but its basic and most important function is to protect the sliding and
rolling tooth surfaces from seizing, wear and friction. The friction of the tooth ank is responsible for ank
wear, gear heating and gear noise. A reduced ank friction improves the eciency that is dependent on the
tooth load, circumferential velocity, gear quality and the surface condition of the tooth anks. In order that
the gearing should work properly, the selection of a lubricant is an important choice. A liquid lubricant is a
good choice and can be easily introduced between the contacting surfaces. In addition, a lubrication has to
reduce frictional heat and has to protect the surfaces against corrosion. The bearings and clutches in a gearing
require also an appropriate lubricant. Therefore, the lubricant has to be suitable as well. Oil and greases are
the most common lubricants.

Figure 11.41: Selection of the lubricant

Liquid lubricants may be characterized in many dierent ways. Viscosity is one very important property of
a lubricant and determines the oils lubricating eciency. For the selection of liquid lubricants applies: the
smaller circumferential velocity and larger the contact pressure as well as the roughness of tooth anks, the
higher the viscosity. A higher viscosity will result in a higher hydrodynamic load capacity and an increased
scung load limit where scratching and scung of the tooth anks occur. (Muhs/Wittel/Jannasch/Vossiek:
Rolo/Matek Maschinenelemente, 17th revised edition, published by Vieweg, Wiesbaden 2005.)

Please Note: If the viscosity is too low, the oil lm will not be suciently formed and if the viscosity is too
high, the viscosity resistance will also be high and cause temperature rise. For higher speed, a lower viscosity
oil should be used and for heavy loads, a higher viscosity oil should be used.

Gears that are running primarily in a gearbox are lubricated with oil. A distinction is made between oil splash
lubrication and oil injection lubrication.

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11. Straight and Helical Bevel Gears According to ISO 23509 588

Oil splash lubrication: The oil splash lubrication is an easy, reliable and reasonable lubrication system. It is
a type of lubrication used in enclosed gear drives. In splash lubrication, the gear tooth dips into a tray of
lubricant and transfers the lubricant to the meshing gear as it rotates. As a result, oil reaches all of the places
where it is needed. The oil splash lubrication can be used for average speed applications.

Oil injection lubrication: With the oil injection lubrication, the oil can be ltered, cooled and checked and
the oil is directly fed to the bearings. The amount of oil can be controlled according to the heat dissipation
requirements. The gearbox is used as an oil tank reservoir from which several units can be supplied. The oil
is sprayed directly by a pump injector into the mating surfaces.

Grease lubrication: The selection of the grease is dependent upon the circumferential velocity, the kind of
application and the service temperature. A grease lubrication requires low maintenance and protects against
contamination. Grease lubrication is suitable for any gear system that is opened or enclosed, so long as it runs
at low speed. The grease should have a suitable viscosity with good uidity especially in a enclosed gear unit.

Select an appropriate lubricant directly from the listbox or click on the button `Lubricant' to open the lubricant
database.

Figure 11.42: Selection of the lubricant

The database provides some detailed information on the lubricants (e.g., density, viscosity, load stage of FZG
test). Select the entry `user dened input' to enable the input elds and to enter your own value based on
your experience.

Figure 11.43: Dene own lubricant

11.7.3 Extended Input Options for Load Capacity of Tooth Root and Tooth
Flank
The main mask of the load capacity provides the button `Tooth root/ank', click on that button and the
extended input options appear.

Figure 11.44: Extended input options

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11. Straight and Helical Bevel Gears According to ISO 23509 589

If you do not change any inputs in the following mask, then the default input values are used.

Figure 11.45: Options for Load Capacity of Tooth Root and Tooth Flank

Roughness
The surface roughness of the tooth anks inuences the load capacity of the tooth anks. The average
roughness Rz is the arithmetic average of ve individually measured roughness values. The input of the
roughness occurs for root and ank of pinion and gear. The right choice of the surface roughness is determined
by economical aspects depending upon the intended purpose and manufacturing process. A ne surface can
be very expensive because of the high manufacturing costs. A surface that is too rough may not fulll the
required functionality.

Figure 11.46: Roughness

Long Life Factors YN T and ZN T

The long life factor YN T accounts the higher tooth root stress and the long life factor ZN T accounts the
higher contact stress including static stress, which may be tolerable for a limited life (number of load cycles).
The main inuences to YN T and ZN T are material and heat treatment.

Long life factor YN T :

With optimum lubrication, material and manufacturing YN T = 1.0 may be used for the number of load cycles
NL = 3 · 106 . For static stresses NL ≤ 103 , the long life factor is 2.5.

Long life factor ZN T :

With optimum lubrication, material and manufacturing ZN T = 1.0 may be used for the number of load cycles
NL = 5 · 107 . For static stresses NL ≤ 105 , the long life factor is 1.6.

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11. Straight and Helical Bevel Gears According to ISO 23509 590

The following gures show the factors YN T and ZN T for the static and endurance stresses depending on heat
treatment and material.

Figure 11.47: Long life factor YN T

Figure 11.48: Long life factor ZN T

Use the `Lock' button next to modify the long life factors YN T and ZN T . The input elds are enabled and
you can dene your own value for the factors. Please remember to keep the modied input eld open or the
default values will be used again.

Mode of Operation Factor YA

The fatigue strength of the tooth root σF lim is corrected with the inuence of the mode of operation.

σF lim = σF lim0 YA

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11. Straight and Helical Bevel Gears According to ISO 23509 591

σF lim0 Fatigue strength of the tooth root from material data

σF lim Fatigue strength of the tooth root with inuence of the mode of operation factor

YA Mode of operation factor (see following table)

The following table provides some guideline values for the mode of operation factor YA :

Mode of Operation Factor YA According to Linke7

Mode of Operation Mode of Operation Factor YA Direction of Load

Swelling 1

Alternating 0.7

lgNrev
0.85 - 0.15
6

Oscillating
(for 1 ≤ Nrev ≤ 106 )

0.7 (for Nrev > 106 )

Please Note: Nrev = Number of load direction changes during operation time

7 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl Hanser Verlag

Muenchen Wien, 1996, p. 321, table 6.5/7

Clicking the `Question mark' button allows you to open the table above.

Figure 11.49: `Question mark' button to open the table

Dynamic Coecient KV
The dynamic coecient KV considers additional inner dynamic forces. Inner dynamic forces are caused by
mesh alignments, lead crowning, deformation of teeth, the housing, shafts and gear bodies as well as oscillation
of the wheel masses. As the circumferential velocity of the gear rim increases, the dynamic forces increase.
The forces decrease with an increasing load of the teeth. Click on the `Lock' button to enable the input eld
and enter your own value.

Figure 11.50: Dynamic coecient, transverse coecient, bevel gear factor

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11. Straight and Helical Bevel Gears According to ISO 23509 592

Transverse Coecients KHα

The transverse coecients account for the eect of the non-uniform distribution of transverse load between
several pairs of simultaneously contacting gear teeth on the surface pressure (KHα ), stress leading to scung
(KBα ) and loading of the tooth root (KF α ). Click on the `Lock' button to enable the input eld and enter
your own value.

Bevel Gear Factor ZK

The factor ZK is an empirical factor which accounts for the dierence between bevel- and cylindrical-gear
loading in such a way as to agree with practical experience. It is a stress adjustment constant which permits
the rating of bevel, spur and helical gears, with the same allowable contact stress numbers for any material.
The eAssistant software uses ZK = 0.8 for bevel gears. Click the `Lock' button to modify the bevel gear factor.

Eective Facewidth
be is eective facewidth (real length of contact pattern). In the case of full load, the contact pattern typically
has a minimum length of 85% of facewidth. If it is not possible to obtain information of pattern length under
load conditions, be = 0.85·b should be used. Click the `Lock' button to enter the factor for eective facewidth.

Figure 11.51: Eective facewidth

Permit Pitting
In specic cases, the development of pits on the gear ank is allowed. Use this option to permit several pits.
In general, initial pitting is considered normal and is not a cause for concern. In particular, case-hardened and
nitrided gears usually has the tendency to pit near the tooth root and lead eventually to fatigue breakage. Here
an individual assessment is necessary. In some cases (aerospace industry), pits are absolutely not permitted.
For turbo transmissions, pits may lead to oscillations and increased additional dynamic forces.

Figure 11.52: Permit pitting

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11. Straight and Helical Bevel Gears According to ISO 23509 593

11.8 Message Window

The calculation module provides a message window. This message window displays detailed information,
helpful hints or warnings about problems. One of the main benets of the program is that the software
provides suggestions for correcting errors during the data input. If you check the message window carefully
for any errors or warnings and follow the hints, you are able to nd a solution to quickly resolve calculation
problems.

Figure 11.53: Message window

11.9 Quick Info: Tooltip

The quick info tooltip provides additional information about all input elds and buttons. Move the mouse
pointer over the input eld or button, then you will get the additional information. This information will be
displayed in the quick info line.

Figure 11.54: Quick info

11.10 Calculation Results

All results will be calculated during every input and will be displayed in the result panel. A recalculation
occurs after every data input. Any changes that are made to the user interface take eect immediately. In
case a minimum safety is not fullled, the result will be marked red. Press the Enter key or move to the
next input eld to complete the input. Alternatively, use the Tab key to jump from eld to eld or click
the `Calculate' button after every input. Your entries will be also conrmed and the calculation results will
displayed automatically.

Figure 11.55: Calculation results

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11. Straight and Helical Bevel Gears According to ISO 23509 594

11.11 Documentation: Calculation Report

The `Report' button enables you to generate a calculation report.

Figure 11.56: Button `Report'

The calculation report contains a table of contents. You can navigate through the report via the table of
contents that provides links to the input values, results and gures. The report is available in HTML and PDF
format. Calculation reports, saved in HTML format, can be opened in a web browser or in Word for Windows.

Figure 11.57: Calculation report

You may also print or save the calculation report:

- To save the report in the HTML format, please select `File' ⇒ `Save as' from your browser menu bar.
Select the le type `Webpage complete', then just click the `Save' button.

- If you click on the symbol `Print', then you can print the report very easily.

- If you click on the symbol `PDF', then the report appears in the PDF format. If you right-click on the
PDF symbol, you should see the `Save Target As' option. Click on that option and you will see the
Windows save dialog.

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11. Straight and Helical Bevel Gears According to ISO 23509 595

11.12 How to Save the Calculation

When the calculation is nished, it is easy to save the calculation. You can save your calculation either to the
eAssistant server or to your computer. Click on the button `Save'.

Figure 11.58: Button `Save'

Before you can save the calculation to your computer, you need to activate the checkbox `Local' in the
calculation module. A standard Windows dialog for saving les will appear. Now you will be able to save the
calculation to your computer.

Figure 11.59: Windows dialog for saving the le

In case you do not activate the option in order to save your les locally, then a new window is opened and
you can save the calculation to the eAssistant server. Please enter a name into the input eld `Filename' and
click on the button `Save'.

Figure 11.60: Save the calculation

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11. Straight and Helical Bevel Gears According to ISO 23509 596

11.13 The Button `Redo' and `Undo'

The `Undo' button allows you to reset your inputs to an older state. The `Redo' button reverses the undo.

Figure 11.61: `Redo' and `Undo'

11.14 The Button `CAD'

The top menu bar of the eAssistant software provides the button `CAD'.

Figure 11.62: Button `CAD'

The eAssistant plugin for various CAD systems (e.g., SOLIDWORKS, Solid Edge or Autodesk Inventor) en-
ables you to combine calculation and design very easily. On the basis of the eAssistant calculation, you can
create bevel gears as a 3D part within seconds.

11.14.1 STEP/IGES-Format
Using this function allows to create the geometry of straight and helical bevel gears as 3D CAD models in
STEP or IGES format. STEP as well as IGES are two standardised neutral le formats for CAD models.
Almost every 3D CAD system can import STEP les.

Figure 11.63: STEP format

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11. Straight and Helical Bevel Gears According to ISO 23509 597

The settings menu for the STEP and IGES output has a few dierent functions and allows to adjust the export
options as needed. The geometry can be generated as a solid model with one or all teeth or as a surface
model of the tooth space geometry. When exporting to a CAD system, you can also set the level of accuracy
to a desired value.

Figure 11.64: Inputs for STEP output

11.14.2 eAssistant CAD Plugin

The eAssistant plugin for various CAD systems (e.g., SOLIDWORKS, Solid Edge, Autodesk Inventor) enables
you to combine calculation and design very easily and fast. Based on your eAssistant calculation, you can
generate straight and helical gears as a 3D part within seconds. A single menu pick in the eAssistant software
transfers the eAssistant calculation data to the CAD system. Based on these parameters, the automatic
creation of a 3D parametric model starts in the CAD system. Allowances, addendum chamfer, prole shift are
taken into consideration.

Figure 11.65: Output CAD plugin

The CAD model stores all features and dimensions as design parameters. The eAssistant calculation is linked
and associated to the part and can be opened at any time throughout the entire design phase. This is also
possible if one part contains dierent calculations. Click the button `CAD' and select the CAD plugin. Open
the CAD system and start the generation by clicking the integrated button `eAssistant'.

Please note: First you need to download and install the right CAD plugin for your CAD system. The plugin
is available on our web site www.eAssistant.eu. After installation, an integrated button called `eAssistant'
appears in the CAD system.

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11. Straight and Helical Bevel Gears According to ISO 23509 598

With just one click, the design table with all manufacturing details can be placed on the sheet. The appearance
and size of that table is individually congurable. There is no need to manually add all design table parameters
to the drawing.

Please note: For further information, please visit our web site www.eAssistant.eu or read the CAD plugin
manual.

11.15 The Button `Options'

Click on the button `Options' in the top menu bar of the eAssistant software to change some general settings.

Figure 11.66: Button `Options'

Here are the default settings that you can modify:

- Unit switch between the metric system and the U.S. customary unit system

- Minimum safety tooth root

- Minimum safety tooth ank

- Minimum safety scung (integral)

- Minimum safety scung (ah)

- Spiral angle factor Zβ calculation according to ISO 6336-2

- Number of decimal places for calculation report

Figure 11.67: Options

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Chapter 12

Spiral Bevel Gears According to

Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO
23509

12.1 Start Calculation Module

Please login with your username and your password. To start the calculation module for straight or helical
bevel gears, please click the menu item `Gear calculation' on the left side and then select `Spiral bevel gears'.

Figure 12.1: General overview

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 600

12.2 Basic Conguration of Bevel Gear Pair

The general calculation of bevel gears is based on the ISO 23509 standard. The bevel gear tooth system is
clearly determined by the reference cone angle δ and a basic crown gear. The crown gear is a bevel gear where
the reference cone angle is 90◦ . This causes the reference cone of the bevel gear to merge into the crown gear
reference plane perpendicular to the gear axis. The basic crown gear is an important factor for the basic rack
prole. The relation of a crown gear and bevel gear is similar to that of a rack and a spur gear.

Figure 12.2: Bevel gear with crown gear

The conguration part of the calculation module allows the input of the pressure angle, the number of teeth
and a desired reference cone diameter on the back cone of the gear. A recommended range of values for the
facewidth, normal module and spiral angle is displayed to the right of the corresponding input eld.

Please Note: All results will be calculated during every input and will be displayed in the result panel. A
recalculation occurs after every data input. Any changes that are made to the user interface take eect
immediately. In case a minimum safety is not fullled, the result will be marked red. Press the Enter key or
move to the next input eld to complete the input. Alternatively, use the Tab key to jump from eld to eld
or click the `Calculate' button after every input. Your entries will be also conrmed and the calculation results
will displayed automatically.

12.2.1 Types of Bevel Gears

Several dierent kinds of bevel gears are in common use. Depending upon the tooth depth along the facewidth
(constant or tapering tooth depth) or the curvature of tooth traces, the bevel gears are categorized into the
following types - straight, helical and spiral bevel gears.

Figure 12.3: Curvature of tooth traces

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 601

® ®
There are two dierent procedures for manufacturing Klingelnberg spiral bevel gears. Hence, two main gearing
types are distinguished - the Palloid
®
and Zyklo-Palloid system. The eAssistant module allows a fast and

®
easy calculation of Klingelnberg Zyklo-Palloid
®
spiral bevel gears. Variable hobbing heads are used for the
Palloid
Palloid
® system and two-part cutting heads for the Zyklo-Palloid system. General advantages of Zyklo-
gears are, for example, an exceptional displacement capability, a high degree of tooth accuracy, a
high load capacity, a good contact pattern as well as a low noise level.

12.2.2 Tooth Trace

The form of the tooth trace determines the disposition of the tooth ank. The following tooth traces can be
distinguished - circular arc, involute and extended epicycloid.

Figure 12.4: Tooth traces

The tooth curvature of the Zyklo-Palloid

® spiral bevel gear along the facewidth is that of an extended epicy-
cloid. The epicycloid gives the curved shape of the teeth. Because of this contour, more teeth are in contact

quietly and smoothly than straight bevel gears. Zyklo-Palloid

®
at the same time and a perfectly smooth operation is provided. Spiral bevel gears transmit the motion more
bevel gears, originally developed for smaller
gear sizes, have a constant tooth depth along the entire facewidth. When the bevel gear tooth has a constant
tooth depth along the facewidth, then the face and root angle are identical and both have the same value for
the reference cone angle, disregarding the angle modication. In this case, the tooth root line is parallel to an
element of the face cone. If the tooth tips of the toe become smaller and the through-hardening starts at the
tooth tip, then tooth tip chamfering is carried out.

Please Note: The calculation module checks if a tooth tip chamfering is necessary and if so, the chamfering
is carried out automatically to avoid through-hardening. In addition, the tooth tip chamfering can be modied
manually at any time.

12.2.3 Constant Tooth Depth

The tooth depth remains constant along the facewidth and the face and root angle are identical and both
have the same value for the reference cone angle, disregarding the angle modication. The tooth root line is
parallel to an element of the face cone.

Figure 12.5: Constant tooth depth

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 602

12.2.4 Pressure Angle

Spiral bevel gears are commonly made with 17, 5◦ and 20◦ pressure angles. The most commonly used design
◦
pressure angle for bevel gears is 20 . The default startup setting for the pressure angle is set to 20◦ . Other
◦
angles may be used, but 45 is the maximum value that you can enter into the input eld.

Figure 12.6: Pressure angle, shaft angle, oset

The following gures show the tooth form of a spur gear a), b) and c) calculated with identical parameters.

Figure 12.7: a) αn = 15◦ Figure 12.8: b) αn = 20◦ Figure 12.9: c) αn = 27◦

12.2.5 Shaft Angle

The shaft angle Σ of a bevel gear pair is the angle between the intersecting gear axes. The shaft angle can
be between 0◦ and 180◦ , but the shaft angle of 90◦ is normally used.

12.2.6 Oset
Bevel gears dier with regard to the oset. Bevel gears can have intersecting and non-intersecting axes. Bevel
gears without oset have intersecting axes, bevel gears with oset have non-intersecting axes and are hypoid
gears. Subsequently, this information refers to a bevel gear without oset, then a = 0.

12.2.7 Number of Teeth

The number of teeth may inuence the tooth prole curvature, tooth depth and the manufacturing of the
gearing (e.g., undercut, pointed teeth). The smallest allowed number of teeth is `5', but in order to ensure
good running properties it is highly recommended that you choose a value larger than `8'.

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 603

`5' is the smallest number you are allowed to enter into the input eld. Please keep in mind that the pinion
always gets the smaller number of teeth. ISO 23509 (bevel and hypoid gear geometry) gives recommended
minimum pinion numbers of teeth for spiral bevel gears depending on the gear ratio u = z2 /z1 . The gear ratio
is the ratio of the number of gear teeth to the number of pinion teeth.

Suggested Values for Minimum Pinion Numbers of Teeth1

Approximate Ratio Minimum Number of Pinion Teeth, z1
1.00 ≤ u ≤ 1.50 13

1.50 ≤ u ≤ 1.75 12

1.75 ≤ u ≤ 2.00 11

2.00 ≤ u ≤ 2.50 10

2.50 ≤ u ≤ 3.00 9

3.00 ≤ u ≤ 3.50 9

3.50 ≤ u ≤ 4.00 9

4.00 ≤ u ≤ 4.50 8

4.50 ≤ u ≤ 5.00 7

5.00 ≤ u ≤ 6.00 6

6.00 ≤ u ≤ 7.50 5

7.50 ≤ u ≤ 10.0 5

1 from: ISO 23509: Bevel and Hypoid Gear Geometry, p. 70, table B.2

Please note: For the manufacturing on a Klingelnberg machine, the number of teeth of gear/pinion and the
number of blade groups should have no common factor. If there is a common factor, the same blades will
always engage.

12.2.8 Reference Cone Diameter and Reference Cone Angle

The reference cone diameter de is the outer diameter of the reference cone. The reference cone is the reference
surface (rotational surface around the gear axis) of a bevel gear, a virtual surface that is used to determine
the basic parameters. The reference cone angle δ is the angle between the gear axis and the reference cone
envelope line. There is a `Lock' button next to the input eld for the reference cone diameter. This button
can be enabled or disabled. With locking the input eld for the reference cone diameter, the input eld for
the normal module is enabled. Now you can modify both the normal module and the spiral angle. Clicking
on the `Lock' button next to the input eld of normal module or spiral angle will enable the input eld for the
reference cone diameter.

Figure 12.10: `Lock' button

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 604

12.2.9 Facewidth
The facewidth is the portion of the reference cone envelope line lying between the inner and outer end faces
of the teeth and is denoted by b.

Figure 12.11: Facewidth

The facewidth b is dependent upon the kind of application of the gearing and the cone distance at the back
cone Re . The following table shows some typical values for the facewidth:

Typical Values for the Facewidth b2

Kind of Application Facewidth b
Light and medium-duty gears for machines and vehicles 3.5 ≤ (Re /b) ≤ 5.0
Heavy-duty gears for machines, road and rail vehicles 3.0 ≤ (Re /b) ≤ 3.5
2 from: Klingelnberg KN3028: Auslegung eines Kegelradgetriebes ohne Achsversatz mit Klin-

gelnberg Zyklo-Palloid
® -Verzahnung, p. 11

12.2.10 Mean Normal Module

The normal module mn is one of the basic parameters for the length dimensions of a bevel gear tooth system.
It is specied for a given cone distance. The normal module on the mean cone distance Rm is a common
parameter and the value of module is expressed in millimeters. The normal module is determined directly from
the mean spiral angle. A possible value range is displayed to the right of the corresponding input eld. To be
on the safe side, you should stay within the recommended value range. The input eld is disabled by default.
With locking the input eld for the spiral angle, the input eld for the normal module is enabled and the input
eld for the spiral angle is disabled. Now you can modify the normal module very easily.

Typical Values for the Normal Module mn 3

Kind of Application Normal Module mn
Surface-hardened spiral bevel gears, spiral bevel gears with tendency
7 ≤ (b/mn ) ≤ 10...(12)
to break

Spiral bevel gears with tendency to pit or hardened and tempered

10 ≤ (b/mn ) ≤ 12...(14)
and unhardened spiral bevel gears

3 from: Klingelnberg KN3028: Auslegung eines Kegelradgetriebes ohne Achsversatz mit Klin-

gelnberg Zyklo-Palloid
® -Verzahnung, p. 12

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 605

12.2.11 Mean Spiral Angle

The mean spiral angle β is the acute angle between the tangent to the reference tooth trace and the reference
cone envelope line through the tangent contact point. βm is specied at the mean cone distance. On a bevel
gear the spiral angle varies along the facewidth. Any angle can be selected. Conventionally, a spiral angle βm
from 30◦ to 45◦ is used in order to assure a smooth tooth action. The spiral angle may inuence the gear
ratios, the tooth load as well the bearing loads. The input eld for the spiral angle has a `Lock' button to
modify the input values. The input eld is enabled by default. Click on the `Lock' button, the input eld is
disabled and the input eld for the normal module is enabled. The normal module and helix angle aect each
other (for a given outer reference cone diameter de ), so you can optimize the values to meet your individual
requirements. A possible value range is displayed to the right of the corresponding input eld. To be on the
safe side, you should stay within the recommended value range.

12.3 Input of Tool Data

A basic rack prole can be selected from a listbox or can be dened individually. Specic tools can be added
to the list by choosing `user-dened input'. The listbox displays a list of available Klingelnberg machines that
may be selected for the manufacturing process by the user. Individual machine tool data or machine tool data
according to ISO can be dened as well.

Figure 12.12: Input of tool data

Please note: You can add a description or a short comment to the cutter prole and the machine data. The
notes will appear later in the calculation report.

The Zyklo-Palloid
® method is a continuous cutting process. Two-part cutter heads are used to generate the
right and left anks of the bevel gear. The cutter head consists of two parts, on one part are the inner blades
for cutting the convex anks and on the other part are the outer blades for cutting the concave anks. A
cutter head blade group includes several cutter blades and according to the number of blade groups, single
blade and multi blade cutter heads can be distinguished. Right and left-hand gears (gear and pinion of a gear
pair) can be cut by one cutter head, only the blades of the spiral direction must be replaced with those of the
other spiral direction. The advantage of a two-part cutter head is obvious: the curvature of the tooth traces of

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 606

gear and mating gear can be freely modied and thus independent corrections of the tooth pattern are possible.

12.3.1 Standard Basic Rack Tooth Prole

In general, a standard basic rack tooth prole according to DIN 867 is used for bevel gears having a constant
tooth depth. The normal module is used as a reference length in the middle of the tooth width. The following
standard basic rack proles are available for your calculation. Choose the following proles from the listbox:

- ANSI/AGMA 2005-D03

- ISO 53 Prol A

- ISO 53 Prol B

- ISO 53 Prol C

- ISO 53 Prol D

- DIN 3972 Prol I

- DIN 3972 Prol II

- Prol 1 DIN 867

- Prol 2 DIN 867

- Prol 3 DIN 867

- Prol 4 DIN 867

Please Note: If you select `user-dened input', then the input elds for the edge radius, the addendum
coecient and the dedendum coecient are activated. Now it is easy to modify quickly the basic rack prole.

Figure 12.13: User-dened input for the basic rack tooth prole

12.3.2 Machine Type

The calaculation module provides several machine types. Choose on of the following machine types from the
listbox:

- Two-part cutter ISO 23509

◦ ◦
- FK41B (17,5 ) Klingelnberg, FK41B (2) (17,5 ) Klingelnberg

- KNC25 Klingelnberg

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 607

- KNC40 Klingelnberg

- KNC60 Klingelnberg

- AMK250 Klingelnberg

- AMK855 Klingelnberg

- AMK1600 Klingelnberg

- AMK400 Klingelnberg, AMK400 (4) Klingelnberg

- AMK630 Klingelnberg

- AMK635 Klingelnberg, AMK635 (4) Klingelnberg

- AMK1602 Klingelnberg

Please Note: Select `user-dened input', then the input elds for cutter radius, number of blade groups and
cutter module are enabled. Thus, you can specify individual parameters.

Figure 12.14: User-dened input for machine data

As you can see, these days there is a multiplicity of dierent machine types available for the cutting process.
The eAssistantsoftware oers an easy way to nd the machine type that is right for your requirements. The
machines that are suitable for your application are determined automatically. The types marked in red are not
suitable for your kind of application. On the basis of the selected machine type, the possible cutter radii are
determined immediately.

Figure 12.15: Selection of machine type

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 608

12.3.3 Cutter Radius

The cutter radius is the distance between the pitch point of the cutter and the rotational axis. The cutter
radius determines the radius of curvature of the tooth trace and has a signicant eect on the displacement
of the bevel gear. The cutter radius aects also the inner and outer spiral angles and the space width along
the facewidth in the normal section.

Figure 12.16: Cutter radius

Due to economic reasons, the cutter radius is limited to standardized values. These values can be selected
from the listbox. Not applicable radii will automatically be highlighted on screen for an easy identication.
By selecting `user-dened input' for the machine type, the cutter radius can be dened manually.

Figure 12.17: Selection of cutter radius

12.3.4 Number of Blade Groups and Machine Distance

The Zyklo-Palloid
® method is a continuous process where the blades are arranged in blade groups. Each
blade group machines one tooth gap. The number of groups is referred to as the number of blade groups. The
machine distance Md is the radius of the cutter head center point and is calculated and displayed automatically.

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 609

12.4 Input of Geometry Data

The input mask for the geometry data allows the specication of the spiral direction as well as the prole shift
and thickness modication.

Figure 12.18: Input of geometry data

12.4.1 Spiral Direction

A left-hand pinion comes into mesh with a right-hand gear and vice-versa. When viewed the upright tooth
from the reference cone apex and the tooth makes a clockwise spiral from the base leaning towards the apex,
then the tooth system is right-handed and left-handed when the tooth makes an anti-clockwise spiral. The
spiral directions of pinion and gear are always opposite. The pinion is usually the driving member of a meshing
pair and denes the direction. The spiral direction has no inuence on the gear noise or eciency of the gears.

Figure 12.19: Spiral direction

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 610

12.4.2 Prole Shift

The bevel gear tooth system is designed as a gear pair with reference center distance. This means, a bevel
gear with a positive prole shift is always meshed with a bevel gear having an equally large negative prole
shift. Hence, the sum of the prole shift coecients is 0.

The prole shift is

- positive if the prole reference line is outside of the reference surface,

- negative if the prole reference line is inside of the reference surface.

The following factors may inuence the choice of the prole shift:

- Avoiding of undercut

- Adjustment of load capacity of the tooth root for pinion and gear via tooth thickness variation at the
basic rack prole

- Balanced specic sliding of the tooth anks (for wear-resistant gearings)

12.4.3 Thickness Modication

By using the thickness modication, the tooth root thickness is changed and this automatically changes the
tooth spacewidth. The thickness modication can be selected quite freely and is used to compensate the
dierences in the load capacity of the crown gear and the pinion. x∗S on pinion and gear is equal. This
thickness modication oers a perfect opportunity to optimize the bevel gear toothing.

12.4.4 Angle Modication

By means of the angle modication, the pinion gets an additional prole modication at the small diameter
Ri to obtain a better tooth operation and to avoid cutter interference with a hub or shoulder. In general, the
value for the angle modication should not exceed 5◦ and should be used only for special cases.

Figure 12.20: Angle modication

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 611

12.4.5 Bottom Clearance

The buttom clearance c is the minimum distance between the tip of the tooth and root llet area of the mating
tooth. The size of the bottom clearance is usually between 0.2 to 0.3 · mean normal module.

Figure 12.21: Bottom clearance

12.4.6 Face Angle

The face angle δa is enclosed by the gear axis and the envelope line of the tip cone.

12.4.7 Root Angle

The root angle δf is enclosed by the gear axis and the envelope line of the root cone.

12.4.8 Cone Distance

The cone distance R is the tip distance on the reference cone. The outer cone distance Re is the length
of the envelope lines of the reference cone bounded by the outer reference cone diameter. The mean cone
distance Rm describes the length of the envelope lines of the reference cone bounded by the mean reference
cone diameter or the outer cone distance diminished by half the facewidth b. The inner cone distance Ri is
the length of the envelope lines of the reference cone bounded by the inner reference cone diameter or the
outer cone distance diminished by the facewidth b.

Figure 12.22: Cone distance

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 612

12.5 Input of Data for the Gear Body

This input mask allows the input of the data for the gear body. This data can be used for the dimension sheet
or CAD model. In case a tooth tip chamfering is necessary, then the chamfering is carried out automatically
by the calculation module. By clicking on the `Tooth tip chamfering' button, the chamfering can be easily
modied manually if required.

Figure 12.23: Input of data for the gear body

12.5.1 Mounting Distance

The mounting distance tB is the distance between the reference cone apex and the reference face. The
mounting distance is required for the manufacturing, testing and mounting process of the bevel gear. There
is a `Lock' button next to the mounting distance. This button is disabled by default. By clicking on the
`Lock' button, you enable the input eld and you can modify the mounting distance. In case the input for the
mounting distance is enabled, the input eld for the test collar length is automatically disabled. If you click
again on the `Lock' button next to the test collar length, the input eld is enabled again.

12.5.2 Plane Distance

The plane distance is the distance between the reference face and a freely selectable plane perpendicular to
the gear axis and is denoted by tH .

12.5.3 Tip Circle Distance

The tip circle distance tE is the distance between tip circle on the back cone and the reference face.

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 613

12.5.4 Curve Radius

The Klingelnberg standard provides some reference values for the curve radius rr at the tooth ends selectable
for pinion and crown gear. The curve radius is set automatically by the calculation module according to
Klingelnberg. There is the possibility to enable the curve radius using the `Lock' button. Now you can add
and modify the curve radius very easily. Click on the button again to revert back to the default state.

Figure 12.24: Modication of the curve radius

The following table shows the values set by the calculation module:

Typical Values for the Curve Radius rr 4

mn 1.0-2.0 2.0-3.5 3.5-5.0 5.0-6.0 6.0-7.0 7.0-9.0

rr 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

4 from: Klingelnberg KN3028: Auslegung eines Kegelradgetriebes ohne

Achsversatz mit Klingelnberg Zyklo-Palloid

® -Verzahnung, p. 33

Typical Values for the Curve Radius rr 4

mn 9.0-10 10-13 13-14 14-16 16-19 19-25

rr 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0

4 from: Klingelnberg KN3028: Auslegung eines Kegelradgetriebes ohne

Achsversatz mit Klingelnberg Zyklo-Palloid

® -Verzahnung, p. 33

12.5.5 Tooth Tip Chamfering

If the tip tooth thickness sa is smaller than 0.3 · mn , a tooth tip chamfering has to be carried out to avoid the
through-hardening. The risk of having a pointed tooth occurs at the smaller diameter of the pinion. For the
tooth tip chamfering the face angle δak is increased along the facewidth bk so that an approximately constant
tooth tip thickness of 0.3 · mn is obtained in this area.

Figure 12.25: Tooth tip chamfering

The tooth tip chamfering is carried out automatically by the calculation module. If this is the case, you will
receive a note in the message window. By clicking on the `Tooth tip chamfering' button, the values for the

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 614

chamfering are displayed. By clicking on the `Lock' button, you can dene the tooth tip thickness saik and
therefore inuence the tooth tip chamfering. Click on the `Lock' button again to revert back to the default
state.

Figure 12.26: Tooth tip chamfering

12.6 Input of Data for the Determination of Tolerances and Back-

lash
In addition to the class of shaft position accuracy, the calculation module provides proposals for the amount
of backlash according to Klingelnberg or Niemann. A backlash can be dened individually as well.

Figure 12.27: Input data for the determination of tolerances and backlash

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 615

12.6.1 Shaft Angle Deviation and Common Apex Deviation

The shaft angle deviation fΣ describes the dierence between the shaft angle of both gear axes in their actual
position and the theoretical value of this angle. The common apex deviation fa of a bevel gear pair is the
crossing distance of both gear axes in their actual position. The class of shaft position accuracy determines
the shaft angle deviation and the common apex deviation. The calculation is in accordance with DIN 3965.

Figure 12.28: Bevel gear pair: Position deviation of gear axes

12.6.2 Normal Backlash

The general purpose of backlash is to prevent the gears from jamming and manufacturing inaccuracies. For
that a proper backlash must be provided.

12.6.3 Circumferential Backlash

Errors in machining inuence the smooth and continuous tooth action. That makes it necessary to provide
a circumferential backlash to avoid jamming or interferences of the gearing. But please keep in mind that a
small circumferential backlash can cause jamming and using a too large circumferential backlash weakens the
tooth thickness. The choice of the right backlash will depend upon a number of factors, including the size of
the gearing, the tooth quality as well as the case of application.

The normal and circumferential backlash are determined according to Klingelnberg or Niemann. The corre-
sponding method can be selected from the listbox. Select the option `user-dened input' from the listbox.
Now you are able to enter your individual backlash. Click on the `Lock' button to enable the input eld and
to specify your own value. If you select again one of the methods, then the `Lock' button and the input elds
are disabled.

Figure 12.29: Selection of `user-dened input'

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 616

12.6.4 Tooth Quality

ISO 17485 denes ten accuracy grades, numbered 2 to 11 in order of decreasing precision. Accuracy grade `2'
describes the highest possible accuracy, `11' is the lowest accuracy.

Figure 12.30: Tooth quality

The tooth quality determines appropriate tolerances for:

- Single pitch tolerance

- Cumulative pitch tolerance

- Runout tolerance

- Single-ank composite tolerance

- Single-ank composite tolerance

- Upper and lower dimension of the face angle

12.6.5 Application Factor q

ISO 17485 uses the application factor q in order to determine appropriate tolerance values for a required
accuracy grade. To avoid gear noise problems or tooth breakage, the following reference values for the
application factor should be used. Click the 'Question mark' button to open the following table.

Figure 12.31: Application factor

Typical Values for the Application Factor q According to ISO5

Typical Values for Amplitudes of Single Flank Composite Tooth
Application Factor q
Mesh Component Deviations

Passenger car < 30 0.05

Truck 20 - 50 1.0

Industrial 40 - 100 2 to 2.5

Aircraft 40 - 200 (80 average) 2.0

5 from: ISO 17485: Bevel Gears - ISO System of Accuracy, p. 26, table B.1

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 617

12.7 Calculation of Load Capacity of Spiral Bevel Gears

Gears fail by tooth breakage, pitting as well as by scung. The strength is determined by the loads, the
geometry of gearing as well as selected materials. The calculation of the load capacity is about the proof of
the following strength factors that result from the above-mentioned forms of damage:

- Load capacity of tooth root (safety against failure of the toothing due tooth breakage)

- Load capacity of tooth ank (safety against failure of the toothing due to pitting)

- Scung load capacity (safety against failure of the toothing due to scung)

Use the calculation module to check the load capacity of tooth root and tooth ank. The calculation of the
scung load capacity is not yet available. The material properties, endurance as well as the kind of lubrication
and the lubricant will be considered in the calculation. There are extended input options to inuence the
number of load changes or the roughness, the mode of operation can be selected.

Figure 12.32: Calculation of load capacity

The following factors consider the inuences of the load capacity calculation:

- Application factor KA evaluates the external dynamic forces that aect the gearing

- Dynamic factor KV considers additional inner dynamic forces

- Face load factors KF β and KHβ evaluate non-uniform load distribution across the facewidth

- Transverse factors KF α and KHα account for the eect of the non-uniform distribution of transverse
load between several pairs of simultaneously contacting gear teeth

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 618

Load Capacity of the Tooth Root - Tooth Breakage

Tooth breakage is a fatigue failure. Pitting, scung or wear may weaken the tooth so that it breaks. The slow
progress of the fracture apparently causes the metal to break like brittle material. A tear or grinding notch
may cause a tooth breakage. Gear-tooth fractures ordinarily start in the root llet. The tooth breakage can
destroy an entire gearing and leads to a failure of the gearing. Sometimes a new tooth will break as a result
of severe overload or a serious defect in the tooth structure. According to DIN 3990, an operation with a
reduced load is possible after a tooth breakage, if just a small portion of a tooth broke o and the other parts
of the gearing are intact.

For a high load capacity of the tooth root, the following methods are advantageous: positive prole shift (for
small number of teeth), usage of hardened and tempered or case-hardened materials with larger load capacity
of the tooth root, larger root llet, larger module

Load Capacity of the Tooth Flank - Pitting of Gear Teeth

Pitting is a fatigue failure and is characterized by little bits of metal breaking out of the surface and thereby
leaving small holes or pits, so that oil seeps into the pits. This is caused by high tooth loads leading to
excessive surface stress, a high local temperature due to high rubbing speeds or inadequate lubrication. The
cracking of the surface develops, spreads and ultimately results in small bits breaking out of the tooth surface.
But it is often possible to get some years of service out of gears that have pitted rather extensively.

For a high load capacity of the tooth ank, the following methods are advantageous: large number of teeth,
positive prole shift (for small number of teeth), higher pressure angle, large hardness of tooth ank, nitriding,
more viscous oil

Scung Load Capacity

Scung is a surface destruction and it can be caused by a lubrication failure. Tears and scratches appear on
the rubbing surface of the teeth. This form of damage is called `scung'. The terms of `scung' and `scoring'
are used interchangeably. Scung is an important form of damage leading to component replacements in
lubricated mechanical systems. Compared with tooth breakage and pitting, it is not a fatigue failure, it can
come very quickly. A short overload can lead to scung and the gearing fails. Scung is apt to occur when
the gears are rst put into operation because the teeth have not sucient operating time to develop smooth
surfaces. Due to the scung, the temperature, the forces and the noise increase, the gear teeth nally break
o. The following factors may inuence the occurrence of scung:

- Gear material

- Lubrication

- Surface condition of tooth anks

- Sliding velocity

- Load

- Impurities in a lubricant

After the occurrence of scung, high-speed gears apt to additional dynamic forces that cause usually pitting or
tooth breakage. The high surface temperature may cause a breakdown of the lubricating lm. The following
factors support scung:

- High loads

- Kind of lubrication: Non-alloy oil protects less against scung than E.P. oil (extreme pressure)

- High oil temperature

- Rough oil surface

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 619

- Low gear quality: Larger contact ratio and tooth alignment errors may cause local stresses by impacts
and unbalanced carrying.

For a high scung load capacity, the following methods are advantageous: E.P. oils (oil that contains chemical
additives), a careful running-in period of the gearing, low sliding velocity due to tip relief and a smaller module

12.7.1 Activate Load Capacity

Click on the button `Load capacity' to get to the calculation mask. You will notice that all input elds
or listboxes are disabled. When you select the entry `ISO 10300 Method B1' from the listbox `Calculation
method', all input elds are enabled. In case you do not need the calculation for the load capacity, the
calculation can be deactivated. Thus, the size of the calculation report becomes smaller.

Figure 12.33: Activate the calculation for the load capacity

12.7.2 Inputs for Load Capacity According to ISO 10300 Method B1

Comment
You can add a description or a short comment to gear 1 and gear 2.

Figure 12.34: Add a description

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 620

Material Selection
Select an appropriate material directly from the listbox. Clicking the button `Material' opens the material
database.

Figure 12.35: Listbox `Material'

The material database provides some detailed information on the several kinds of material. If the listbox is
active, the two arrow keys `Up' and `Down' of your keyboard allows you to search through the database, so
you can compare the dierent values with each other.

Figure 12.36: Material selection

In order for gears to achieve their intended performance, life and reliability, the selection of a suitable material
is very important. Steel is the most common material that is used for gears. There are a number of steels
used for gears, ranging from plain carbon steels through the highly alloyed steels from low to high carbon
contents. The choice will depend upon a number of factors, including size, service and design. For pinion
and gear, the same hardened and tempered steel may be used. It has to be kept in mind that unhardened
gears with equal hardness should not be meshed with each other because scung is apt to occur. A hardened
or nidrided gear HRC > 50 smoothes the tooth anks of the hardened and tempered mating gear, reduces
the form deviations and increases the load capacity of the tooth ank. For a mating of hardened gears, no
hardness dierence is necessary. The nal selection of the material should be based upon an understanding of
the material properties and application requirements.

Kind of Material
Steel casting : Steel casting belongs to the ferrous metals that include carbon (up to max. 2%) and are poured
into sand molds to produce several components. Due to a higher melting temperature, steel casting is more
dicult to cast than cast iron. Steel casting is cheaper than ground or forged gears.

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 621

Steel : Steel is the most common material and is used for medium and high-loaded gears.

Nidrided steel : Nitriding is adding nitrogen to solid iron-base alloys by heating the steel in contact with am-
monia gas or other suitable nitrogenous material. This process is used to harden the surface of gears.

Case-hardened steel : Case-hardened steel is a quality and high-grade steel with low carbon content. Case-
hardened steel is usually formed by diusing carbon (carburization), nitrogen (nitriding) into the outer layer
of the steel at high temperature and then heat treating the surface layer to the desired hardness. When the
steel is cooled rapidly by quenching, the higher carbon content on the outer surface becomes hard while the
core remains soft and tough.

Blackheart malleable cast iron (pearlitic structure): Malleable cast iron is a heat-treated iron carbon alloy.
Two groups of malleable cast iron are specied, whiteheart and blackheart cast iron. Blackheart malleable cast
iron is used for parts with a complex shape, in which a high durability, shock resistance and good machining
are important. Malleable cast iron is used for smaller dimensions and has got a higher strength and toughness
than steel castings.

Cast iron with spheroidal graphite (pearlitic structure, bainitic structure, ferritic structure): Cast iron usually
refers to gray cast iron but identies a large group of ferrous alloys that contain more than 2% of carbon. It
is extremely rare that the maximum carbon content is higher than 4.5%. Cast iron is a low-priced material.
However, cast iron has less toughness and ductility than steel. Cast iron with spheroidal graphite can be used
for parts with higher vibration stress.

Heat-treated steel : Hardening and tempering is a heat-treating technique for steels by quenching from the
hardness temperature and annealing at a high temperature so that the toughness is increased signicantly. At
the same time, a higher elastic limit is reached. Annealing temperatures and times dier for dierent materials
and with properties desired, steel is usually held for several hours at about 400◦ C to 700◦ C . Some steels have
to be cooled very quickly (Annealing: in order to achieve the intended properties of work pieces (e.g., desired
strength or toughness), reheating of the work pieces to certain temperatures is necessary.).

Gray cast iron: Gray cast iron is used for complex shapes and oers low cost and an easy machinability. It
provides excellent damping properties but it is a disadvantage that the load capacity is very low.

Dene Your Own Material

In case there is no material that will fulll the design requirements, then simply dene your individual material.
Select the option `User dened input' and all inputs and options are activated and you can specify your
individual material very easily. Your inputs will be saved to the calculation le. Please be advised that
changing the material will delete your dened inputs and you have to enter the inputs again.

Figure 12.37: Own input of a material

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 622

Application Factor KA
The application factor KA evaluates the external dynamic forces that aect the gearing. These additional
forces are largely dependent on the characteristics of the driving and driven machines as well as the masses
and stiness of the system, including shafts and couplings used in service. Because scung is not a fatigue
failure, the application factor shall consider the stronger inuence of several load peaks during the calculation
of the scung load capacity. Several load peaks aect directly only the ank temperature. Because of that,
the same application factor KA can be used for the calculation of the scung load capacity as well as of
the load capacity of the tooth root and tooth ank. The application factor is determined by experience. An
application factor of `1.0' is best thought of a perfectly smooth operation. The following table gives some
values according to DIN 3990.

Application Factors KA According to DIN 3990-1: 1987-128

Working Characteristics Working Characteristics of the Driven Machine

of the Driving Machine

Uniform Light shocks Moderate shocks Heavy shocks

Uniform 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75

Light shocks 1.1 1.35 1.6 1.85

Moderate shocks 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0

Heavy shocks 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.25 or higher

8 from: DIN 3990 Part 1, December 1987, p. 55, table A1

Working Characteristics of the Driving Machine

- Uniform: e.g., electric motor, steam or gas turbine (small, rarely occurring starting torques)

- Light shocks: e.g., electric motor, steam or gas turbine (large, frequently occurring starting torques)

- Moderate shocks: e.g., multiple cylinder internal combustion engines

- Heavy shocks: e.g., single cylinder internal combustion engines

Working Characteristics of the Driven Machines

- Uniform: e.g., steady load current generator, uniformly loaded conveyor belt or platform conveyor, worm
conveyor, light lifts, packing machinery, feed drives for machine tools, ventilators, centrifuges, centrifugal
pumps, agitators and mixers for light liquids or uniform density materials, shears, presses ...

- Light shocks: e.g., heavy lifts, crane slewing gear, industrial and mine ventilator, centrifugal pumps,
agitators and mixers for viscous liquids or substances of non-uniform density, multi-cylinder piston pumps
...

- Moderate shocks: e.g., rubber extruders, continuously mixers for rubber and plastics, wood-working
machine, lifting gear, single cylinder piston pumps ...

- Heavy shocks: e.g., excavators (bucket wheel drives), rubber kneaders, foundry machines, brick presses,
peeling machines, rotary drills ...

Please Note: You will nd a `Question mark' button next to the input eld. Click on this button and
the above-mentioned table opens. The `Question mark' button is an additional feature and provides further
information. You will nd this button next to several input elds.

Figure 12.38: Open table with application factor

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 623

Face Load Factors KF β and KHβ

The face load factor takes into account the eects of the non-uniform distribution of load over the gear
facewidth on the surface stress KHβ , on the tooth root stress KF β and on the scung KBβ . The face load
factor can be entered manually or can determined according to ISO 10300 Part 1 Method C. Click on the
`Calculator' button to open the input mask for the face load factor.

Figure 12.39: Dimensioning of the face load factor

The listbox already displays the entry `ISO 10300 Part 1 Method C' and the input eld for the mounting
factor KHβ−be is active. The table provides some reference values for the mounting factor KHβ−be . Enter a
value from this table into the input eld click the button `Ok'. The face load factor is determined and applied
automatically to the main mask.

Figure 12.40: Face load factor

The following table shows reference values for the mounting factor. The inuence of the deections, and thus
of the bearing arrangement, is accounted for by the mounting factor KHβ−be :

Reference Values for the Mounting Factor KHβ−be 9

Mounting Conditions of Pinion and Gear
Verication of the Contact Pattern

Neither Mem- One Member Both Members

ber Cantilever Cantilever Cantilever
Mounted Mounted Mounted

For each gear set in its housing under full load 1.00 1.00 1.00

For each gear set under light test load 1.05 1.10 1.25

For sample gear set and estimated for full load 1.20 1.32 1.50

9 from: ISO 10300 Part 1, 2001, p. 26, table 3

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 624

In case you already use a dened face load factor, you can enter this factor. Simply click on the `Calculator'
button to open the window for the determination of the face load factor. Select `User-dened input` from the
listbox and click on the `OK' button.

Figure 12.41: Own input of the face load factor

The input eld for the face load factor is enabled and you can add your own values. If you need this factor
for several calculations, we recommend you to dene a template le. That saves both time and work. Enter
the value for the face load factor and click on the `Save' button. Please name the le `standard'. If you now
open the eAssistant module, then module starts with your dened face load factor.

Figure 12.42: Face load factor

Kind of Lubrication and Selection of a Lubricant

Lubrication serves several purposes but its basic and most important function is to protect the sliding and
rolling tooth surfaces from seizing, wear and friction. The friction of the tooth ank is responsible for ank
wear, gear heating and gear noise. A reduced ank friction improves the eciency that is dependent on the
tooth load, circumferential velocity, gear quality and the surface condition of the tooth anks. In order that
the gearing should work properly, the selection of a lubricant is an important choice. A liquid lubricant is a
good choice and can be easily introduced between the contacting surfaces. In addition, a lubrication has to
reduce frictional heat and has to protect the surfaces against corrosion. The bearings and clutches in a gearing
require also an appropriate lubricant. Therefore, the lubricant has to be suitable as well. Oil and greases are
the most common lubricants.

Figure 12.43: Selection of the lubricant

Liquid lubricants may be characterized in many dierent ways. Viscosity is one very important property of
a lubricant and determines the oils lubricating eciency. For the selection of liquid lubricants applies: the
smaller circumferential velocity and larger the contact pressure as well as the roughness of tooth anks, the
higher the viscosity. A higher viscosity will result in a higher hydrodynamic load capacity and an increased
scung load limit where scratching and scung of the tooth anks occur. (Muhs/Wittel/Jannasch/Vossiek:
Rolo/Matek Maschinenelemente, 17th revised edition, published by Vieweg, Wiesbaden 2005.)

Please Note: If the viscosity is too low, the oil lm will not be suciently formed and if the viscosity is too
high, the viscosity resistance will also be high and cause temperature rise. For higher speed, a lower viscosity
oil should be used and for heavy loads, a higher viscosity oil should be used.

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 625

Gears that are running primarily in a gearbox are lubricated with oil. A distinction is made between oil splash
lubrication and oil injection lubrication.

Oil splash lubrication: The oil splash lubrication is an easy, reliable and reasonable lubrication system. It is
a type of lubrication used in enclosed gear drives. In splash lubrication, the gear tooth dips into a tray of
lubricant and transfers the lubricant to the meshing gear as it rotates. As a result, oil reaches all of the places
where it is needed. The oil splash lubrication can be used for average speed applications.

Oil injection lubrication: With the oil injection lubrication, the oil can be ltered, cooled and checked and
the oil is directly fed to the bearings. The amount of oil can be controlled according to the heat dissipation
requirements. The gearbox is used as an oil tank reservoir from which several units can be supplied. The oil
is sprayed directly by a pump injector into the mating surfaces.

Grease lubrication: The selection of the grease is dependent upon the circumferential velocity, the kind of
application and the service temperature. A grease lubrication requires low maintenance and protects against
contamination. Grease lubrication is suitable for any gear system that is opened or enclosed, so long as it runs
at low speed. The grease should have a suitable viscosity with good uidity especially in a enclosed gear unit.

Select an appropriate lubricant directly from the listbox or click on the button `Lubricant' to open the lubricant
database.

Figure 12.44: Selection of the lubricant

The database provides some detailed information on the lubricants (e.g., e.g., density, viscosity, load stage of
FZG test). Select the entry `user dened input' to enable the input elds and to enter your own value based
on your experience.

Figure 12.45: Dene own lubricant

12.7.3 Extended Input Options for Load Capacity of Tooth Root and Tooth
Flank
The main mask of the load capacity provides the button `Tooth root/ank', click on that button and the
extended input options appear.

Figure 12.46: Extended input options

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 626

If you do not change any inputs in the following mask, then the default input values are used.

Figure 12.47: Options for Load Capacity of Tooth Root and Tooth Flank

Roughness
The surface roughness of the tooth anks inuences the load capacity of the tooth anks. The average
roughness Rz is the arithmetic average of ve individually measured roughness values. The input of the
roughness occurs for root and ank of pinion and gear. The right choice of the surface roughness is determined
by economical aspects depending upon the intended purpose and manufacturing process. A ne surface can
be very expensive because of the high manufacturing costs. A surface that is too rough may not fulll the
required functionality.

Figure 12.48: Roughness

Long Life Factors YN T and ZN T

The long life factor YN T accounts the higher tooth root stress and the long life factor ZN T accounts the
higher contact stress including static stress, which may be tolerable for a limited life (number of load cycles).
The main inuences to YN T and ZN T are material and heat treatment.

Long life factor YN T :

With optimum lubrication, material and manufacturing YN T = 1.0 may be used for the number of load cycles
NL = 3 · 106 . For static stresses NL ≤ 103 , the long life factor is 2.5.

Long life factor ZN T :

With optimum lubrication, material and manufacturing ZN T = 1.0 may be used for the number of load cycles
NL = 5 · 107 . For static stresses NL ≤ 105 , the long life factor is 1.6.

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 627

The following gures show the factors YN T and ZN T for the static and endurance stresses depending on heat
treatment and material.

Figure 12.49: Long life factor YN T

Figure 12.50: Long life factor ZN T

Use the `Lock' button next to modify the long life factors YN T and ZN T . The input elds are enabled and
you can dene your own value for the factors. Please remember to keep the modied input eld open or the
default values will be used again.

Mode of Operation Factor YA

The fatigue strength of the tooth root σF lim is corrected with the inuence of the mode of operation.

σF lim = σF lim0 YA

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 628

σF lim0 Fatigue strength of the tooth root from material data

σF lim Fatigue strength of the tooth root with inuence of the mode of operation factor

YA Mode of operation factor (see following table)

The following table provides some guideline values for the mode of operation factor YA :

Mode of Operation Factor YA According to Linke10

Mode of Operation Mode of Operation Factor YA Direction of Load

Swelling 1

Alternating 0.7

lgNrev
0.85 - 0.15
6

Oscillating
(for 1 ≤ Nrev ≤ 106 )

0.7 (for Nrev > 106 )

Please Note: Nrev = Number of load direction changes during operation time

10 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl Hanser Verlag

Muenchen Wien, 1996, p. 321, table 6.5/7

Clicking the `Question mark' button allows you to open the table above.

Figure 12.51: `Question mark' button to open the table

Dynamic Coecient KV
The dynamic coecient KV considers additional inner dynamic forces. Inner dynamic forces are caused by
mesh alignments, lead crowning, deformation of teeth, the housing, shafts and gear bodies as well as oscillation
of the wheel masses. As the circumferential velocity of the gear rim increases, the dynamic forces increase.
The forces decrease with an increasing load of the teeth. Click on the `Lock' button to enable the input eld
and enter your own value.

Figure 12.52: Dynamic coecient, transverse coecient, bevel gear factor

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 629

Transverse Coecients KHα

The transverse coecients account for the eect of the non-uniform distribution of transverse load between
several pairs of simultaneously contacting gear teeth on the surface pressure (KHα ), stress leading to scung
(KBα ) and loading of the tooth root (KF α ). Click on the `Lock' button to enable the input eld and enter
your own value.

Bevel Gear Factor ZK

The factor ZK is an empirical factor which accounts for the dierence between bevel- and cylindrical-gear
loading in such a way as to agree with practical experience. It is a stress adjustment constant which permits
the rating of bevel, spur and helical gears, with the same allowable contact stress numbers for any material.
The eAssistant software uses ZK = 0.8 for bevel gears. Click the `Lock' button to modify the bevel gear factor.

Eective Facewidth
be is eective facewidth (real length of contact pattern). In the case of full load, the contact pattern typically
has a minimum length of 85% of facewidth. If it is not possible to obtain information of pattern length under
load conditions, be = 0.85·b should be used. Click the `Lock' button to enter the factor for eective facewidth.

Figure 12.53: Eective facewidth

Permit Pitting
In specic cases, the development of pits on the gear ank is allowed. Use this option to permit several pits.
In general, initial pitting is considered normal and is not a cause for concern. In particular, case-hardened and
nitrided gears usually has the tendency to pit near the tooth root and lead eventually to fatigue breakage. Here
an individual assessment is necessary. In some cases (aerospace industry), pits are absolutely not permitted.
For turbo transmissions, pits may lead to oscillations and increased additional dynamic forces.

Figure 12.54: Permit pitting

12.8 Message Window

The calculation module provides a message window. This message window displays detailed information,
helpful hints or warnings about problems. One of the main benets of the program is that the software
provides suggestions for correcting errors during the data input. If you check the message window carefully
for any errors or warnings and follow the hints, you are able to nd a solution to quickly resolve calculation
problems. For example, the following messages may appear:

- Existing backcut

- Existing burr

- Check for backwards cut

- Need for tooth tip chamfering and automatical calculation of the required values

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 630

- Check for undercut limit

- Information, if the cutter radius is out of the optimal range

- Check for maximum permitted tip edge radius of the tool

- Messages for unsuitable machine / unsuitable milling head

- Using the milling head requires a consultation with the machine manufacturer

- Check for the range of application of the ISO 17485 concerning tolerances (diameter, number of teeth,
mean normal module)

Figure 12.55: Message window

12.9 Quick Info: Tooltip

The quick info tooltip provides additional information about all input elds and buttons. Move the mouse
pointer over the input eld or button, then you will get the additional information. This information will be
displayed in the quick info line.

Figure 12.56: Quick info

12.10 Calculation Results

All results, such as the transverse contact ratio, overlap ratio and total contact ratio (safety foot root and
ank for the calculation of the load capacity), will be calculated during every input and will be displayed in the
result panel. A recalculation occurs after every data input. Any changes that are made to the user interface
take eect immediately.

Figure 12.57: Calculation results

In case a minimum safety is not fullled, the result will be marked red. Press the Enter key or move to the
next input eld to complete the input. Alternatively, use the Tab key to jump from eld to eld or click
the `Calculate' button after every input. Your entries will be also conrmed and the calculation results will
displayed automatically.

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 631

12.11 Documentation: Calculation Report

The `Report' button enables you to generate a calculation report.

Figure 12.58: Button `Report'

The calculation report contains a table of contents. You can navigate through the report via the table of
contents that provides links to the input values, results and gures. The report is available in HTML and PDF
format. Calculation reports, saved in HTML format, can be opened in a web browser or in Word for Windows.

Figure 12.59: Calculation report

You may also print or save the calculation report:

- To save the report in the HTML format, please select `File' ⇒ `Save as' from your browser menu bar.
Select the le type `Webpage complete', then just click on the `Save' button.

- If you click on the symbol `Print', then you can print the report very easily.

- If you click on the symbol `PDF', then the report appears in the PDF format. If you right-click on the
PDF symbol, you should see the `Save Target As' option. Click on that option and you will see the
Windows save dialog.

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 632

12.12 How to Save the Calculation

When the calculation is nished, it is easy to save the calculation. You can save your calculation either to the
eAssistant server or to your computer. Click on the button `Save'.

Figure 12.60: Button `Save'

Before you can save the calculation to your computer, you need to activate the checkbox `Local' in the
calculation module. A standard Windows dialog for saving les will appear. Now you will be able to save the
calculation to your computer.

Figure 12.61: Windows dialog for saving the le

In case you do not activate the option in order to save your les locally, then a new window is opened and
you can save the calculation to the eAssistant server. Please enter a name into the input eld `Filename' and
click on the button `Save'.

Figure 12.62: Save the calculation

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 633

12.13 The Button `Redo' and `Undo'

The `Undo' button allows you to reset your inputs to an older state. The `Redo' button reverses the undo.

Figure 12.63: `Redo' and `Undo' buttons

12.14 The Button `CAD'

The top menu bar of the eAssistant software provides the button `CAD'.

Figure 12.64: `CAD' button

The eAssistant plugin for various CAD systems (e.g., SOLIDWORKS, Solid Edge or Autodesk Inventor) en-
ables you to combine calculation and design very easily. On the basis of the eAssistant calculation, you can
create bevel gears as a 3D part within seconds.

12.14.1 STEP/IGES-Format
Using this function allows to create the geometry of straight and helical bevel gears as 3D CAD models in
STEP or IGES format. STEP as well as IGES are two standardised neutral le formats for CAD models.
Almost every 3D CAD system can import STEP les.

Figure 12.65: STEP format

The settings menu for the STEP and IGES output has a few dierent functions and allows to adjust the export
options as needed. The geometry can be generated as a solid model with one or all teeth or as a surface

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 634

model of the tooth space geometry. When exporting to a CAD system, you can also set the level of accuracy
to a desired value.

Figure 12.66: Inputs for STEP output

12.14.2 eAssistant CAD Plugin

The eAssistant plugin for various CAD systems (e.g., SOLIDWORKS, Solid Edge, Autodesk Inventor) enables
you to combine calculation and design very easily and fast. Based on your eAssistant calculation, you can
generate straight and helical gears as a 3D part within seconds. A single menu pick in the eAssistant software
transfers the eAssistant calculation data to the CAD system. Based on these parameters, the automatic
creation of a 3D parametric model starts in the CAD system. Allowances, addendum chamfer, prole shift are
taken into consideration.

Figure 12.67: Output CAD plugin

The CAD model stores all features and dimensions as design parameters. The eAssistant calculation is linked
and associated to the part and can be opened at any time throughout the entire design phase. This is also
possible if one part contains dierent calculations. Click the button `CAD' and select the CAD plugin. Open
the CAD system and start the generation by clicking the integrated button `eAssistant'.

Please note: First you need to download and install the right CAD plugin for your CAD system. The plugin
is available on our web site www.eAssistant.eu. After installation, an integrated button called `eAssistant'
appears in the CAD system.

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12. Spiral Bevel Gears According to Klingelnberg KN 3028 and ISO 23509 635

The eAssistant CAD plugin also supports an automatic creation of 2D detail drawings for manufacturing.
With just one click, the design table with all manufacturing details can be placed on the sheet. There is no
need to manually add all design table parameters to the drawing.

Please note: For further information, please visit our web site www.eAssistant.eu or read the CAD plugin
manual.

12.15 The Button `Options'

Click on the `Options' button in the menu bar at the top to change some general settings (e.g., the number
of decimal places for the report).

Figure 12.68: Button `Options'

Here you can change now the following settings:

- Unit switch between the metric system and the U.S. customary unit system

- Minimum safety tooth root

- Minimum safety tooth ank

- Minimum safety scung (integral)

- Minimum safety scung (ah)

- Spiral angle factor Zβ calculation according to ISO 6336-2

- Number of decimal places for calculation report

Figure 12.69: Button `Options'

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Chapter 13

Cylindrical Worms with Globoid

Worm Wheel

13.1 Start the Calculation Module

Please login with your username and your password. To start the calculation module for worm gears, please
click the menu item `Gear calculation' on the left side and then select `Worm gears'.

Figure 13.1: General overview

This module allows an easy and fast calculation of the geometry and load capacity of cylindrical worm gear pairs
with a globoid worm wheel. Worm gearsets are used to transmit power between non-parallel, non-intersecting

636
13. Cylindrical Worms with Globoid Worm Wheel 637

◦
shafts, usually having a shaft angle of 90 . The gearset consists primarily of two gear elements: the worm
which is the driving gear in the shape of a screw and the worm wheel, which is the driven gear in the shape
of a common spur gear. Cylindrical worm gear pairs have a cylindrical worm, whereas the worm wheel has a
globoidal toothing. The most commonly used type is the cylindrical worm. Worm drives have considerably
more load-carrying capacity than crossed-helical gearsets because the single enveloping worm gear drive has
a line contact whereas the crossed-helical has a point contact only. The result is an increased load capacity
with smoother and noiseless operation. Worm gear pairs are often used in power transmission and can reduce
rotational speed or transmit higher torque. The worm has a smaller diameter than the worm wheel. The
meshing action of worm and worm wheel is quite similar to that of gear racks and cylindrical gears.

Worm gears have number of advantages over the other types of transmission:

- Compact design, occupies lesser space

- High load resistance

- Higher transmission ratio

- Smooth and noiseless operation, vibration-damping

- Cost-eective manufacturing

- Often limited by wear and heat

- Changes of the worm causes changes in tool prole

Figure 13.2: Worm and worm wheel

The geometry calculation is based on DIN 3975. The calculation of the load capacity is according to DIN
3996 Method B, ISO/TR 14521 Method B and Niemann. The calculation module supports dierent ank
forms. Prole shift on the gear and tolerances can be taken into account.

13.2 Input of Geometry Data

All important calculation results will be calculated during every input and will be displayed in the result panel.
A recalculation occurs after every data input. Any changes that are made to the user interface take eect
immediately. Press the Enter key or move to the next input eld to complete the input. Alternatively, use

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13. Cylindrical Worms with Globoid Worm Wheel 638

the Tab key to jump from eld to eld or click the `Calculate' button after every input. Your entries will be
also conrmed and the calculation results will displayed automatically. If the result exceeds certain values, the
result will be marked red.

13.2.1 Flank Form

Cylindrical worms have various shapes of anks depending on the tool and way of working. The ank forms
are standardized in DIN 3975. ZA, ZK, ZN and ZI worms dier only slightly in load capacity, build-up of
lubricating pressure, power loss or eciency. The dierent prole forms can be selected from the listbox.
ZI and ZK are the most common ank forms due to economical manufacturing with straight-sided grinding
wheels.

Figure 13.3: Selection of the ank form

ZI Flank Form
The anks are slightly convex and in transverse section they have an involute form, like cylindrical gears and
that is where the name comes from. The prole is produced by a trapezoidal-shaped lathe tool or by a hob-
cutter.

ZA Flank Form
The prole of the ZA ank form has a trapezoidal form with straight-sided tooth proles in the axial section.
This ank form is obtained by setting a lathe tool in such a way that its cutting edges lie in the axial section.

ZN Flank Form
The prole of the ZN ank is a trapezoidal form with straight sides in the normal section. The tooth prole
is slightly curved in the axial section. The form can be made by a lathe tool or a small trapezoidal milling cutter.

ZK Flank Form
The tooth prole of the worm is convex in the axial section and is obtained by means of a disk-type rotary
tool having a trapezoidal prole. This is worked by a grinding wheel, whose axis is slewed to the worm axis
by the lead angle γm . The prole crowning of the anks depends on the tool diameter.

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13. Cylindrical Worms with Globoid Worm Wheel 639

ZC Flank Form
The anks of this worm are concave in the axial section. It is worked with a grinding wheel, whose axis is
slewed to the worm axis by the lead angle γm . The grinding wheel has a circular-arc prole with a radius %0 .

13.2.2 Lead direction

A worm may be classied as right-handed or left-handed, depending on the direction of helix of the worm
thread in which the thread winds around the root cylinder. A worm is said to be right-handed if the tooth
helix rises from left and goes up towards right. If the tooth helix goes towards, then it is a left-handed worm.
Normally right-hand worms are used in preference to left-handed worms which are used in case of special
requirements only.

Figure 13.4: Lead direction of the worm gear

The ank direction of a worm gear set depends upon the direction of helix of the worm and the position of
the worm wheel. A worm and worm wheel have the same hand of helix. A right-hand worm meshes with a
right-hand wheel and a left-hand worm meshes with a left-hand worm wheel.

Figure 13.5: Selection of the lead direction

13.2.3 Number of Teeth

Wrapped around the central axis, the worms have one or more teeth in the form of screwed threads that rotate
the gears. The number of teeth z1 in the worm is the number of teeth as revealed by a transverse section.
The number of teeth is usually between 1 ≤ z1 ≤ 4.

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13. Cylindrical Worms with Globoid Worm Wheel 640

13.2.4 Axial Module

The calculations are based on the axial module and not on the normal module. The axial module mx is the
basic parameter of a worm and refers to the axial section of the worm or transverse section of the worm wheel.
Axial section, normal section and transverse section are important parameters for the worm. The axial section
is a section through the worm in a lengthwise direction that contains the axis of the worm. The transverse
section is the section through a worm perpendicular to the axis of the worm. Normal section is the section
through the worm that is perpendicular to the tooth at the pitch circle. The axial module of the worm mx
and the transverse module of the wheel mt are the same when Σ = 90◦ (mx = mt = m). The meshing action
of worm and worm wheel is quite similar to that of gear racks and cylindrical gears.

Figure 13.6: Axial section

The calculation with the eAssistant software is possible with any modules including several decimal places.
Click the label eld for the axial module in order to enter and convert the diametral and circular pitch.

Figure 13.7: Calculation of normal module

There is also the possibility to use the normal module mn instead of the axial module. Activate the `Lock'
button to enable the input eld for the normal module and add a value. Once you have clicked the `Lock'
button, the input eld for the axial module will be disabled. Using the normal module aects the tip and root
circle.

Figure 13.8: Input of normal module

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13.2.5 Facewidth/Tooth Length of the Worm

The facewidth or tooth length is the total width over the teeth measured in the direction of the axis of the
worm.

Figure 13.9: Tooth length

Worm Wheel Design Examples

Figure 13.10: Worm wheel facewidth

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13.2.6 Rim Width of the Worm Wheel

The following gure shows the dimensions of the worm. The value for bR (bR = b2R ) can be entered into the
input eld. b2H and b2 are then determined.

Figure 13.11: Facewidth and wheel rim width

In order to optimize the worm, facewidth or the rim width of the worm wheel, click on the `Calculator' button.

Figure 13.12: Calculation of the worm facewidth or wheel rim width of the worm wheel

13.2.7 Prole Shift

Prole shift is the radial distance between the reference cylinder of the worm and the reference circle of the
worm wheel. The prole shift is preferably x ≥ 0. Negative prole shift should be avoided. Since the rack
(axial section of worm) is not altered by prole shift, only the worm gear can have the prole oset.

Recommendation for the prole shift coecient (according to Niemann):

- ZI worms: -0,5 ≤ x ≤ +0,5, preferably x ≈ 0

- ZC worms: 0 ≤ x ≤ 1,0, preferably x ≈ 0,5

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13.2.8 Pressure Angle

◦
A pressure angle of αn = 20 has been standardised for the general purpose applications and is most commonly
used. The default startup setting for the pressure angle is set to 20◦ .

13.2.9 Lead Angle

The lead angle γm is the acute angle between the tangent to a reference cylinder tooth trace and a transverse
plane. The lead angle of the worm is equal to the helix angle of the worm wheel (γm = βm ).

13.2.10 Worm Reference Diameter

The main parameters are dened by means of the reference cylinder. Its diameter is the nominal worm
diameter. The reference diameter can be freely chosen according to design requirements.

Figure 13.13: Worm reference diameter

13.2.11 Centre Distance and Shaft Angle

The centre distance a is the length of the line of centres between the axes of two gears. The shaft angle of
a cylindrical worm gear pair is the accute angle between the worm and worm wheel axes. Worm gears are
◦ ◦
usually mounted on nonintersecting shafts which are set at a 90 shaft angle. The shaft angle is usually 90 .
Other shaft angles are not very often.

Figure 13.14: Shaft angle

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13.2.12 Web Width on Worm Wheel

The web width can be considered here. There is the possibility to modify the web width by using the `Lock'
button. The `Lock' button is still disabled. Enter the values for the inner or outer diameter into the input
eld. Then the `Lock' button is enabled and the web width gets the same value as the rim width of the worm
wheel.

Figure 13.15: Web width

13.2.13 Gear Ratio

The gear ratio u is the ratio of the number of teeth z2 in the worm wheel to the number of teeth z1 in the
worm. The gear ratio shall be equal to the amount of the transmission ratio i = n1 /n2 as the ratio of speeds.
The following number of teeth z1 in the worm can be used:

i 5...10 10...15 15...30 > 30

z1 4 3 2 1

13.2.14 Worm Wheel Throat Radius

The throat radius rk is the radius of the circle of generation of the throat.

Figure 13.16: Throat radius

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13. Cylindrical Worms with Globoid Worm Wheel 645

Here you get the possibility to dimension and optimize the throat radius of the worm wheel. In order to
dimension the throat radius, click on the `Calculator' button.

Figure 13.17: Dimensioning of throat radius

13.2.15 Chamfer Angle and Chamfer Distance

The chamfer angle is the angle between the elongated chamfers of the gear tooth. The chamfer distance is
the distance from intersection point of the elongated chamfers to the worm axis. An individual input is also
possible for both parameters.

Figure 13.18: Chamfer angle and chamfer distance

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13.2.16 Diameter/Centre Distance Ratio

Click the `Question mark' button to open the following gure to determine the diameter/centre distance ratio
dm1 /a. With increasing dm1 /a, the safety factors against pitting and deection also increase but the gear
eciency and the temperature safety decrease. For higher eciency, a smaller diameter/centre distance ratio
dm1 /a has to be used but the deection must be considered (risk of meshig interferences).

Figure 13.19: Diameter/centre distance ratio

13.2.17 Form Factor

The form factor q is the ratio between the worm reference diameter and the axial module. This is an important
parameter of the worm as it determines the shape of the worm and as a consequence also determines the
moment of resistance of the worm against bending. In practice q lies between 6 and 17. For normal design,
an average value of q = 10 can be taken. With a smaller form factor, γm increases but the worm becomes
thinner. With a larger value, γm becomes smaller but also stronger. There is a `Question mark' button next
to the eld for the form factor. Click this button to get some additional information. The gure shows how
the form factor aects the shape of the worm.

Figure 13.20: Eect of form factor

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13. Cylindrical Worms with Globoid Worm Wheel 647

13.2.18 Tip Clearance of Worm and Worm Wheel

The tip clearance of the worm is the distance between the worm tip diameter and the worm wheel root diam-
eter. The tip clearance of the worm wheel is the distance between the worm wheel tip diameter and the worm
root diameter.

13.3 Input of Tool Data

Worm wheel teeth can be produced by hobbing. The tool is essentially a duplicate of the mating worm in size
and thread design. That means that the worm wheel may not be paired with other worms. The ank forms
ZA, ZN and ZK can be cut on a lathe (single-part production). Side milling cutters or cutting wheels (peeling)
are applied in small-batch production. Multi-threaded worms can be produced on hobbing machines. Small
worms may be nished by rolling. Precise worms may be nished by grinding, prole grinding is preferred due
to higher eciency.

Figure 13.21: Input mask of tool data

Please note: If you want to add some own notes, comments or a description for worm and worm wheel, then
use the comment line.

13.3.1 Standard Basic Rack Tooth Prole

The following standard basic rack tooth proles are available for your calculation. Choose your prole from
the listbox:

- ISO 53 Prole A: is recommended for gears transmitting high torques

- ISO 53 Prole B: is recommended for normal service

- ISO 53 Prole C: is recommended for normal service, type C may be applied for manufacturing with
some standard hobs.

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13. Cylindrical Worms with Globoid Worm Wheel 648

- ISO 53 Prole D: is recommended for high-precision gears transmitting high torques and consequently
with tooth anks nished by grinding or shaving. Care should be taken to avoid creating notches in the
llet during nishing which could create stress concentrations.

- DIN 3972 Prole I: recommended for nishing, e.g., hobs and gear cutters

- DIN 3972 Prole II: is recommended for nishing, eg., hobs and gear cutters

- Prole 1 DIN 867

- Prole 2 DIN 867

- Prole 3 DIN 867

- Prole 4 DIN 867

- Prole 5 DIN 867

Figure 13.22: Listbox for the basic rack prole

13.3.2 Own Input of Basic Rack Tooth Prole

If you select `User-desined input', then the input elds for the addendum coecient, the dedendum coecient
and the edge radius are activated. Now you can modify the basic rack prole.

Figure 13.23: Own input

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13. Cylindrical Worms with Globoid Worm Wheel 649

13.4 Input of Data for the Determination of Allowances

A manufacturing of workpieces with accurate nominal dimensions is impossible. Like cylindrical gears, some
backlash must be allowed to prevent gears from jamming. For smooth rotation and correct operation of worm
and worm wheel, backlash or play is necessary. Generally speaking, worm gears require more backlash than
do spur or helical gears. Quite often a steel worm and bronze gear are housed in a cast-iron casting. The
temperature of the gearset may change quite considerably during operation because of the high sliding velocity
of the worm threads. Diential expansions can easily cause an appreciable change in backlash.

Figure 13.24: Input of allowances

13.4.1 Gear Quality

The choice of the right toothing quality is determined by economical aspects depending upon the intended
purpose and manufacturing process. In all elds of gearing, the control of gear accuracy is essential. Several
classes or grades of accuracy can be set. 12 grades (12 to 1) are dened according to DIN standards. Accuracy
grade `1' describes the highest possible accuracy, `12' a very low accuracy. Very ne accuracies are relatively
dicult to manufacture.

Figure 13.25: Tolerances according to the manufacturing process

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13. Cylindrical Worms with Globoid Worm Wheel 650

Select the appropriate quality between 1 and 12 by using the following listbox.

Figure 13.26: Selection of gear quality

The following table provides some reference values for the selection of the quality of worm gears according to
Niemann:

Recommendation for the Selection of Accuracy of Worm Gear Drives1

Accuracy Field of Application

a a b c
Worm , Worm Wheel and Housing Centre Distance

d
4 ... 5 6 Sub-transmissions for machine tools, controls,
straighteners (wobble needs to be minimzed
in particular), gearboxes for extreme running
smoothness with vm1 > 5m/s
d
5 ... 6 7 Elevators, slewing drives, smooth-running power
gears with vm1 > 5m/s
d
8 ... 9 8 Industrial gears without special requirements on
running smoothness, vm < 10m/s
Worms mostly case-hardened or surface hardened, ground, maybe polished; worm wheels hobbed
and run-in

d
10 ... 12 10 Auxiliary drives, manual drives, actuating gears
vm1 ≤ 3m/s
a
According DIN 3961 to 3963; prole deviations on gear wheel are less critical; tooth anks run-in.
Single normal pitch, total pitch as well as run-out deviations can be easily maintained.

b
Parallel axes according to DIN 3964

c
According to DIN 3964

d
For single and double enveloping worms, one accuracy grade ner for multiple-threaded worms

1 from: Niemann, G.: Maschinenelemente, Volume 3, Schraubrad-, Kegelrad-, Schnecken-, Ketten-,

Riemen-, Reibradgetriebe, Kupplungen, Bremsen, Freilaeufe, 1986, p. 98, table 25/6

Please note: For high-loaded worm gearsets with hardened and ground steel worm and milled worm wheel
made of material which shows good running-in behaviour, the accuracy grade of the worm should be one ac-
curacy grade better than the worm wheel. The eect of the running-in process normally improves the quality.
Accuracy grade 8 could be selected for the worm, accuracy grade 9 for the worm wheel.

13.4.2 Backlash Allowance and Tolerance Sequence

The system for gearings is very similar to the DIN system of ts and tolerances. For the system of ts for
gear transmissions letters are used to indicate the deviation from basic (nominal) size, a number denes the

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width. There are clearance ts for gearings, therefore, lower case characters `h' to `a' appear. The tolerances
of worm gearsets follow DIN 3974. The tolerancy system is largeley based on DIN 3961 for cylindrical gear
teeth. If you select the entry `user dened input', the input eld for the tooth thickness allowances is enabled
and you can dene your individual values.

Figure 13.27: Own input

13.4.3 Tooth Thickness Allowance

One of the most important criteria of gear quality is the specication and control of tooth thickness. The
magnitude of tooth thickness and its tolerance is a direct measure of backlash when the gear is assembled
with its mate. Dimensional changes, due to thermal expansion, do not allow a zero-backlash assembly. The
tooth thickness allowance has to be determined that no jamming occurs. To prevent that jamming of gears
during the operation, it is necessary to decrease tooth thickness by a minimum amount (Asne and Asn ). Asn
is always negative.

Figure 13.28: Lower and upper tooth thickness allowance

13.4.4 Tooth Space Allowance

The tooth space allowance AW is the dierence between the actual dimension and the nominal dimension of
the span measurement W k. The actual measurement of the span measurement gets smaller for external gears
by negative allowances for a zero-backlash assembly. The upper and lower tooth space allowance are displayed
as well. For an own input of the tooth thickness allowances, the tooth space allowances can be dened as

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13. Cylindrical Worms with Globoid Worm Wheel 652

well. The `Lock' button next to the input eld of the tooth space allowances is enabled. Therefore, you can
change the tooth space allowances.

Figure 13.29: Tooth space allowance for worm and worm wheel

13.4.5 Three-Wire Method

The three-wire method is used to check the worm gearset. It is a very accurate method but also very complex.
Based on the traditional three-wire method of measuring screw threads, G. Bock has developed a calculation
method that allows to use the three-wire measurement for all ank forms of a worm in order to determine
the tooth thickness. In the three-wire method, three wires of equal diameter are placed in the thread; two
on one side and one on the opposite side. When the micrometer is in contact with all three wires, this in-
sures measuring perpendicular to the axis of the screw thread. eAssistant uses the method according to G.
Bock (Bock G., Noch R., Steiner O.: Zahndickenmessung an Getriebeschnecken nach der Dreidrahtmethode.
Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt, Braunschweig, 1974.).

The calculation program determines the number of teeth for the span measurement of the worm wheel (number
of teeth across the span measurement has to be gauged). By using the `Lock' button you are able to activate
the input eld and you can enter your own input value. If you click the button again, the previous input value
appears. The ball/pin diameter is also automatically set. Click the `Lock' button to enable the input eld and
enter your own input value. If you disable the button again, the previous input value appears.

Figure 13.30: Number of teeth for span measurement and diameter ball/pin

13.4.6 Tolerance Field for Centre Distance

To ensure smooth and continuous operation and to prevent gears from jamming together, a play is necessary
between the mating pair of gear teeth. The center distance and the gear ts have an important inuence on
the backlash. The gear t selection denes the tolerances of the centre distance with the backlash. The gear
t selection provides only one tolerance eld. The allowances are indicated for the `JS' eld. These conform to
the ISO basic tolerances. The backlash is dependent upon the tooth thickness allowances, the tooth space al-
lowances and the centre distance. Hence, if you change the centre distance, then the backlash is changed, too.

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13. Cylindrical Worms with Globoid Worm Wheel 653

Select the option `User-dened' from the listbox. Now you are able to enter your own centre distance al-
lowances. Conrm your entries with the Enter key. The backlashes are automatically determined.

13.4.7 Centre Distance Allowance

The centre distance allowance Aa is the allowed deviation of the centre distance a from the nominal centre
distance. The allowances are indicated with ± to get no improper major allowances from the nominal centre
distances with gears having several axes.

Figure 13.31: Centre distance

13.4.8 Backlash Normal Plane

The general purpose of backlash, a clearance between mating gear teeth, is to prevent gears from jamming due
to thermal expansion of the housing and gears and to avoid manufacturing errors and mounting inaccuracies.
Like cylindrical gears, some backlash must be allowed for worm gearsets.

Figure 13.32: Backlash normal plane

Worm gears require more backlash than do spur or helical gears because the steel worm and bronze gear are
housed in a cast-iron casting. The temperature of the gearing changes during operation because of the high

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sliding velocities, the material expands and causes an appreciable change in backlash. The normal backlash
jn is the minimum distance between each meshed tooth ank in a pair of gears, when it is set so the tooth
surfaces are in contact.

13.4.9 Backlash Pitch Diameter

The backlash pitch diameter is the length of arc on the pitch circle. The length is the distance the gear is
rotated until the meshed tooth ank makes contacts while the other mating gear is held stationary.

Figure 13.33: Backlash pitch diameter

13.5 Calculation of Load Capacity

The load capacity of worm gearings is mainly inuenced by the material pairing. In addition, heat caused by
friction on ank may cause thermal damage and has to be taken into account. The calculation of the load
capacity is based on DIN 3996 Method B, ISO/TR 14521 Method B and Niemann. The calculations according
to DIN and ISO are similar.

Figure 13.34: Calculation of load capacity

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13. Cylindrical Worms with Globoid Worm Wheel 655

13.5.1 Activate Load Capacity

Click on the `Load capacity' button to get to the calculation mask. You will notice that all input elds or
listboxes are disabled. When you select the entry `DIN 39960 Method B' or `ISO/TR 14521 Method B' or
`Niemann' from the listbox `Calculation method', all input elds are enabled. In case you do not need the
calculation for load capacity, the calculation can be disabled. Thus, the size of the calculation report becomes
smaller. The following conditions can limit the rated load capacity:

- Wear

- Pitting

- Worm shaft deection

- Tooth breakage

- Temperature

- Gear eciency

The extended input options allow to add additional entries, for example the permissible deterioration of quality
or the bearing spacing of the worm shaft.

Figure 13.35: Activate load capacity

13.5.2 Inputs for Load Capacity According to DIN 3996 and ISO 14521
Comment
You can add a description or a short comment to worm and wheel. The notes will appear later in the calculation
report.

Figure 13.36: Add a comment

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Material Selection
The worm gearing has a high sliding component in its tooth meshing action. Therefore, the material selection
plays an important role. Good sliding properties, wear resistance and good thermal conductivity are required.
The material pair should show a good running-in behaviour, so that the sliding surfaces adapt quickly without
scung damage and compensate for tooth errors and deformations. Worms and worm wheels are, therefore,
often made out of two dierent materials. Worms are made of case-hardened or nidrided steels. The basic
material for the worm wheel is bronze (CuSn). Select an appropriate material directly from the listbox or click
on the button `Material' to open the material database.

Figure 13.37: Listbox `Material'

The material database provides some detailed information on the several kinds of material. If the listbox is
active, the two arrow keys `Up' and `Down' of your keyboard allows you to search through the database, so
you can compare the dierent values with each other.

Figure 13.38: Material database

Please Note: In case there is no material that will fulll the design requirements, then simply dene your
individual material. Select the option `User dened input' and all inputs and options are activated and you
can specify your individual material very easily. Your inputs will be saved to the calculation le. Please be
advised that changing the material will delete your dened inputs and you have to enter the inputs again.

Figure 13.39: Own input of a material

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Application Factor
The application factor KA evaluates the external dynamic forces that aect the gearing. These additional
forces are largely dependent on the characteristics of the driving and driven machines as well as the masses
and stiness of the system, including shafts and couplings used in service.

Application Factors KA According to DIN 3990-1: 1987-122

Working Characteristics Working Characteristics of the Driven Machine

of the Driving Machine

Uniform Light shocks Moderate shocks Heavy shocks

Uniform 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75

Light shocks 1.1 1.35 1.6 1.85

Moderate shocks 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0

Heavy shocks 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.25 or higher

2 from: DIN 3990 Part 1, December 1987, p. 55, table: A1

Reference Gear
The inputs for the power, speed and torque apply for the appropriate gear that is selected in the listbox. For
the other gear, speed and torque are determined from the reference gear.

Power and Torque

The power, torque and speed are dependent upon each other. Click on the adjacent button `T/P' to switch
between the input for the torque and the input for the power. If you click on the `TP' button, then you can
enter either the torque or the power. The values are converted. The description of the input eld changes
accordingly into `Torque' or `Power'.

Kind of Lubrication and Lubricant Selection

Worm gearsets operate under dicult conditions, presenting unique lubrication demands, so care should be
taken for lubrication. The right choice of the lubricant is a decisive factor for the operating safety and life
expectancy. In case of lubrication, the following factors must be considered:

- Low friction coecients reduce wear and power loss

- A high viscosity increases the hydrodynamic contact ratio

- Dissipation of friction heat

- Lubricant additives must not aect bronze alloys

Figure 13.40: Selection of lubricant

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Grease lubrication can be used for worm gear units that are open, so long as it runs at low speed. Splash
lubrication is used with an enclosed system. Depending on the speed, the following methods of lubrication
can be used (reference values acc. Decker: Maschinenelemente, p. 553):

1. Worm immersed
- to ν1 = 4 m/s splash lubrication in grease

- to ν1 = 10 m/s splash lubrication in lubricating oil

- to ν1 = 10 m/s injection lubrication in the direction of the tooth mesh

2. Only worm wheel immersed

- to ν1 = 1 m/s splash lubrication in grease

- to ν1 = 4 m/s splash lubrication in lubricating oil

- over ν1 = 4 m/s injection lubrication in the direction of the tooth mesh

Figure 13.41: Kind of lubrication

For injection lubrication, the worm may be above or below the worm wheel, also at side. For splash lubrication,
the worm is placed as low as possible depending on the circumferential velocity, with ν1 ≤ 1 m/s also at side,
for ν1 ≤ 5 m/s also above.

Click on the `Lubricant' button and open the lubricant database. The extensive database contains the lubricants
including all detailed information on oils and greases, for example density, viscosity or operating temperatures.

Figure 13.42: Lubricant selection

Select `User-dened' from the listbox to input your individual lubricant data.

Figure 13.43: Own input of a lubricant

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Lubricant Basis
The types of oils most commonly used to lubricate worm gears are EP mineral gear oils and synthetics. Mineral
oils simplify the running-in process and help to reduce the risk of scoring. Two major types of synthetic gear
oils have been used successfully: polyalphaolens and polyalkelene glycols. Synthetic gear oils based on
polyalphaolen or polyglycol show a considerably lower gear friction coecient and lead to a further eciency
increase. Synthetic gear oils oer higher operating temperature and reduce abrasive wear.

Figure 13.44: Lubricant basis

Material-Lubricant Factor
The material-lubricant factor WM L takes into account the inuence of the combined eects of the wheel
material and lubricant to the wear behaviour. If other materials or lubricants are used, tests should be run, if
possible, in order to estimate the eects.

Material-Lubricant Factor WM L 3
Worm: 16MnCr5 acc. DIN EN 10084 Material-Lubricant Factor WM L
Worm wheel material acc. Mineral oil Polyalphaolen Polyglycol

1) 1) 2)
CuSn12-C-GZ 1,6 1,6 2,25

1) 1) 2)
CuSn12Ni2-C-GZ 1,0 1,0 1,75
DIN EN 1982 2) 2) 2)
CuSn12Ni2-C-GC 4,1 4,1 4,1

3)
CuAl10Fe5Ni5-C-GZ 1 1 -

1) 1) 1)
EN-GJS-400-15 DIN EN 1563 1 1 1

1) 1) 1)
EN-GJL-250 DIN EN 1561 1 1 1

1) Scatter zone ± 25%

2) Scatter zone ± 30%

3) No values are available and risk of scung exists.

3 from: DIN 3996, September 2012, p. 38, tab.: 6

The value for the material-lubricant factor can be individually modied. Click the `Lock' button to enable the
input eld and enter your own value. If you click the button again, the previous input value appears.

Figure 13.45: Own input of material-lubricant factor

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13.5.3 Extended Input Options

Click the button `Extended input options' to add additional entries, for example the permissible deterioration
of quality, ambient temperature or inputs for the bearing. The extended input options may vary depending on
the selected calculation method (DIN, ISO, Niemann).

Figure 13.46: Extended input options

Permissible Deterioration of Quality

The worm wheel teeth can be plastically deformed or broken as a result of a too high tooth root stress. The
accuracy of the worm wheel is deteriorated due to plastic deformations and wear. DIN 3996 recommends that
the manufacturer experience must be considered for worm wheel qualities better than accuracy grade 7. If
the accuracy grade deterioration is accepted, higher values are allowed according to DIN 3996. The input
eld shows the accuracy previously selected in the main mask `Allowances'. The permissible accuracy grade
deterioration must not fall below this value.

Housing with Fan

A distinction is made between gear units with and without fans. If a fan is used, the heat dissipation changes.
For smaller gearboxes, the heat transfer coecient for gears with fans is up to 30% higher than for gearboxes
without fans. The coecient may increase further with increase in worm speed and centre distance. The heat
transfer coecient depends on the gearbox design and the worm speed.

Factor of Permissible Tooth Thickness Loss

∆s is the tooth root thickness loss through wear during the required life expectancy. The tooth thickness is
required for the calculation of the wear safety and is taken into account when calculating the root safety.

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Permissible Deterioration
Wear occurs through material removal caused by sliding velocity, operating temperature, type of lubricant etc.
The lubricant becomes contaminated with abrasive particles and the lubricating capability is reduced. The
permissible material loss ∆mlim can be dened (dependant on oil change intervals, oil quantity and bearing
lubrication).

Roughness of Worm
Niemann provides some reference values for the roughness of the worm:

Ground Rz ≤ 3...4 µm for m ≤ 8, Rz ≤ 8 µm for m > 8

Milled Rz ≤ 12,5 µm for m ≤ 8, Rz ≤ 25 µm for m > 8

Number of Sealing Rings

Sealing rings prevent oil from escaping and oer adequate protection against contamination. This number is
needed for the calculation of the sealing power loss. The power loss at the seals on the worm wheel shaft can
be neglected.

Bearing Arrangement of Worm Shaft

Adjusted bearing arrangements, for example separable ball bearings, angular contact ball bearings and tapered
roller bearings, are suitable for small to medium-sized dimensions. Located/non-located bearings, for example
double-row angular contact ball bearings, can be considered for large and heavily-loaded worm gear units.

Spacing of the Worm Shaft Bearings

The bearing spacing for the worm shaft should be small in order to keep the deection under load low.

Figure 13.47: Bearing spacing

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13.5.4 Power Loss

Click the button `Power loss' and the software displays directly the power loss. If required, the power loss can
be individually modied by using the `Lock' button.

Figure 13.48: Own input of the power loss

13.6 Message Window

The calculation module provides a message window. This message window displays detailed information,
helpful hints or warnings about problems. One of the main benets of the program is that the software
provides suggestions for correcting errors during the data input. If you check the message window carefully
for any errors or warnings and follow the hints, you are able to nd a solution to quickly resolve calculation
problems.

Figure 13.49: Message window

13.7 Quick Info: Tooltip

The quick info tooltip provides additional information about all input elds and buttons. Move the mouse
pointer over the input eld or button, then you will get the additional information. This information will be
displayed in the quick info line.

Figure 13.50: Quick info line

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13.8 Calculation Results

All results will be calculated during every input and will be displayed in the result panel. A recalculation
occurs after every data input. Any changes that are made to the user interface take eect immediately. In
case a minimum safety is not fullled, the result will be marked red. Press the Enter key or move to the
next input eld to complete the input. Alternatively, use the Tab key to jump from eld to eld or click
the `Calculate' button after every input. Your entries will be also conrmed and the calculation results will
displayed automatically.

Figure 13.51: Calculation results

13.9 Documentation: Calculation Report

After the completion of your calculation, you can create a calculation report. Click on the `Report' button.

Figure 13.52: Button `Report'

The calculation report contains a table of contents. You can navigate through the report via the table of
contents that provides links to the input values, results and gures. The report is available in HTML and PDF
format. Calculation reports, saved in HTML format, can be opened in a web browser or in Word for Windows.

Figure 13.53: Calculation report

You may also print or save the calculation report:

- To save the report in the HTML format, please select `File' ⇒ `Save as' from your browser menu bar.
Select the le type `Webpage complete', then just click on the `Save' button.

- If you click on the symbol `Print', then you can print the report very easily.

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13. Cylindrical Worms with Globoid Worm Wheel 664

- If you click on the symbol `PDF', then the report appears in the PDF format. If you right-click on the
PDF symbol, you should see the `Save Target As' option. Click on that option and you will see the
Windows save dialog.

13.10 How to Save the Calculation

When the calculation is nished, it is easy to save the calculation. You can save your calculation either to the
eAssistant server or to your computer. Click on the button `Save'.

Figure 13.54: `Save' button

Before you can save the calculation to your computer, you need to activate the checkbox Local' in the
calculation module. A standard Windows dialog for saving les will appear. Now you will be able to save the
calculation to your computer.

Figure 13.55: Windows dialog for saving the le

In case you do not activate the option in order to save your les locally, then a new window is opened and
you can save the calculation to the eAssistant server. Please enter a name into the input eld `Filename' and
click on the button `Save'.

Figure 13.56: Save the calculation

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13. Cylindrical Worms with Globoid Worm Wheel 665

13.11 The Button `Redo' and `Undo'

The `Undo' button allows you to reset your inputs to an older state. The `Redo' button reverses the undo.

Figure 13.57: Button `Redo' and `Undo'

13.12 The Button `Options'

Click on the button `Options' in the top menu bar to change some general settings.

Figure 13.58: Button `Options'

This option allows you to change the following general settings:

- Switch between metric system and U.S. customary unit system

- Number of decimal places for the calculation report

- Minimum safety tooth root

- Minimum saftey ank safety

- Minimum safety against wear

- Temperature safety

- Safety against deection

Figure 13.59: The options

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Chapter 14

Interference Fits According to DIN

7190

14.1 General Information

The interference t is a frictional shaft-hub-connection. The joint pressure in the friction surfaces pF that
is necessary for the power transmission, is generated by the deformation of shaft and hub. According to the
manufacturing method, you have to distinguish between a shrink and force t. Shrink-tting is a procedure in
which heat is used to produce a very strong joint between two pieces of metal, one of which is inserted into
the other. Heating causes one piece of metal to contract or expand on to the other, producing interference
and pressure which holds the two pieces together. In a force t of cylindrical parts, the inner member has a
greater diameter than the hole of the outer member.

Figure 14.1: General overview

666
14. Interference Fits According to DIN 7190 667

The calculation takes place according to DIN 7190 for cylindrical interference ts. In addition, the inuence
of the centrifugal force, the stepped hub geometry, torque, radial force and bending moment are considered
as well.

14.2 Application
DIN 7190 denes the calculating basis for interference ts with cylindrical surfaces whose parts are made of
metallic materials. This standard applies mainly for the common mechanical engineering but can be used also
in other elds (e.g., precision engineering). The calculation method DIN 7190 applies for interference ts with
a constant axial length of inner and outer part (see gure 1). The calculation can be used approximately for
interference ts according to gure 2. Stress increases in the area of the hub edge are not considered.

Figure 14.2: Figure 1 and 2

14.3 Selection of Fit/Tolerances

For a comfortable selection and calculation of suitable tolerances, a dialog window for the selection of ts is
included. This dialog window contains the tolerance system according to DIN ISO 286 including all IT classes.

Figure 14.3: Button `Selection'

In DIN ISO 286, the tolerances for the diameter are dened up to 500 mm. The desired tolerance eld can be
selected for hub and shaft from a listbox. An individual input of the upper and lower deviation is also possible.
The lowest and highest interference as well as the t type for the nominal diameter will be displayed. For the
calculation of possible ts, the IT scope can be selected. The following IT scopes are available:

- User-dened (the IT scope can be dened individually)

- Gauge (IT classes 1 to 5)

- Common mechanical engineering (IT classes 6 to 11)

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14. Interference Fits According to DIN 7190 668

- Rolled, pressed and forged products (IT classes 12 to 16)

- All (IT classes 1 to 18)

In order to nd the required t, dierent options are available. Based on the specied loads, the minimum
interference and the maximum interference are determined. These values will be displayed automatically in
the eld `Calculation of possible ts' and provide the basis for the dimensioning and selection of appropriate
tolerances. In addition, there is the possibility to dene a tolerance eld for the hub and shaft. Select the
option `Show only preferred ts' and click the button `Search ts' and all possible ts will be displayed. Then
just choose the right t.

14.3.1 Selection of Fit

Click the button `Selection' in order to open the t calculator and to let the calculation module propose a
suitable t. The t calculator provides the tolerance system according to DIN ISO 286 including all IT classes.
The upper part of the t calculator allows to choose the tolerance eld for the hub and the shaft.

Figure 14.4: Fit calculator

For the selected tolerance the upper deviation and the lower deviation for shaft and hub will be displayed.
Furthermore, the t type as well as the highest and lowest interference will be specied.

Figure 14.5: Deviations for the selected tolerance combination

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14. Interference Fits According to DIN 7190 669

The deviations of shaft and hub can be entered manually. In order to do so, please enable the option `Activate
the input of user dened tolerances'.

Figure 14.6: Own denition of tolerances

14.3.2 Calculation of Fit

You can specify the lowest and highest interference. If you have dened all data in the main mask before, the
required lowest and highest interference will be entered automatically.

Figure 14.7: Lowest and highest interference

Clicking the button `Search ts' shows all possible ts. The message `More than 500 ts were found. Only
preferred ts are shown' may occur. Please conrm this message with `OK' and choose a t from the listbox.

Figure 14.8: Search a t

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14. Interference Fits According to DIN 7190 670

The option `Show only preferred ts' is activated automatically and all preferred ts will be displayed in the
listbox.

Figure 14.9: Show only preferred ts

Please note: The option `Show only preferred ts' is enabled by default. The list of ts is limited. Disable
this option and click the button `Search ts'. The number of ts increases.

14.4 Automatic Dimensioning Functions (Calculator Button)

The button for the dimensioning functions is marked by a calculator symbol and is located next to the input
elds. If you click on the dimensioning buttons, you get a suggestion for an appropriate input value. The
calculation of the value is carried out so that the given minimum safety is fullled. The default value for the
minimum safety is set to `1.2'. Clicking the button `Options' allows you to change this value. A dimensioning
function is available for the joint diameter, the length, the torque and the axial force.

Figure 14.10: Dimensioning button

14.5 Inuence of Centrifugal Force

The inuence of the centrifugal force on the interference t by the input of a speed is considered according to
F. G. Kollmanns, Braunschweig `Rotierende Pressverbaende bei rein elastischer Beanspruchung' (Konstruktion
33, 1981 H.6, pp. 233-239).

Figure 14.11: Speed

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14. Interference Fits According to DIN 7190 671

14.6 Additional External Loads

In addition to the consideration of axial and tangential forces, a radial and a bending moment can be specied.
The calculation is carried out according to Mr. Prof. Gropp `Das Uebertragungsverhalten dynamisch belasteter
Pressverbindungen ...' and Mr. Prof. Hartmann `Berechnung und Auslegung elastischer Pressverbindungen'.

Figure 14.12: Axial force, radial force and bending moment

Resulting from the given loads for the bending moment and radial force, the additional external loads may be
determined from the following equations:

9 Mb Fr
pb = and pr =
2 (2 − QW ) · DF · lF2 d F · lF

For a too small minimum joint compression, the hub lifts o and a so-called gaping joint occurs. A gaping
joint minimizes the joining surface available for the power transmission and is imperative to avoid. To avoid
a gaping joint, the following condition has to be fullled:

pmin ≥ pr + pb

If this condition is not fullled, then an appropriate warning/message appears.

Figure 14.13: Gaping joint

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14. Interference Fits According to DIN 7190 672

14.7 Operating Factor (Application Factor)

The operating factor (application factor) is determined according to DIN 3990. The following table gives some
values.

Application Factors KA According to DIN 3990-1: 1987-12

Working Characteristics Working Characteristics of the Driven Machine
of the Driving Machine Uniform Light shocks Moderate shocks Heavy shocks

Uniform 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75

Light shocks 1.1 1.35 1.6 1.85

Moderate shocks 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0

Heavy shocks 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.25 or higher

14.7.1 Working Characteristics of the Driving Machine

Uniform: e.g., electric motor, steam or gas turbine (small, rarely occurring starting torques)

Light shocks: e.g., electric motor, steam or gas turbine (large, frequently occurring starting torques)

Moderate shocks: e.g., multiple cylinder internal combustion engines

Heavy shocks: e.g., single cylinder internal combustion engines

14.7.2 Working Characteristics of the Driven Machines

Uniform: Steady load current generator, uniformly loaded conveyor belt or platform conveyor, worm conveyor,
light lifts, packing machinery, feed drives for machine tools, ventilators, light-weight centrifuges, centrifugal
pumps, agitators and mixers for light liquids or uniform density materials, shears, presses, stamping machines,
vertical gear, running gear

Light shocks: Non-uniformly (i.e. with piece or batched components) loaded conveyor belts or platform
conveyors, machine-tool main drives, heavy lifts, crane slewing gear, industrial and mine ventilators, heavy
centrifuges, centrifugal pumps, agitators and mixers for viscous liquids or substances of non-uniform density,
multi-cylinder piston pumps, distribution pumps, extruders (general), calendars, rotating kilns, rolling mill
stands, continuous zinc and aluminium strip mills, wire and bar mills

Moderate shocks: Rubber extruders, continuously operating mixers for rubber and plastics, ball mills (light),
wood-working machines (gang saws, lathes), billet rolling mills, lifting gear, single cylinder piston pumps

Heavy shocks: Excavators (bucket wheel drives), bucket chain drives, sieve drives, power shovels, ball mills
(heavy), rubber kneaders, crushers (stone, ore), foundry machines, heavy distribution pumps, rotary drills,
brick presses, de-barking mills, peeling machines, cold strip c, e, briquette presses, breaker mills

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14. Interference Fits According to DIN 7190 673

14.8 Coecients of Friction

The following table provides some approximate values for the coecients of adhesion/coecients of friction for
shrink ts according to DIN 7190. The values are on the safe side and can be used for sliding in circumferential
and longitudinal direction.

Coecients of Adhesion for Shrink Fits in

Longitudinal and Circumferential Direction During Sliding
Coecients of Adhe-
Mating of Material, Lubrication, Joining
sion νR , νrl , νu
Steel/Steel pair

Pressurized oil assembly normally joined with mineral oil 0.12

Pressurized oil assembly with degreased surfaces joined with glycerine 0.18

◦
Shrink t normally after heating the outer part up to 300 C in an electric kiln 0.14

Shrink t with degreased surfaces after heating up to 300◦ C in an electric kiln 0.20

Steel/Cast iron pair

Pressurized oil assembly normally joined with mineral oil 0.10

Pressurized oil assembly with degreased surfaces 0.16

Steel/MgAl pair, dry 0.10 to 0.25

Steel/CuZn pair, dry 0.17 to 0.25

The following table species the coecients of adhesion/coecients of friction for force ts according to DIN
7190. These values are valid for monotonic loading and are determined for inner parts made of X 210 Cr W12.
They are valid for steel. After joining, the interference ts require sucient time (24 hours is best) before rst
loading to assure a strong joint.

Coecients of Adhesion for Force Fits During Monotonic Loading

Materials Coecients of Adhesion

Old New dry lubricated

Number νll νrl νll νrl

St 60-2 E 335 1.0060 0.11 0.08 0.08 0.07

GS-60 GE 300 1.0558 0.11 0.08 0.08 0.07

RSt37-2 S 235JRG2 1.0038 0.10 0.09 0.07 0.06

GG-25 EN-GJL-250 0.6025 0.12 0.11 0.06 0.05

GGG-60 EN-GJS-600-3 0.7060 0.10 0.09 0.06 0.05

G-AlSi12 (Cu) EN AB-44000 . 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04

G-CuPb10Sn
CB495K 2.1176.01 0.07 0.06
1
- -
1
G-CuSn10Pb10

TiAl6V4 TiAl6V4 3.7165.10 -

1 -
1 0.05 -
1

1 Coecients of adhesion are unknown

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14. Interference Fits According to DIN 7190 674

The above-mentioned table means:

νll = Coecient of adhesion in longitudinal direction for loosening

νrl = Coecient of adhesion in longitudinal direction for sliding

The coecients of adhesive friction/coecients of friction are dependent upon the following factors:

- Mating of material of inner and outer part,

- Roughness of joining surfaces,

- Condition of joining surfaces before joining (lubricated or not),

- Load of inner and outer part (elastic only or elastic-plastic).

Due to the friction within the joint, the coecients of adhesive friction are subject to statistical uctuations.
Therefore, the dened coecients of adhesive friction are approximate values and are on the safe side. The
values can be replaced by an experimental determination of values according to DIN 7190.

14.9 Stepped Hub Geometry

For the stepped hub or/and shaft (see gure below), there is a larger joint compression on the thick-walled
segment than on the thin-walled segment for the same t. Hence, widely dierent stress and deformation
ratios occur on each segment. In that case, the total length LF has to be used. The hub can be considered
as composed of separate discs of dierent diameters. From it, the mean joint pressure for the interference t
is determined. Because the stresses and deformation cannot change abruptly from one segment to another
segment, this method of segmentation presents an approximation. The eort to dene the matching conditions
or to determine the joint compression by using FEM calculation is just useful for critical cases.

The calculation is determined according to the algorithm in Prof. Hartmanns `Berechnung und Auslegung
elastischer Pressverbindungen'.

Figure 14.14: Stepped hub

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14. Interference Fits According to DIN 7190 675

Click on the button `stepped' next to the input eld `Outer diameter hub' to consider the stepped hub geometry.
Any number of segments can be dened.

Figure 14.15: Button `Stepped'

The gure (see gure 14.14) shows how the segmentation has be specied. A segment can contain a constant
outer hub diameter and inner shaft diameter. If a shaft bore extends over two outer hub diameters of dierent
size, then two segments has to be dened with a dierent outer hub diameter and equal inner shaft diameter.
In case there is a stepped shaft bore within a constant hub outer diameter, then use this method, too (a
denition of two segments with equal outer hub diameter and dierent inner shaft diameter).

Figure 14.16: Denition of geometry

Place a checkmark in order enable and use the stepped hub geometry.

Figure 14.17: Enable stepped hub geometry

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14. Interference Fits According to DIN 7190 676

Now you can start to dene the segments. Enter the number of segment and add the segment length, outer
hub diameter and inner shaft diameter.

Figure 14.18: Dene segments

Clicking the `OK' button applies your input values and the diagram button will be enabled.

Figure 14.19: Button `Diagram'

That diagram shows the compressive stress along the t length. Move the mouse over the diagram to see the
values for the lowest (pK), highest (pG) and mean (p) compressive stress due to the lowest, highest and mean
interference.

Figure 14.20: Diagram

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14. Interference Fits According to DIN 7190 677

14.10 Subsidence/Surface Smoothing

Due to the smoothness of asperity peaks during the joining, only the interference Uw is available. Unless there
are experimental values, the equations according to DIN 7190 for force and shrink ts are:

U = Uo − s and s = 0.8(RzA + RzI )

where s is the subsidence that results from the determined surface roughness Rz of inner and outer part. Uo
is the lowest, highest and mean interference.

If the values of the surface roughness for the arithmetic mean value of the prole coordinates Ra (formerly
the arithmetical mean deviation of the roughness prole Ra ) are specied according to DIN EN ISO 4287,
then the determined mean values according to DIN 7190 can be used for the surface roughness Rz (see table
below). Select the entry `User dened' from the listbox `Surface'. Now the input eld next to the listbox is
enabled and you can enter a value for the surface roughness Rz .

Figure 14.21: Own input of surface quality

Comparison of Mean Roughness Ra and Average Roughness Rz

Ra in µm Ra0.8 Ra1.6 Ra3.2

Rz in µm from 3.15 6.3 12.5

to 10 20 31.5

Average surface roughness Rz in µm Rz6.3 Rz12.5 Rz20

14.11 Modication of Diameter

The calculation of the modication of diameter at the inner and outer diameter of shaft and hub takes place
according to Niemanns `Maschinenelemente' volume 1 pp.789, 3rd edition 2001. There, the modication of
the diameter is considered by the joint pressure and centrifugal force. The inuence of temperature on the
modication of diameter is considered on the outer diameter of the shaft and on the inner diameter of the
hub by the modied interference and joint pressure.

14.12 Fretting Corrosion

According to Niemann `Maschinenelemente' volume 1 p.800, 3rd edition 2001, the torque is transmitted also
during repeated load by elastic transformation (i.e., without slip), if the torque T is smaller than the maximum

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14. Interference Fits According to DIN 7190 678

torque TE . For a solid shaft, disk-shaped hub with LF /DF > 0.25 and shaft and hub with equal E modulus,
it is expressed as:

T · SR
TE ≤ q
8 LF
(1−Q2A )
·2· DF

T · Sr is the slipping torque against fretting corrosion. This results in remedial measures against fretting
corrosion. The joint pressure, coecient of adhesion in terms of circumference, the joint diameter or the
safety against sliding can be increased in order to avoid micro sliding/fretting corrosion. A rotating bending
may cause fretting corrosion. If the mentioned conditions for a possible determination of the maximum torque
are given, the maximum torque is calculated for the minimum, mean and maximum interference.

14.13 Assembly and Disassembly

14.13.1 Shrink ts
In shrink ts, the outer member is heated or the inner part is cooled, or both, as required. The calculation of
the temperatures to cool the inner part or to heat the outer part is dependent upon the chosen minimum t.
Additionally, a mating clearance for joining has to be kept to avoid adhesion. For an individual production, it
is recommended to use the following mating clearance

Usϑ = 0, 001 · DF

For the individual production the risk of premature adhesion of the joining parts is covered before the assembly
process is completed. By using joining devices, the above recommended mating clearance can be fallen below.
Click on the button `Options' to dene the mating clearance. Two possibilities are available. On the one
hand, the mating clearance can be specied dependent upon the joint diameter, on the other hand a mating
clearance can be entered directly in µm.

In general, the room temperature as well the joint temperature of the inner part are set. The required joint
temperature is calculated as follows:

UF αI
ϑAerf = ϑR + + · (ϑI − ϑR )
αA · DF αA

The button `Options' allows to change the room temperature and the joint temperature of the shaft (see
section 14.23 `The Button Options'). The highest joint temperature may not exceed the required work piece
features of the heat-treated parts.

In the following table, the data according DIN 7190 valid data are specied for the maximum joint temperatures
dependent on the material of the outer part and the heat treatment.

Joint Temperature
Material of the Outer Part (Hub) Joint Temperature ◦ C Maximum
Structural steel lower strength

Cast steel 350

Modular cast iron

Hardened and tempered steel or cast steel 300

Surface layer hardened steel 250

Case-hardened steel or high-tempered structural steel 200

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14. Interference Fits According to DIN 7190 679

The following table provides the coecients of linear thermal expansion for inner and outer part.

Poissons Ratio, Elastic Modulus, Coecient of Linear Thermal Expansion

Materials Material Poissons Elastic Modulus Coecient of Linear

No. Ratio N/mm2 Thermal Expansion α
ν ≈ 10−6
◦C

≈ Heating ≈ Supercool

MgAl8Zn 3.5812 0.3

AlMgSi 3.2315 0.34 65,000 to 75,000 23 -18

AlCuMg 3.1325 0.33 to 0.34

1
GG-10 0.6010 70,000
1 0.24
GG-15 0.6015 80,000
10 -8
1
GG-20 0.6020 105,000
1 0.24 to 0.26
GG-25 0.6025 130,000

GGG-50 0.7050 0.28 to 0.29 140,000 10 -10

Malleable cast iron 0.25 > 90,000 to 100,000 10 -8

C-steel low alloyed 0.3 to 0.31

200,000 to 235,000 11 -8.5
Ni-steel 0.31

Bronze 0.35 16 -14

Red brass 0.35 to 0.36 17 -15

80,000 to 85,0000

CuZn39Pb3 2.0401 0.37

18 -16
CuZn37 2.0321 0.36

1 Not allowed for system engineering in metallurgy/rolling mills

Liquid nitrogen (ϑI = −195.8◦ C) is used to cool shrink ts. Liquid nitrogen shrink tting is one of the safest
assembly methods. In some cases CO2 dry ice (ϑI = −78.4◦ C) is also used as a coolant. Based on the
maximally permissable temperature of the hub, it must be decided whether the cooling process is necessary
or not.

14.13.2 Force Fits

The required pressing force for joining is determined from:

Fe = π · DF · lF · ϑll · pmax

The `Option' button allows to dene the coecients of adhesion νll for pressing in and pressing out (see also
section 14.23 `The Button Options'). The table (see table 14.8) species the coecient of adhesion νll . The
maximum joint pressure pmax is determined for the highest interference. In case the joining surfaces are not
lubricated with grease, larger coecients of friction and larger longitudinal and tangential forces occur. There
is a risk of scung for joining surfaces that are not lubricated, in particular for a elastic-plastic dimensioning.
Before joining, the joining surfaces should be lubricated with oil.

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Furthermore, the following information has to be considered for the engineering design according to DIN 7190:

Figure 14.22: Force ts

The values for the edge length le are specied in the following table. The unit is indicated in mm.

Edge Length le
DF DF
over to
le over to
le

50 80 4 400 630 8

80 160 5 630 800 9

160 250 6 800 1,000 10

250 400 7 1,000 - 10

- When joining parts, sharp edges and transitions must not occur.

- The bevel angle ϕ should not exceed 5◦ .

- This applies for the calculation of the edge length

p
3
le ≈ DF

During the manufacturing process of interference ts by force tting, the joining area is provided with a thin
oil lm over the entire surface. A jamming of the assembled parts must be avoided. The slip-stick eect can
be avoided by the press-in speed and discharge speed of approx. 50 mm/s and sucient pressing force (2.5x
extraction force). Force ts requires sucient time (24 hours) before rst loading, then the complete adhesive
force is reached (only 70% immediately after pressing).

14.14 Example of Interference Fits

The following section gives some guidance on selecting ts according to E. & K. Felber. There are features
that can be expected in general during the assembly. The assembly rules specify the character of the t and
all features correspond to the mean value of ts. The list contains ts that are used frequently. Almost all ts
can be formed in quality (e.g., from H8/u8 to H8/u7 to H6/u6). In general, the standard ts (e.g., H8/u7)
can be used. According to the function, you have to select ne qualities (e.g., H6/u6) for larger requirements
(requirements for accuracy and uniformity). The following examples are taken from the mechanical engineering

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14. Interference Fits According to DIN 7190 681

and cannot to be considered as complete in any detail.

Examples for interference ts: H8/u8; U8/h7; H8/s7; S7/h6; H7/r6; R7/h6

Features, assembly rule: The parts are assembled and tightened and have a strong interference. The parts
are pressed together or assembled into position while hot and cooled. In general, a safety device against torsion
or shifting in lengthwise direction is not necessary.

Examples: Spur gears that are mounted tightly on a shaft, couplings, collar rings, press rings, wheel rims,
bearing bushings in housings, bushings in gear hubs, tight pivots, bushings made of synthetic resin pressed
material, parts which cannot be loosened by large forces.

14.15 How to Change the Unit System

eAssistant provides two unit systems: the metric system and the U.S. customary unit system. You can quickly
switch between the units. To select the unit system, click the button `Options' and decide for a unit. It is also
possible to change the unit by clicking the label eld. When you click the label eld, a context menu will open
providing all available units within the unit system. The change should take eect immediately. All settings
will be saved to the calculation le. As soon as you select a unit, the current eld value will be converted
automatically into the chosen unit.

Figure 14.23: Change the unit

14.16 The Button `Redo' and `Undo'

The button `Undo' allows you to reset your input to an older state. The button `Redo' reverses the undo.

Figure 14.24: Button `Redo' and `Undo'

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14.17 Material Selection

Select an appropriate material directly from the listbox. Clicking the button `Material' opens the material
database. In case there is no material that will fulll the design requirements, then simply dene your individual
material. You will nd the entry `User-dened' in the listbox. If you select this option, the input elds will be
enabled, so that you can enter your own input values or add a comment. Please select the material from the
list. You will get detailed information on the material. The two cursor keys `Up' and `Down' of your keyboard
allows you to navigate through the material database, so you can compare the dierent material properties
with each other.

Figure 14.25: Material selection

In case you cannot nd the material you are looking for in our extensive material database, you can dene
your individual material. Select the option `User dened' and all inputs and options are activated and you can
specify your individual material very easily. Your inputs will be saved to the calculation le. Please be advised
that changing the material will delete your dened inputs and you have to enter the inputs again.

Figure 14.26: Own input of material

14.18 Message Window

The calculation module provides a message window. This message window displays detailed information,
helpful hints or warnings about problems. One of the main benets of the program is that the software
provides suggestions for correcting errors during the data input. If you check the message window carefully
for any errors or warnings and follow the hints, you are able to nd a solution to quickly resolve calculation
problems.

Figure 14.27: Message window

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14. Interference Fits According to DIN 7190 683

14.19 Quick Info: Tooltip

The quick info feature gives you additional information about all input elds and buttons. Move the mouse
pointer to an input eld or a button, then you will get some additional information. This information will be
displayed in the quick info line.

Figure 14.28: The quick info

14.20 Calculation Results

All important calculation results, such as the lowest, highest and mean interference, will be calculated during
every input and will be displayed in the result panel. A recalculation occurs after every data input. Any changes
that are made to the user interface take eect immediately. Press the Enter key or move to the next input eld
to complete the input. Alternatively, use the Tab key to jump from eld to eld or click the `Calculate' button
after every input. Your entries will be also conrmed and the calculation results will displayed automatically.
If the result exceeds certain values, the result will be marked red.

Figure 14.29: Calculation results

14.21 Documentation: Calculation Report

After the completion of your calculation, you can create a calculation report. Click on the `Report' button.

Figure 14.30: Button `Report'

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14. Interference Fits According to DIN 7190 684

You can navigate through the report via the table of contents that provides links to the input values, results
and gures. This calculation report contains all input data, the calculation method as well as all detailed
results. The report is available in HTML and PDF format. The calculation report saved in HTML format,
can be opened in a web browser or in Word for Windows. You may also print or save the calculation report.

Figure 14.31: Calculation report

- To save the report in the HTML format, please select `File' ⇒ `Save as' from your browser menu bar.
Select the le type `Webpage complete', then just click on the button `Save'.

- If you click on the symbol `Print', then you can print the report very easily.

- When you click on the symbol `PDF', then the report appears in the PDF format. If you right-click on
the PDF symbol, you should see the `Save Target As' option. Click on that option and you will see the
dialog box for saving the report.

14.22 How to Save the Calculation

When the calculation is nished, it is easy to save the calculation. You can save your calculation either to the
eAssistant server or to your computer. Click on the button `Save'.

Figure 14.32: Button `Save'

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14. Interference Fits According to DIN 7190 685

Before you can save the calculation to your computer, you need to activate the checkbox `Local' in the
calculation module. A standard Windows dialog for saving les will appear. Now you will be able to save the
calculation to your computer.

Figure 14.33: Windows dialog for saving the le

In case you do not activate the option in order to save your les locally, then a new window is opened and
you can save the calculation to the eAssistant server. Please enter a name into the input eld `Filename' and
click on the button `Save'.

Figure 14.34: Save the calculation

14.23 The Button `Options'

Click the button `Options' in order to change the default settings. The button `Options' allows you to
dene the minimum safeties, the mating clearance, the temperatures at joining (room temperature and shaft
temperature) as well as the coecient of friction at joining for pressing in and pressing out for a force t.
Additionally, there is the possibility to enter the number of decimal places for the output of the numerical
values in the report.

Figure 14.35: Button `Options'

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14. Interference Fits According to DIN 7190 686

Here are the default settings that you can modify:

- Unit switch between the metric system and the U.S. customary unit system

- Minimum safeties

- Mating clearance

- Temperatures at joining

- Coecient of friction at joining

Figure 14.36: Options

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14. Interference Fits According to DIN 7190 687

14.24 Calculation Example: Interference Fit According to DIN

7190
14.24.1 Start the Calculation Module
Please login with your username and your password. To start the calculation module for interference ts,
please click the menu item `Connections' on the left side and then select `Interference t'.

14.24.2 Calculation Example

A cylindrical interference t has to be dimensioned against sliding. Enter the following values:

Joint diameter = 50 mm
Length = 20 mm
Outer diameter hub = 95 mm
Inner diameter shaft = 30 mm
Torque = 80 Nm
Axial force = 125 N
Speed = 2,000 min/-1
Operating temperature = 25◦ C
Operating factor = 1.2
Coecient of friction axial = 0.15
Coecient of friction circumference = 0.15
Material shaft = 20MnCr5
Surface shaft = N6
Material hub = C45 hardened and tempered
Surface hub = Rz=6

14.24.3 Start the Calculation

Please start to enter the values into the input eld. All important calculation results will be calculated during
every input and will be displayed in the result panel. A recalculation occurs after every data input. During
the input of the values it can happen that the results will be marked in red. Nevertheless, please continue to
enter the data as usual.

Figure 14.37: Input of the values

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14. Interference Fits According to DIN 7190 688

Please note: Please note the section `Selection of t' for the specication of the tolerances. With the de-
nition of the surface quality of the hub, you have to notice that the given value (Rz=6) has to be entered by
the `User dened' input. Select `User dened' in the appropriate listbox and enter the desired value into the
input eld next to the listbox.

Selection of Fit/Calculation of Possible Fits

The button `Selection' allows you to open the dialog window for selection of ts. Here you can choose the
possible tolerances or the appropriate ts can be suggested.

Figure 14.38: Button `Selection'

Enable `Show only preferred ts' and click the button `Search ts'.

Figure 14.39: Activate preferred ts

Two ts will be recommended to you.

Figure 14.40: Recommended ts

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14. Interference Fits According to DIN 7190 689

Select the t H7/s6 and click the button `Ok'.

Figure 14.41: Select the t H7/s6

Automatic Dimensioning of the Maximum Torque

Due to the t calculation, a safety close to the given minimum safety has been determined. By the help
of the comfortable dimensioning functions, other values can be checked and optimized regarding the use of
the minimum safety. So the maximum torque can be dened using the given minimum safety against sliding
(SR = 1.2). The button `Options' allows you to specify the minimum safety. Click on the dimensioning button
(`calculator symbol') next to the input eld for the torque.

Figure 14.42: Automatical dimensioning function

The maximum torque is determined.

Figure 14.43: Minimum safety

Here the maximum torque is `83.60 Nm'. If you enter now a higher value than `83.60 Nm', the safety against
sliding is fallen below.

The calculation result is marked in red. You will get an appropriate information in the message window.

Figure 14.44: Result panel

Now click on the calculator symbol again, then the maximum torque is determined (83.50 Nm) and the min-
imum safety of `1.2' is fullled. The specications of the results is given for the lowest, highest and mean

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14. Interference Fits According to DIN 7190 690

interference. If the minimum safety is not fullled, then the safety is marked in red.

14.24.4 Calculation Results

All important calculation results, such as the lowest, highest and mean interference, will be calculated during
every input and will be displayed in the result panel. A recalculation occurs after every data input. Any
changes that are made to the user interface take eect immediately. If the result exceeds certain values (e.g.,
the minimum saftey), the result will be marked red.

Figure 14.45: Calculation results

14.24.5 Documentation: Calculation report

In case you have nished your calculation, please click on the button `Report'.

Figure 14.46: `Report' button

The calculation report contains a table of contents. You can navigate through the report via the table of
contents that provides links to the input values, results and gures. The report is available in HTML and PDF
format. Calculation reports, saved in HTML format, can be opened in a web browser or in Word for Windows.

Figure 14.47: Calculation report

You may also print or save the calculation report:

- To save the report in the HTML format, please select `File' ⇒ `Save as' from your browser menu bar.
Select the le type `Webpage complete', then just click on the button `Save'.

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14. Interference Fits According to DIN 7190 691

- If you click on the symbol `Print', then you can print the report very easily.

- If you click on the symbol `PDF', then the report appears in the PDF format. If you right-click on the
PDF symbol, you should see the `Save Target As' option. Click on that option and you will see the
dialog box for saving the report.

14.24.6 How to Save the Calculation

When the calculation is nished, it is easy to save the calculation. You can save your calculation either to the
eAssistant server or to your computer. Click on the button `Save'.

Figure 14.48: `Save' button

Before you can save the calculation to your computer, you need to activate the checkbox `Local' in the
calculation module. A standard Windows dialog for saving les will appear. Now you will be able to save the
calculation to your computer.

Figure 14.49: Windows dialog to save the le

In case you do not activate the option in order to save your les locally, then a new window is opened and
you can save the calculation to the eAssistant server. Please enter a name into the input eld `Filename' and
click on the button `Save'.

Figure 14.50: Save the calculation

Our manual is improved continually. Of course we are always interested in your opinion, so
we would like to know what you think. We appreciate your feedback and we are looking
for ideas, suggestions or criticism. If you have anything to say or if you have any questions,
please let us know by phone +49 (0) 531 129 399-0 or email [email protected].

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Chapter 15

Parallel Keys According to DIN 6892

15.1 General
A parallel key is a positive shaft-hub-connection. The torque is transmitted from the shaft to the hub via
the parallel key. The main purpose of the parallel key is to transmit static and quasi-static torques. The
parallel key can be used with limitations also for swelling and alternating torques. In case a good assembly
and disassembly of the shaft-hub-connection are required or necessary (e.g., replacement or repair), then a
parallel key may be used. A shearing o of the parallel key does not happen very often and occurs only
in the event of overloading. The fretting corrosion due to rotating bending and/or torsional oscillation has
been proven in numerous endurance tests and is usually the crucial factor which leads to the failure of the
shaft-hub-connection.

Figure 15.1: General overview

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15. Parallel Keys According to DIN 6892 693

For the proof of strength of parallel keys, it is necessary to check the following factors:

(a) Surface pressure on the shaft, parallel key and hub

(b) Design strength of the shaft for

- Torsional stress, normally (quasi-) static

- Bending load, normally dynamic

- Consideration of notch eects, for that the strength calculation for the shaft according to DIN 743 is
usually used

(c) Design strength of the hub

In DIN 6892 a distinction is made between dierent methods for the proof of strength for parallel keys: method
A, B and C.

Figure 15.2: Selection of method

Method A
This method is an experimental proof of strength under conditions of practice and/or an extensive stress
analysis of the entire parallel key connection, consisting of shaft, parallel key and hub.

Method B
The dimensioning takes place due to a detailed consideration of the occurring surface pressures. In addition,
the proof of strength for the shaft is carried out according to the nominal stress concept.

Method C
It is a rough calculation of the surface pressure and resulting estimation of the shaft stress.

15.2 Scope of DIN 6892

The calculation is based on DIN 6892. The DIN standard species the following scope:

- For parallel keys whose parts are made of metallic materials

- Geometry and parallel key lengths according to DIN 6885

- DIN 743 has to be considered for the shaft strength, hub design and hub wall thickness must also be
considered

- Mainly for parallel keys used in mechanical engineering for the temperature range of −40◦ C to 150◦ C

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15.3 Types of Parallel Keys

The geometry of the parallel keys can be selected according to DIN 6885-1, DIN 6885-2 and DIN 6885-3.
This geometry selection includes the standard lengths of parallel keys. The supporting length is determined
from the standard length and the chosen parallel key type. There are various types of parallel keys - the types
A to J are available.

Figure 15.3: Parallel key types A to D

Figure 15.4: Parallel key types E to J

The supporting length ltr for the dierent types of parallel keys is calculated as follows:

- The following applies for round-ended parallel keys (type A, E, C)

ltr = lP F − b

- The following applies for straight-ended parallel keys (type B, D, F, G, H, J)

ltr = lP F
- This applies for combined parallel keys (AB)

b
ltr = lP F − 2

ltr is the supporting length

lP F is the standard length

b is the width

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For nonstandard parallel keys, it is possible to dene an individual parallel key geometry and supporting
lengths. The dierent keyway depths in shaft and hub as well as the chamfer of the parallel key are taken
into consideration for the calculation. For method B, the chamfer on the shaft and hub keyway is additionally
integrated into the calculation.

If you choose to enter the supporting length manually, the supporting length l2tr of the hub keyway can be
smaller than ltr of the parallel key. For this case, according to DIN 6892, the length l1tr of each extended
part may be calculated as carrying up to maximum 1 × b. For a safe calculation, the eAssistant software uses
the most conservative case and this exceptional case will not be considered automatically.

15.4 Surface Pressure

The eective surface pressure between parallel key and shaft or hub keyway wall must not exceed the permissible
value. The permissible values result from the material strength - for ductile materials from the yield point
(Rp0,2 and/or Re ) and for brittle materials from the tensile strength Rm . The calculation can be run by
using less common metallic materials. The following strength criteria have to be fullled with the appropriate
safeties:

peqzul
p1,2eqzul = fW · pzul and SF eq =
peq
pmaxzul
p1,2maxzul = fL · pzul and SF max =
pmax

fW is the load direction changing factor and fL is the load peak frequency factor. The load direction changing
factor considers the inuence of the number of load direction changes on the permissible surface pressure.
The load peak frequency factor evaluates the inuence of the load peaks on the maximum surface pressure.

The calculation method applies for one-sided stress and with restriction for an alternating stress of the parallel
keys. The surface pressure is determined from the torque that is transmitted.

Figure 15.5: Geometry and surface pressure on the parallel key connection

The supporting keyway depths l1tr and l2tr between parallel key and shaft as well as hub keyway wall are given
by the following equations. Therefore, a 45◦ chamfer and radius on the parallel key as well as on the shaft
and hub keyway edge are considered according to the gure above:

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15. Parallel Keys According to DIN 6892 696

- For shaft keyway wall

 p 
1
t1tr = t1 − (r + s1 ) − 2 d− d2 − (b + 2s1 )2

- For hub keyway wall

 p 
1
t2tr = h − t1 − (r + s2 ) + 2 d− d2 − (b + 2s1 )2

15.5 Permitted Surface Pressure

- For ductile material:

pzul = fS · fH · Re and pzul = fS · fH · Rp0,2

according to the specications in the standard sheets for the respective materials.

- For brittle material:

pzul = fS · Rm

fS is the support factor

fH is the hardness factor

15.6 Application Factor

The application factor KA is determined for the calculation of the equivalent torque Teq (similar to the gear
calculation according to DIN 3990) with the following table:

Application Factors KA According to DIN 3990-1: 1987-121

Working Characteristics Working Characteristics of the Driven Machine

of the Driving Machine

Uniform Light shocks Moderate shocks Heavy shocks

Uniform 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75

Light shocks 1.1 1.35 1.6 1.85

Moderate shocks 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0

Heavy shocks 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.25 or higher

1 from: DIN 3990 Part 1, December 1987, p. 55, table A1

15.6.1 Working Characteristics of the Driving Machine

Uniform: e.g., electric motor, steam or gas turbine (small, rarely occurring starting torques)

Light shocks: e.g., electric motor, steam or gas turbine (large, frequently occurring starting torques)

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15. Parallel Keys According to DIN 6892 697

Moderate shocks: e.g., multiple cylinder internal combustion engines

Heavy shocks: e.g., single cylinder internal combustion engines

15.6.2 Working Characteristics of the Driven Machines

Uniform: Steady load current generator, uniformly loaded conveyor belt or platform conveyor, worm conveyor,
light lifts, packing machinery, feed drives for machine tools, ventilators, light-weight centrifuges, centrifugal
pumps, agitators and mixers for light liquids or uniform density materials, shears, presses, stamping machines,
vertical gear, running gear

Light shocks: Non-uniformly (i.e. with piece or batched components) loaded conveyor belts or platform
conveyors, machine-tool main drives, heavy lifts, crane slewing gear, industrial and mine ventilators, heavy
centrifuges, centrifugal pumps, agitators and mixers for viscous liquids or substances of non-uniform density,
multi-cylinder piston pumps, distribution pumps, extruders (general), calendars, rotating kilns, rolling mill
stands, continuous zinc and aluminium strip mills, wire and bar mills

Moderate shocks: Rubber extruders, continuously operating mixers for rubber and plastics, ball mills (light),
wood-working machines (gang saws, lathes), billet rolling mills, lifting gear, single cylinder piston pumps

Heavy shocks: Excavators (bucket wheel drives), bucket chain drives, sieve drives, power shovels, ball mills
(heavy), rubber kneaders, crushers (stone, ore), foundry machines, heavy distribution pumps, rotary drills,
brick presses, de-barking mills, peeling machines, cold strip c, e, briquette presses, breaker mills

15.7 Load Factor

Due to deviation in form and position of a single parallel key, an unbalanced or uneven carrying of two parallel
keys, that are arranged evenly around the circumference, occurs. Thus, the reduced load capacity of the
parallel key is considered by the load factor Kv . In practice, not more than two parallel keys are used because
of the load distribution that is dicult to determine.

1
Kv =
i·ϕ

- One parallel key (i = 1): ϕ = 1

- Two parallel keys (i = 2): ϕ = 0.75 for the determination of the equivalent surface pressure, ϕ = 0.9
for the determination of the maximum surface pressure

Compared to the calculation of the equivalent surface pressure, a higher load part ϕ can be estimated for the
determination of the maximum surface pressure because a torque Mtmax occurring in several load peaks leads
to a higher load part by deformation on the parallel key and keyway ground. Using these load parts, ductile
materials with pronounced yield point as well as sucient manufacturing accuracy are required. For brittle
materials (e.g., gray cast iron), there is no established knowledge about the load capacity using two parallel
keys.

15.8 Load Distribution Factor

The load distribution factor Kλ takes an uneven load distribution into consideration along the keyway length
as well as the ratio of load in and output. For using two parallel keys, the unbalanced carrying is considered
by the following assumption:

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15. Parallel Keys According to DIN 6892 698

- One parallel key: Kλ = Kλe

- Two parallel keys: Kλ = 2 · Kλe − 1

The factor Kλ is dependent upon the kind of load in and output position. Regardless of the torque ow
direction, three cases are distinguished.

Figure 15.6: Kind of load application

For a stepped hub, it means (see above gure):

D1 Small outer diameter of stepped hub

D2 Large outer diameter of stepped hub

a0 Distance between the axial cutting planes through N and W

c Width of the hub with D2 within the carrying part of the parallel key, i.e., c ≤ ltr

D is the outer diameter of the hub or the outer diameter of the alternative cylinder with equal torsional
stiness. The alternative outer diameter is calculated as follows:

D2
D = r 4  
4 D2 c c
D1 1− ltr + ltr

Depending on a0 /ltr , the factor Kλe is determined by using the gures 3, 4 and 5 in DIN 6892. These dia-
grams are integrated into the calculation module and are valid for a specic ratio a0 /ltr (a0 /ltr = 0; 0.5; 1).
For other ratios a0 /ltr , the values are determined from two diagrams by interpolation.

15.9 Friction Factor

For an interference t, part of the torque is transmitted by friction. The friction factor KR considers that.
But it is taken into consideration only for the calculation of the maximum eective surface pressure pmax . For
a dynamic load, an interference t stops the occurrence of fretting corrosion. A clearance t or interference
t adversely aects the shaft strength. For the determination of the friction factor, a minimum friction torque
MtRmin of the interference t is assumed. According to DIN 7190, this can be obtained for a hole without

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15. Parallel Keys According to DIN 6892 699

keyway. The joint pressure, that is reduced due to the parallel key in comparison to the hole without keyway,
is considered by the factor q . Thus, the friction torque, eective for the power transmission, is decreased. As
a rst approximation, q = 0.8 can be specied for a parallel key.

With the maximum load peak torque Mtmax , occurring during the entire operation time, it applies:

Mtmax > qmax · MtRmin

Mtmax − qmax · MtRmin

KRmax = with qmax = 0.8
Mtmax

For M ttmax ≤ qmax ·MtRmin the load peak torque is transmitted by friction. In this case, the surface pressure,
occurring in the parallel key, is not relevant. A check of the maximum surface pressure pmax is not necessary
according to DIN 6892. However, it is integrated into the calculation.

Figure 15.7: Friction factor

Please note: Interference t is not allowed for brittle materials (e.g., gray cast iron).

15.10 Load Direction Changing Factor

Parallel key connections are only conditionally usable during changing the direction of torque. However, the
rating life is limited if it comes to constant slipping between shaft and hub and thus to a deection of the
parallel key connection. There are two dierent cases:

Case 1: One-sided load of the parallel key during alternating load direction. The maximum torques in reverse
direction (against the main load direction) do not exceed the eective part of the minimum friction torque.

MtmaxRev ≤ qeq · MtRmin fW = 1

Case 2: Alternating load of the parallel key during alternating load direction. The maximum torques exceed
the eective part of the minimum friction torque in both directions.

Mtmax > qmax · MtRmin and MtmaxRev > qmax · MtRmin fW ≤ 1

In case 2, the load direction changing factor fW is dependent upon the frequency NW of changes of load
direction for the parallel key.

Load direction changes, that occur due to special cases, have to be considered as well.

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15.11 Load Peak Frequency Factor

Load peaks occur when the torque clearly exceeds the equivalent torque Mteq . Special cases may occur due
to starting impacts, short-circuit torques, emergency breaking torques, abrupt blockings etc. The frequency
NL of the load peaks has to be estimated during the entire operating time.

For a single load peak, depending on the ductility of the material, the 1.3 to 1.5 times the permanent surface
pressure is allowed. The progress of fL for ductile and brittle materials over the frequency is shown in the
following gure.

Figure 15.8: Load peak frequency factor fL

15.12 Support Factor and Hardness Inuence Factor

Using the support factor fS , a supporting eect can be considered that occurs for compressive stress compo-
nents. From experience, the supporting eect for hubs is larger due to the higher stressed material volume
than for shafts and parallel keys.

The hardness inuence factor fH is determined from the ratio of surface strength to core strength for case-
hardened components. By the hardness inuence factor, an increasing of the permissible surface pressure is
considered (see table: Support and hardness inuence factors for dierent materials). If the material properties
are not well known, then the smaller value for fS should be used.

Please note: If you select the entry `user dened' from the material database, you can dene your individual
support factor fS .

Support and Hardness Inuence Factors for Dierent Materials2

Component Material fS fH
Structural steel according to DIN EN 10025 1.1 - 1.4 1.0
Parallel key

Bright steel according to DIN EN 10277-5 1.1 - 1.4 1.0

Heat-treated steel according to DIN EN 10083-1 and DIN EN 10083-2 1.1 - 1.4 1.0

Case-hardened steel according to DIN EN 10084 1.1 - 1.4 1.15

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Structural steel according to DIN EN 10025 1.3 - 1.7 1.0

Shaft

Heat-treated steel according to DIN EN 10083-1 and DIN EN 10083-2 1.3 - 1.7 1.0

Case-hardened steel according to DIN 17210 1.3 - 1.7 1.15

Gray cast iron with lamellar graphite according to DIN EN 1563 1.3 - 1.7 1.0

Steel casting according to DIN 1681 1.3 - 1.7 1.0

Gray cast iron with lamellar graphite according to DIN EN 1561 1.1 - 1.4 -

Structural steel according to DIN EN 10025 1.5 1.0

Hub

Heat-treated steel according to DIN EN 10083-1 and DIN EN 10 083-2 1.5 1.0

Case-hardened steel according to DIN EN 17210 1.5 1.15

Gray cast iron with spheroidal graphite according to DIN EN 1563 1.5 1.0

Steel casting according to DIN 1681 1.5 1.0

Gray cast iron with lamellar graphite according to DIN EN 1561 2.0 -

2 from: DIN 6892:2012-08, p. 25, appendix B, table B.1. Support and Hardness Inuence Factors

for Dierent Materials

15.13 Inputs for Calculation Method B

The calculation method B provides a more precise way to determine the surface pressure. The strength of the
shaft is veried according to the nominal stress concept. Select method B from the listbox. The calculation
method B requires some additional inputs. Click the button `Input data method B'.

Figure 15.9: Button `Input method B'

A new window is opened.

Figure 15.10: Inputs for method B

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15. Parallel Keys According to DIN 6892 702

The following input can be dened:

(a) Kind of load:

- Alternating torque

- No alternating torque - load in only one direction

(b) Changes of load direction

(c) Maximum reverse torque MtmaxRev

(d) Small outer diameter of stepped hub D1

(e) Large outer diameter of stepped hub D2

(f ) Width c of hub with D2 within ltr

(g) Axial distance a0 between load in and output position

(e) Chamfer on the shaft keyway edge

(f ) Chamfer on the hub keyway edge

15.14 Some Additional Information On Method C

The calculation method C according to DIN 6892 is suitable only for a rough calculation of parallel keys. The
method is based on the following simplications:

- Constant surface pressure over the keyway length and height of keyway wall

- No consideration of chamfers or radii for the determination of supporting surfaces

Limitations:
- Only the torsional moment is considered.

- ltr ≤ 1.3 · d; a length going beyond it does not make a considerable contribution for the torque
transmission.

- Number of parallel keys i≤2

- For an inversion of the torque direction, method C cannot be used. The method B has to be applied.

15.15 Design Recommendations of Parallel Keys According to

DIN 6892

15.15.1 Hub Geometry and Load Output from the Hub

The sections for the load input and load output should be designed with the largest possible distance a0 .

15.15.2 Parallel Key Length

The parallel key length ltr should be selected so that for the ratio ltr /d, a value of 1,3 is not signicantly
exceeded. The reason for this is the uneven carrying of the key over the length.

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15.15.3 Shaft Shoulders

A shaft shoulder located at the end of the groove has a favorable eect on the dynamic strength compared to
the shaft that is not shouldered. Cutting the groove into the shaft shoulder does not change the notch factor.
Special end mill grooves (see parallel key type N1 according to DIN 6885-1) should be preferably be placed in
the larger shaft diameter.

15.15.4 Keyway Form in the Shaft

The side milling grooves (see prallel key type N2 according to DIN 6885-1) reduces the maximum bending
stress most signicantly compared to the round-ended form N1.

15.15.5 Parallel Key Form

The design strength of parallel keys with an end mill groove (see form N1 according to DIN 6885-1) is indepen-
dent of the parallel key type used (round-ended parallel key; type A according to DIN 6885-1 or straight-ended
parallel key; type B according to 6885-1).

A tightly screwed parallel key (see parallel key type E according to DIN 6885-1) leads to lower stresses com-
pared to parallel key type A.

15.16 Automatic Dimensioning Functions (Calculator Button)

The button for the dimensioning functions is marked by a calculator symbol and is located next to the input
elds. If you click on the dimensioning buttons, you get a suggestion for an appropriate input value. The
calculation of the value is carried out so that the given minimum safety is fullled. The default value for the
minimum safety is set to `1.2'. Clicking the button `Options' allows you to change this value. The following
dimensioning functions (calculator button) provide you with optimal support:

Automatic dimensioning of the shaft diameter

Automatic dimensioning of the nominal torque

Automatic dimensioning of the maximum load peak torque

Automatic dimension of the standard length

Automatic dimensioning of the supporting length

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15.17 Material Selection

Select an appropriate material directly from the listbox. Clicking the button `Material' opens the material
database. Please select the material from the list. You will get detailed information on the material. The two
cursor keys `Up' and `Down' of your keyboard allows you to navigate through the material database, so you
can compare the dierent material properties with each other. That applies for shaft, hub and parallel key.

Figure 15.11: Material selection

Dene Your Own Material

In case there is no material that will fulll the design requirements, then simply dene your individual material.
Select the option `User dened' and all inputs and options are enabled and you can specify your individual
material very easily. Your inputs will be saved to the calculation le. Please be advised that changing the
material will delete your dened inputs and you have to enter the inputs again.

Figure 15.12: Own material

15.18 Selection and Geometry of Parallel Keys

Click the button `Parallel key' in order to select parallel keys quickly and easily.

Figure 15.13: Button `Parallel key'

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15. Parallel Keys According to DIN 6892 705

The geometry database will be opened. The database allows you to select a parallel key.

Figure 15.14: Selection dialog for parallel key geometry

The database provides the parallel key selection according to DIN 6885 sheet 1 to 3. The parallel key forms A
to J as well as the parallel key size, including the lengths, can be selected. Clicking the button `OK' conrms
yur inputs and leads you back to the the main mask.

15.19 Input of Individual Parallel Keys

The geometry database oers the possibility to calculate individual parallel keys. You can dene the geometry
of parallel keys as you wish and dierent from the DIN standard. The parallel key forms from A to J are also
available. In order to dene your individual parallel key, click the button `Parallel key' to open the parallel key
database. Enable the option `Own input' and choose the suitable dimensions from the list or enter your own
values directly into the input eld.

Figure 15.15: Own input

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15. Parallel Keys According to DIN 6892 706

15.19.1 Supporting Length of Individual Parallel Keys

It is possible to dene a supporting length for your individual parallel key. Select `User dened input' from the
listbox and enter your own value for the supporting length.

Figure 15.16: Own input of supporting length

You can specify dierent supporting length for the shaft and hub. Place a checkmark in order to enable the
input eld and enter a value for the supporting length.

Figure 15.17: Supporting length for shaft and hub

15.20 The Button `Redo' and `Undo'

The button `Undo' allows you to reset your input to an older state. The button `Redo' reverses the undo.

Figure 15.18: Button `Redo' and `Undo'

15.21 Message Window

The calculation module provides a message window. This message window displays detailed information,
helpful hints or warnings about problems. One of the main benets of the program is that the software
provides suggestions for correcting errors during the data input. If you check the message window carefully
for any errors or warnings and follow the hints, you are able to nd a solution to quickly resolve calculation
problems.

Figure 15.19: Message window

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15. Parallel Keys According to DIN 6892 707

15.22 Quick Info: Tooltip

The quick info feature gives you additional information about all input elds and buttons. Move the mouse
pointer to an input eld or a button, then you will get some additional information. This information will be
displayed in the quick info line.

Figure 15.20: The quick info

15.23 Calculation Results

All important calculation results, such as the safeties for the operation load or at the maximum load for all
three components (shaft, hub and parallel key) or the equivalent pressure will be calculated during every input
and will be displayed in the result panel. A recalculation occurs after every data input. Any changes that are
made to the user interface take eect immediately. Press the Enter key or move to the next input eld to
complete the input. Alternatively, use the Tab key to jump from eld to eld or click the `Calculate' button
after every input. Your entries will be also conrmed and the calculation results will displayed automatically.
If the result exceeds certain values, the result will be marked red.

Figure 15.21: Calculation results

15.24 Documentation: Calculation Report

After the completion of your calculation, you can create a calculation report. Click on the `Report' button.

Figure 15.22: Button `Report'

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15. Parallel Keys According to DIN 6892 708

You can navigate through the report via the table of contents that provides links to the input values, results
and gures. This calculation report contains all input data, the calculation method as well as all detailed
results. The report is available in HTML and PDF format. The calculation report saved in HTML format,
can be opened in a web browser or in Word for Windows. You may also print or save the calculation report:

- To save the report in the HTML format, please select `File' ⇒ `Save as' from your browser menu bar.
Select the le type `Webpage complete', then just click on the button `Save'.

- If you click on the symbol `Print', then you can print the report very easily.

- When you click on the symbol `PDF', then the report appears in the PDF format. If you right-click on
the PDF symbol, you should see the `Save Target As' option. Click on that option and you will see the
dialog box for saving the report.

Figure 15.23: Calculation report

15.25 How to Save the Calculation

When the calculation is nished, it is easy to save the calculation. You can save your calculation either to the
eAssistant server or to your computer. Click on the button `Save'.

Figure 15.24: Button `Save'

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15. Parallel Keys According to DIN 6892 709

Before you can save the calculation to your computer, you need to activate the checkbox `Local' in the
calculation module. A standard Windows dialog for saving les will appear. Now you will be able to save the
calculation to your computer.

Figure 15.25: Windows dialog for saving the le

In case you do not activate the option in order to save your les locally, then a new window is opened and
you can save the calculation to the eAssistant server. Please enter a name into the input eld `Filename' and
click on the button `Save'.

Figure 15.26: Save the calculation

15.26 The Button `Options'

Click the button `Options' in order to change the default settings.

Figure 15.27: Button `Options'

The button `Options' allows you to dene the minimum safeties. Additionally, there is the possibility to switch
the unit system or enter the number of decimal places for the output of the numerical values in the report.

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15.27 Calculation Example: Parallel Key According to DIN 6892

15.27.1 Start the Calculation Module
Please login with your username and your password. To start the calculation module for parallel keys, please
click the menu item `Connections' on the left side and then select `Parallel keys'.

15.27.2 Calculation Example

A strength calculation for the following shaft-hub-connection is required (see also DIN 6892, Example E.2).
Enter the following values into the input elds:

Shaft diameter = 60 mm
Application factor = 1.75
Outer diameter hub D2 = 120 mm
Calculation method = B
Operation nominal torque Mtnom = 1,950 Nm
Min. frictional torque MtRmin = 1,250 Nm
Max. load peak torque Mtmax = 3,900 Nm
Load peaks NL = 500
Material shaft = C45 hardened and tempered
Material hub = 34CrNiMo6 hardened and tempered
Parallel key = DIN 6885.1 AB 18 x 11 x 100
Material parallel key = 34CrNiMo6 hardened and tempered
Standard length parallel key = 100 mm
Number of parallel keys = 1

Inputs Method B:
Kind of load = Alternating torque with a slow torque increase
Changes of load direction = 106
Max. reverse torque MtmaxRev = 3,900 Nm
Small outer diameter D1 = 120 mm
Large outer diameter D2 = 120 mm
Width of hub within ltr = 91 mm
Axial distance a0 = 45.5 mm
Chamfer/radius on shaft keyway edge s1 = 1.0 mm
Chamfer/radius on shaft keyway edge s2 = 1.0 mm

15.27.3 Start the Calculation

Please start to enter the values into the input eld. All important calculation results will be calculated during
every input and will be displayed in the result panel. A recalculation occurs after every data input.

Figure 15.28: Input of the values

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15. Parallel Keys According to DIN 6892 711

During the input of the values it can happen that the results will be marked in red. Nevertheless, please
continue to input the data as usual. For the load peaks NL , please select the entry `User dened input' from
the listbox. Enter the the value `500' into the adjacent input eld.

15.27.4 Calculation Method B

The direction of the torque is reversed and a rough calculation according to Method C is not possible. It is
recommended to use the calculation method B. Select the calculation method B from the listbox and click
the button `Input data method B`.

Figure 15.29: Calculation method B

Clicking this button opens the window `Input data method B' and allows you to enter the other input values.

Figure 15.30: Calculation method B

Please note: If, at a later time, you need to change certain values, then click the button `Input data method
B' and the input mask will open again.

Input Values for Shaft and Hub

Specify the material for the shaft and the hub. The material for the shaft is `C45 hardened and tempered'.
The required material for the hub is `34CrNiMo6 hardened and tempered'. Both materials can be selected
from the listbox.

Figure 15.31: Material selection for shaft and hub

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15. Parallel Keys According to DIN 6892 712

Select the material either from the listbox or click the button `Material' to open the material database. The
database allows you to choose the material. You also get detailed information on the kind of material, hardness
factor fH , yield point as well as support factor fS .

Input Values for Parallel Key

The parallel key selection according to DIN 6885 sheet 1 to 3 makes it easier to choose the required parallel
key. You can also select the geometry and size of the parallel key. The database also provides the standard
lengths of the parallel keys. The dimensions of the parallel key are as follows: DIN 6885.1 AB 18 x 11 x 100

Standard Length
In order to dene the standard length of the parallel key, select the value `100' from the listbox.

Figure 15.32: Standard length

Selection of the Parallel Key Geometry

Click on the button `Parallel key' to select the shape of the parallel key.

Figure 15.33: Button `Parallel key'

The geometry selection shows the suitable parallel key. Select the parallel key geometry `DIN 6885 sheet
1-8/1968' as well the shape `AB' from the listbox. Click the button `OK' to conrm the values.

Figure 15.34: Selection dialog for the parallel key

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15. Parallel Keys According to DIN 6892 713

Selection of Material
Select the material `34CrNiMo6 hardened and tempered' from the listbox. If you need further information on
the material, click the button `Material' to open the material database.

Figure 15.35: Material for parallel key

Supporting Length and Number of Parallel Keys

The supporting length ltr is determined automatically from the selected standard length. You can use the
listbox to select the number of parallel keys. For our calculation example we specify one parallel key.

Figure 15.36: Supporting length and number of parallel key

15.27.5 Calculation Results

All important calculation results, such as the safeties for the operation load or at the maximum load for all
three components (shaft, hub and parallel key) or the equivalent pressure will be calculated during every input
and will be displayed in the result panel. A recalculation occurs after every data input. Any changes that are
made to the user interface take eect immediately. You will get the results for the equivalent pressure and for
the pressure at load peak as well as the safety at operation load and the safety at peak load.

Figure 15.37: Calculation results

In our calculation example the safeties for the shaft, the hub and the parallel key are marked red. That means
the minimum safeties are not fullled. In addition, you get also an appropriate message in the message window.
The parallel key is not suitable for our calculation example.

Figure 15.38: Message window

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15. Parallel Keys According to DIN 6892 714

Minimum Safety: Dimensioning of the Shaft Diameter

Use the automatic dimensioning function (calculator button) in order to determine the shaft diameter. With
just one click, the program automatically determines the shaft diameter so that the required minimum safety of
`1.2' will be fullled. To do so, please click the calculator button next to the input eld of the shaft diameter.

Figure 15.39: Dimensioning button for the shaft diameter

Now the new shaft diameter is determined.

Figure 15.40: New shaft diameter

The shaft diameter is now d = 75.1 mm. With this diameter the minimum safety of `1.2' is achieved and the
parallel key is suitable for this application. The safety can even be increased by selecting another material.

Figure 15.41: Calculation result

Due to the new dimensioning, the shaft diameter is now larger. A new size of the parallel key was determined
automatically. Click the button `Parallel key' and the larger parallel key is displayed automatically.

Figure 15.42: New parallel key

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15. Parallel Keys According to DIN 6892 715

15.27.6 Documentation: Calculation Report

Use the button `Report' to generate the calculation report very fast. This report contains the calculation
method, all input values as well as the detailed results.

Figure 15.43: Button `Report'

The calculation report contains a table of contents. You can navigate through the report via the table of
contents that provides links to the input values, results and gures. The report is available in HTML and PDF
format. Calculation reports, saved in HTML format, can be opened in a web browser or in Word for Windows.

Figure 15.44: Calculation report

You may also print or save the calculation report:

- To save the report in the HTML format, please select `File' ⇒ `Save as' from your browser menu bar.
Select the le type `Webpage complete', then just click on the button `Save'.

- If you click on the symbol `Print', then you can print the report very easily.

- If you click on the symbol `PDF', then the report appears in the PDF format. If you right-click on the
PDF symbol, you should see the `Save Target As' option. Click on that option and you will see the
dialog box for saving the report.

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15. Parallel Keys According to DIN 6892 716

15.27.7 How to Save the Calculation

When the calculation is nished, it is easy to save the calculation. You can save your calculation either to the
eAssistant server or to your computer. Click on the button `Save'.

Figure 15.45: Button `Save'

Before you can save the calculation to your computer, you need to activate the checkbox `Local' in the
calculation module. A standard Windows dialog for saving les will appear. Now you will be able to save the
calculation to your computer.

Figure 15.46: Windows dialog for saving the le

In case you do not activate the option in order to save your les locally, then a new window is opened and
you can save the calculation to the eAssistant server. Please enter a name into the input eld `Filename' and
click on the button `Save'.

Figure 15.47: Save the calculation

Our manual is improved continually. Of course we are always interested in your opinion, so
we would like to know what you think. We appreciate your feedback and we are looking
for ideas, suggestions or criticism. If you have anything to say or if you have any questions,
please let us know by phone +49 (0) 531 129 399-0 or email [email protected].

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Chapter 16

Involute Splines According to DIN

5480 and Other Standards

16.1 Start the Calculation Module

Please login with your username and your password. To start the calculation module for involute splines,
please click the menu item `Connections' on the left side and then select `Involute splines'.

Figure 16.1: General overview

This eAssistant module allows for the calculation of splined connection with involute splines according to DIN
5480, DIN 5482, ISO 4156, ANSI B92.2M, ANSI B92.1. The calculation of the strength is based on Niemann
`Maschinenelemente 1`, 2001. Involute splines are used to transmit torque from a shaft to a gear hub where
external gear teeth on the shaft engage an equal number of internal teeth in the hub. Involute splines oer

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 718

several interesting advantages: Involute splines can be produced by the same manufacturing processes and
machines as ordinary gears. No special machines are required in order to produce involute splines. Involute
splines are the predominant form because they are stronger than straight sided splines and are easier to cut
and they are used to transmit larger torques.

Figure 16.2: Involute splines

16.2 Field of Application of DIN 5480

DIN 5480 applies to splined connections with involute splines based on reference diameters for connecting
hubs and shafts either with a removable connection, a sliding t or a permanent t. It lays down the following
principles:

◦
- Standardized uniform pressure angle of 30

- Basic rack prole is the same for all pitches

- Flank centring, in exceptional diameter centring is allowed

- Use of prole shift in order to achieve specic reference diameters

- The t system includes tolerances for eective form deviations, meaning that the eect of such
deviations on the t clearance is taken into account.

16.3 Input of Geometry Data

Select the appropriate standard from the listbox `Standard geometry data'. DIN 5480 applies for involute
splines in the module range 0,5 to 10 with a number of teeth ranging from 6 to 82 and a pressure angle of
30◦ . The DIN 5480 series of standards is limited to splines with a pressure angle of 30◦ . Pressure angles of
37, 5◦ and 45◦ are covered by ISO 4156. In addition to DIN 5480 and ISO 4156, it is possible to select DIN
5482, ANSI B92.2M, ANSI B92.1 as well as the french standard NF E 22-141 from the listbox.

Figure 16.3: Selection of DIN, ISO or ANSI

Based on the selected prole, number of teeth, prole shift coecient, normal module and pressure angle will
be set and the tip circle diameter and the root diameter are determined. You can rene the prole geometry

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 719

selection by including specic parameters to nd the right prole quicker. The following parameters can be
dened for a certain range:

- Reference diameter dB

- Module

- Number of teeth z

- Tip circle diameter shaft da1

- Tip circle diameter hub da2

- Prole shift x∗ m

Figure 16.4: Select the range

Please enter your values into the input elds `from' and `to' and click the button `Search' to start the prole
selection search. The number of found proles will be displayed. The number of proles will be reduced and
you can select the proles directly from the list. If you have already entered values into the input elds and
want to change your entry for any reason, please delete the value and click into another input eld or use the
Tab key. The option `Any' is used again in the input eld.

Figure 16.5: Add the values

You can sort the selection list in the database by clicking on the column header. To sort the proles in reverse
order, click on the column header again. A black arrow appears. The arrow makes the orientation much easier
for you.

Figure 16.6: Sort the search

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 720

16.3.1 Prole Details

When you select a prole from the table, parameters (e.g., number of teeth, prole shift coecient, module
and pressure angle) will be displayed.

Figure 16.7: Prole details

Comment
You can add a description or a short comment to shaft and hub. The notes will appear later in the calculation
report.

Number of Teeth
External gear teeth on the shaft engage an equal number of internal teeth in the hub. According to DIN 3960,
the number of teeth of internal gears is negative. This leads to negative signs for all hub diameters.

Prole Shift
In accordance with DIN 5480, the prole shift for the shaft is kept within the range −0.05 · m and +0.45 · m
and for the hub within the range +0.05 · m and −0.45 · m.

16.3.2 More Inputs for the Geometry

Click the button `Details' in order to add more inputs for the geometry. A new window is opened and you can
modify the tip diameter allowance by clicking the `Lock' button. Add an addendum chamfer or tip radius for
shaft and hub.

Figure 16.8: Geometry details

Tip Diameter Allowance

The tip diameter allowances are not determined by default. Therefore, all input values are specied with `0'.
Click the `Lock' button and all input values will be disabled and the allowances are determined in accordance
with DIN. Click the `Lock' button again to enable the input eld and to add your own value.

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 721

Tip Clearance
Clearance c is the distance between the root circle of a gear and the addendum circle of its mate. A certain
clearance between the gears is necessary for a smooth operation without jamming. The diameters of the tip
and root circles of the shaft dier from the respective diameters of the hub by at least the tip clearance c.

Figure 16.9: Tip clearance

Addendum Chamfer
The tooth ends of a gear are often rounded or chamfered. A chamfer is a small angled surface added on
the end of a shaft along an edge. For the calculation you can consider the addendum chamfer. Meshing
interferences can be removed by the addendum chamfer.

Figure 16.10: Addendum chamfer

As an alternative to the addendum chamfer, a tip corner radius can be specied. This can be dened either
as a radial amount or directly as a radius. The selection is marked by the colored arrow. The radius is entered
directly for the tip radius, the radial amount is entered for the tip radius (Rad.). If you enter the tip radius
directly as a value, you will receive the corresponding radial amount in the calculation report. In the case of
tip corner radius or addendum chamfer, the tip form diameter is smaller than the tip circle diameter by twice
the radial amount hK .

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 722

16.3.3 Dene Your Own Geometry

In case you cannot nd the right prole you are looking for in our extensive database, then simply dene your
individual prole. Activate the option `User dened input' from the listbox. If you select this option, the input
elds will be enabled, so that you can enter your own input values.

Figure 16.11: Own input

Tip Circle Diameter

The tip circle diameter da is automatically determined according to the selected standard, for example in
accordance with DIN 5480. In case the option `User dened input' is enabled, then a `Lock' button appears
next to the input eld. Click the `Lock' button in order to activate the input eld and to modify the tip circle
diameter. Please note that the tip diameter has an inuence on the modication of the tip diameter. Click
on the button again to disable the input eld. The value is determined again according to DIN. In case you
use special tools, the tip circle diameter can be modied by a tool customization.

Figure 16.12: Tip circle diameter

Modication of Tip Diameter

The modication of the tip diameter k is automatically determined by the program that a sucient tip
clearance is available. For external gears the modication of the tip diameter is k ≤ 0, for internal gears,
the value is often set to k=0 in order to avoid meshing interferences. Click on the `Lock' button to enable
the input eld and enter your own value. Such a modication of the tip diameter has an eect on the tip
diameter.

Figure 16.13: Modication of tip diameter

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 723

16.4 Input of Tool Data

A basic rack prole for the shaft or hub according to DIN, ISO or ANSI can be selected from a listbox or can
be dened individually. Involute splines can be produced by the same manufacturing processes and machines
as ordinary gears. A machining allowance can be taken into consideration. Usually, external splines are cut by
hobbing, rolling or shaping and the internal ones are produced either by broaching or shaping in a gear shaper.

Figure 16.14: Input of tool data

Please note: You can add a description or a short comment to shaft and hub. The notes will appear later in
the calculation report.

16.4.1 Tool Type

Select either the tool `Hob' or `Gear shaper cutter' by clicking the listbox. A `Constructed involute' is also
available.

Figure 16.15: Tool type

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 724

Hob
The hobbing is the most widely used method of cutting gear teeth. The cutter, called the hob, is like a worm.
All gears are cut by feeding the hob across the facewidth of the gear. According to DIN 5480, for any number
of teeth of one module size only one cutter is required.

Gear Shaper Cutter

A gear cutting method in which the cutting tool is shaped like a pinion. The shaper cuts while traversing
across the facewidth and rolling with the gear blank at the same time. According to DIN 5480, several gear
shaper cutter of dierent numbers of teeth are standardized for each module. These apply for:

- All number of teeth of shaft

- All number of teeth of shaft and specic number of teeth of the hub

- All number of the teeth of hub of a certain minimum number of teeth

Figure 16.16: Hob and gear shaper cutter

Constructed Involute
In addition to the hob and the gear shaper cutter, you can also select the entry `Constructed involute' as a
tool. In case internal gears cannot be shaped with a gear shaper cutter, the tooth form calculation is still
possible by using the constructed involute. This specically applies for applications in the precision mechanics.
This method allows a generation of the tooth form with a constant root llet radius.

Figure 16.17: Constructed involute

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 725

16.4.2 Tool Standard Basic Rack Prole

The tool standard basic rack prole is the counter prole of the standard basic rack tooth prole. The listbox
provides the following tool standard basic rack tooth proles:

- DIN 5480: Broaching, hobbing, shaping, cold-rolling, externally and internally centred (shaft/hub)

- DIN 5482

- ISO 4156: 30◦ at root, 30◦ llet root, 37, 5◦ llet root, 45◦ llet root

- ANSI B92.1

- ANSI B92.2M: 30◦ at root, 30◦ llet root, 37, 5◦ llet root, 45◦ llet root

Figure 16.18: Selection of basic rack prole

16.4.3 Broaching
Hubs are often made by broaching. Broaching is a machining process that uses a toothed tool, called a broach,
to remove material. Broaches are tools adapted for a single operation. The broach usually only moves linearly
against a surface of the workpiece. The process depends on the type of broaching being performed. Small
internal gears can be cut in one pass. Large internal gears can be made by using a surface type of broach to
make several teeth at a pass. Broaching is a very accurate method and a rapid operation.

The following applies for broached involute splines:

- Edge radius of tool basic rack prole = 0.16

- Addendum of tool basic rack prole = 0.55

- Dedendum of tool basic rack prole = 0.45

According to DIN 5480 the following applies:

- Broaching tools can be used for all modules and all number of teeth z ≥ 6.
- Chamfer width is 0.1 · m to 0.15 · m. The usable tip circle diameter should/must not be increased by
the chamfer by more than 0, 15 · m.

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 726

16.4.4 Gear Hobbing

Hobbing is a nearly universal process which can be used to manufacture spur and helical gears of all types and
it is the most widely used method of cutting gear teeth. The tool used in this process is a hob. A very high
degree of tooth-spacing accuracy can be obtained with hobbing. With regard to accuracy, hobbing is superior
to the other cutting processes. A wide variety of sizes and kinds of hobbing machines are used. The rotating
hob has a series of rack teeth arranged in a spiral around the outside of a cylinder, so it cuts several gear teeth
at one time. To generate the full width of the gear, the hob slowly traverses the face of the gear as it rotates.
Thus, the hob has a basic rotary motion and an unidirectional traverse at right angles. Both movements are
relatively simple to eect, resulting in a very accurate process.

The following applies for hobbed involute splines:

- Edge radius of tool basic rack prole = 0.16

- Addendum of tool basic rack prole = 0.60

- Dedendum of tool basic rack prole = 0.45

16.4.5 Gear Shaping

Gear shaping is a continuous indexing gear cuttin process in which the cutting tool is shaped like a pinion. The
cutter reciprocates while it and the gear blank are rotated together at the angular-velocity ratio corresponding
to the number of teeth on the cutter and the gear. The teeth on the gear cutter are appropriately relieved
to form cutting edges on one face. Although the shaping process is not suitable for the direct cutting of
ultra-precision gears and generally is not as highly rated as hobbing, it can produce precision quality gears.
Usually it is a more rapid process than hobbing. Two outstanding features of shaping involve shouldered and
internal gears. For internal gears, the shaping process is the only basic method of tooth generation.

The following applies for shaped involute splines:

- Edge radius of tool basic rack prole = 0.16

- Addendum of tool basic rack prole = 0.65

- Dedendum of tool basic rack prole = 0.45

16.4.6 Cold-Rolling
The rolling process is mainly applicable to involute splines and it is a highly ecient manufacturing process.
Rolling is a forming process where a workpiece lies between two cylindrical rollers provided with teeth. Cold-
rolling is very rapid and it produces a very smooth surface. This method improves the surface conditions and
holds tighter tolerances. There are three major methods of rolling: longitudinal, transverse and rotary rolling
and DIN 5480 describes longitudinal and transverse rolling. In longitudinal rolling, the metal is deformed
by rolls, usually parallel to each other that rotate in opposite directions. In transverse rolling, the metal is
subjected to rotational motion relative to its axis and is worked in the transverse direction.

The following applies for cold-rolled involute splines:

- Edge radius of tool basic rack prole = 0.54

- Addendum of tool basic rack prole = 0.84

- Dedendum of tool basic rack prole = 0.45

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16.4.7 Dene Your Own Tool Standard Basic Rack Prole

Click `user dened input' from the listbox in order to dene your own basic rack prole. If you select `user
dened input', then the input elds for the edge radius, the addendum coecient and the dedendum coecient
are activated. Now you can modify the basic rack prole.

Figure 16.19: Own input

16.4.8 Dimensioning of Tool Standard Basic Rack Prole

In case you use special tools, the eAssistant software oers an easy and comfortable solution. The basic rack
prole can be determined by clicking the `Calculator' button.

Figure 16.20: Button for the tool dimensioning

Here you can change the tip circle and the root diameter for shaft and hub. Conrm your entries with the
button `OK'. The listbox for the basic rack proles displays then `User dened input'. The modication of the
tip diameter is set to `0'.

Figure 16.21: Dimensioning of tool standard baisc rack prole

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 728

16.4.9 Machining Allowance

You can consider an allowance for the tooth ank. The tool provides an allowance q on the ank and/or root
for the pre-cutting tool. The allowance is the smallest distance between the involutes and the pre-machining
having the same root diameter. In case you select the tool basic rack prole with protuberance, the allowance
refers to the tooth ank. The maximum machining allowances can be grouped as follows:

Maximum Machining Allowances1

Allowance per Tooth Flank Manufacturing Process

< 0.05 (0.10) mm Finishing operation by cold rolling, gear shaving, hon-
ing, lapping

0.05 to 0.5 (1.5) mm Grinding, prole grinding, (honing)

> 0.5 mm, pre-cutting Primary shaping, forming, cutting with geometrically
determined edges except shaving, grinding and prole
grinding in special cases

1 from: Linke, H.: Stirnradverzahnung Berechnung Werkstoe Fertigung, Carl Hanser Ver-

lag, Muenchen, Wien, 1996, p. 638

16.5 Input of Data for the Determination of Allowances

In order to dene the tolerances, gear accuracy and allowance sequence can be selected from the listbox. All
permitted deviations and tooth thickness allowances will be automatically determined. Similar to the tolerance
system in DIN 3961, DIN 5480 also provides a tolerance system. The tolerance system refers to the pairing
nominal spacewidth and nominal tooth thickness.

Figure 16.22: Input of data for the determination of allowances

Please note: You can add a description or a short comment to shaft and hub. The notes will appear later in
the calculation report.

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 729

16.5.1 Gear Quality

The choice of the right toothing quality is determined by economical aspects depending upon the intended
purpose and manufacturing process. In all elds of gearing, the control of gear accuracy is essential. Several
classes or grades of accuracy can be set. 12 grades (12 to 1) are dened according to DIN standards. Accuracy
grade `5' describes the highest possible accuracy, `12' a very low accuracy.

Figure 16.23: Gear quality

16.5.2 Backlash Allowance Sequence

Positive and negative minimum t clearances can be designed using the spacewidth deviation Ae and the tooth
thickness deviation As . The magnitudes of the deviations are identied by lower case characters and can be
selected individually for the hub and the shaft from the listbox. There are six deviations from F to M for hubs
and 18 deviations from v to a for shafts. Interference ts, transition ts and clearance ts can be specied by
using the allowance sequence.

Figure 16.24: Backlash allowance sequence

DIN 5480 provides deviation and tolerance combinations in order to achieve interference ts, transion ts and
clearance ts.

Types of Fit2
Type of Fit Deviations / Tolerances

Hub Shaft

Rough interference t 9H 9v

Fine interference t 7H 8H 7p 8s

Rough transition t 9H 9p

Fine transition t 7H 8H 8n

Rough clearance t 9H 9g 9e 9d 10c 11a

Fine clearance t 7H 8H 7h 7g 8f

2 from: DIN 5480-1, March 2003, p. 23, table 9, Types of Fit

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 730

If you select the entry `user dened input' from the listbox, the input eld for the tooth thickness allowances
is enabled and you can dene your individual values. If you select the entry `eective' from the listbox
`Measurement method', you will notice, that the `Lock' button next to the input eld for the tooth space
allowances is also enabled.

Figure 16.25: Own input

16.5.3 Tooth Thickness Allowance

The t and the centring accuracy are determined by the deviations of the spacewidths and thicknesses as well
as by the achieved or dened tolerances. The eAssistant oers the possibility to specify the tooth thickness
allowances based on measured data or given test dimensions. Two dierent dimensions for the tooth thickness
can be selected - the actual and the eective tooth thickness. The dierent dimensions will then be considered
during calculation and output of the gear tooth form as well as for the determination of the test dimensions,
such as number of teeth measured for facewidth measurement or diametrical measurement over balls or pins.
Select `Eective' from the listbox and click on the `Calculator' button.

Figure 16.26: Calculation of tooth thickness allowance

Activate shaft and hub and enter the input values. Conrm with the button `OK'. The `Lock' button next to
the input eld for the tooth space allowances is enabled. Now you can change the tooth space allowances.

Actual Tolerance
According to DIN 5480, th actual tolerance provides for the wear-dependent change of tool dimensions, the
infeed accuracy of machine tools and dimension deviations in heat treatment. In the data eld of the workpiece
drawing, it is indicated as the actual tolerance limit and as the reference mark actual Ref. Since it is dicult
to measure tooth thickness and space widths directly, they are converted to dimensions across and between
measuring circles and are entered in this form into the data eld. In practice, measuring balls or measuring
pins are used as measuring circles.

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 731

Eective Tolerance
According to DIN 5480, the eective tolerance for tted splined connections is shown separately. This is
necessary because the t is generated for all left and right anks of all teeth. The tooth anks are subject to
individual deviations from the prole, the tooth trace and the pitch. These deviations reduce the t clearance
of a tted splined connection so severely that provision must be made for this reducing eect. In hubs, the
superposition of all individual deviations leads to an eective spacewidth that is smaller than the actual space
that can be measured.

16.5.4 Tooth Space Allowance

The tooth space allowance AW is the dierence between the actual dimension and the nominal dimension of
the span measurement W k. The actual measurement of the span measurement gets smaller for external gears
by negative allowances for a zero-backlash assembly. The upper and lower tooth space allowance are displayed
as well. For an own input of the tooth thickness allowances, the tooth space allowances can be dened as
well. The `Lock' button next to the input eld of the tooth space allowances is enabled. Therefore, you can
change the tooth space allowances.

Figure 16.27: Tooth space allowance for shaft and hub

16.5.5 Span Measurement across Several Teeth

The calculation program determines the number of teeth for the span measurement (number of teeth across
the span measurement has to be gauged). By using the `Lock' button you are able to activate the input eld
and you can enter your own input value. If you click the button again, the previous input value appears.

Figure 16.28: Enable number of teeth for span measurement

16.5.6 Ball Diameter

The tooth thickness is often checked by measurement over balls MdK or pins MdR . The pins or balls are
placed in diametrically opposite tooth gaps (even number of teeth) or nearest to it (odd number of teeth).
The measurement over pins is only used for spur gears and external helical gears. The eAssistant software
already species the diameter of ball or pin for the test dimensions. Enable the input eld by clicking the
`Lock' button. Enter your own input value for the diameter. If you click on the button once again, the previous
input value appears.

Figure 16.29: Enable ball diameter

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 732

16.5.7 Backlash Normal Plane

The general purpose of backlash is to prevent gears from jamming. The backlashes are automatically deter-
mined.

16.5.8 Backlash Pitch Diameter

In ank-centred connections, the anks of the teeth serve to transmit the forces as well as to centre the
parts. The dierence between the spacewidth and the tooth thickness determines the backlash pitch diameter.
The backlash pitch diameter is automatically determined by the calculation module. For spacewidths of hubs
and tooth thicknesses of shafts, DIN 5480 provides deviation series and tolerances based on the nominal
dimensions. The deviation series permits the denition of clearance ts, transitions ts and interference ts.
The tolerance classes dene the manufacturing tolerances.

Figure 16.30: Backlash normal plane and backlash pitch diameter

16.6 Representation of Gear Tooth Form

A special highlight of this calculation module is the presentation of the accurate gear tooth form with an
animation and simulation of the tooth mesh. For the presentation you can select the lower, upper and mean
allowances for the tooth thickness, tip diameter and centre distance.

Figure 16.31: Representation of Gear Tooth Form

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 733

16.6.1 Representation of the Shaft-Hub Connection

Click on the `Tooth form' button to represent the entire shaft-hub connection.

Figure 16.32: Involute splines

16.6.2 Representation of Tooth Mesh

Click on the `Detail view' button. You get a larger representation of the mesh. The representation of the mesh
allows you to look at the tooth thickness allowances, the tip diameter and centre distance allowances as well
the tooth mesh and to check the inuence of these values. The tooth form mask provides various functions.
Click on the `Total view' button to obtain an entire view of the shaft-hub connection.

Figure 16.33: Representation of tooth mesh

Please note: Please keep in mind that all values are later taken over to the DXF output and CAD generation.
In case you change the tooth thickness allowance or the centre distance allowance in the tooth form mask,
then the last modication is taken over to the DXF output. The section `CAD button' contains some helpful
information on this function.

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 734

16.6.3 Rotating Angle

Enter an rotating angle for the rotation of the involute spline.

Figure 16.34: Rotating angle

Rotation of the shaft counter-clockwise

Rotation of the shaft clockwise

16.6.4 Rotation
When you click on one of the two arrows, a continuous rotation of the shaft occurs.

Figure 16.35: Rotation

Continuous rotation of the shaft counter-clockwise

Continuous rotation of the shaft clockwise

The rotation is stopped.

16.6.5 Tooth Thickness Allowance

Click on the `Detail view' button and the tooth mesh is represented in detail. Now you can change the tooth
thickness allowance, that is already given in the main mask for the `Allowances', within the tolerance limit.
All changes are displayed immediately. For the representation of the tooth mesh, select the lower, upper and
mean tooth thickness allowances for shaft and hub.

Figure 16.36: Tooth thickness allowance in the main mask `Allowance'

Both arrows indicate the lower and upper allowance. The active input is grayed out and disabled. Click on the
left arrow and you will get the representation for the lower tooth thickness allowance. The right arrow shows
the representation for the upper tooth thickness allowance.

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 735

At the rst start of the tooth form, you will get the mean tooth thickness allowance as a standard feature.
The tooth thickness allowances can be dened between the lower and upper allowance.

Figure 16.37: Tooth thickness allowance

Please note: In case you have specied the lower and upper tooth thickness allowance for shaft and hub in
the input mask `Allowances' by using the `Calculator' button, then the manually dened values appear here
as lower and upper tooth thickness allowance.

16.6.6 Tip Diameter Allowance

Click the `Detail view' button and the tooth mesh is represented in detail. Now you can change the tip
diameter allowance, that is already given in the main mask for the `Geometry', within the tolerance limit. All
changes are displayed immediately. For the representation of the tooth mesh, select the lower, upper and mean
tip diameter allowances for shaft and hub.

Figure 16.38: Tip diameter allowance in the main mask `Geometry'

Both arrows indicate the lower and upper allowance. The active input is grayed out and disabled. Click on
the left arrow and you will get the representation for the lower tip diameter allowance. The right arrow shows
the representation for the upper tip diameter allowance. The middle button displays the mean tip diameter
allowance. At the rst start of the tooth form, you will get the mean tip diameter allowance. The tip diameter
allowances can be dened between the lower and upper allowance.

Figure 16.39: Tip diameter allowance

Please note: In case you have specied the lower and upper tip diameter allowance for shaft and hub in the
input mask `Geometry' by using the `Lock' button, then the manually dened values appear here as lower and
upper tip diameter allowance.

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 736

16.7 Calculation of Strength

The eAssistant software calculates the strength of involute splines according to Niemann `Maschinenelemente`
Vol. 1, 2001 in order to determine the inuences of the load due to torque and load peaks. Click the listbox
`Calculation method' and select `According to Niemann' to activate the strength calculation. The permissible
pressure is determined from the material properties as well as the surface pressure and safeties for operating
load and maximum load of shaft and hub. The load distribution factor Kλ is determined for a dierent load
input and load output according to DIN 6892.

Figure 16.40: Calculation of strength

16.7.1 Application Factor

The application factor KA evaluates the external dynamic forces that aect the gearing. These additional
forces are largely dependent on the characteristics of the driving and driven machines as well as the masses
and stiness of the system, including shafts and couplings used in service. The following table gives some
values according to DIN 3990. You will nd a `Question mark' button next to the input eld. Click on this
button to open the table.

Application Factors KA According to DIN 3990-1: 1987-12

Working Characteristics Working Characteristics of the Driven Machine

of the Driving Machine

Uniform Light shocks Moderate shocks Heavy shocks

Uniform 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75

Light shocks 1.1 1.35 1.6 1.85

Moderate shocks 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0

Heavy shocks 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.25 or higher

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 737

16.7.2 Examples for Driving Machines with Various Working Characteristics

Examples for Driving Machines with Various Working Characteristics

According to DIN 3990-1: 1987-12
Working Characteristics
Uniform Electric motor (e.g. d.c. motor), steam or gas turbine with uniform oper-
ation
1 and small rarely occurring starting torques

Light shocks Steam turbine, gas turbine, hydraulic or electric motor (large, frequently
occurring starting torques)

Moderate shocks Multiple cylinder internal combustion engines

Heavy shocks Single cylinder internal combustion engines

1 Based on vibration tests or on experience gained from similar installations.

16.7.3 Examples of Working Characteristics of Driven Machines

Examples of Working Characteristics of Driven Machines

According to DIN 3990-1: 1987-12
Working Characteristics Driven Machines
Uniform Steady load current generator; uniform loaded conveyor belt or
platform conveyor; worm conveyor; light lifts; packing machinery;
feed drives of machine tools; ventilators; lightweight centrifuges;
centrifugal pumps; agitators and mixers for light liquids or uni-
1
form density materials; shears; presses; stamping machines ; ver-
tical gear; running gear
2

Light shocks Non-uniformly (i.e. with piece or batched components) loaded

conveyor belts or platform conveyors; machine tool main drives;
heavy lifts; crane slewing gear; industrial and mine ventilator;
heavy centrifuges; centrifugal pumps; agitators and mixers for vis-
cous liquids or substances of non-uniform density, multi-cylinder
piston pumps, distribution pumps; extruders (general); calen-
ders; rotating kilns; rolling mill stands
3 (continuous zinc and

aluminium strip mills, wire and bar mills)

Moderate shocks Rubber extruders; continuously operating mixers for rubber and
plastics; ball mills (light); wood-working machine (gang saw,
3 4
lathes); billet rolling mills , ; lifting gear; single cylinder piston
pumps

Heavy shocks Excavators (bucket wheel drives), bucket chain drives; sieve
drives; power shovels; ball mills (heavy); rubber kneaders; crush-
ers (stone, ore); foundry machines; heavy distribution pumps;
rotary drills; brick presses; debarking mills; peeling machines;
3 5
cold strip , ; briquette presses; breaker mills

1 Nominal torque: maximum cutting, pressing or stamping torque

2 Nominal torque: maximum starting torque

3 Nominal torque: maximum rolling torque, 4 Torque from current limitation

5K
A up to 2.0 because of frequent strip cracking

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 738

16.7.4 Nominal Operation Torque

Here you can specify the nominal operating torque. Click the `Calculator' symbol next to the input eld to
use the dimensioning function and to get a suggestion for an appropriate input value. If you click on the
dimensioning button, you get a suggestion for an appropriate input value. The calculation of the value is
carried out so that the given minimum safety is fullled. The default value for the minimum safety is set to
`1.2'. Clicking the button `Options' allows you to change this value.

Figure 16.41: Dimensioning function for the nominal operation torque

16.7.5 Share Factor

In order to calculate the maximum surface pressure, the share factor is taken into account. Due to manufac-
turing errors, the surface pressure is unevenly distributed among the teeth (over the circumference) and along
the width. The share factor kϕβ is intended to account these inuences. The factor is dependent upon the
accuracy of the connection and ank wear.

Figure 16.42: Share factor

The following table recommends values for the share factor according to Niemann. Click the `Lock' button to
enable the input eld and to add your own value.

Share Factor for Form-Closed Connections After Run-in Period3

Form Closed Connection Interference Fits Involute Spline with Involute Flanks

Number Tolerance Sequence according to DIN 5480

1 2 H5/IT4 H7/IT7 H8/IT8 H9/IT9 H11/IT11 Max.

Value

kϕβ for Teq 1 1,3 1,1 1,3 1,5 2 4

z/2
kϕβ for Tmax 1 1,1 1 1,1 1,3 1,7 3

3 from: Niemann G.: Maschinenelemente I, Springer Verlag, Berlin, 2001, p. 821, gure 18.32.

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 739

16.7.6 Load Peaks

Load peaks occur when the torque clearly exceeds the equivalent torque Teq . Special cases may occur due to
starting impacts, short-circuit torques, emergency breaking torques, abrupt blockings etc. The frequency NL
of the load peaks has to be estimated during the entire operating time.

Figure 16.43: Number of load peaks

The number of load peaks can be selected from the listbox. It is also possible to dene an own number of
load peaks. Select the entry `user dened input'. The input eld next to the listbox is enabled and you can
add your value.

16.7.7 Maximum Load Peak Torque

For a single load peak, depending on the ductility of the material, the 1.3 to 1.5 times the permanent surface
pressure is allowed. The load peak frequency factor fL evaluates the inuence of the load peaks on the maxi-
mum surface pressure. If you click on the `Calculator' button next to the input eld, you will get a suggestion
for an appropriate value. The calculation of the value is carried out so that the given minimum safety of `1.2'
is fullled.

Please note: A maximum load peak torque is greater than the equivalent torque Teq that results from the
multiplication of the nominal torque and application factor.

The progress of fL for ductile and brittle materials over the frequency is shown in gure 5 according to DIN
6892.

Figure 16.44: Load peak frequency factor fL

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 740

16.7.8 Kind of Load

Click the listbox to dene the kind of load for your calculation. Decide between:

- Alternating torque

- No alternating torque

Figure 16.45: Kind of load

In case you have an alternating torque, then the load direction change is automatically activated and the load
direction changing factor fW is determined. You will nd the entry `user dened input' in the listbox. If you
select this option, the input eld will be enabled, so that you can enter your own input value for the load
direction change.

Figure 16.46: Own input

The load direction changing factor fW is dependent upon the frequency NW of changes of load direction.
The following gure according to DIN 6892 illustrates the relationship between fW and NW for alternating
torques.

Figure 16.47: Load direction changing factor

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 741

16.7.9 Material Selection

Select an appropriate material for shaft and hub directly from the listbox. Clicking the button `Material' opens
the material database.

Figure 16.48: Listbox `Material'

The material database provides some detailed information on the several kinds of material. If the listbox is
active, the two arrow keys `Up' and `Down' of your keyboard allows you to search through the database, so
you can compare the dierent values with each other.

Figure 16.49: Material database

Dene Your Own Material

In case there is no material that will fulll the design requirements, then simply dene your individual material.
Select the option `user dened input' and all inputs and options are activated and you can specify your individual
material very easily. Your inputs will be saved to the calculation le. Please be advised that changing the
material will delete your dened inputs and you have to enter the inputs again.

Figure 16.50: Own input of material

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 742

Support Factor and Hardness Inuence Factor

Using the support factor fS , a supporting eect can be considered that occurs for compressive stress compo-
nents. From experience, the supporting eect for hubs is larger due to the higher stressed material volume
than for shafts and parallel keys.

The hardness inuence factor fH is determined from the ratio of surface strength to core strength for case-
hardened components. By the hardness inuence factor, an increasing of the permissible surface pressure is
considered.

Please note: In case you select `User-dened input' from the material selection, you can dene an individual
support factor fS .

Figure 16.51: Support and hardness factor

The following table provides values for the support and hardness factor according to DIN 6892.

Support and Hardness Inuence Factors for Dierent Materials According to DIN 68924
Part Material fS fH
Structural steel according DIN EN 10025 1,3 - 1,7 1,0
Shaft

Heat-treated steel according DIN EN 10083-1 and DIN EN 10083-2 1,3 - 1,7 1,0

Case-hardened steel according DIN 17210 1,3 - 1,7 1,15

Gray cast iron with lamellar graphite according DIN EN 1563 1,3 - 1,7 1,0

Steel casting according DIN 1681 1,3 - 1,7 1,0

Gray cast iron with lamellar graphite according DIN EN 1561 1,1 - 1,4 -

Structural steel according DIN EN 10025 1,5 1,0

Hub

Heat-treated steel according DIN EN 10083-1 und DIN EN 10083-2 1,5 1,0

Case-hardened steel according DIN 17210 1,5 1,15

Gray cast iron with spheroidal graphite according DIN EN 1563 1,5 1,0

Steel casting according DIN 1681 1,5 1,0

Gray cast iron with lamellar graphite according DIN EN 1561 2,0 -

4 from: DIN 6892:2012-08, p. 25, appx. B, table B.1. Support and Hardness Inuence

Factors for Dierent Materials

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 743

Yield Point
The eective surface pressure between parallel key and shaft or hub keyway wall must not exceed the per-
missible value. The permissible values result from the material strength - for ductile materials from the yield
point (Rp0,2 and/or Re ) and for brittle materials from the tensile strength Rm . The calculation can be run
by using less common metallic materials.

16.7.10 Stepped Hub

A checkbox eld allows you to check or uncheck the stepped hub. If you check the option, you can dene
the outer diameter of the hub D2 , the small outer diameter of the hub D1 , the width c as well as the axial
distance a0 . The outer diameter of the hub D2 is disabled in the main mask `Geometry'.

Figure 16.52: Enable stepped hub

Based on these input values, the load distribution factor according to DIN 6892 is determined for a dierent
load input and output.

Figure 16.53: Load input and load output

For a stepped hub, it means (see above gure):

D1 Small outer diameter of stepped hub

D2 Large outer diameter of stepped hub

a0 Distance between the axial cutting planes through N and W

c Width of the hub with D2 within the carrying part of the parallel key, i.e., c ≤ ltr
Point N: Idealized point of load input and load output in hub

Point W: Indicates the begin of load input and load output between shaft and parallel key

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 744

16.8 Message Window

The calculation module provides a message window. This message window displays detailed information,
helpful hints or warnings about problems. One of the main benets of the program is that the software
provides suggestions for correcting errors during the data input. If you check the message window carefully
for any errors or warnings and follow the hints, you are able to nd a solution to quickly resolve calculation
problems.

Figure 16.54: Message window

16.9 Quick Info: Tooltip

The quick info tooltip provides additional information about all input elds and buttons. Move the mouse
pointer over the input eld or button, then you will get the additional information. This information will be
displayed in the quick info line.

Figure 16.55: Quick info line

16.10 Calculation Results

All results will be calculated during every input and will be displayed in the result panel. A recalculation
occurs after every data input. Any changes that are made to the user interface take eect immediately. In
case a minimum safety is not fullled, the result will be marked red. Press the Enter key or move to the
next input eld to complete the input. Alternatively, use the Tab key to jump from eld to eld or click
the `Calculate' button after every input. Your entries will be also conrmed and the calculation results will
displayed automatically.

Figure 16.56: Calculation results

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 745

16.11 Documentation: Calculation Report

After the completion of your calculation, you can create a calculation report. Click on the `Report' button.

Figure 16.57: Button `Report'

The calculation report contains a table of contents. You can navigate through the report via the table of
contents that provides links to the input values, results and gures. The report is available in HTML and PDF
format. Calculation reports, saved in HTML format, can be opened in a web browser or in Word for Windows.

Figure 16.58: Calculation report

You may also print or save the calculation report:

- To save the report in the HTML format, please select `File' ⇒ `Save as' from your browser menu bar.
Select the le type `Webpage complete', then just click on the `Save' button.

- If you click on the symbol `Print', then you can print the report very easily.

- If you click on the symbol `PDF', then the report appears in the PDF format. If you right-click on the
PDF symbol, you should see the `Save Target As' option. Click on that option and you will see the
Windows save dialog.

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 746

16.12 How to Save the Calculation

When the calculation is nished, it is easy to save the calculation. You can save your calculation either to the
eAssistant server or to your computer. Click on the button `Save'.

Figure 16.59: Button `Save'

Before you can save the calculation to your computer, you need to activate the checkbox `Local' in the
calculation module. A standard Windows dialog for saving les will appear. Now you will be able to save the
calculation to your computer.

Figure 16.60: Windows dialog for saving the le

In case you do not activate the option in order to save your les locally, then a new window is opened and
you can save the calculation to the eAssistant server. Please enter a name into the input eld `Filename' and
click on the button `Save'.

Figure 16.61: Save the calculation

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 747

16.13 The Button `Redo' and `Undo'

The `Undo' button allows you to reset your inputs to an older state. The `Redo' button reverses the undo.

Figure 16.62: Button `Redo' and `Undo'

16.14 The Button `CAD'

The top menu bar of the eAssistant provides the button `CAD'. The eAssistant plugin for various CAD
systems (e.g., SOLIDWORKS, Solid Edge, Autodesk Inventor) enables you to combine calculation and design
very easily. On the basis of the eAssistant calculation, you can generate the shaft and the hub in a 2D DXF
format or create as a 3D part within seconds.

Figure 16.63: Button `CAD'

16.14.1 DXF Output for Accurate Tooth Form

Click on the menu item `CAD ⇒ DXF Output'. Now you are able to create the accurate tooth form of any
involute gearing in the 2D DXF format. Use the various settings for the DXF output.

Figure 16.64: Button `DXF Output'

For the DXF output the following options are possible:

- DXF output of sun, planet gear or annulus gear

- DXF output tooth form, hob prole

- Output in normal section or transverse section (both options will be active when an helix angle is entered)

- DXF output as tooth space, tooth

- DXF output with points, lines, polylines, arcs

- Angular position

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 748

- Number of teeth for output

- Minimum point distance

- Input of a required layer name where the contour should be placed

- Save the DXF le including the header

- Contour as block

- Angle projection plane

Figure 16.65: DXF output

Please note: When you have dened all settings, then click on the button `OK'. A standard Windows dialog
is opened to save the le.

Figure 16.66: Saving the DXF le

Now you can save the DXF le to your computer. Enter a name for the le and click on the button `Save'. It
is not necessary to specify the le extension. The le is identied automatically.

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 749

16.14.2 STEP/IGES Format

Using this function allows to create the geometry of involute splines as 3D CAD models in STEP or IGES
format. STEP as well as IGES are two standardised neutral le formats for CAD models. Almost every 3D
CAD system can import STEP les.

Figure 16.67: STEP format

The settings menu for the STEP and IGES output has a few dierent functions and allows to adjust the export
options as needed. The geometry can be generated as a solid model with one or all teeth or as a surface
model of the tooth space geometry. When exporting to a CAD system, you can also set the level of accuracy
to a desired value.

Figure 16.68: Inputs for STEP output

16.14.3 GDE Format

With the integration of the standardised GDE format into the modules for gears and involute splines, eAssistant
takes a step closer to a seamless data workow. GDE stands for Gear Data Exchange. This format, which is
dened in VDI/VDE guideline 2610, is already supported by many measuring machine manufacturers. With
the GDE format, geometries of cylindrical gears and involute splines can be loaded directly from the software
into the measuring machine. It only takes a few clicks to create a measuring program. This avoids transmission
errors and allows to work with standard measuring instructions.

Figure 16.69: GDE format

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 750

16.14.4 eAssistant CAD Plugin

The eAssistant plugin for various CAD systems (e.g., SOLIDWORKS, Solid Edge, Autodesk Inventor) enables
you to combine calculation and design very easily and fast. Based on your eAssistant calculation, you can
generate the shaft and the hub as a 3D part within seconds. A single menu pick in the eAssistant software
transfers the eAssistant calculation data to the CAD system. Based on these parameters, the automatic
creation of a 3D parametric model starts in the CAD system.

Figure 16.70: CAD plugin

The CAD model stores all features and dimensions as design parameters. The eAssistant calculation is linked
and associated to the part and can be opened at any time throughout the entire design phase. This is also
possible if one part contains dierent calculations. Click the button `CAD' and select the CAD plugin. Open
the CAD system and start the generation by clicking the integrated button `eAssistant'.

Please note: First you need to download and install the right CAD plugin for your CAD system. The plugin
is available on our web site www.eAssistant.eu. After installation, an integrated button called `eAssistant'
appears in the CAD system.

With just one click, the design table with all manufacturing details can be placed on the sheet. The appearance
and size of that table is individually congurable. There is no need to manually add all design table parameters
to the drawing. For further information, please visit our web site www.eAssistant.eu or read the CAD plugin
manual.

16.14.5 Coordinate Table

The gear tooth form geometry of a tooth space can be exported as a coordinate text le in transverse section
as well as in normal section.

Figure 16.71: Coordinate table

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16. Involute Splines According to DIN 5480 and Other Standards 751

16.15 The Button `Options'

Click on the button `Options' in the top menu bar of the eAssistant software to change some general settings.

Figure 16.72: Button `Options'

Change the unit system, the minimum safety, the factor for the minimum ring gear thickness. This factor
controls the value for the largest possible bore diameter (inner diameter) for external gears and the smallest
possible outer diameter for internal gears. The default value 2.0 refers to forged gears (see main mask
`Geometry'), recommendations according to Schlecht (Maschinenelemente 2, 2010): gear ring thickness for
extreme lightweight constructions < 2 · m, cast constructions 5...8 · m, for welded constructions 3...5 · m.
or the number of decimal places for the calculation report. To make a permanent change to the calculation
module, you can save your settings to a template le.

Figure 16.73: Options

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Chapter 17

Serrated Shaft and Splined Shaft

Connection According to Niemann

17.1 Start the Calculation Module

Please login with your username and your password. To start the calculation module for serrated shafts or
splined shafts, please click the menu item `Connections' on the left side and then select `Serrated shaft' or
`Splined shaft'.

Figure 17.1: General overview

Please note: You can get into the calculation module either through the entry `Serrated shaft' or `Splined
shaft'. The module starts then with the selected prole type as default. You can change the prole type by
clicking the button `Selection' anytime you want. The prole geometry selection allows you to switch between
serrated shaft and splined shaft.

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17. Serrated Shaft and Splined Shaft Connection According to Niemann 753

All input options are the same for every prole type. Only the prole geometry selection provides some prole
specic input options. Each prole type gets a graphical representation.

Figure 17.2: Dierent prole types

17.2 Prole Geometry Selection

In order to select the prole, click the button `Selection'.

Figure 17.3: Button `Selection'

The prole geometry selection is opened.

Figure 17.4: Prole geometry selection

Click the listbox `Kind of prole geometry' and select the prole type - either serrated shaft or splined shaft.
The selection parameters automatically adjust to the prole type.

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17. Serrated Shaft and Splined Shaft Connection According to Niemann 754

17.2.1 Serrated Shafts

The calculation module `Serrated shafts' allows the strength calculation of serrated shafts according to DIN
5481. The calculation is based on Niemann `Maschinenelemente' Vol. 1, 2001. The teeth of this prole are in
the form of adjacent triangular teeth. Up to a nominal diameter of 60 mm the proles can be of straight-sided
or involute form. The ank angle is 60◦ . For a larger diameter, the anks are involute anks and the ank
◦
angle is 55 . Serrations can be easily created by broaching.

Figure 17.5: Serrated shaft connection

You can rene the prole geometry selection by including specic parameters to nd the right prole quicker.
The following parameters can be dened for a certain range:

- Tip circle diameter hub

- Tip circle diameter shaft

- Number of teeth

- Pitch diameter

Figure 17.6: Prole selection search

Please enter your values. Use the Tab key to jump from eld to eld. All the inputs are applied. Click on the
button `Search' to start the prole selection search. The number of found proles will be displayed below the
`Search' button.

Figure 17.7: `Search' button

Please note: To narrow your search, type more values in the search box. This way, you have to decide
between a few proles and you will nd the right prole faster. If you have already entered values into the
input elds and want to change your entry for any reason (e.g., any tip circle diameter again), please delete

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17. Serrated Shaft and Splined Shaft Connection According to Niemann 755

the value and click into another input eld or use the Tab key. The option `Any' is used again in the input eld.

Select the prole from the database and conrm with the button `OK'.

Figure 17.8: Database

Please note: You can sort the selection list in the database by clicking on the column header. To sort the
proles in reverse order, click on the column header again. A black arrow appears. The arrow makes the
orientation much easier for you.

Prole Details
In case you cannot nd the right prole you are looking for in our extensive database, simply dene your
individual prole. Activate the option `User-dened'. If you select this option, the input elds will be enabled,
so that you can enter your own input values. Please conrm these inputs with the button `OK' and the prole,
including your own values, will be applied.

Figure 17.9: User-dened input

17.2.2 Splined Shafts

Splined shafts has equally spaced teeth around the circumference parallel to the shafts axis of rotation. This
type of prole is used in case of transmission of large forces, especially in case of alternating forces or impact
forces. Splined shaft are replaceable and centers the hub on the shaft very accurately. The manufacturing cost
of splined shafts is low. Splines are cut on the shaft by milling and on the hub by broaching. The calculation
module `Splined shaft' allows the strength calculation of serrated shafts according to DIN ISO 14 light and
medium series, DIN 5464 heavy series, DIN 5471 and DIN 5472 for machine tools. The calculation is based
on Niemann `Maschinenelemente' Vol. 1, 2001.

Figure 17.10: Splined shaft connection

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17. Serrated Shaft and Splined Shaft Connection According to Niemann 756

A centric position of the hub on the shaft is achieved by:

- Internal centring: most precise method, extensively used in machine tools

- Flank centring: with clearance between bore and shaft diameter, much more dicult to manufacture
than internal centring, suitable especially for impact and alternating loads

You can rene the prole geometry selection by including specic parameters to nd the right prole quicker.
The following parameters can be dened for a certain range:

- Tip circle diameter hub

- Tip circle diameter shaft

- Number of keys

- Key width

Figure 17.11: Prole selection search

Please enter your values. Use the Tab key to jump from eld to eld. All the inputs are applied. Click on
the button `Search' to start the prole selection search. The number of found proles will be displayed below
the `Search' button. You can sort the selection list in the database by clicking on the column header. To sort
the proles in reverse order, click on the column header again. A black arrow appears. The arrow makes the
orientation much easier for you.

Figure 17.12: `Search' button

Please note: To narrow your search, type more values in the search box. This way, you have to decide
between a few proles and you will nd the right prole faster. If you have already entered values into the
input elds and want to change your entry for any reason (e.g., any tip circle diameter again), please delete
the value and click into another input eld or use the Tab key. The option `Any' is used again in the input eld.

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17. Serrated Shaft and Splined Shaft Connection According to Niemann 757

Prole Details
In case you cannot nd the right prole you are looking for in our extensive database, simply dene your
individual prole. Activate the option `User-dened'. If you select this option, the input elds will be enabled,
so that you can enter your own input values. Please conrm these inputs with the button `OK' and the prole,
including your own values, will be applied.

Figure 17.13: User-dened input

17.3 How to Change the Unit System

eAssistant provides two unit systems: the metric system and the U.S. customary unit system. You can quickly
switch between the units. To select the unit system, click the button `Options' and decide for a unit. It is also
possible to change the unit by clicking the label eld. When you click the label eld, a context menu will open
providing all available units within the unit system. The change should take eect immediately. All settings
will be saved to the calculation le. As soon as you select a unit, the current eld value will be converted
automatically into the chosen unit.

Figure 17.14: Change the unit

17.4 Application Factor

The application factor KA evaluates the external dynamic forces that aect the gearing. These additional
forces are largely dependent on the characteristics of the driving and driven machines as well as the masses
and stiness of the system, including shafts and couplings used in service.

Application Factors KA According to DIN 3990-1: 1987-121

Working Characteristics Working Characteristics of the Driven Machine

of the Driving Machine

Uniform Light shocks Moderate shocks Heavy shocks

Uniform 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75

Light shocks 1.1 1.35 1.6 1.85

Moderate shocks 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0

Heavy shocks 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.25 or higher

1 from: DIN 3990 Part 1, December 1987, p. 55, table A1

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17. Serrated Shaft and Splined Shaft Connection According to Niemann 758

17.4.1 Examples for Driving Machines with Various Working Characteristics

Examples for Driving Machines with Various Working Characteristics

According to DIN 3990-1: 1987-12
Working Characteristics
Uniform Electric motor (e.g. d.c. motor), steam or gas turbine with
uniform operation
1 and small rarely occurring starting torques

Light shocks Steam turbine, gas turbine, hydraulic or electric motor (large,
frequently occurring starting torques)

Moderate shocks Multiple cylinder internal combustion engines

Heavy shocks Single cylinder internal combustion engines

1 Based on vibration tests or on experience gained from similar installations.

17.4.2 Examples of Working Characteristics of Driven Machines

Examples of Working Characteristics of Driven Machines

According to DIN 3990-1: 1987-12
Working Characteristics Driven Machines
Uniform Steady load current generator; uniform loaded conveyor belt or
platform conveyor; worm conveyor; light lifts; packing machinery;
feed drives of machine tools; ventilators; lightweight centrifuges;
centrifugal pumps; agitators and mixers for light liquids or uni-
1
form density materials; shears; presses; stamping machines ; ver-
tical gear; running gear
2

Light shocks Non-uniformly (i.e. with piece or batched components) loaded

conveyor belts or platform conveyors; machine tool main drives;
heavy lifts; crane slewing gear; industrial and mine ventilator;
heavy centrifuges; centrifugal pumps; agitators and mixers for vis-
cous liquids or substances of non-uniform density, multi-cylinder
piston pumps, distribution pumps; extruders (general); calen-
ders; rotating kilns; rolling mill stands
3 (continuous zinc and

aluminium strip mills, wire and bar mills)

Moderate shocks Rubber extruders; continuously operating mixers for rubber and
plastics; ball mills (light); wood-working machine (gang saw,
3 4
lathes); billet rolling mills , ; lifting gear; single cylinder piston
pumps

Heavy shocks Excavators (bucket wheel drives), bucket chain drives; sieve
drives; power shovels; ball mills (heavy); rubber kneaders; crush-
ers (stone, ore); foundry machines; heavy distribution pumps;
rotary drills; brick presses; debarking mills; peeling machines;
3 5
cold strip , ; briquette presses; breaker mills

1 Nominal torque: maximum cutting, pressing or stamping torque

2 Nominal torque: maximum starting torque

3 Nominal torque: maximum rolling torque, 4 Torque from current limitation

5K
A up to 2.0 because of frequent strip cracking

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17. Serrated Shaft and Splined Shaft Connection According to Niemann 759

17.5 Load Peaks

Load peaks occur when the torque clearly exceeds the equivalent torque Teq . Special cases may occur due to
starting impacts, short-circuit torques, emergency breaking torques, abrupt blockings etc. The frequency NL
of the load peaks has to be estimated during the entire operating time. The calculation module allows you to
consider a number of load peaks for your calculation. If you want to use this option, just activate `Consider
load peaks'. Click the listbox to select the number of load peaks.

Figure 17.15: Consider load peaks

It is also possible to dene an own number of load peaks. Select the entry `User-dened input'. The input
eld next to the listbox is enabled and you can add your value.

17.5.1 Maximum Load Peak Torque

For a single load peak, depending on the ductility of the material, the 1.3 to 1.5 times the permanent surface
pressure is allowed. The load peak frequency factor fL evaluates the inuence of the load peaks on the maxi-
mum surface pressure. If you click on the `Calculator' button next to the input eld, you will get a suggestion
for an appropriate value. The calculation of the value is carried out so that the given minimum safety of `1.2'
is fullled.

Please note: A maximum load peak torque is greater than the equivalent torque Teq that results from the
multiplication of the nominal torque and application factor.

The progress of fL for ductile and brittle materials over the frequency is shown in gure 5 according to DIN
6892.

Figure 17.16: Load peak frequency factor fL

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17. Serrated Shaft and Splined Shaft Connection According to Niemann 760

17.6 Kind of Load

Click the listbox to dene the kind of load for your calculation. Decide between:

- No alternating torque

- Alternating torque

Figure 17.17: Kind of load

In case you have an alternating torque with a slow or fast increase, then the load direction change is automat-
ically activated. You will nd the entry `User dened' in the listbox. If you select this option, the input eld
will be enabled, so that you can enter your own input value for the load direction change.

Figure 17.18: Load direction changes

The load direction changing factor fW is dependent upon the frequency NW of changes of load direction.
The following gure according to DIN 6892 illustrates the relationship between fW and NW for alternating
torques.

Figure 17.19: Load direction changing factor

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17. Serrated Shaft and Splined Shaft Connection According to Niemann 761

17.7 Stepped Hub

A stepped hub can be taken into account. If you enable this option, you can dene a smaller hub diameter
D1 , the width c as well as the axial distance a0 . Use the graphical representation to make it easier to nd
these parameters. With these inputs, the load distribution factor Klambda is determined for a dierent load in
and output according to DIN 6892.

Figure 17.20: Stepped hub

Based on these input values, the load distribution factor according to DIN 6892 is determined for a dierent
load input and output.

Figure 17.21: Load input and load output

For a stepped hub, it means (see above gure):

D1 Small outer diameter of stepped hub

D2 Large outer diameter of stepped hub

a0 Distance between the axial cutting planes through N and W

c Width of the hub with D2 within the carrying part of the parallel key, i.e., c ≤ ltr
Point N: Idealized point of load input and load output in hub

Point W: Indicates the begin of load input and load output between shaft and parallel key

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17. Serrated Shaft and Splined Shaft Connection According to Niemann 762

17.8 Material Selection

Select an appropriate material for the shaft and hub directly from the listbox. Clicking the button `Material'
opens the material database.

Figure 17.22: Material selection for shaft and hub

The material database provides some detailed information on the several kinds of material. If the listbox is
active, the two arrow keys `Up' and `Down' of your keyboard allows you to search through the database, so
you can compare the dierent values with each other.

Figure 17.23: Material database

Dene Your Own Material

In case there is no material that will fulll the design requirements, then simply dene your individual material.
Select the option `User-dened input' and all inputs and options are activated and you can specify your
individual material very easily. Your inputs will be saved to the calculation le. Please be advised that
changing the material will delete your dened inputs and you have to enter the inputs again.

Figure 17.24: Own input of material

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17. Serrated Shaft and Splined Shaft Connection According to Niemann 763

Support Factor and Hardness Inuence Factor

Using the support factor fS , a supporting eect can be considered that occurs for compressive stress compo-
nents. From experience, the supporting eect for hubs is larger due to the higher stressed material volume
than for shafts and parallel keys.

The hardness inuence factor fH is determined from the ratio of surface strength to core strength for case-
hardened components. By the hardness inuence factor, an increasing of the permissible surface pressure is
considered.

Please note: In case you select `User-dened input' from the material selection, you can dene an individual
support factor fS .

Figure 17.25: Support and hardness factor

The following table provides values for the support and hardness factor according to DIN 6892.

Support and Hardness Inuence Factors for Dierent Materials According to DIN 68922
Part Material fS fH
Structural steel according DIN EN 10025 1,3 - 1,7 1,0
Shaft

Heat-treated steel according DIN EN 10083-1 and DIN EN 10083-2 1,3 - 1,7 1,0

Case-hardened steel according DIN 17210 1,3 - 1,7 1,15

Gray cast iron with lamellar graphite according DIN EN 1563 1,3 - 1,7 1,0

Steel casting according DIN 1681 1,3 - 1,7 1,0

Gray cast iron with lamellar graphite according DIN EN 1561 1,1 - 1,4 -

Structural steel according DIN EN 10025 1,5 1,0

Hub

Heat-treated steel according DIN EN 10083-1 und DIN EN 10083-2 1,5 1,0

Case-hardened steel according DIN 17210 1,5 1,15

Gray cast iron with spheroidal graphite according DIN EN 1563 1,5 1,0

Steel casting according DIN 1681 1,5 1,0

Gray cast iron with lamellar graphite according DIN EN 1561 2,0 -

2 from: DIN 6892:2012-08, p. 25, appx B, table B.1. Support and Hardness Inuence

Factors for Dierent Materials

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17. Serrated Shaft and Splined Shaft Connection According to Niemann 764

17.9 Message Window

The calculation module provides a message window. This message window displays detailed information,
helpful hints or warnings about problems. One of the main benets of the program is that the software
provides suggestions for correcting errors during the data input. If you check the message window carefully
for any errors or warnings and follow the hints, you are able to nd a solution to quickly resolve calculation
problems.

Figure 17.26: Message window

17.10 Quick Info: Tooltip

The quick info feature gives you additional information about all input elds and buttons. Move the mouse
pointer to an input eld or a button, then you will get some additional information. This information will be
displayed in the quick info line.

Figure 17.27: Quick info line

17.11 Calculation Results

All important calculation results will be calculated during every input and will be displayed in the result panel.
A recalculation occurs after every data input. Any changes that are made to the user interface take eect
immediately. Press the Enter key or move to the next input eld to complete the input. Alternatively, use
the Tab key to jump from eld to eld or click the `Calculate' button after every input. Your entries will be
also conrmed and the calculation results will displayed automatically. If the result exceeds certain values, the
result will be marked red.

Figure 17.28: Calculation results

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17. Serrated Shaft and Splined Shaft Connection According to Niemann 765

17.12 Documentation: Calculation Report

After the completion of your calculation, you can create a calculation report. Click on the `Report' button.

Figure 17.29: Button `Report'

You can navigate through the report via the table of contents that provides links to the input values, results
and gures. This calculation report contains all input data, the calculation method as well as all detailed
results. The report is available in HTML and PDF format. The calculation report saved in HTML format,
can be opened in a web browser or in Word for Windows.

Figure 17.30: The calculation report

You may also print or save the calculation report:

- To save the report in the HTML format, please select `File' ⇒ `Save as' from your browser menu bar.
Select the le type `Webpage complete', then just click on the button `Save'.

- If you click on the symbol `Print', then you can print the report very easily.

- When you click on the symbol `PDF', then the report appears in the PDF format. If you right-click on
the PDF symbol, you should see the `Save Target As' option. Click on that option and you will see the
dialog box for saving the report.

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17. Serrated Shaft and Splined Shaft Connection According to Niemann 766

17.13 How to Save the Calculation

When the calculation is nished, it is easy to save the calculation. You can save your calculation either to the
eAssistant server or to your computer. Click on the button `Save'.

Figure 17.31: Button `Save'

Before you can save the calculation to your computer, you need to activate the checkbox `Local' in the
calculation module. A standard Windows dialog for saving les will appear. Now you will be able to save the
calculation to your computer.

Figure 17.32: Windows dialog for saving the le

In case you do not activate the option in order to save your les locally, then a new window is opened and
you can save the calculation to the eAssistant server. Please enter a name into the input eld `Filename' and
click on the button `Save'.

Figure 17.33: Save the calculation

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17. Serrated Shaft and Splined Shaft Connection According to Niemann 767

17.14 Automatic Dimensioning Functions (Calculator Button)

The button for the dimensioning functions is marked by a calculator symbol and is located next to the input
elds. If you click on the dimensioning buttons, you get a suggestion for an appropriate input value. The
calculation of the value is carried out so that the given minimum safety is fullled. The default value for the
minimum safety is set to `1.2'. Clicking the button `Options' allows you to change this value. The following
dimensioning functions (calculator button) provide you with optimal support:

Dimensioning of the supporting length at min. safety

Dimensioning of the nominal operation torque at min. safety

Dimensioning of the max. load peak torque at min. safety

Example: Dimensioning of the Maximum Nominal Operation Torque

Please determine the torque which fullls the demanded safety of `1.2'. Click on the dimensioning button next
to the input eld for the torque.

Figure 17.34: Dimensioning button

Now the maximum torque is determined.

Figure 17.35: Maximum torque

The minimum safety is displayed in the result panel. If you enter a higher value than `69,884 Nm', the safety
has fallen below. The result is marked in red. Click on the dimensioning function again and the value, which
fullls the minimum safety for the maximum torque, is displayed.

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17. Serrated Shaft and Splined Shaft Connection According to Niemann 768

17.15 The Button `Redo' and `Undo'

The button `Undo' allows you to reset your input to an older state. The button `Redo' reverses the undo.

Figure 17.36: Button `Redo' and `Undo'

17.16 The Button `CAD'

The top menu bar of the calculation module provides the button `CAD'. The eAssistant plugin for various
CAD systems (e.g., SOLIDWORKS, Solid Edge, Autodesk Inventor) enables you to combine calculation and
design very easily and fast. Based on your eAssistant calculation, you can generate shafts as well hubs of
splined shaft and serrated shaft connections as a 3D part within seconds.

Click the button `CAD' and select the appropriate CAD system from the list, for example SOLIDWORKS or
Solid Edge.

Open your CAD system. The top menu bar of the CAD system shows a button called `eAssistant'. Please
click this button to start the generation of the 3D model.

Figure 17.37: `CAD' button

Please note: Before you can start using the CAD plugin, you need to download and install the plugin from
www.eAssistant.eu.
our web site

A simple mouse-click allows to add all necessary manufacturing data of a gear wheel to the drawing.

In case you need further information about the eAssistant CAD plugin, please feel free to contact us. The web
site www.eAssistant.eu also contains detailed information. There you can also nd the CAD plugin manuals
for the various CAD systems.

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17. Serrated Shaft and Splined Shaft Connection According to Niemann 769

17.17 The Button `Options'

Click the button `Options' in order to change the default settings.

Figure 17.38: Button `Options'

You can change the unit system, the minimum safety or number of the decimal places in the report. To make
a permanent change to the calculation module, you can save your settings to a template le.

Figure 17.39: The options

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17. Serrated Shaft and Splined Shaft Connection According to Niemann 770

17.18 Calculation Example: Splined Shaft for Lifting Gear

We have prepared the following example to guide you through the calculation module and to show you some
general functions. This calculation example is based on: G. Niemann, H. Winter, B.-R. Hoehn: Maschinenele-
mente Band I: Konstruktion von Verbindungen, Lagern, Wellen. Springer Verlag, 3rd Edition, 2001: p. 857
Example 4: Splined shaft for lifting gear.

17.18.1 Start the Calculation Module

Please login with your user name and your password. To start the calculation module for splined shafts, please
click the menu item `Connections' on the left side and then select `Splined shaft'.

Figure 17.40: Calculation module

17.18.2 Input Values

A splined shaft connection with a splined shaft according to DIN ISO 14 is given. The safety against pressure
is required. For our calculation example the following input values are given:

Diameter d1 = 32 mm

Diameter d2 = 38 mm

Number of keys = 8

Key width = 6

Supporting length ltr = 40 mm

Manufacturing according to tolerance eld = H7/IT7

Application factor = 1

Nominal operation torque Tnenn = 2,400 Nm

Maximum load peak torque Tmax = 2,400 Nm with number of load peaks > 107

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17. Serrated Shaft and Splined Shaft Connection According to Niemann 771

No alternating torque

Outer diameter of hub D2 = 45 mm

Material shaft = C45 hardened and tempered

Material hub = C45 hardened and tempered

17.18.3 The Calculation

Prole Geometry Selection
In order to nd the right prole, click the button `Selection'.

Figure 17.41: `Selection' button

Select from the listbox `Standard geometry data' the splined shaft prole according to DIN ISO 14 medium
series.

Figure 17.42: Prole geometry selection

You can narrow your search by entering certain parameters in order to nd the right prole quicker. Just add
the diameter d1 , the number of keys as well the key width. Click on the button `Search'.

Figure 17.43: Rene the prole geometry selection

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17. Serrated Shaft and Splined Shaft Connection According to Niemann 772

After clicking the button `Search', only one prole remains. Please select the prole and click the button `OK'.

Figure 17.44: Selected prole

Enter `40 mm' for the supporting length ltr .

Figure 17.45: Supporting length

Tolerance Field
Click the listbox in order to choose the tolerance eld `H7/IT7'.

Figure 17.46: Tolerance selection

The eld `Prole' displays the previously selected tolerance eld.

Figure 17.47: Tolerance eld

Please add the application factor as well as the nominal operation factor Tnenn .

Figure 17.48: Application factor and nominal operation torque

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17. Serrated Shaft and Splined Shaft Connection According to Niemann 773

Load Peaks
Activate the load peaks und enter `2,400' for the maximum load peak torque Tmax .

Figure 17.49: Load peaks and load peak torque Tmax

Select the number of load peaks from the listbox.

Figure 17.50: Number of load peaks

Kind of Load
There is no change in load direction, so enter the default setting `No alternating torque' for the kind of load.

Figure 17.51: Kind of load

Enter the value `45 mm' for the outer diameter of the hub.

Figure 17.52: Outer diameter of hub

Material of Shaft and Hub

Select the material `C45 hardened and tempered' for the shaft.

Figure 17.53: Material for the shaft

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17. Serrated Shaft and Splined Shaft Connection According to Niemann 774

Please note: In case you need further information on the material, click on the button `Material'.

Figure 17.54: Material details

Select the hub material `C45 hardened and tempered' from the listbox.

Figure 17.55: Material for the hub

17.18.4 Calculation Results

All results (safeties at operation load and maximum load, the pressures for shaft and hub) will be calculated
during every input and will be displayed in the result panel. A recalculation occurs after every data input. Any
changes that are made to the user interface take eect immediately.

Figure 17.56: Calculation results

For our calculation example the splined shaft is suciently dimensioned. In addition, the message window
contains the hint that this shaft-hub-connection is suitable and can be used.

Figure 17.57: Message window

17.18.5 Documentation: Calculation Report

After the completion of your calculation, you can create a calculation report. Click on the `Report' button.
You can navigate through the report via the table of contents that provides links to the input values, results

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17. Serrated Shaft and Splined Shaft Connection According to Niemann 775

and gures. This calculation report contains all input data, the calculation method as well as all detailed
results. The report is available in HTML and PDF format. The calculation report saved in HTML format,
can be opened in a web browser or in Word for Windows.

Figure 17.58: Button Protokoll

You may also print or save the calculation report:

- To save the report in the HTML format, please select `File' ⇒ `Save as' from your browser menu bar.
Select the le type `Webpage complete', then just click on the button `Save'.

- If you click on the symbol `Print', then you can print the report very easily.

- When you click on the symbol `PDF', then the report appears in the PDF format. If you right-click on
the PDF symbol, you should see the `Save Target As' option. Click on that option and you will see the
dialog box for saving the report.

Figure 17.59: Calculation report

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17. Serrated Shaft and Splined Shaft Connection According to Niemann 776

17.18.6 How to Save the Calculation

When the calculation is nished, it is easy to save the calculation. You can save your calculation either to the
eAssistant server or to your computer. Click on the button `Save'.

Figure 17.60: `Save' button

Before you can save the calculation to your computer, you need to activate the checkbox `Local' in the
calculation module. A standard Windows dialog for saving les will appear. Now you will be able to save the
calculation to your computer.

Figure 17.61: Windows dialog for saving the le

In case you do not activate the option in order to save your les locally, then a new window is opened and
you can save the calculation to the eAssistant server. Please enter a name into the input eld `Filename' and
click on the button `Save'.

Figure 17.62: Save the calculation

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17. Serrated Shaft and Splined Shaft Connection According to Niemann 777

Our manual is improved continually. Of course we are always interested in your opinion, so
we would like to know what you think. We appreciate your feedback and we are looking
for ideas, suggestions or criticism. If you have anything to say or if you have any questions,
please let us know via phone +49 (0) 531 129 399-0 or email [email protected].

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Chapter 18

Bolts and Pins

18.1 Start the Calculation Module

Please login with your username and your password. To start the calculation module for bolts and pins, please
click the menu item `Connections' on the left side and then select `Bolts and pins'.

Figure 18.1: General overview

Components can be connected together with bolt and pins. Pins are used when it is necessary to connect,
mount, x and seal components. Bolts are used for the transmission of shear forces and combine two or more
parts, but mostly a movable part remains. All calculations are based on accepted technical literature books
(e.g., Niemann or Decker).

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18. Bolts and Pins 779

The functions of pins:

- Power transmission by a positive connection (shaft-hub connections)

- Positional securing between two components

- Positional securing against torsion

- Positional securing against overload

The functions of bolts:

- Transmission of shear forces and guidance of a component

- Transmission of shear forces and guidance of two components to each other under pivoting movement

18.2 Kind of Connection

Using this calculation module, the listbox allows to select the following cases of application:

- Longitudinal pin under torque

- Guide pin under bending force

- Cross pin under shearing

- Bolt connection under shearing force (in double shear)

Figure 18.2: Selection of kind of connection

Select a certain kind of connection, then the relevant input elds that are required for the determination of
the connection are displayed. You will get a graphical representation for for every kind of connection.

18.2.1 Longitudinal Pin under Torque

If a shaft is connected with a hub by a longitudinally inserted round key, then a longitudinal pin under torque
is developed.

Figure 18.3: Longitudinal pin under torque

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18. Bolts and Pins 780

18.2.2 Guide Pin under Bending Force

Due to the force F acting in the pin, a bending moment as well as a shearing force occur which result in a
combined bending and shearing load.

Figure 18.4: Guide pin under bending force

18.2.3 Cross Pin under Torque

If the outer part and the inner part are connected with a pin having the diameter d, then a cross pin under
torque is developed.

Figure 18.5: Cross pin under torque

18.2.4 Bolt Connection under Shearing Force

The bolt is subjected to bending, shear and surface pressure. The bending is a decisive factor for not sliding
surfaces, for sliding surfaces the surface pressure is decisive.

Figure 18.6: Bolt connection under shearing force

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18. Bolts and Pins 781

18.3 Pin Types

Pins dier in terms of their form. The selection of a pin type depends on the dierent requirements (e.g.,
requirements for accuracy, manufacturing costs, tightness, disassembly as well as required shear strength).
Please select one of the following pin types using the listbox:

- Solid pin/bolt

- Grooved pin

- Dowel pin

- Coiled spring pin

Figure 18.7: Selection of pin type

Please note: Click on the `Question mark' button next to the listbox. Then you will get an overview of the
dierent pin and bolt types.

18.3.1 Solid Pin/Bolt

A bolt is used to fasten two or more members together, a pivoting movement is allowed between the parts.
A clearance t requires a safety device against falling out. For split pins, bolts must have transverse holes,
grooves are necessary for retaining rings and washers. For reasons of cost, pins without head are preferred.
The following types of bolts can be distinguished:

A Pins without head

B Pins without head with split pin holes
C Pins with head and with split pin holes
D Pins with head and with threaded portion

Pins without head are used as a hinge pin for connecting rods. Pins with head are used as xed bearing and
axle bolts (e.g., for rope pulleys).

18.3.2 Grooved Pin

Grooved pins provide an excellent holding power and their solid construction makes them stronger than spring
pins. The fastener is a pin with three longitudinal grooves and is designed to deform when forced into regular
drilled holes. A straight drilling hole suces using an ordinary twist drill. A grooved pin with gorge is ideal for
tting springs or sliding sealing washers. The majority of grooved pins are made of steel or austenitic stainless
steel. In order to prevent the risk of scung, the strength of the pins has to be larger than the strength of
the components.

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18. Bolts and Pins 782

High-strength pin material should be used for hardened steel and cast iron.

A Grooved pin with gorge

B Full length parallel grooved pin with pilot
C Grooved taper pin
D Grooved pin

18.3.3 Dowel Pin

Along with hexagon screws, dowel pins join two pieces together. Dowel pins are made of rolled spring band
steel, steel, austenitic stainless steel and martensitic stainless steel.

A Dowel pin
B Soft suspension
C Hard suspension
D Compound spring type straight pin

18.3.4 Coiled Spring Pin

Coiled spring pins are press t fasteners. For low accuracy requirements, coiled spring pins serve as a locking
device or transmit transverse forces. Coiled spring pins are made of cold steel strip rolled into a spiral spring.

Figure 18.8: Coiled spring pin

18.4 Material Selection

It is recommended that the pins should consist of a harder material than the components to avoid deformation
when the pin is inserted or removed. Due to the dierence in hardness, seizing in the hole can be avoided. In
order to prevent the risk of scung and excessive wear, it is preferable to use a bolt material which is harder
and stronger than the material of the components

Figure 18.9: Material

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18. Bolts and Pins 783

Standard bolts are made of free cutting steel. Highly-loaded hinge pins are made of case-hardened, quenched
and tempered steel and are heat-treated and ground. Select an appropriate material directly from the listbox
or click on the button `Material' to open the material database. The material database provides some detailed
information on the several kinds of material (e.g., elastic modulus, surface pressure, tensile strength). Click
on the `Lock' button next to the eld `Surface pressure' to enable the input eld and enter your own value
based on your experience.

Figure 18.10: Selection of material

In case there is no material that will fulll the design requirements, then simply dene your individual material.
You will nd the entry `User-dened' in the listbox. If you select this option, the input elds will be enabled,
so that you can enter your own input values or add a comment. In order to conrm your inputs, click the
button `OK'. Please be advised that changing the material will delete your dened inputs and you have to
enter the inputs again.

18.5 Application Factor

Here are some reference values for the application factors KA for welded and rivet joints, bolts and pins.

Reference Values for the Application Factor KA

for Welded and Rivet Joints, Bolts and Pins1
Operating Mode Kind of Machine and Components Kind of shocks KA
(Examples)

Uniform rotating move- Electric machines, grinding machines,

Light 1.0 ... 1.1
ments steam and water turbines, circulating
compressor

Uniform reciprocating Steam engines, combustion engines,

Medium 1.2 ... 1.4
movements planing and turning machines, piston
compressor

Rotating and recipro- Molding press, bending and straight-

Moderate 1.3 ... 1.5
cating movements ening machines, rolling mill drives

Striking movements Screw presses, hydraulic forging

presses, mechanical press brake, sec- Heavy 1.5 ... 2.0
tion shearing machine, reciprocating
saws

Impact loading Stone crusher, hammer, cold shear

Very heavy 2.0 ... 3.0
for rolling mills, roll stands, crushing
machines

1 from: Dieter Muhs, Herbert Wittel, Dieter Janasch, Joachim Vossiek: Rolo/Matek Maschinenele-

mente: Tabellen, 17th ed. 2005, Vieweg Verlag, p. 42, table 3-5

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18. Bolts and Pins 784

Machine (Examples)
Working
Speed in min−1 Reference Value KA
characteristics
≤ 3600 ≥ 3600
Electric motor (d.c. motor) Generators for

uniform operation, rare basic load or

Uniform starting, uniform loaded cont. operation, Nominal torque

to low conveyor belt, packing, grinding machine,

shocks machinery, feed drive for compressor for 1.0 to 1.1

machine tools, ventilators air con

Shear, presses, Max. cutting, pressing,

stamping machines stamping torque

Vertical gears, Maximum

running gears starting torque

Electric motor (a.c. motor) Generators for

frequent starting, peak load,

Light to main drive for gear pumps, Nominal torque

middle machine tools, centrifugal and

shocks conveyor for unit loads, radial compressor, 1.2 to 1.5

rotary pumps paper machine

Overburden conveyance,

carts for transport and Static axle load

steel mill operation

Continuous rolling Maximum

mill stands rolling torque

Multiple cylinder

Single cylinder reciprocating piston pumps,

Moderate wood working machine industrial Nominal torque

shocks light ball mills ventilators for

frequent starting 1.5 to 2

Max. rolling torque

Billet rolling mill
(current limitation)

Lifting gear Max. lifting force

Screw press Max. pressing force

Excavator, heavy ball Reciprocating

Heavy shocks mills, crushers (stone, ore), machine Nominal torque 2 to 3

mechanical hammer 2 or 1 cylinder

from: Niemann, Winter, Hoehn: Maschinenelemente, Vol.1, 3rd ed. 2001, Springer Verlag, p. 17, g. 1.11

18.6 Message Window

The calculation module provides a message window. This message window displays detailed information,
helpful hints or warnings about problems. One of the main benets of the program is that the software

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18. Bolts and Pins 785

provides suggestions for correcting errors during the data input. If you check the message window carefully
for any errors or warnings and follow the hints, you are able to nd a solution to quickly resolve calculation
problems.

Figure 18.11: Message window

The quick info feature gives you additional information about all input elds and buttons. Move the mouse
pointer to an input eld or a button, then you will get some additional information. This information will be
displayed in the quick info line.

Figure 18.12: Quick info

18.7 Calculation Results

All important calculation results (e.g., pressures, stresses and safeties) will be calculated during every input
and will be displayed in the result panel. A recalculation occurs after every data input. Any changes that are
made to the user interface take eect immediately. Press the Enter key or move to the next input eld to
complete the input. Alternatively, use the Tab key to jump from eld to eld or click the `Calculate' button
after every input. Your entries will be also conrmed and the calculation results will displayed automatically.
If the result exceeds the minimum safety, the result will be marked red.

Figure 18.13: Calculation results

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18. Bolts and Pins 786

18.8 Documentation: Calculation Report

After the completion of your calculation you can create a calculation report. Click on the `Report' button.

Figure 18.14: Button `Report'

You can navigate through the report via the table of contents that provides links to the input values, results
and gures. This calculation report contains all input data, the calculation method as well as all detailed
results. The report is available in HTML and PDF format. Calculation reports, saved in HTML format, can
be opened in a web browser or in Word for Windows.
You may also print or save the calculation report:

- To save the report in the HTML format, please select `File' ⇒ `Save as' from your browser menu bar.
Select the le type `Webpage complete', then just click on the button `Save'.

- If you click on the symbol `Print', then you can print the report very easily.

- If you click on the symbol `PDF', then the report appears in the PDF format. If you right-click on the
PDF symbol, you should see the `Save Target As' option. Click on that option and you will see the
dialog box for saving the report.

Figure 18.15: Calculation report

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18. Bolts and Pins 787

18.9 How to Save the Calculation

When the calculation is nished, it is easy to save the calculation. You can save your calculation either to the
eAssistant server or to your computer. Click on the button `Save'.

Figure 18.16: Button `Save'

Before you can save the calculation to your computer, you need to activate the checkbox `Local' in the
calculation module. A standard Windows dialog for saving les will appear. Now you will be able to save the
calculation to your computer.

Figure 18.17: Windows dialog for saving the le

In case you do not activate the option in order to save your les locally, then a new window is opened and
you can save the calculation to the eAssistant server. Please enter a name into the input eld `Filename' and
click on the button `Save'.

Figure 18.18: Save the calculation

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18. Bolts and Pins 788

18.10 The Button `Redo' and `Undo'

The button `Undo' allows you to reset your input to an older state. The button `Redo' reverses the undo.

Figure 18.19: The button `Redo' and `Undo'

18.11 The Button `Options'

Click the button `Options' in order to change the default settings.

Figure 18.20: The options

Here you can specify the unit system, the minimum safeties for shear, bending, surface pressure and overload.
Permissible stresses for surface pressure, bending stress and shear stress can be also dened.

Figure 18.21: The options

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Chapter 19

Clamp Connections

19.1 Start the Calculation Module

Please login with your user name and your password. To start the calculation module for clamp connections,
please click the menu item `Connections' on the left side and then select `Clamp connection'.

Figure 19.1: General overview

A clamp connection is a frictional connection, mostly a detachable connection between two components. The
frictional connection is produced by means of pretensioned bolts or springs. Clamp connections are suitable
to transfer small or medium torques (little uctuation) and are mainly used in precision engineering. For
larger torques, a clamp connection is additonally secured using parallel keys or tangential keys. The eAssistant
module for clamp connections allows the design and calculation of both separated hubs and split hubs. The

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19. Clamp Connections 790

calculation is based on Rolo/Matek Maschinenelemente (17th revised edition 2005).

Advantages of Clamp Connections:

- Easy assembly and disassembly

- Simple adjustments of mutual position of components

- Suitable for fast design, manufacturing, assembly, disassembly and maintenance

Disadvantages of Clamp Connections:

- Lower load capacity than interference ts

- Reliability of the connection is dependent upon securing the clamping elements against loosening

- It is necessary to machine the separated parts together

19.2 Kind of Connection

This is where you select the type of the connection. The calculation module considers two designs: the
separated hub and the split hub. In order to select one of the two designs, please click the listbox and choose
either separated or split hub.

Figure 19.2: Kind of connection

19.2.1 Separated Hub Design

In the case of separated hubs, the pressure is distributed uniformly over the entire joint. A dierentiation is
made between uniform and cosine form surface pressure and linear contact. If there are no high requirements
regarding the transmission capability, then the separated hub design can be used. Materials suitable for the
separated hub are steel, cast steel, malleable cast iron or cast iron.

Figure 19.3: Separated hub

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19. Clamp Connections 791

Click the listbox to specify the distribution of the surface pressure. There are three possibilities for you here:
cosine form, uniform and linear distribution.

19.2.2 Split Hub Design

The split hub design is used mainly in precision engineering. The manufacturing is pretty easy and not
expensive. For split hubs, it is recommended to use a narrow t (e.g., H7/g6) because the hub is subjected
to bending. Steel is a suitable material for split hubs.

Figure 19.4: Split hub

19.3 Application Factor

The following table gives some values for the application factor KA for clamp connections.

Application Factors KA According to DIN 3990-1: 1987-121

Working Characteristics Working Characteristics of the Driven Machine
of the Driving Machine
Uniform Light shocks Moderate shocks Heavy shocks

Uniform 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75

Light shocks 1.1 1.35 1.6 1.85

Moderate shocks 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0

Heavy shocks 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.25 or higher

1 from: DIN 3990 Part 1, December 1987, p. 55, table: A1

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19. Clamp Connections 792

Working Characteristics of the Driving Machine

- Uniform: e.g., electric motor, steam or gas turbine (small, rarely occurring starting torques)

- Light Shocks: e.g., electric motor, steam or gas turbine (large, frequently occurring starting torques)

- Moderate Shocks: e.g., multiple cylinder internal combustion engines

- Heavy Shocks: e.g., single cylinder internal combustion engines

Working Characteristics of the Driven Machines

- Uniform: e.g., steady load current generator, uniformly loaded conveyor belt or platform conveyor, worm
conveyor, light lifts, packing machinery, feed drives for machine tools, ventilators, centrifuges, centrifugal
pumps, agitators and mixers for light liquids or uniform density materials, shears, presses ...

- Light Shocks: e.g., heavy lifts, crane slewing gear, industrial and mine ventilator, centrifugal pumps,
agitators and mixers for viscous liquids or substances of non-uniform density, multi-cylinder piston pumps
...

- Moderate Shocks: e.g., rubber extruders, continuously mixers for rubber and plastics, wood-working
machine, lifting gear, single cylinder piston pumps ...

- Heavy Shocks: e.g., excavators (bucket wheel drives), rubber kneaders, foundry machines, brick presses,
peeling machines, rotary drills ...

19.4 Coecients of Friction

With the pressure pf , clamp connections can be considered as shrink ts. The following table provides some
approximate values for the coecients of friction for shrink ts according to DIN 7190. The values are on
the safe side and can be used for sliding in circumferential and longitudinal direction. For the safety against
sliding, a value of SH ≥ 1, 5 is recommended.

Coecients of Adhesion for Shrink Fits in

Longitudinal and Circumferential Direction During Sliding According to DIN 7190
Coecients of Adhe-
Mating of Material, Lubrication, Joining
sion νR , νrl , νu
Steel/Steel pair

Pressurized oil assembly normally joined with mineral oil 0.12

Pressurized oil assembly with degreased surfaces joined with glycerine 0.18
◦
Shrink t normally after heating the outer part up to 300 C in an electric kiln 0.14
◦
Shrink t with degreased surfaces after heating up to 300 C in an electric kiln 0.20

Steel/Cast iron pair

Pressurized oil assembly normally joined with mineral oil 0.10

Pressurized oil assembly with degreased surfaces 0.16

Steel/MgAl pair, dry 0.10 to 0.25

Steel/CuZn pair, dry 0.17 to 0.25

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19.5 Required Clamping Force

With the denition of geometry, nominal torque, number of bolts as well as coecients of friction, the required
clamping force will be determined. There is the possibility to enable the input eld of the clamping force by
using the `Lock' button. Clicking the `Lock' button allows you to modify the clamping force very easily. Let
the `Lock' button open. If you close the button, then the input eld is disabled and the value is determined
again according to Rolo/Matek.

Figure 19.5: Enable input eld for the clamping force

19.6 Material Selection

Select an appropriate material for the shaft and hub directly from the listbox or click on the button `Material'
to open the material database.

Figure 19.6: Material selection

The material database provides some detailed information on the several kinds of material (e.g., surface
pressure, tensile strength, yield stress). If the listbox is active, the two arrow keys `Up' and `Down' of your
keyboard allows you to search through the database, so you can compare the dierent values with each other.

Figure 19.7: Material database

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19. Clamp Connections 794

19.6.1 Dene Your Own Material

In case there is no material that will fulll the design requirements, then simply dene your individual material.
You will nd the entry `User dened' in the listbox. If you select this option, the input elds will be enabled,
so that you can enter your own input values or add a comment. You can enter the surface pressure, tensile
strength and yield stress.

Figure 19.8: Own input of material

The permissible surface pressure is automatically determined from the yield stress depending on the kind of
material. It is possible to modify the surface pressure. Click the `Lock' button and enter a value into the input
eld. In order to conrm your inputs, click the button `OK'. Please be advised that changing the material will
delete your dened inputs and you have to enter the inputs again.

19.7 Message Window

The calculation module provides a message window. This message window displays detailed information,
helpful hints or warnings about problems. One of the main benets of the program is that the software
provides suggestions for correcting errors during the data input. If you check the message window carefully
for any errors or warnings and follow the hints, you are able to nd a solution to quickly resolve calculation
problems.

Figure 19.9: Message window

19.8 Quick Info: Tooltip

The quick info tooltip provides additional information about all input elds and buttons. Move the mouse
pointer over the input eld or button, then you will get the additional information. This information will be
displayed in the quick info line.

Figure 19.10: Quick info line

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19. Clamp Connections 795

19.9 Calculation Results

All important calculation results (e.g., safeties of shaft and hub) will be calculated during every input and will
be displayed in the result panel. A recalculation occurs after every data input. Any changes that are made to
the user interface take eect immediately.

Figure 19.11: Calculation results

In case a minimum safety is not fullled, the result will be marked red. Press the Enter key or move to the
next input eld to complete the input. Alternatively, use the Tab key to jump from eld to eld or click
the `Calculate' button after every input. Your entries will be also conrmed and the calculation results will
displayed automatically.

19.10 Documentation: Calculation Report

After the completion of your calculation, you can create a calculation report. Click on the `Report' button.

Figure 19.12: Button `Report'

The calculation report contains a table of contents. You can navigate through the report via the table of
contents that provides links to the input values, results and gures.

Figure 19.13: Calculation report

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19. Clamp Connections 796

The report is available in HTML and PDF format. Calculation reports, saved in HTML format, can be opened
in a web browser or in Word for Windows. You may also print or save the calculation report:

- To save the report in the HTML format, please select `File' ⇒ `Save as' from your browser menu bar.
Select the le type `Webpage complete', then just click on the `Save' button.

- If you click on the symbol `Print', then you can print the report very easily.

- If you click on the symbol `PDF', then the report appears in the PDF format. If you right-click on the
PDF symbol, you should see the `Save Target As' option. Click on that option and you will see the
Windows save dialog.

19.11 How to Save the Calculation

When the calculation is nished, it is easy to save the calculation. You can save your calculation either to the
eAssistant server or to your computer. Click on the button `Save'.

Figure 19.14: `Save' button

Before you can save the calculation to your computer, you need to activate the checkbox `Local' in the
calculation module. A standard Windows dialog for saving les will appear. Now you will be able to save the
calculation to your computer.

Figure 19.15: Windows dialog for saving the le

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19. Clamp Connections 797

In case you do not activate the option in order to save your les locally, then a new window is opened and
you can save the calculation to the eAssistant server. Please enter a name into the input eld `Filename' and
click on the button `Save'.

Figure 19.16: Save the calculation

19.12 The Button `Redo' and `Undo'

The `Undo' button allows you to reset your inputs to an older state. The `Redo' button reverses the undo.

Figure 19.17: Button `Redo' and `Undo'

19.13 The Button `Options'

Click on the button `Options' in the top menu bar of the eAssistant software to change some settings, for
example the unit system, the minumum safeties of shaft and hub or the number of decimal places for the
report.

Figure 19.18: Button `Options'

You can also modify the surface pressure calculation factor pzul . To calculate the permissible surface pressure
pzul for ductile materials, this factor is multiplied by the yield stress Re . To calculate the permissible surface
pressure for brittle materials, this factor is multiplied by the tensile stress Rm .

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Chapter 20

Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230

20.1 Start the Calculation Module

Please login with your userame and your password. To start the calculation module for bolted joints, please
click the menu item `Connections' on the left side and then select the `Bolts'.

Figure 20.1: General overview

Bolted joints are one of the most common elements in construction and machine design. They consist of bolts,
nuts and joint members. The parts are held together by a threaded bolt or an assembled bolt and nut. It is
a good way to assemble two parts, in a way they can easily be reassembled again. Bolted joints are intended
to transmit motion and power. Proper tools, such as a wrench or a screwdriver, are absolutely essential for

798
20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 799

the tightening or loosening of the jointed bolt. Bolts can be also used for clamping, measuring or adjusting
(e.g., clamping bolts, locking screws, adjusting screws, measuring screws). Bolts, nuts and the threads are
standardized.

VDI 2230 is the basic guideline for the calculation of bolted joints. The stipulations of this guideline apply
to steel bolts (fastening threads with 60◦ ank angle) in highly stressed and high-strength bolted joints for
strength grades 8.8 to 12.9 or 70 and 80 and frictional transmission of the working load which in all cases is
introduced via the clamped components. This usually consists of a static or dynamic axial force (that is, the
direction of action is parallel to the bolt axis). In addition, bending moments and transverse forces may be
present. The guideline applies to a limited size of the contact areas at the inner interfaces. If this limiting
value is exceeded, the specied relationships no longer apply or a larger calculation error occurs.

The material properties based on the tables in VDI 2230 apply only at room temperature, i.e. appropriate
allowance must be made for their temperature dependence at lower and higher temperatures. Extreme stresses
(e.g. corrosion), sudden and stochastic loads are not treated.

Please note: The guideline in principle does not do away with the need for experimental and/or numerical
(FEM, BEM) tests for verifying the calculation results. This is to be recommended, in particular in the case
of critical joints.

The VDI 2230-1 guideline allows for the estimation of a bolt diameter and strength. The procedure provides
a rough estimate of the bolt size as a starting point for more detailed VDI calculations to prevent potential
failure modes of the joint. The dimensioning uses a simplied stage model based on loads, loading types and
tightening technique. The free calculation module `Rough calculation for bolted joints' can be used to easily
determine the minimum bolt diameter.

Figure 20.2: Rough calculation for bolted joints

20.2 Operating Data

Click the input mask `Operating data' in order to determine the setup of the bolted joint. Single bolted
joints under axial and transverse load as well as ange connections can be selected from the listbox. It is also
possible to dene an individual setup. eAssistant calculates bolted joints in accordance with VDI 2230 Part 1
`Systematic calculation of highly stressed bolted joints - Joints with one cylindrical bolt'.

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 800

Multi-bolted joints are very complex and it is often dicult to describe load and deformation behaviour
mathematically. Standard VDI 2230 Part 1 is recognized as a standard work for calculating high-strength
bolted joints. It assumes a knowledge of the relevant loading and geometrical parameters and applies to
single-bolt joints. This means that before the actual calculation, which usually concerns several bolts within
a contact area, it will be necessary to determine the most highly loaded bolted joint together with its stress
levels and separate it out virtually.

Figure 20.3: Operating data

20.2.1 Setup of Bolted Joints

The calculation of a bolted joint is based on the external working load FB acting on the joint. In operation
the joints absorb axially acting working load FA , a transverse load FQ , a bending moment MB and possibly a
torsional moment MT . The initial quantities FA , FQ , MT and in some cases MB are subsequently assumed
to be known and are the basis for the dimensioning.

Figure 20.4: Working loads and working moments

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 801

Open the listbox and select a conguration. The following congurations can be determined:

- Bolted joint by axial load (single-bolted)

- Bolted joint by transverse load (single-bolted)

- Bolted joint by axial and transverse load (single-bolted)

- Flange connection VDI 2230 Part 2 (2014) - Multi-bolted joint (MV)

- Free setup

Figure 20.5: Setup of the bolted joint

Select the option `Free setup' from the listbox to dene an individual conguration. Choose a load case and
the corresponding input elds appear where you enter your values.

Figure 20.6: Dene your individual conguration

20.2.2 Minimum Clamp Load

In addition to the working loads, a minimum clamp load FK is required for pressing the bolted parts together.
The clamp load is needed for sealing functions, friction grip and prevention of one-sided opening at the inter-
face. The self-loosening leads to the partial loss or complete loss of the clamp load, it can cause the bolt to
loosen. The working loads and the minimum clamp load are assumed to be known. The requisite clamp load
for reaching a sealing eect can be entered into the input eld.

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 802

20.2.3 Number of Alternating Cycles

The quantity and direction of the working load can change over time. Therefore, the frequency and the results
of the load changes have to be estimated. Several hundred load cycles during the durability cause no damage
compared to constant static stress.

The maximum number of alternating cycles is ND = 2 × 106 . According to VDI 2230, a higher number
of alternating cycles does not have a considerable eect on the calculation of the fatigue limit. VDI 2230
recommends NZ > 104 as the lower limit.

20.2.4 Bolt Temperature and Parts Temperature

The temperature has a considerable eect on the bolted joint. The impairment is caused by the mechanical
and physical properties of the material (modulus of elasticity and thermal expansion coecient). It is to be
taken into account that lower and higher temperatures can change the mechanical and functional properties
of the bolt. The modulus of elasticity, the permissible stresses and the thermal expansion coecient change.
Since the material properties are saved for a room temperature of 20◦ , the changes must be taken into account.
Dierent temperatures can be dened for the bolt and for the clamped parts. It is to be taken into account
that the temperature dierences between the bolt and the clamped parts should not be too large. Dierent
thermal expansion coecients of the bolt and of the clamped parts lead to dierential expansions which can
lead to a change in the preload. Preload changes involve a temperature-related change of the surface pressure
in the head bearing surface which stresses the clamped parts signicantly higher. It is very rare that the bolt
becomes warmer than the clamped part. In such cases the bolts are provided with a very high preload at room
temperature so that there is a sucient clamping force even during the reduction in preload. Furthermore, a
low thermal expansion coecient should be used for the bolt material.

Figure 20.7: Bolt temperature and parts temperature

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 803

20.3 Assembly Properties

If a bolt gets tightened, the internal and external threads are pressed together. A frictional resistance is pro-
duced. Pressing the bolt head or the nut to the base causes extra frictional resistance to the bolt. A proper
functioning of the bolted joint substantially depends on the assembly. Therefore, the tightening technique and
the assembly preloads have a considerable eect on the bolted joint.

Bolted joints can be classied depending on the tightening technique: a distinction is made between non-
preloaded joints and preloaded joints. Non-preloaded joints are rarely found in practice, e.g. for extracting
or adjusting devices, preloaded joints are used more often. During the assembly of the joint, an (assembly)
preload is produced. In addition to the preload, a working load is transmitted.

The calculation module oers the generally usual tightening techniques. The tightening factor is set automat-
ically depending on the selected tightening technique. The tightening factor can be individually dened. An
individual specication of the utilization of the yield point (e.g., 100% instead of 90%) is also possible.

Figure 20.8: Assembly properties

20.3.1 Tightening Technique

There are several ways to tighten a bolted joint. Bolts behave dierently during the assembly and that is
why the clamping forces may vary within wide limits. The tightening technique has a major inuence on the
scatter of the assembly preload. In order to keep the scatter of the tightening factor as small as possible, a
higher level of assembly should be used. Since the tightening technique considerably inuences the required
size of the bolt, it is necessary to carefully select and carefully use the tightening technique selected for the
assembly and based on the calculation. A joint tightened by hand behaves completely dierently from one
tightened using a power tool. The precision of the dierent tightening methods vary widely. This means that
it is of high importance to choose the right tightening method for the job. Not every tightening technique is
appropriate for every bolted joint. Please note, however, that whatever method is used to tighten a bolt, a
degree of bolt preload scatter is to be expected. A distinction is to be made between the following tightening
techniques:

- Yield-controlled tightening

- Angle-controlled tightening

- Hydraulic tightening

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 804

- Torque-controlled tightening

- Torque-controlled tightening (friction coecient class A/B)

- Impact wrench

Figure 20.9: Selection of the tightening technique

Yield-Controlled Tightening
In the yield-controlled tightening technique, the joint is rst of all preloaded with a snug torque. Then the
torque and the angle of rotation are measured. An electronic control system is used that is sensitive to the
torque gradient of the bolt being tightened. Rapid detection of the change in slope of this gradient indicates
the yield point has been reached and stops the tightening process so that overstressing is hardly possible.

Angle-Controlled Tightening
When using the angle-controlled tightening process, both torque and angle are used as the controlling factor.
First the joint is loaded - as for yield-controlled tightening - with a snug torque so that the clamped surfaces
are pulled together until all the interfaces are completely closed. Subsequently a dened angle will be applied,
which is measured from the point the snug torque is achieved, with which the bolt will be tightened to or
beyond the yield point. Practice has shown that this technique only reaches its highest precision when the
bolt is tightened into the plastic range, because angle errors then have almost no eect on account of the
approximately horizontal line of the deformation characteristic within the plastic range. A series of tests is
necessary to determine the retightening angle. Because of the bolt being tightened beyond yield, its re-use
is limited. This technique is suitable for individual assemblies and mass production. It is also used in the
automotive industry. In the case of yield and angle-controlled tightening beyond the elastic limit, the bolts
are utilized up to at least 100% of their respective yield point.

Hydraulic Tightening
An alternative method of tightening the bolts is by hydraulic tightening. Of the tractive methods, hydraulic
clamping is one in which the assembly preload FM is generated without friction and thus free of torsion by an
axial lengthening of the bolt eected by hydraulic clamping cylinders. This method uses a small hydraulic ram,
which is placed over the nut and a threaded puller, which is attached to the ram. For this method to work,
the threaded part of the bolt should extend well past the nut. Hydraulic oil from a small pump applies force
on the hydraulic ram, which in turn actuates the puller. As a result, the bolt is stretched or extended, which
allows the nut to be manually rotated. A hydraulic bolt tensioning tool provides a quick and easy method
for tightening large diameter bolts to high and accurate preloads. This procedure enables the simultaneous

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 805

tightening of any number of bolts with the same preload.

Torque-Controlled Tightening
Torque-controlled tightening can be carried out with indicating or signalling torque wrenches or motorized bolt
installation spindles. In addition to the controlled variable `torque', the angle of rotation from a threshold
torque is often also measured in order to monitor the tightening operation. This method uses tools that mea-
sures the torque transferred to the fastener and then either gives a signal or turns o when the desired torque
is reached. The torque-controlled tightening process is by far the most commonly used tightening process.
This is because of a relative simple technical process with cost-eective tools and easy handling. The VDI
2230 guideline makes a distinction between the friction coecient classes A and B which depend on various
factors such as material, surface quality or lubrications. In the case of torque-controlled tightening beyond the
elastic limit, the bolts are utilized up to at least 90% of their respective yield point.

Impact Wrench
Impact wrenches transfer energy by means of momentum. An impact wrench delivers quick, repeated impulses
of torque. It is typically powered by air, but it can also be electric. This tightening technique has both ad-
vantages and disadvantages. Impact wrenches are very exible and simple to use, but the disadvantages are
the comparatively high noise level of the impact wrench and the diculty in measuring the applied torque and
consequently also the limited possibility to achieve accurate torque control. The tightening factors are so high
that this tightening technique cannot be recommended for highly stressed bolted joints. The impact wrench
is the ideal tool for loosening rusty, stuck, dicult-to-remove nuts and bolts.

User-Dened Tightening
You can individually dene the tightening factor. Select `User-dened' from the listbox `Tightening technique'.

Figure 20.10: User-dened tightening technique

The input eld for the tightening factor is enabled and you can enter your own value. If you want to add
some own notes, comments or a description, then use the comment line. The comment appears later in the
calculation report.

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 806

20.3.2 Tightening Factor

The tightening factor αA (assembly uncertainty factor) takes into account the scatter of the achievable
assembly preload between FM min and FM max . It is determined while taking into account the tightening and
adjusting techniques. The value of tightening factor used in the design equation depends on the selected
tightening method. The tightening factor takes also the lubrication conditions and the surface conditions into
account. Based on the tightening technique, the tightening factor is set automatically by the program. But it
is also possible to dene an individual factor. To do so, select `User-dened' from the listbox. The input eld
for the tightening factor is renabled and you can add your own value. Guide values for the tightening factor
are given in the following table. Click the `Question mark' button to open the table.

Figure 20.11: `Question mark' button

Guide Values for the Tightening Factor αA 1

Tightening Factor αA Tightening Method Setting Method

1,2 to 1,4 Yield-point controlled tightening, Presetting of the relative-

motorized or manual torque rotation angle coecient

1,2 to 1,4 Rotation-angle controlled Experimental determination

tightening, motorized or manual of preliminary tightening moment

and rotating angle (stages)

1,4 to 1,6 Torque-controlled tightening Setting via pressure measurement

with hydraulic tool

1,4 to 1,6 Torque-controlled tightening Experimental determination

with torque wrench, signalling of the setpoint torques

wrench or motorized nut runner at the original joint member,

with dynamic torque measurement for example, by elongation

measurement of the bolt

1,6 to 2,0 (Coecient of Torque-controlled tightening Determination of the set point

friction class B) with torque wrench, signalling tightening moment by estimating

wrench or motorized nut-runner the coecient of friction

1,7 to 2,5 (Coecient of with dynamic torque measurement (surface and lubrication

friction class A) conditions are a great inuence)

2,5 to 4 Tightening with impact wrench, Setting the driver via retightening

`stalling driver' or impulse driver, moment, which is formed from the

tightening by hand tightening moment (for the estimated

coecient of friction) plus a

supplement, manual tightening

based on subjective assessment

1 from: VDI 2230 Part 1, VDI Verlag, Duesseldorf 2015, p. 120, table A8. Guide Values for the

Tightening Factor

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 807

20.3.3 Utilization of the Yield Point

The yield point or the 0.2% yield strength Rp0,2 is the material property dened as the stress at which a
material begins to deform plastically and it is one of the basic characteristics for the dimensioning of a bolted
joint. The yield point indicates the maximum transferable force in newtons (N) per square millimeter of the
cross-sectional area for which a permanent deformation of 0.2% remains. The load should not exceed the
yield point. If the limit is exceeded, the screw lengthens and eventually fractures and becomes useless due to
plastic deformation, the joint will become loose or break. For statically loaded joints, bolts can be preloaded
to an initial tension as high as 90% of proof load, retaining 10% as a safety factor. 90% of the minimum
yield point is normally taken as a basis for the tightening technique most frequently applied - torque-controlled
tightening. In the case of angle and yield-controlled tightening beyond the elastic limit, the bolts are utilized
up to at least 100% of their respective yield point. The module gives you the possibility to individually dene
the utilization of the yield point, for example 100% instead of 90%. Click the `Lock' button to enable the
input eld and enter your own value.

Figure 20.12: Enable the utilization of the yield point

20.3.4 Assembly Preload

A proper functioning of the bolted joint essentially depends on the assembly. The assembly preload (also called
clamping force) is an important design parameter for bolted joints where safety and reliable performance are
dependent on proper initial tension. Conventionally, the design of bolted joints is based to a large extent on
preload as the main factor that denes the mechanical behaviour of bolted joints.

Figure 20.13: Main dimensioning quantities in the joint diagram

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 808

During the assembly of the joint, an (assembly) preload FM is produced and this produces a clamp load FK at
the interface. The tightening technique and the assembly preload have a signicant eect on the functioning
and durability of the bolted joint. Due to embedding as a result of plastic deformations of the clamped parts,
the assembly preload decreases to the eective preload FV . The assembly preload must be carefully evaluated.

The assembly preload FM can be modied by twisting the bolt and nut threads and may be subject to scat-
tering more or less within wide limits (FM max , FM min ) depending on the assembly method selected and
on the friction conditions. FM max is the maximum assembly preload for which a bolt must be designed, so
that, in spite of lack of precision in the tightening technique and the expected embedding during operation,
the required clamp load in the joint is produced and maintained. FM min is the required minimum assembly
preload. The minimum assembly preload can occur at FM max as a result of a lack of precision in the tightening
technique and maximum friction. The scatters, which occur during tightening, of the assembly preload FM
between FM min and FM max is summarized in the joint diagram.

Please note: Click the button `Graph' on the left side to open the joint diagram.

The dierent working loads, the reduce loss of preload as a result of embedding, the scatter of assembly preload,
the type of load introduction as well as the thermal loads are an integral part of the main dimensioning formula,
which is the basis for the bolt calculation:

FM min = FKerf + (1 − Φ)FA + FZ + ∆FV th

FM max = αA · FM min

The assembly preload in the bolted joints is inuenced by (VDI 2230, 2015):

- the friction ratios in the contact surfaces (thread and bearing area) moving relative to one another

- the geometrical form of the joint (bolt, nut, clamped parts)

- the strength of the joint

- the tightening technique

- the tightening tool

Figure 20.14: Assembly preload

20.3.5 Tightening Torque

Tightening torque is needed to achieve the necessary preload. Since the total tightening torque MA required
for producing the preload is composed of the thread torque MG and the head or nut friction moment MK :

M A = MG + MK

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 809

20.3.6 Embedment
In addition to purely elastic deformations, local plastic deformations occur in a bolted joint during and after
assembly, even during loading below the yield point or limiting surface pressure and these lead to slackening of
the joint. Plastic attening of surface roughness at the bearing areas, the loaded anks of the mating threads
and other interfaces is designated as `embedding'. The amount of embedding primarily depends on the type
of working load, the number of interfaces and the magnitude of the roughness of the paired surfaces. The
higher the number of interfaces, the higher the amount of embedding. The stiness of the bolted components
has a considerable eect on the amount of embedding.

Figure 20.15: Preload reduction due to embedment

Embedment can mean loss of the assembly preload FM . The assembly preload FM is reduced to the preload
FV by the loss of preload FZ . Locking elements can compensate the losses of preload. The locking element
must ensure that the embedding actions are compensated. Every additional connecting element (e.g. washer
or locking rings) increases the amount of embedding. The amounts of embedding which occur in principle
in transversely loaded bolted joints are greater than in joints which are only axially loaded. The amount of
embedding is automatically determined. There is the possibility to modify the amount of embedding by using
the 'Lock' button.

Figure 20.16: Input eld for embedding

According to VDI 2230, amounts of embedding which already occur during assembly do not lead to a loss of
preload. The assembly preload FM achieved is therefore only reduced by the amount FZ by the deformations
fZ occurring after assembly has been completed. If the surface roughness is not attened during the tightening
operation (hydraulic or thermal preloading), the amounts of embedding which occur after assembly may be
markedly greater than the guide values mentioned here.

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 810

VDI 2230 provides some guide values for amounts of embedding of bolts, nuts and compact clamped parts
made of steel. According to the guideline, the amounts of embedding which occur in principle in transversely
loaded bolted joints are greater than in joints which are only axially loaded.

Guide Values for Embedment2

Average Roughness Loading Guide Values for Embedment in µm
a)
Rz according to ISO 4287
in the head per head or per inner
nut bearing area interface

< 10 µm tension/compression 3 2,5 1,5

shear 3 3 2

10 µm to < 40 µm tension/compression 3 3 2

shear 3 4,5 2,5

40 µm to < 160 µm tension/compression 3 4 3

shear 3 6,5 3,5

2 from: VDI 2230 Part 1, VDI Verlag, Duesseldorf 2015, p. 73, table 5. Guide values for amounts

of embedding of bolts, nuts and compact clamped parts made of steel, without coatings
a) mean value from the maximum surface roughness Rt of at least two sampling lengths; with
ve sampling lengths Rz corresponds with a good approximation to the `old' Rz of DIN 4768

The following design measures compensate or improve the eects of embedding:

- Increase of preload: Higher strength grade, larger bolt diameter

- Elastic bolts: Higher elasticity of the joint because of anti-fatigue bolt and anti-fatigue sleeve

- Tightening technique with a tightening factor αA close to 1: Scattering during tightening is reduced
and a high preload is achieved.

- Low surface pressure due to large bearing surfaces and sucient length of engagement

- Small number of interfaces. The higher the number of interfaces, the higher the amount of embedding

- No tensioning of elastic or quasi-elastic elements

Please note: Washers, locking or spring washers under the bold head or nut must not be used for high-
strength, highly preloaded bolts in order to avoid an increase of embedment.

20.3.7 Loss of Preload

A loss of preload force can occur through the embedding processes during operation. A certain amount of
preload is lost due to the attening of the surface roughness of the material (plates, bolt head and thread). In
addition to the assembly preload, the loss of preload must be taken into account. The amount that is lost is
not available to tighten the bolted joint. Loss of preload as a result of embedding can be reduced by a small
number of interfaces and low surface roughness values. You can inuence the loss of preload manually. In the
case of highly preloaded bolts with high resilience, the loss of preload due to slackening is slight. In the case
of bolts with low resilience, an additional elastic intermediate element (e. g. strain washer) may be necessary
in order to avoid an inadmissible loss of preload.

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 811

20.4 Input of the Clamped Parts and Denition of the Basic Solid
The parts are clamped together by the bolt. When the bolts are tightened, the joint members are tightly
pressed together. Subsequent tightening compresses the joint further and the bolt is elongated. The input
mask `Clamped parts' denes the geometry of the clamped parts. The clamped parts can be dened as
cylinder, prismatic solids or annulus segments. The mask shows, for example, the inputs for the inside or
outside diameter of the annulus segment. Furthermore, material, thickness and roughness of the clamped
parts can be dened.

Figure 20.17: Clamped parts

There are several basic types of clamped parts:

- Cylinder

- Prismatic solids

- Annulus segment

Figure 20.18: Selection of the basic solid geometry

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 812

The input parameters that are displayed depend on the selected basic solid geometry. In addition, you get a
graphical representation. All resulting values are determined automatically.

Figure 20.19: Basic solid: Cylinder, prismatic solids and annulus segment

Please note: If you have selected `Flange connection VDI 2230 Part 2 (2014) - multi-bolted joint (MV)'
from the input mask `Operating data', the `Annulus segment' is set automatically as basic geometry. There is
at least one clamped part in single-bolted joints. Multi-bolted joints should have at least two clamped parts.
Although there may be exceptional instances.

20.4.1 Clamped Parts

The clamped parts can be added to the joint or removed from the joint by means of the table. It is possible
to dene the thickness, the material as well as the roughness.

Figure 20.20: Denition of the clamped parts

A clamped part is added to the joint when you click the `+' button. Click the `-' button to remove the clamped
part from the bolted joint. To remove the part from the joint, select the part in the table and click the `-'
button. Depending on the bolt length, you can add as many parts to the joint as you want. If the bolt is
not long enough, you will get a warning in the message window. To change the bolt length, go to the main

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 813

mask `Joint'. You can select a predened length from the listbox or click the `Lock' button to enter your own
values. The program will indicate to you if the bolt is long enough.

Figure 20.21: Add or remove clamped parts

Double-clicking activates the column to modify the value. Material can be dened for each clamped part.
Select the appropriate material from the listbox or click the blue circle symbol to open the material database.

Figure 20.22: Material selection

The material database provides some detailed information on the several kinds of material. If the listbox is
active, the two arrow keys `Up' and `Down' of your keyboard allows you to search through the database, so
you can compare the dierent values with each other.

Figure 20.23: Material database

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 814

In case there is no material that will fulll the design requirements, then simply dene your individual material.
Select the option `User-dened' from the listbox and click the blue circle symbol next to the listbox to open
the material database.

Figure 20.24: User-dened material

The material database opens and and all inputs and options are enabled and you can specify your individual
material very easily. Your inputs will be saved to the calculation le.

Figure 20.25: Own input of the material

Please note: Please be advised that changing the material will delete your dened inputs and you have to
enter the inputs again.

Since the material properties, such as modulus of elasticity and thermal expansion coecient, are saved for
a room temperature of 20◦ , you need to manually adjust the material properties for very high and very low
temperatures. Select the entry `User-dened' from the listbox. The input elds for the modulus of elasticity,
the thermal expansion coecient and the limiting surface pressure are enabled and can be modied.

Figure 20.26: Changing the material properties

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 815

20.5 Selection and Input of the Connecting Elements

A xing screw consists of:

- Screws (also bolts, threaded pins, threaded spindles) with external thread

- Nuts with corresponding internal thread

- Washers (not always)

- Locking elements (not always)

- Tools for tightening and loosening of the joint

The input mask `Joint' allows to dene the properties of the bolt, nut and thread bore. Extended input options
include roughness and friction coecients. You can also add washers under the bolt head or nut.

Figure 20.27: Selection and input of the joint

20.5.1 Type of Joint

There are two joint types: Tapped thread joints and through-bolt joints. Both are the commonly used
assemblies. The types can be selected from the listbox. Depending on the selected joint type, a graphical rep-
resentation and input options are available. The through-bolt joint and the tapped thread bolt are abbreviated
to DSV and ESV in VDI 2230, respectively.

Figure 20.28: Type of joint

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 816

There is a basic dierence between tap bolt and through-bolt. The tap bolt is turned into a threaded (tapped)
hole in one of the parts being connected and not into a nut. On the other hand, the through-bolt is turned into
the nut. The bolt passes through the members to be joined and is secured by tightening the threaded portion of
the bolt into the nut. In case of the through-bolts, there are no threads in any parts being fastened. Preloaded
through-bolt joints are used to transfer transverse forces via frictional grip, for example, high-strength bolts in
structural steelwork.

Figure 20.29: Tapped thread joint and through-bolt joint

20.5.2 Bolt Properties

Bolts are standardised and a wide variety is available for dierent operating conditions and applications. Bolts
may be classied according to the form of their heads. There are a lot of dierent bolt head types. The
bolt is preloaded by the application of a torque to the bolt head. There are bolts with hexagon, square and
countersunk heads. Simple hexagon-head bolts are often used (as cap screw or stud screw). The square-head
bolt is used recessed into a squared hole. It is thus prevented by the walls of the recess from turning during
the process of having its nut screwed on. The countersunk-head bolt is used, when it is desirable to sink the
bolt head in the surface of the work piece. For reasons of labour safety, bolts that have to secure rotating
or moving machine parts are usually countersunk. Applications in structural engineering require high-strength
bolted joints. Bolts, nuts and the threads are standardized. The choice of the bolt head will depend upon a
number of factors, including size, required strength and tightening technique. The following gure shows a
selection of the most common bolt types. Please see the corresponding standard for further information.

Figure 20.30: Hexagon head bolt, hexagon t bolt, hexagon bolt with ange

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 817

Hexagon head bolts: The hexagon head bolt and hexagon nuts are the most common bolts in general me-
chanical engineering. The hexagon shaped head permits higher tightening and releasing torques, the spanner
is very easy to adjust, space is required for turning the spanner.

Hexagon socket head cap screw: A hexagon socket head cap screws need less space and and require no
additional wrench space. The bolts have a hexagonal socket in the head and can only be loosened and tight-
ened with an allen wrench.

Slotted cheese-head screw: Due to their small dimensions they are very easy to install.

Figure 20.31: Hexagon socket head cap screw, slotted cheese-head screw, hexalobular socket screw

High-strength bolted joints: High-strength bolted joints are used widely in the construction of many steel
structures. The preload is higher for high-strength bolted joints than for normal bolted joints. High-strength
bolts have the highest load-bearing capacity. The common strength grades are 8.8, 9.8, 10.9 as well as 12.9.

Select the bolt standard directly from the listbox and click the button `Head screw'. Clicking the button leads
you to the database including all the head screw properties. The suitable bolt diameter and the bolt length
are displayed.

Figure 20.32: Selection of the bolt standard

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 818

Select the bolt diameter from the listbox. To optimize the bolt diameter, click the `Calculator' symbol next
to the listbox and the program recommends you a bolt diameter. The determination of the value is carried
out so that the given minimum safety is always fullled.

Figure 20.33: Bolt diameter

The bolt length can also be selected or manually set. Click the `Lock' button to enable the input eld and
enter your own value. Click the `Lock' button and the input eld is disabled again. The bolt length is set to
the next standard length.

Figure 20.34: Bolt length

Click the button `Head screw' to open the bolt database. By clicking the button you will get detailed
information on the selected bolt, for example the bolt head geometry, thread or shank. The table on the left
side provides the currently selected bolt length (highlighted in grey) as well as the thread size (bolt diameter).
You can select a dierent length directly from the table. All values, such as bolt head geometry and thread,

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 819

automatically adjust to the modied bolt length. The listbox `Standard' also allows you to quickly select a
new bolt. Click the button `OK' to conrm your selection.

Figure 20.35: Bolt database

20.5.3 Dene Your Own Bolt Geometry

The program allows you to dene your own bolt geometry. Select either the entry `custom' from the listbox
or click the button `Head screw' to open the database. Click the listbox `Standard' and select `custom'.

Figure 20.36: Own input

If you select the entry `custom' all input elds are activated and you can enter the values for your bolt geometry.
Your inputs will be saved to the calculation le. Please be advised that changing the bolt will delete your

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 820

dened inputs and you have to enter the inputs again.

Figure 20.37: Own input

20.5.4 Strength Grades

The strength grades (or property class as it is known in the standards) provide information on the mechanical
properties, such as the tensile or yield point. Bolts and nuts are classied according to their properties in 10
property classes.

Figure 20.38: Button `Strength grades'

The strength grade consists of two numbers separated by a point, e.g., 4.6, 8.8 or 10.9. The rst number
corresponds to 1/100 of the nominal tensile strength in N/mm2 . The second gure, multiplied by 10, states
the ratio between the lower yield stress and the nominal tensile strength (yield stress ratio) as a percentage.
The multiplication of these two gures will give 1/10 of the yield stress in N/mm2 .

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 821

Determination of the tensile strength Rm and the yield point Re

Tensile strength Rm : The rst gure indicates: 1/100 of the minimum tensile strength of the material:
Rm /100
Yield point Re : Both values are multiplied and multiplied again by 10

Example: Strength grade 8.8:

Tensile strength Rm : Rm = 8 x 100 N/mm2 = 800 N/mm2
Yield point Re : Re = 8 x 8 x 10 N/mm2 = 640 N/mm2

Example: Strength grade 10.9:

Tensile strength Rm : Rm = 10 x 100 N/mm2 = 1000 N/mm2
Yield point Re : Re = 10 x 9 x 10 N/mm2 = 900 N/m2

The strength grades 4.6, 5.6, 5.8, 6.8, 8.8, 10.9 and 12.9 are quiet common. The standard strength grade for
many industries is 8.8. Apart from ange joints, the strength grades 4.6, 5.6 and 5.8 are not used very often.
The strength grades 10.9 and 12.9 are used for determined and preloaded bolted joints. If a bolt has strength
class 8.8, a nut with a strength class 8 has to be chosen as well.

Please note: The selection of an appropriate strength grade depends on dierent factors, for example the
size of loads to be transmitted. If there are no requirements, the 8.8 strength grade can be used for quenched
and tempered bolts. A strength grade below 8.8 can be used where no great strength is required.

Select the strength grade from the listbox. If you need additional information on the strength grade, then
click the button `Strength grade'. The dialog window provides, for example, the modulus of elasticity, tensile
strength or shearing strength.

Figure 20.39: Strength grade

The strength grade can be set manually. Select `custom' from the listbox and add a value for the modulus
of elasticity or the shearing strength. The user-dened input will be saved to the calculation le. Please be
advised that changing the strength grade will delete your dened inputs and you have to enter the inputs
again.

Figure 20.40: Dene the strength grade

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 822

20.5.5 Material Selection

Click the `Arrow' to toggle between the stength grade and the material. Bolted joints can be made from
many materials, but most are made from steel. Steel of high to medium strength is the most commonly used
material for bolts and nuts. It is important to have a high ductility and good cold forming properties.

Figure 20.41: Material

Select an appropriate material directly from the listbox or click the button `Material' to open the material
database.

Figure 20.42: Material database

In case there is no material that will fulll the design requirements, then simply dene your individual material.
Select the option `User-dened' from the listbox and all inputs and options are enabled and you can specify
your individual material very easily. Conrm your entries with `OK'. Your inputs will be saved to the calculation
le. Please be advised that changing the material will delete your dened inputs and you have to enter the
inputs again.

Figure 20.43: Dene individual material

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 823

20.5.6 Nuts
The external thread (bolt) engages the internal thread (nut). The nut is an important part of the bolt assembly
and is almost always used opposite a mating bolt to fasten parts together. The nut is a type of fastener with
a threaded hole. Nut are used for a through-bolt joints. In this case, the bolt passes through the members to
be joined and is secured by tightening the threaded portion of the bolt in a nut. Nuts are tightened from the
outside and are either hexagonal or square.

Figure 20.44: Hexagon nut

Hexagonal nuts are the most commonly used type of nuts. The nut is tightened with a wrench. Nuts can be
classied in three groups: nuts of group A are capable of bearing full load (e.g., DIN EN ISO 4032), nuts of
group B with a limited load-bearing capacity (e.g., DIN EN ISO 4035) as well as group C for nuts without a
determined load capacity (e.g., DIN 936).
The strength classes of nuts are designated by only one number to indicate the maximum appropriate property
class of bolts with which they may be mated. Thus, nut property class is the same as the rst number of
the bolt designation. The number indicates 1/100 of the minimum tensile strength in newtons per square
2
millimeter (N/mm ). Marking of hexagonal nuts with the manufacturer's mark and the strength class is
prescribed for all strength classes and with a thread diameter ≥ M 5, preferably on top of the head. A bolt of
a particular property class should be assembled with the equivalent or higher property class of nut to ensure
that thread stripping does not occur.

Example: Strength grade 8:

Tensile strength Rm : Rm = 8 x 100 N/mm2 = 800 N/mm2

The nut can be selected from the listbox. Nuts that are not suitable for the required application are highlighted
in red.

Figure 20.45: Selection for nuts

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 824

The shape of the nut depends on the application: wing nuts or knurled nuts for tightening by hand, hexagonal,
square, cap or castle nuts can be tightened by using a wrench. Slotted nuts that have grooved heads on top
or round nuts with two holes are used where the space is limited and the joint is not easily accessible.

Please note: When selecting a nut the general rule is that the grade of the nut should always match the grade
of the bolt or be one grade higher to avoid breaking and thread stripping. Bolted joints with standardized nuts
are capable of bearing full load if the nut strength grade matches the strength grade of the bolt, for example
nut 10 with bolt 10.9.

Click the button `Nut' to open a new window that will display additional information on the nut.

Figure 20.46: Detail information

You can dene a nut according to your individual requirements. Select the entry `custom' from the listbox and
add your values. If this option is enabled, the thread can be modied accordingly. Select `custom' to modify
the thread. Please be advised that changing the nut will delete your dened inputs and you have to enter the
inputs again.

20.5.7 Thread Bore

This option gives you the opportunity to dene a thread bore. The thread bore standard can be taken from
the listbox: DIN EN 20273 ne, medium or rough.

Figure 20.47: Dene the bore thread

Click the button `Thread bore' to open the thread bore properties. Chamfers at the head side or thread side
can be taken into consideration. The VDI 2230 guideline says that in the case of steel, chamfers at the hole
can deliver values up to 25% higher (supportive eect).

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 825

Very small external dimensions of clamped components result in a reduction in the boundary surface pressure
which in some cases is considerable. If washers are used to reduce the surface pressure, care must be taken to
ensure that they have sucient strength and thickness.

Figure 20.48: Consideration of chamfer at head side and thread side

Select the entry `User-dened' from the listbox and enter your own value for the hole diameter dh .

Figure 20.49: Dene the diameter

The following table provides dimensions for through holes according to DIN EN 20273.

ø Dimensions for Through Holes According to DIN EN 202733

Thread Through hole according to DIN EN 20273

ne medium rough

M3 3,2 3,4 3,6

M4 4,3 4,5 4,8

M5 5,3 5,5 5,8

M6 6,4 6,6 7

M8 8,4 9 10

M10 10,5 11 12

M12 13 13,5 14,5

M14 15 15,5 16,5

M16 17 17,5 18,5

M20 21 22 24

M24 25 26 28

M30 31 33 35

M36 37 39 42

3 from: Niemann G., Winter H.: Maschinenelemente, Part 1, Konstruktion und Berechnung von

Verbindungen, Lagern, Wellen, 3rd Edition 2001, Springer-Verlag, p. 441, gure 10.49.

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 826

20.5.8 Friction Coecients

The magnitude of the friction is expressed by the coecient of friction in the head bearing area µK and the
coecient of friction in the thread µG . For a typical friction coecient of µG ≈ 0, 14 the achieved preload
falls by 10%, so that only 80% of the minimum load remains at the yield point. The friction coecient depend
to a great extend on the surface condition (corroded, sand-blasted, ame-annealed).

If the friction coecients in the bearing surface of the head or the nut µK or the thread µG are not known,
the following table can be consulted in order to establish them.

Friction Coecient Classes with Guide Values for Dierent Materials/Surfaces and Lu-
brication States in Bolted Joints4
Friction coecient Range for Selection of typical examples for
class µG und µK Material/surfaces Lubricants

A 0,04 to 0,10 Metallically bright; black Solid lubricants, such as M oS2 ,

oxide; phosphated; gal- graphite, PTFE, PA, PE, PI in lu-
vanic coatings such as Zn, bricating varnishes, as top coats or
Zn/Fe, Zn/Ni; Zinc lami- in pastes; liquied wax; wax dis-
nated coatings persions

B 0,08 to 0,16 Metalically bright; black Solid lubricants, such as M oS2 ,

oxide; phosphated; gal- graphite, PTFE, PA, PE, PI in lu-
vanic coatings such as Zn, bricating varnishes, as top coates
Zn/Fe, Zn/Ni; Zinc lami- or in pastes; liqueed wax; wax
nated coatings; Al and Mg dispersions, greases; oils; delivery
alloys state

Hot-galvanized M oS2 ; graphite; wax dispersions

Organic coatings with integrated solid lubricant or

wax dispersion

Austenitic steel Solid lubricants or waxes; pastes

C 0,14 to 0,24 Austenitic steel Was dispersions; pastes

Metallically bright; phos- Delivery state (lightly oiled)

phated

Galvanic coatings such as None

Zn, Zn/Fe, Zn/Ni; Zinc
laminated coatings; adhe-
sive

D 0,20 to 0,35 Austenitic steel Oil

Galvanic coatings such as None

Zn, Zn/Fe; hot-galvanized

E ≥ 0,30 Galvanic coatings such as None

Zn/Fe, Zn/Ni; austenitic
steel; Al, Mg alloys

4 from: VDI 2230 Part 1, VDI Verlag, Duesseldorf 2015, p. 113, table A5. Friction coecient

classes with guide values for dierent materials/surfaces and lubrication states in bolted joints

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 827

The aim is to achieve coecients of friction which t into the friction coecient class B in order to apply
as high a preload as possible with low scatter. This does not automatically mean using the smallest values
and that the friction coecient scatter present corresponds to the class spread. The table applies for room
temperature.

Figure 20.50: Friction coecient head bearing surface/inside of the thread

20.5.9 Roughnesses
When tightening a bolt, the surface roughnesses are pressed together and deformations occur which leads to
embedding. The deformation reduces the surface roughness. The right surface roughness is to be established
by the engineer/user. It is to be taken into account that the manufacturing costs for very ne surfaces
can be high and rough surfaces cannot perform its intended function. Choosing the right surface roughness
depends largely on many factors, for example the function of the bolted joint that needs to be fullled or the
manufacturing process. The surface roughness has a considerable eect on the amount of embedding and the
loss of preload.

Figure 20.51: Roughnesses

20.5.10 Washers Under the Bolted Head/Nut

A washer is a thin plate typically disk-shaped with a hole that is normally used to provide a seating for nuts
and bolts in order to distribute the load over an area greater than that provided by the bolt head or nut.
Washers are placed under the heads of bolts or under nuts. It also prevents the nut from damaging the metal
surface under the joint. Washers can also seal, cover up oversize holes and act as a spring take up between fas-
tener and workpiece. They also have the special task of preventing unwanted embedment. If washers are used
for reducing the surface pressure, care is to be taken to ensure that they have sucient strength and thickness.

Place a check mark in the box to enable this option. Click the button `Washer under head/nut' to open the
dialog.

Figure 20.52: Activate the washer

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 828

Since bolt holes could have sharp edges or burrs, washers are used to protect the llet under the bolt head from
scratching since this is a critical area that is prone to failure. Washers are ideal for oversized or enlongated
holes. If the bolt's through-hole is oversized, a washer can help prevent pulling the bolt's head through the
hole. Washers are recommended for use with rough and unmachined surfaces or lower part strength. Not all
screws need washers. In many cases, washers are counterproductive. Washers should not be used for smooth
and hard surfaces. Standard washers may deect under heavy loading, so hardened and heavy duty washers
are recommended. Washers are available in wide variety shapes, sizes and materials. Plain washers according
to DIN EN ISO 7089 or 7090 (plain chamfered washers) are used for hexagon head bolt and nuts (product
grade A and B) and case-hardened bolts.

Please activate `Under bolt head' or `Under nut' to place the washer under the bolt head or the nut. The
listbox is enabled and you can choose a washer.

Figure 20.53: Washers

The program allows you to dene your individual washer. Select the option `custom' from the listbox. All
input elds are activated and you can enter the values for your washer. Your inputs will be saved to the
calculation le. Please be advised that changing the washer will delete your dened inputs and you have to
enter the inputs again.

Figure 20.54: Dene your own washer

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 829

Select the material from the listbox. In case there is no material that will fulll the design requirements, then
simply dene your individual material. Select the option `User-dened' from the listbox and all inputs and
options are enabled and you can specify your individual material very easily. Your inputs will be saved to the
calculation le. Please be advised that changing the material will delete your dened inputs and you have to
enter the inputs again.

Figure 20.55: Specify own material for the washer

20.6 Input of the Load Introduction and the Load Application

The stinesses of the bolt as well clamped parts depend on the load introduction. If the axial working load FA
is introduced directly at the bolt head, then the load introduction factor is n = 1. For the load introduction at
the interface, the load introduction factor is n = 0. The actual load introduction is between these two values.

Figure 20.56: Load introduction

The load introduction factor n serves to convert the load introduction point at the single-bolted joints into the
spring model and to allow for this load introduction point and is crucial for determining the size of the additional
bolt loads. The factor is determined in accordance with VDI 2230. Depending on the load introduction point,
a part of the clamped members is relieved, the other part is compressed. Thus the stiness of the clamped
parts changes as well as the elastic bolt length. The load introduction factor takes into account the stiness
changes. If the load introduction is not known, n is normally ≈ 0, 5, in some cases n = 0.

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 830

If transverse forces are transferred via frictional grip, the load introduction factor is n = 0.

The VDI 2230 guideline provides six joint types according to the type of load introduction. The joint must
be assigned to one of the joint types with regard to the position of the load introduction points. Care is to
be taken to ensure that the interface lies in the marked region. This identies the joint region which is evenly
clamped and appropriate from the design point of view.

Figure 20.57: Joint types according to type of load introduction

The force introduction point and thus the load introduction factor can be determined by the distance to the
connecting body ak and the length of the connecting solid lA . The load introduction factor has a considerable
eect on the total stresses of the bolt and the residual clamp load. That's why it is important to determine
the load introduction factor n as exactly as possible. The joint types SV 1, SV 2 and SV 4 are used for
single-bolted joints.

Please note: In the case of very small load introduction factors, it must be expected that the joint will
possibly tend to open. n = 0, 4 should be used for eccentrically clamped multi-bolted joints n = 0, 4.

20.6.1 Eccentric Clamping and Eccentric Load Application

Eccentrically clamped and eccentrically loaded bolted joints are most common. The line of action A − A of
the load FA does not lie in the bolt axis S−S and the bolt axis itself does not coincide with the axis 0−0
of the laterally symmetrical deformation body in the basic solid.

Figure 20.58: Eccentric clamping

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 831

The distance a is the distance of the substitutional line of action of the axial working load from the axis of the
laterally symmetrical deformation body. The distance a always has a positive sign. The distance ssym is to be
introduced with a positive sign if the force action line A and the bolt axis S lie on the same side relative to
the axis 0 and with a negative sign if both are located on opposite sides. u is the edge distance of the opening
point U from the axis of the imaginary laterally symmetrical deformation body. For the sign rule with regard
to ssym , please see the following tables.

Sign Rules According to VDI 2230-1: Tensile Working Load5

Loading case/variant

position of a and ssym at 0 - 0

Dimensional ratios on same side

dierent sides
a ≤ ssym a < ssym
ssym + + -
Sign
u + - +

- The distance a of the substitutional line of action of the axial working load
is always positive.
Explanations - Point U always lies at the outermost location of that side of the interface
which is at risk of opening and consequently point V lies at the outermost
location of the other side.
- The distance v is always positive.

Sign Rules According to VDI 2230-1: Compressive Working Load5

Loading case/variant

position of a and ssym at 0 - 0

Dimensional ratios on same side

dierent sides
a ≤ ssym a < ssym
ssym + + -
Sign
u - - -

- The distance a of a substitutional line of action of the axial working load

is always positive.
Explanations - Point U lies at the outermost location of that side of the interface which is
at risk of opening and consequently point V lies at the outermost location
of the other side.
- The distance v is always positive.
- Cases II and III can only lead to opening in exceptional instances.
- Case I is only illustrated for the sake of completeness; opening cannot be
expected.
5 from: VDI 2230 Part 1, VDI Verlag, Duesseldorf 2015, p. 69, table 4. Sign rules

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 832

20.7 The Display of the Joint Diagram

The forces and displacements which occur in the bolted joint can be illustrated in principle by means of a joint
diagram, such as the elongation of the bolt or pressing the parts together. The X-axis shows the elastic linear
deformation f and the Y-axis shows the force F. Click the button `Graphs' to view the joint diagram. The
joint diagram appears later in the calculation report.

Figure 20.59: Joint diagram

Click the listbox and select the joint diagram for the dierent working states:

- Joint diagram for the assembled state

- Joint diagram for the working state

- Spread of the assembly preload

Figure 20.60: Select the working state

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 833

Click the window `Display the diagram in a separate window' and the joint diagram appears in an extra
window. A toolbar is available on the right side. The toolbar provides additional options such as zoom or
move functions to take a closer look at the joint diagram. You can use the function `Zoom' to zoom in and
out. If you use the function `Move', you can change the position of the graphical representation.

Figure 20.61: Joint diagram in a separate window

Please note: It may be quite helpful to display the joint diagram multiple times and to take a closer look
at dierent working states. To do so, click the button `Display the diagram in a separate window' as many
times as you like. Now you can select the working state and compare it with each other. Even with a modied
calculation it is possible to compare the joint diagrams. Open the diagram in a new window and position the
window next to the calculation module. Click the `Redo' button and `Undo' button. You will immediately see
the changes and you can compare the dierent calculations.

Reset selection: Click the arrow to disable the selection.

Move: You can move the joint diagram within the window. Click the move tool. While doing
this, a small cross appears next to the mouse pointer. Click the window and hold down the left
mouse button. Drag the mouse to move the diagram.

Zoom with the mouse: Just click a specic point and zoom in with the mouse.

Zoom area: Enlarge a specic area. Draw a frame while holding down the left mouse button.
After releasing the mouse button, the selected area will be enlarged.

Scale view: Scale the view vertically or horizontally. The height/width aspect ratio is not consid-
ered here.

Reset View: Click `Reset view' to go back to the previous view.

Fit in window: Click the left mouse button to zoom out just enough so that you can see the
entire diagram.

View zoom in: Click the left mouse button to enlarge the view.

View zoom out: Click the left mouse button to reduce the view.

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 834

20.7.1 Further Operating Functions

Several menu items are available from the context menu that is displayed when you right-click anywhere in
the diagram.

Figure 20.62: Opened context menu

The following function are available here:

Reset View: Click `Reset view' to go back to the previous view.

Fit in window: Click the left mouse button to zoom out just enough so that you can see the
entire diagram.

View zoom in: Click the left mouse button to enlarge the view.

View zoom out: Click the left mouse button to reduce the view.

Create a screenshot: Click this menu item to create a screenshot of the joint diagram. Enter
the dimensions of the screenshot and click the button `OK'. The screenshot is copied into the
clipboard. Click the menu item `Insert' to paste the image into another program that has the
ability to save it as an image le.

Print: The joint diagram can be printed. Click the menu item and select the right printer.

Please note: To move the diagram, click in the diagram and hold down the right mouse button. Use the
mouse wheel to zoom the joint diagram in and out.

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 835

20.8 Message Window

The calculation module provides a message window. This message window displays detailed information,
helpful hints or warnings about problems. One of the main benets of the program is that the software
provides suggestions for correcting errors during the data input. If you check the message window carefully
for any errors or warnings and follow the hints, you are able to nd a solution to quickly resolve calculation
problems.

Figure 20.63: Message window

20.9 Quick Info: Tooltip

The quick info tooltip provides additional information about all input elds and buttons. Move the mouse
pointer over the input eld or button, then you will get the additional information. This information will be
displayed in the quick info line.

Figure 20.64: Quick info

20.10 Calculation Results

All results will be calculated during every input and will be displayed in the result panel. A recalculation occurs
after every data input. Any changes that are made to the user interface take eect immediately. The result
panel shows the safeties against the yield point SF , surface pressure SP , fatigue failure SD , slipping SG and
shearing o SA . Additionally, the preload, tightening torque as well as the utilization factor are displayed.

Figure 20.65: Calculation results

In case a minimum safety is not fullled, the result will be marked red. Press the Enter key or move to the
next input eld to complete the input. Alternatively, use the Tab key to jump from eld to eld or click
the `Calculate' button after every input. Your entries will be also conrmed and the calculation results will
displayed automatically.

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 836

20.10.1 Utilization Factor

For yield and angle-controlled tightening, assembly state and working state are to be calculated
separately:
- Assembly state: ηM = FM erf max /FM min

- Working state: ηB = FM erf min /FV 1min

This results in the utilizing: η = max(ηM , ηB )

For non-yield and angle-controlled tightening, the utilizing is:

- η = FM erf max /FM max

The utilization factor quickly shows whether the bolted joint meets the requirements (η = 100% or not
η > 100%).

20.11 Documentation: Calculation Report

The `Report' button enables you to generate a calculation report.

Figure 20.66: `Report' button

The calculation report contains a table of contents. You can navigate through the report via the table of
contents that provides links to the input values, results and gures. The report is available in HTML and PDF
format. Calculation reports, saved in HTML format, can be opened in a web browser or in Word for Windows.

Figure 20.67: Calculation report

You may also print or save the calculation report:

- To save the report in the HTML format, please select `File' ⇒ `Save as' from your browser menu bar.
Select the le type `Webpage complete', then just click on the `Save' button.

- If you click on the symbol `Print', then you can print the report very easily.

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 837

- If you click on the symbol `PDF', then the report appears in the PDF format. If you right-click the PDF
symbol, you should see the `Save Target As' option. Click on that option and you will see the Windows
save dialog.

20.12 How to Save the Calculation

When the calculation is nished, it is easy to save the calculation. You can save your calculation either to the
eAssistant server or to your computer. Click on the button `Save'.

Figure 20.68: `Save' button

Before you can save the calculation to your computer, you need to activate the checkbox `Local' in the
calculation module. A standard Windows dialog for saving les will appear. Now you will be able to save the
calculation to your computer.

Figure 20.69: Windows dialog for saving the le

In case you do not activate the option in order to save your les locally, then a new window is opened and
you can save the calculation to the eAssistant server. Please enter a name into the input eld `Filename' and
click on the button `Save'.

Figure 20.70: Save the calculation

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 838

20.13 The Button `Redo' and `Undo'

The `Undo' button allows you to reset your inputs to an older state. The `Redo' button reverses the undo.

Figure 20.71: `Redo' and `Undo' buttons

20.14 The Button `Options'

Click on the `Options' button in the menu bar at the top to change some general settings, e.g. the unit system
or the minimum safeties.

Figure 20.72: Button `Options'

Here you can change the following settings:

- Unit switch between the metric system and the U.S. customary unit system

- Minimum safety against the yield point

- Minimum safety against fatique failure

- Minimum safety against surface pressure

- Minimum safety against slipping

- Minimum safety against shearing o

- Reduction coecient of the torsional stress

- Hardening coecient for bolts tightened beyond the elastic limit

- Decimal places used in the calculation report

Figure 20.73: Settings

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20. Bolted Joints according to VDI 2230 839

The pre-dened minimum safeties are given in VDI 2230 Part 1. The safety margin is to be established by the
user. VDI 2230 provides the following safety values:

- Safety against the yield point: SF min ≥ 1, 0

- Safety against fatique failure: SDmin ≥ 1, 2

- Safety against surface pressure: SP min ≥ 1, 0

- Safety against slipping: Normal values for static loading: SG ≥ 1, 2 and for alternating loading by FQ
and/or MY : SG ≥ 1, 8, here the more conservative value (SG = 1, 8) of the two was used for the
minimum safety.

- Safety against shearing o: SAmin ≥ 1, 1

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Chapter 21

Compression Springs According to

DIN EN 13906-1-2002

21.1 Start the Calculation Module

Please login with your username and your password. To start the calculation module for compression springs,
please click the menu item `Spring calculation' on the left side and then select `Compression spring'.

Figure 21.1: General overview

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21. Compression Springs According to DIN EN 13906-1-2002 841

21.2 General Information

Spring is a mechanical device designed to store elastic energy when deected and to return the energy when
relaxed. The compression spring oers resistance to a compressive force applied axially.

Figure 21.2: Compression spring

21.3 Input Possibilities

21.3.1 Input of Spring Force and Spring Deection
The calculation of the compression spring is based on DIN EN-13906-1. Forces and deection or a combination
of both parameters can be dened for the calculation. Other parameters for the spring geometry (e.g., length,
diameter, coils) can be entered manually or can be selected from the geometry database according to DIN
2098. If you manually enter the parameters, you can dene an individual compression spring. The depending
values will be automatically calculated.

Figure 21.3: Input elds for spring force and deection

For the entry of forces and deections there are the following possibilities:

The entry of forces

The entry of deection

The entry of forces and deections

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21. Compression Springs According to DIN EN 13906-1-2002 842

The input elds that are dependent upon one another are color-coded to simplify the connection of force,
deection and length. Click the input eld and the corresponding input eld will turn yellow. It makes it easier
for you to see how these values relate to each other and how they change.

21.3.2 Transverse Loading

If an axially loaded spring with parallel guided ends is additionally perpendicular to its axis, transverse deection
with localised increase in torsional stress will occur (DIN EN 13906-1: July 2002, p. 10).

Figure 21.4: Spring under simultaneous axial and transverse loading

Enter either force or deection in order to consider transverse loading.

Figure 21.5: Transversal spring

21.3.3 Coils
Enter the number of active coils n. The manual entry allows the dimensioning of individual compression
springs. Activate the option `unsprung' and enter a value for the number of unsprung coils.

Figure 21.6: Coils

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21. Compression Springs According to DIN EN 13906-1-2002 843

Enter either a value for the coils n or the spring rate R. The input elds are color-coded. If you enter a
number of active coils, the spring rate is automatically determined and input eld turns yellow. In case you
dene the spring rate, the input eld for the coils turns yellow.

Please Note: Click the button `Options in order to consider the wire diameter tolerances. The listbox provides
the tolerances according to DIN 2076 B/C and DIN 2077. Selecting the entry `User-dened' allows you to
dene an individual wire diameter tolerance.

Figure 21.7: Tolerances

21.3.4 Spring End Types

Select the following spring end types:

- Squared and ground

- Squared, plain and

- Plain

Figure 21.8: Selection of spring end types

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21. Compression Springs According to DIN EN 13906-1-2002 844

21.3.5 Support of Spring End Types

Some springs have the tendency to buckle. The critical spring length at whick buckling starts is known as
the buckling length Lk . The spring deection up to the point of buckling is known as the buckling spring
deectionsK . The inuence of the seating of the spring ends is taken into account by means of the seating
coecient ν .

Figure 21.9: Representation of spring end types

For the support of spring end types the following options are available:

(a) Free - built-in (ν = 2)

(b) Hinged - hinged (ν = 1)

(c) Relocatable - built-in (ν = 1)

(d) Hinged - built-in (ν = 0.7)

(e) Built-in - built-in (ν = 0.5)

(f ) Own input

Please Note: Select the option `Own input' and enter your own supporting coecient ν of the spring end
type.

Figure 21.10: Seating of the spring end

21.3.6 Load
Before starting the calculation, it should be specied whether they will be subjected to static loading, quasi-
static loading or dynamic loading. The calculation is possible for both dynamic and static/quasi-static loading.
A static loading is:

- Loading constant in time

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21. Compression Springs According to DIN EN 13906-1-2002 845

Quasi-static loading is:

- A loading variable with time with negligibly small torsional stress range (stroke stress) (reference value:
torsional stress up to 0.1 × fatigue strength)

- A variable loading with greater torsional stress range but only a number of cycles up to 104

Figure 21.11: Load

In the case of compression spring dynamic loading is loading variable with time with a number of load cycles
over 104 and torsional stress range greater than 0.1 × fatigue strength at:

- Constant torsional stress range

- Variable torsional stress range

Depending on the required number of cycles N up to rupture it is necessary to dierentiate between two cases
as follows:

(a) Innite life fatigue in which the number of cycles

- N ≥ 107 for cold coiled springs

- N ≥ 2 × 106 for warm coiled springs

Torsional stress range is lower than the innite life fatigue limit.

(b) Limited life fatigue in which

- N < 107 for cold coiled springs

- N < 2 × 106 for warm coiled springs

Torsional stress range is greater than the innite life fatigue limit but smaller than the low cycle fatigue
limit.

21.3.7 Input of Lengths and Diameters

Enter the values for the length and diameter. The input elds that are dependent upon one another are
color-coded. Click the input eld and the corresponding input eld will turn yellow. It makes it easier for you
to see how these values relate to each other and how they change.

Figure 21.12: Lengths and diameters

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21. Compression Springs According to DIN EN 13906-1-2002 846

21.4 Spring Geometry Selection

You can either enter the spring geometry with length, diameter and coils directly into the input elds or you
can choose the geometry from the spring geometry database according to DIN 2098. The spring database
makes it possible to quickly nd the spring that will meet your requirements. Start with dening the loads
and click the button `Spring geometry database'.

Figure 21.13: Button `Spring geometry database'

The database provides a list of all spring geometries that can be used for your application. Please choose a
compression spring and click the `OK' button.

Figure 21.14: Spring geometry database

Please Note: The option `Show only geometries that are applicable for the entered values.' is enabled by
default. If you want to display all geometries, simply remove the checkmark from its box and select a spring
geometry. Conrm with the `OK' button.

Figure 21.15: Option is activated

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21. Compression Springs According to DIN EN 13906-1-2002 847

21.5 Material Selection

Select an appropriate material directly from the listbox. Clicking the button `Material' opens the material
database. In case there is no material that will fulll the design requirements, then simply dene your
individual material.

Figure 21.16: Button `Material'

Please select the material from the list. You will get detailed information on the material. The two cursor keys
`Up' and `Down' of your keyboard allows you to navigate through the material database, so you can compare
the dierent material properties with each other.

Figure 21.17: Material database

21.5.1 Dene Your Own Material

In case there is no material that will fulll the design requirements, then simply dene your individual material.
You will nd the entry `User-dened' in the listbox. If you select this option, the input elds will be enabled,
so that you can enter your own input values or add a comment. Depending on the manufacturing process
(e.g., hot rolled or cold coiled springs), the calculation of the tolerances is determined according to DIN 2095
or DIN 2096. In addition, the eigenfrequency of the spring is calculated.

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21. Compression Springs According to DIN EN 13906-1-2002 848

In order to conrm your inputs, click the button `OK'. Please be advised that changing the material will delete
your dened inputs and you have to enter the inputs again.

Figure 21.18: Add own values

21.6 How to Change the Unit System

eAssistant provides two unit systems: the metric system and the U.S. customary unit system. You can quickly
switch between the units. To select the unit system, click the button `Options' and decide for a unit. It is also
possible to change the unit by clicking the label eld. When you click the label eld, a context menu will open
providing all available units within the unit system. The change should take eect immediately. All settings
will be saved to the calculation le. As soon as you select a unit, the current eld value will be converted
automatically into the chosen unit.

Figure 21.19: Change the unit

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21. Compression Springs According to DIN EN 13906-1-2002 849

21.7 The Button `Redo' and `Undo'

The button `Undo' allows you to reset your input to an older state. The button `Redo' reverses the undo.

Figure 21.20: `Redo' and `Undo' button

21.8 Message Window

The calculation module provides a message window. This message window displays detailed information,
helpful hints or warnings about problems. One of the main benets of the program is that the software
provides suggestions for correcting errors during the data input. If you check the message window carefully
for any errors or warnings and follow the hints, you are able to nd a solution to quickly resolve calculation
problems.

Figure 21.21: Message window

21.9 Quick Info: Tooltip

The quick info feature gives you additional information about all input elds and buttons. Move the mouse
pointer to an input eld or a button, then you will get some additional information. This information will be
displayed in the quick info line.

Figure 21.22: Quick info

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21. Compression Springs According to DIN EN 13906-1-2002 850

21.10 Calculation Results

All important calculation results will be calculated during every input and will be displayed in the result panel.
A recalculation occurs after every data input. Any changes that are made to the user interface take eect
immediately. Press the Enter key or move to the next input eld to complete the input. Alternatively, use
the Tab key to jump from eld to eld or click the `Calculate' button after every input. Your entries will be
also conrmed and the calculation results will displayed automatically. If the result exceeds certain values, the
result will be marked red.

Figure 21.23: Calculation results

21.11 Diagrams
You get a graphical representation of the load-deection and Goodman diagram. Click on the diagram to see
the full image and details. The Goodman diagram is displayed only for the dynamic load.

Figure 21.24: Load deection and Goodman diagram

21.12 Documentation: Calculation Report

After the completion of your calculation you can create a calculation report. Click on the `Report' button.

Figure 21.25: Button `Report'

You can navigate through the report via the table of contents that provides links to the input values, results
and gures. This calculation report contains all input data, the calculation method as well as all detailed
results. The report is available in HTML and PDF format. The calculation report saved in HTML format,
can be opened in a web browser or in Word for Windows.

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21. Compression Springs According to DIN EN 13906-1-2002 851

You may also print or save the calculation report:

- To save the report in the HTML format, please select `File' ⇒ `Save as' from your browser menu bar.
Select the le type `Webpage complete', then just click on the button `Save'.

- If you click on the symbol `Print', then you can print the report very easily.

- If you click on the symbol `PDF', then the report appears in the PDF format. If you right-click on the
PDF symbol, you should see the `Save Target As' option. Click on that option and you will see the
dialog box for saving the report.

Figure 21.26: Calculation report

21.13 How to Save the Calculation

When the calculation is nished, it is easy to save the calculation. You can save your calculation either to the
eAssistant server or to your computer. Click on the button `Save'.

Figure 21.27: `Save' button

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21. Compression Springs According to DIN EN 13906-1-2002 852

Before you can save the calculation to your computer, you need to activate the option `Local' in the calculation
module. A standard Windows dialog for saving les will appear. Now you will be able to save the calculation
to your computer.

Figure 21.28: Windows dialog for saving the le

In case you do not activate the option in order to save your les locally, then a new window is opened and
you can save the calculation to the eAssistant server. Please enter a name into the input eld `Filename' and
click on the button `Save'.

Figure 21.29: Save the calculation

21.14 The Button `Options'

Click the button `Options' in order to change the default settings.

Figure 21.30: `Options' button

Here are the default settings that you can modify:

(a) Wire diameter tolerance according to:

- DIN 2076 B

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21. Compression Springs According to DIN EN 13906-1-2002 853

- DIN 2076 C

- DIN 2077

- User-dened

(b) Operating temperature

(c) Operating frequency

(d) Adjust number of decimal places in calculation report

(e) Unit switch between the metric system and the U.S. customary unit system

Figure 21.31: Options

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21. Compression Springs According to DIN EN 13906-1-2002 854

21.15 Calculation Example: Compression Spring According to

DIN EN 13906-1, Edition 2002
21.15.1 Start the Calculation Module
Please login with your username and your password. To start the calculation module for compression springs,
please click the menu item `Spring calculation' on the left side and then select `Compression spring'.

Figure 21.32: Calculation module

21.15.2 Input Values

A cold coiled compression spring 4 x 32 x 120 is made of patented cold drawn spring steel wire

Wire diameter d = 4 mm
Diameter D = 32 mm
Coils n = 8.5
Length of the unloaded spring L0 = 120 mm

is alternately loaded with

Spring force F1 = 300 N

Spring force F2 = 500 N

We are looking for the spring rate R, the corrected shear stress τk2 for the spring force F2 = 500 N and spring
deviation sh .

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21. Compression Springs According to DIN EN 13906-1-2002 855

21.15.3 The Calculation

Enter Spring Forces
Please start to enter the spring forces F1 and F2 . During entering the spring forces, the corresponding spring
deections are automatically determined and will be highlighted in a dierent color.

Figure 21.33: Input of spring forces

Enter Coils and Wire Diameter

Enter the number of coils n as well as the wire diameter d. The settings for the spring ends, the support of
spring as well the load will not be changed.

Figure 21.34: Input of coils d and wire diameter d

Enter Spring Length and Spring Diameter

Enter the spring length L0 and the spring diameter D.

Figure 21.35: Input of length and diameter

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21. Compression Springs According to DIN EN 13906-1-2002 856

Material Selection
Click the button `Material' to open the material database and to nd the required material for the compression
spring.

Figure 21.36: Button `Material'

Select the following material from the listbox: patented cold drawn wire DH according to EN 10270-1: 2001,
shot peened, N = 10e7 .

Figure 21.37: Select the material

21.15.4 Calculation Results

All important calculation results, such as the static and dynamic utilization of the permissable stress, the
spring deviation sh and the utilization of the permissable spring deection sn , will be calculated during every
input and will be displayed in the result panel. A recalculation occurs after every data input. Any changes that
are made to the user interface take eect immediately. Press the Enter key or move to the next input eld
to complete the input. Alternatively, use the Tab key to jump from eld to eld or click the `Calculate' but-
ton after every input. Your entries will be also conrmed and the calculation results will displayed automatically.

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21. Compression Springs According to DIN EN 13906-1-2002 857

Spring Rate R
The spring rate R is = 9,363511 N/mm and is displayed above the input eld for the wire diameter.

Figure 21.38: Result for the spring rate

Shear Stress for the Spring Force F2

The calculation report provides the result for the shear stress. Click the button `Report' to open the calculation
2
report. The shear stress τk2 for the spring force F2 is = 636,62 N/mm .

Figure 21.39: Result for the shear stress

Spring Deviation sh
You will nd the value for the spring deviation sh in the result panel. The spring deviation sh is = 21.36 mm.

Figure 21.40: Result for the spring deviation

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21. Compression Springs According to DIN EN 13906-1-2002 858

21.15.5 Documentation: Diagrams and Calculation Report

Diagrams
The results are clearly displayed in the diagrams. Click on the diagram to see the full image and details.

Figure 21.41: Diagrams

Calculation Report
After the completion of your calculation, you can create a calculation report. Click on the `Report' button.

Figure 21.42: Button `Report'

You can navigate through the report via the table of contents that provides links to the input values, results
and gures. This calculation report contains all input data, the calculation method as well as all detailed
results. The report is available in HTML and PDF format. The calculation report saved in HTML format,
can be opened in a web browser or in Word for Windows. You may also print or save the calculation report:

- To save the report in the HTML format, please select `File' ⇒ `Save as' from your browser menu bar.
Select the le type `Webpage complete', then just click on the button `Save'.

- If you click on the symbol `Print', then you can print the report very easily.

- When you click on the symbol `PDF', then the report appears in the PDF format. If you right-click on
the PDF symbol, you should see the `Save Target As' option. Click on that option and you will see the
dialog box for saving the report.

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21. Compression Springs According to DIN EN 13906-1-2002 859

21.15.6 How to Save the Calculation

When the calculation is nished, it is easy to save the calculation. You can save your calculation either to the
eAssistant server or to your computer. Click on the button `Save'.

Figure 21.43: Button `Save'

Before you can save the calculation to your computer, you need to activate the checkbox `Local' in the
calculation module. A standard Windows dialog for saving les will appear. Now you will be able to save the
calculation to your computer.

Figure 21.44: Windows dialog for saving the le

In case you do not activate the option in order to save your les locally, then a new window is opened and
you can save the calculation to the eAssistant server. Please enter a name into the input eld `Filename' and
click on the button `Save'.

Figure 21.45: Save the calculation

Our manual is improved continually. Of course we are always interested in your opinion, so
we would like to know what you think. We appreciate your feedback and we are looking
for ideas, suggestions or criticism. If you have anything to say or if you have any questions,
please let us know by phone +49 (0) 531 129 399-0 or email [email protected].

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Chapter 22

Tension Springs According to DIN

EN 13906-2-2002

22.1 Start the Calculation Module

Please login with your username and your password. To start the calculation module for tension springs, please
click the menu item `Spring calculation' on the left side and then select `Tension spring'.

Figure 22.1: General overview

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22. Tension Springs According to DIN EN 13906-2-2002 861

22.2 General Information

Spring is a mechanical device designed to store elastic energy when deected and to return the energy when
relaxed. The tension spring oers resistance to an axial force tending to extend its length, with or without
initial tension.

Figure 22.2: Tension spring

22.3 Input Possibilities

22.3.1 Input of Spring Forces and Deections
The calculation of the tension spring is based on DIN EN-13906-2. Forces and deection or a combination of
both parameters can be dened for the calculation. The depending values will be automatically calculated.

Figure 22.3: Input elds for the spring forces and deections

For the entry of forces and deections there are the following possibilities:

The entry of forces

The entry of deection

The entry of forces and deection

The input elds that are dependent upon one another are color-coded to simplify the connection of force,
deection and length. Click the input eld and the corresponding input eld will turn yellow. It makes it easier
for you to see how these values relate to each other and how they change.

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22. Tension Springs According to DIN EN 13906-2-2002 862

22.3.2 Wire Diameter and Spring Rate

Enter either a value for the wire diameter d or the spring rate R. Both values will be determined automatically.

Figure 22.4: Wire diameter and spring rate

Please Note: If you click the `Options' button, then you can consider the tolerances. Select DIN 2076 B/C
or DIN 2077 from the listbox.

Figure 22.5: Tolerances

22.3.3 Input of Diameters and Lengths

Enter the values for the tension spring geometry (e.g., length, diameter and coils). According to the specied
input values, the values are determined automatically.

Figure 22.6: Input of diameter and length

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22. Tension Springs According to DIN EN 13906-2-2002 863

22.3.4 Coil Clearance and Initial Tension

Coils can be wound so tightly that a load is needed to separate the coils. This is an internal load that holds the
coils tightly together and this is what is known as initial tension. The initial tension is introduced by winding
the coils so that they exert a certain pressure against each other.

Figure 22.7: Coil clearance and initial tension

The initial tension depends upon the spring material, the diameter of the wire d1 , the spring index (coil ratio)
ω and the manufacturing method. In addition, the initial tension depends also on the maximum permissible
shear stress τn . Hot coiled tension springs are manufactured without initial tension and are produced with a
distance between the adjacent spring coils. Tension springs with initial tension force have their coils pressed
tightly together. Loosely wound springs always have a small amount of initial tension since it is not possible
to achieve uniformly tension-free coiling. A small amount of initial tension force shall be accepted. Enter the
number of coils n into the input eld.

Hot coiled tension springs cannot be made with initial tension force. The heat treatment applied causes gaps
to occur between the coils. The size of the gap depends upon the spring index and the degree of torsional
stress involved. The following reference values for hot coiled spring up to 25 mm bar diameter can be used:

- Gap between coils ≈ 0.5 to 5 mm corresponding to a permissible shear stress

τzul ≈ 400 N/mm2 to 600 N/mm2 (for spring force Fn ).

Please note: Clicking the `Material' button opens the material database. Here you can select dierent materi-
als. Futhermore, you get information on the manufacturing process (see also section 22.4 `Material Selection').

22.3.5 Load
Before starting the calculation, it should be specied whether they will be subjected to static loading, quasi-
static loading or dynamic loading.

Figure 22.8: Load

The calculation is possible for both dynamic and static/quasi-static loading. A static loading is:

- Loading constant in time

Quasi-static loading is:

- A loading variable with time with negligibly small torsional stress range (stroke stress) (reference value:
torsional stress up to 0.1 × fatigue strength)

- A variable loading with greater torsional stress range but only a number of cycles up to 104

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22. Tension Springs According to DIN EN 13906-2-2002 864

In the case of tension spring dynamic loading is loading variable with time with a number of load cycles over
104 and torsional stress range greater than 0.1 × fatigue strength at:

- Constant torsional stress range

- Variable torsional stress range

Depending on the required number of cycles N up to rupture it is necessary to dierentiate between two cases
as follows:

(a) Innite life fatigue in which the number of cycles

- N ≥ 107 for cold coiled springs: Torsional stress range is lower than the innite life fatigue limit

(b) Limited life fatigue in which

- N < 107 for cold coiled springs: Torsional stress range is greater than the innite life fatigue limit but
smaller than the low cycle fatigue limit

22.4 Material Selection

Select an appropriate material directly from the listbox. Clicking the button `Material' opens the material
database. In case there is no material that will fulll the design requirements, then simply dene your
individual material.

Figure 22.9: Button `Material'

Please select the material from the list. You will get detailed information on the material. The two cursor keys
`Up' and `Down' of your keyboard allows you to navigate through the material database, so you can compare
the dierent material properties with each other.

Figure 22.10: Material selection

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22. Tension Springs According to DIN EN 13906-2-2002 865

22.4.1 Dene Your Own Material

In case there is no material that will fulll the design requirements, then simply dene your individual material.
You will nd the entry `User-dened' in the listbox. If you select this option, the input elds will be enabled,
so that you can enter your own input values or add a comment.

Figure 22.11: User-dened material

In order to conrm your inputs, click the button `OK'. Please be advised that changing the material will delete
your dened inputs and you have to enter the inputs again.

Depending on the manufacturing process (e.g., hot rolled or cold coiled springs), the calculation of the tol-
erances is determined according to DIN 2095 or DIN 2096. In addition, the eigenfrequency of the spring is
calculated.

Please note: The `Spring geometry database' button is disabled because there is no DIN standard that
provides geometry data for the tension spring. In case you need geometry data, it is advisable to seek manu-
facturers advise.

22.5 Spring end types

Various forms of loops and connection elements are used for the spring power transmission. Select the spring
end types from the list:

Figure 22.12: Selection of spring end types

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22. Tension Springs According to DIN EN 13906-2-2002 866

Half german loop

Full german loop

Double german loop

Full german loop sidewise

Double german loop sidewise

Raised hook

Raised hook sidewise

English loop

Coned end with swivel hook

Threaded bolt rolled up

Threaded bolt screwed in

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22. Tension Springs According to DIN EN 13906-2-2002 867

Screw ear screwed in

Full german loop angular

Every spring end can get dierent loop forms or connection elements. In order to quickly select the same
spring end, enable the option `Equal spring ends'. If this option remains enabled, the listbox will display always
the same spring ends.

Figure 22.13: Option `Equal spring ends'

22.5.1 Input of Distance from Inner Radius of Loop to Spring Body

The distance LH from the inner radius of loop to the spring body is displayed as well as the unsprung coils.
But you can also dene your own distance in order to calculate non-standard tension springs. You can enable
the input eld by clicking the checkbox next to it. After clicking the checkbox, you have to enter the input
value.

Figure 22.14: Activate your own input

22.6 How to Change the Unit System

eAssistant provides two unit systems: the metric system and the U.S. customary unit system. You can quickly
switch between the units. To select the unit system, click the button `Options' and decide for a unit. It is also

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22. Tension Springs According to DIN EN 13906-2-2002 868

possible to change the unit by clicking the label eld. When you click the label eld, a context menu will open
providing all available units within the unit system. The change should take eect immediately. All settings
will be saved to the calculation le. As soon as you select a unit, the current eld value will be converted
automatically into the chosen unit.

Figure 22.15: Change the unit

22.7 The Button `Redo' and `Undo'

The button `Undo' allows you to reset your input to an older state. The button `Redo' reverses the undo.

Figure 22.16: Button `Redo' and `Undo'

22.8 Message Window

The calculation module provides a message window. This message window displays detailed information,
helpful hints or warnings about problems. One of the main benets of the program is that the software
provides suggestions for correcting errors during the data input. If you check the message window carefully
for any errors or warnings and follow the hints, you are able to nd a solution to quickly resolve calculation
problems.

Figure 22.17: Message window

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22. Tension Springs According to DIN EN 13906-2-2002 869

22.9 Quick Info: Tooltip

The quick info feature gives you additional information about all input elds and buttons. Move the mouse
pointer to an input eld or a button, then you will get some additional information. This information will be
displayed in the quick info line.

Figure 22.18: The quick info

22.10 Calculation Results

All important calculation results, such as the static and dynamic utilization of the permissable stress, the
spring deviation sh and the utilization of the permissable spring deection sn , will be calculated during every
input and will be displayed in the result panel. A recalculation occurs after every data input. Any changes that
are made to the user interface take eect immediately. Press the Enter key or move to the next input eld to
complete the input. Alternatively, use the Tab key to jump from eld to eld or click the `Calculate' button
after every input. Your entries will be also conrmed and the calculation results will displayed automatically.
If the result exceeds certain values, the result will be marked red.

Figure 22.19: Calculation results

22.11 Diagrams
In addition to the calculation results, a graphical representation of the load-deection and Godman diagram
is available. The Goodman diagram is displayed only for the dynamic load.

Figure 22.20: Load-deection and Goodman diagram

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22. Tension Springs According to DIN EN 13906-2-2002 870

Click directly on the diagram to open the diagram in a new window and to increase the size of the diagram.

Figure 22.21: Increase the diagram size

22.12 Documentation: Calculation Report

After the completion of your calculation, you can create a calculation report. Click on the `Report' button.

Figure 22.22: Button `Report'

You can navigate through the report via the table of contents that provides links to the input values, results
and gures. This calculation report contains all input data, the calculation method as well as all detailed
results. The report is available in HTML and PDF format. The calculation report saved in HTML format,
can be opened in a web browser or in Word for Windows.

You may also print or save the calculation report:

- To save the report in the HTML format, please select `File' ⇒ `Save as' from your browser menu bar.
Select the le type `Webpage complete', then just click on the button `Save'.

- If you click on the symbol `Print', then you can print the report very easily.

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22. Tension Springs According to DIN EN 13906-2-2002 871

- When you click on the symbol `PDF', then the report appears in the PDF format. If you right-click on
the PDF symbol, you should see the `Save Target As' option. Click on that option and you will see the
dialog box for saving the report.

Figure 22.23: Calculation report

22.13 How to Save the Calculation

When the calculation is nished, it is easy to save the calculation. You can save your calculation either to the
eAssistant server or to your computer. Click on the button `Save'.

Figure 22.24: Button `Save'

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22. Tension Springs According to DIN EN 13906-2-2002 872

Before you can save the calculation to your computer, you need to activate the checkbox `Local' in the
calculation module. A standard Windows dialog for saving les will appear. Now you will be able to save the
calculation to your computer.

Figure 22.25: Windows dialog for saving the le

In case you do not activate the option in order to save your les locally, then a new window is opened and
you can save the calculation to the eAssistant server. Please enter a name into the input eld `Filename' and
click on the button `Save'.

Figure 22.26: Save the calculation

22.14 The Button `Options'

Click the button `Options' in order to change the default settings.

Figure 22.27: Button `Options'

Here are the default settings that you can modify:

(a) Wire diameter tolerance according to:

- DIN 2076 B

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22. Tension Springs According to DIN EN 13906-2-2002 873

- DIN 2076 C

- DIN 2077

- User-dened

(b) Operating temperature

(c) Operating frequency

(d) Adjust number of decimal places in calculation report

(e) Unit switch between the metric system and the U.S. customary unit system

Figure 22.28: Options

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Chapter 23

Timing Belt Drives

23.1 Start the Calculation Module

Please login with your user name and your password. To start the calculation module for timing belts, please
click the menu item `Belt calculation' on the left side and then select `Timing belt'. The calculation module
allows to calculate a complete belt drive. The module supports a graphical and interactive denition of the
belt drive. The calculations are based on the publication `Zahnriemengetriebe - Eigenschaften, Normung,
Berechnung, Gestaltung, Nagel, Hanser Verlag 2008'. The module was developed in a close cooperation
with Mr Dr. Thomas Nagel (Dresden University of Technology) and oers for the rst time a calculation
method independently of a certain manufacturer. The eAssistant module is the rst calculation program that
enables the dimensioning of multiple shaft gear drives in all types of proles that are usual in the market. The
eAssistant software module oers an easy-to-use and intuitive interface. The attractiveness of this module
is additionally enhanced by the possibility to choose from several solution variants and to compare dierent
solutions to each other. The timing belt calculation is basically arranged in three main operating elds:

- Pre-selection of usable belt proles on the basis of selection criteria

- Conguration and dimensioning of the geometry of a timing belt drive

- Power calculation of a timing belt drive

23.2 General Information

The timing belt drive is classied in the group of transmission drives and consists of a timing belt and at least
two timing belt pulleys.

Figure 23.1: Types of transmission drives

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The prole geometry of belt and pulley is designed to perfectly match each other. The prole geometry is
identied by an abbreviation (e.g., HTD, STD or AT) and the drives are oered in various pitches. The timing
belt pitch refers to the center-to-center distance between the center of one tooth on a timing belt pulley to
the center of the adjacent tooth. Timing belt drives can be classied according to:

- Type of basic elastomer: Rubber or polyurethane mixture

- Performance: High power proles or classic trapezoidal proles

- Conformity with standards: Standard and non-standard prole geometries

- Technology: Vulcanized, extruded or cast timing belts

23.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Timing Belt Drives

Timing belt drives have advantages and disadvantages compared to other power transmission drives:

23.3.1 Advantages
- Synchronous, slip-free power transmission

- Low shaft load due to low initial tensioning

- High power density (small required belt length)

- Low mass and low-noise operation compared to chain drives

- Maintenance-free (no lubrication required, re-tensioning is no longer necessary)

- High speeds possible (often up to 40m/s, in exceptional cases up to 80m/s)

- Vibration-damping eects

- Eciency up to 99% at nominal load

- Clean, hygienic operation (lubrication-free)

- Relatively cost eective

23.3.2 Disadvantages
- Limited resistance to oils and greases, water and other uids for standard products according to timing
belt type

- Temperature compatibility according to basic materials (eld of application approx. −30◦ C up to 150◦ C
especially in comparison with chain drives)

- Susceptible to sand or other granular materials

23.4 Pre-Selection of a Timing Belt Prole

The calculation of the timing belt prole starts with the denition of the drive task as well as with the
pre-selection of the belt type. Open the calculation module in order to add the power data. To select an
appropriate belt, enter the desired diameter for the drive pulley. You can pre-select either the drive power,
torque or tangential force. To do so, activate the radio button next to the input eld. Then the input eld
will be enabled and you can add your input value. The other sizes in each case are automatically calculated.
Press the Enter key or use the Tab key to conrm your entries. Click the `Calculate' button after every input.
Your entries will be also conrmed. Use the listbox to select the engine starting torque and operating time.

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By using the checkboxes shown on the right-hand side, you can make further restrictions with regard to the
pitches depending on the drive task. Otherwise, all pitches are used.

Figure 23.2: Pre-selection of a belt prole

Table with All Usable Belts

Once you have entered diameter, drive power and speed, you are provided with an overview of all belts suitable
for your application. Click the button `Accept' in order to conrm the selected belt and to used it for the
calculation.

Figure 23.3: Selection of belts

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23.5 Conguration of Geometry of a Belt Drive

If you have selected a prole, then click the button `Accept' to get to the conguration of the geometry. In
this section, you can dene the number of teeth or add drive pulleys or tensioners. A multiple shaft gear drive
with any number of timing belt pulleys and tensioners is possible. The geometry section contains a graphic
representation. The main view reveals the congurated timing belt drive. Here you can use the mouse to
select and position the timing belt pulleys.

Figure 23.4: Geometry of timing belt drive

23.5.1 Belt Type

The listbox `Belt type' provides the belt type that has been selected before from the table. The pre-selection
of the belt is initially based on a simple two-shaft drive. In case, the determined safeties are not enough for
the application, then it is recommended to select another belt type or to dene another belt width.

23.5.2 Belt Length

Here you can see the belt length of the conguration. If you adjust the position of the timing belt pulley by
clicking and dragging with your mouse or if you change the position by entering x-coordinates or y-coordinates,
the belt length is always automatically determined.

Figure 23.5: Belt length

The calculation program provides a simple solution for the dimensioning of the belt length. You can change
the position of the timing belt pulley so that the belt length and the required belt length match exactly.

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23. Timing Belt Drives 878

Another window opens when you click on the `Calculation of belt length' button. Here is where you can
position the timing belt pulley so that you will get your desired belt length. The timing belt pulley that is
currently selected in the graphic representation is the timing belt pulley you can move. But the input eld
`Pulley for moving' allows you to select another timing belt pulley. The angle of moving indicates the direction
in which the timing belt pulley should be moved in order to adjust the belt length to the desired belt length.
The graphic representation on the right-hand side displays how the angle of moving is dened. Clicking the
button `Calculate' adjusts the position of the selected timing belt pulley. Click the button `OK' in order to
apply the belt length.

Figure 23.6: Dimensioning of belt length

23.5.3 Timing Belt Pulleys

A belt drive requires a timing belt and at least two timing belt pulleys. The geometry of the timing belt pulleys
must be precisely matched. A simple two-shaft or a multiple shaft belt drive with any number of timing belt
pulleys or tensioners can be dened. By means of the two arrows to the right and left next to `Pulley No.',
the timing belt pulleys are selected one after the other (either clockwise and counter-clockwise). But you can
also click the timing belt pulley to quickly choose a pulley. A colored marking points to the currently selected
timing belt pulley. For a better orientation, the timing belt pulleys are numbered. The numbering sequence
also determines the rotation of the timing belt in the belt drive. The `Power' section determines the safety for
every timing belt pulley.

Figure 23.7: Select the timing belt pulley

In using the `Drive pulley' checkbox, you determine which timing belt pulley is the drive pulley of the belt
drive. Only one timing belt pulley can be the drive at any one time. By clicking on the checkbox, you activate
the currently selected timing belt pulley as drive. In the graphic repesentation, the drive pulley is highlighted
in blue.

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23. Timing Belt Drives 879

The option `Rotation' is for establishing the direction of rotation of the timing belt pulley. There are two
possibilities for you here: clockwise and counter-clockwise. An arrow marks the direction of rotation of the
timing belt pulleys.

Figure 23.8: Drive pulley

Timing belts require a pre-tension load using a tensioning system if the gearing has a xed centre distance
or the belt can not be held by a change in the distance of the shaft. The design ranges from simple pulleys
to automatically operating tensioning systems. A at tensioner keeps the pre-tension load constant and is
often used in industrial applications. The tensioner can be either on the toothed side or on the belt back.
The tensioner is often arranged inside. Thus, the belt is loaded with only swelling bending loads but not
with alternating bending loads. If an internally positioned tensioner running on the belt is designed as a at
tensioner, then it must have a larger diameter than a comparable toothed pulley.

Figure 23.9: Flat tensioner

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Minimum Sizes of Flat and Toothed Tensioners3

Timing Belt Timing Belt Basic Number of Teeth of Diameter of Flat Diameter of Flat
Prole Material Toothed Tensioner, Tensioner, External Tensioner, Internal
Internal [mm] [mm]

PU Polyurethane

CR Rubber Elastomer

T2; T2.5 PU 10 15 15

AT3 PU 15 20 20

T5 PU 10 30 30

AT5 PU 15 60 25

T10 PU 12 60 60

AT10;
PU 15 120 50
ATP10

T20 PU 15 120 120

AT20 PU 18 180 120

GT2-8MR PU 22 Do not use 100

GT2-14MR PU 28 Do not use 175

GT3-2MR CR 10 From approx. 6,5 From approx. 25

HTD3M;
CR 9 From approx. 10 From approx. 40
GT3-3MR

HTD5M;
CR 14 From approx. 22 From approx. 65
GT3-5MR

HTD8M CR 18 From approx. 50 From approx. 100

HTD14M CR 28 From approx. 125 From approx. 180

HTD20M CR 34 From approx. 220 From approx. 250

3 Nagel, Thomas: Zahnriemengetriebe, 2008, Carl Hanser Verlag, p. 73, table 4.3

23.5.4 Position of the Timing Belt Pulleys

Here you can indicate the position of the timing belt pulleys. There are two possiblities for you here:

- Move the timing belt pulley by changing the x and y-position: You can enter the position of the timing
belt pulley directly via the input elds of `x-coordinate' and `y-coordinate'.

Figure 23.10: Position of timing belt pulleys

- Move the timing belt pulley by clicking directly on the pulley and moving them around: You simply click
the timing belt pulley in the graphic representation, keep the left mouse button pressed and drag it to
the position wanted. The position is indicated in the input elds.

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23. Timing Belt Drives 881

Figure 23.11: Move the timing belt pulley by using the mouse

Please note: If you change the position of the timing belt pulley, the belt automatically follows the course.

23.5.5 Number of Teeth

For a multiple shaft gear drive or if there is counterbending of the belt by using a tensioner on the outside,
the minimum number of teeth needs to be further increased.

Please note: The number of teeth of the timing belt pulleys should not be too small. The following table
provides some values for the minimum number of teeth zmin per prole group.

Values for Minimum Number of Teeth zmin 4

Pitch pb [mm] Minimum Number of Teeth zmin with Counterbending (without Counterbending)

Trapezoidal Proles High Power Proles

2 ... 7 18 (10) 18 (12)

> 7 ... 10 20 (12) 22

> 10 ... 19 22 (14) 28

From 20 25 (18) 34

4 Nagel, Thomas: Zahnriemengetriebe, 2008, Carl Hanser Verlag, p. 94, table 5.1

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23.5.6 Pitch Diameter

This is where you dene the pitch diameter of the timing belt pulley. The input of the pitch diameter and the
number of teeth is synchronous as both are appropriately linked via the belt pitch. This means on changing
the pitch diameter you also equivalently change the number of teeth.

Figure 23.12: Pitch diameter and number of teeth

23.5.7 Adding or Removing a Timing Belt Pulley

By clicking on the button `Adding', you can add another timing belt pulley. The new timing belt pulley is
always inserted after the currently selected one and gets automatically a number. By clicking the `Deletion'
button, you delete the currently selected timing belt pulley.

Please note: Select a timing belt pulley and press the Delete key of your keyboard in order to delete the
timing belt pulley. Another possibility is to click the right mouse button to open a new context menu. Select
`Delete' from the context menu.

Figure 23.13: Add or remove timing belt pulleys

Clicking the button `Change order' allows you to change the order of the timing belt pulleys. Choose the
timing belt pulley and click `Change order'. A new window is opened and you can change the position of the
selected pulley. Conrm with `OK' and the new order of the timing belt pulleys is included in the conguration
of the drive, the other pulleys and the belt will be automatically adapted to the new order.

Figure 23.14: Change the order of the timing belt pulleys

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23.5.8 Graphic Representation

There are several ways to look closely at the conguration of your timing belt drive and to get the view that
you need. Click the `Zoom' icon to zoom in and out. Click the `Move' icon to move the graphic representation
to a new position.

Figure 23.15: Move and zoom

Moving the Conguration

You can use the `Move' function to move the graphical representation of the entire timing belt drive anywhere
in the window. In order to activate this functionality, please click the `Move' symbol. The mouse pointer
changes to a cross to show that the representation can now be moved. Click in the window and hold the left
mouse button, drag the representation to its new position. When you release the mouse button, you can see
the original mouse pointer again and the function is disabled.

Figure 23.16: Move the timing belt drive

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Zooming In on a Specic Area

By using this function, you can zoom in to show details of the conguration. Click on the symbol and drag
the mouse pointer diagonally until you have drawn a box around the area you want to enlarge. Select `Zoom
all' so that the conguration lls the window.

Zooming All
The `Zoom all' functionality enables you to return to the original display of the conguration so that the whole
conguration ts in the window again.

Please note: Clicking the right mouse button opens a context menu containing the `Zoom' and `Zoom all'
functions.

Figure 23.17: Open context menu by using the right mouse button

23.5.9 Additional Functions

The calculation module for timing belts oers additional functions. One right click opens the context menu
with all operations available for the selected item such as copy, cut, insert, delete and zoom.

Copying and Inserting a Timing Belt Pulley

It is very easy to copy and insert a timing belt pulley. This is especially useful if several timing belt pulleys have
the same number of teeth and the same diameter. Click on the timing belt pulley to be copied. Right-click
with the mouse and select `Copy' from the context menu.

Figure 23.18: Copy a timing belt pulley

Now position the cursor where you want to insert the timing belt pulley and click the right mouse button.
Select `Insert' from the context menu. The copied timing belt pulley is placed and gets a number. You can

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change the position of the timing belt pulley by clicking and dragging with your mouse or by entering the
x-coordinates and y-coordinates.

Cutting and Inserting a Timing Belt Pulley

In order to cut a timing belt pulley, select the pulley to be cut and click the right mouse button to open the
context menu. Choose the menu item `Cut'.

Figure 23.19: Cut a timing belt pulley

Now place the mouse pointer where you want to insert the timing belt pulley and click the right mouse button.
Select `Insert' from the context menu. The cut timing belt pulley is placed. You can change the position of the
timing belt pulley by clicking and dragging with your mouse or by entering the x-coordinates and y-coordinates.

Deleting a Timing Belt Pulley

Select the timing belt pulley and click the right mouse button. Select the entry `Delete' from the context
menu. If you want to delete the entire belt drive, then select the menu item `Delete all' from the context
menu.

Figure 23.20: Delete a timing belt pulley

23.6 Message Window

The calculation module provides a message window. This message window displays detailed information,
helpful hints (e.g., DL belt required) or warnings about problems. On having congured, for instance, a
belt drive where the belt crosses or timing belt pulleys touch or the safety is below the minimum safety, then
warnings appear in the message window. One of the main benets of the program is that the software provides

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suggestions for correcting errors during the data input. If you check the message window carefully for any
errors or warnings and follow the hints, you are able to nd a solution to quickly resolve calculation problems.

Figure 23.21: Message window

23.6.1 Quick Info: Tooltip

The quick info tooltip provides additional information about all input elds and buttons. Move the mouse
pointer over the input eld or button, then you will get the additional information. This information will be
displayed in the quick info line.

Figure 23.22: Quick info line

23.7 Input of Power Data Of the Timing Belt Drive

In using the `Power' button, you can start the power calculation of the timing belt drive. The power calculation
is based on `Zahnriemengetriebe - Eigenschaften, Normung, Berechnung, Gestaltung', Nagel, Hanser Verlag
2008. The transferable power is determined for all timing belt pulleys.

Figure 23.23: Input of power data

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23. Timing Belt Drives 887

This in conjunction with the inputted power data determines the safety factor for the timing belt pulley con-
cerned. You are provided with an overview of all relevant data for the power transmission of the timing belt
pulleys. The tooth load capacity is an important factor for timing belt drives focusing on the transmissible
power and/or torques in the smallest possible installation space. Due to dierent rating life values and test
conditions, a comparison of power data of a specic timing belt prole from dierent manufacturers is not
possible. Each product manufacturer has its own specic requirements. The power data of the timing belts
are manufacturer specic. You are provided with an overview of all relevant data for the power transmission
of the timing belt pulleys. The power of the drive pulley has a positive sign, the other timing belt pulleys have
a negative sign.

23.7.1 Belt Width

The determination of the required belt width is based on the dened minimum safety. Click the button
`Options' to modify the factor for the minimum safety. The listbox `Belt width' provides all common standard
belt widths. so you can easily choose another belt width. In case you select a belt width that is too small and
the safety is below the minimum safety, then an appropriate message will be displayed in the message window.
In addition, the safety is marked red.

Figure 23.24: Belt width

The following table provides specic values for the belt width. You can nd these values in the calculation
module:

Standard Belt Width for Timing Belts Made of Rubber Elastomer5

Prole Standard Width bs in mm Prole Standard Width bs in mm

GT3-2MR 3/6/9 GT3-3MR 6/9/15

GT3-5MR 6/9/15/20/25/30 GT2-8MGT 20/30/50/85

GT2-14MGT 40/55/85/115/170 HTD3M 6/9/15

OMEGA-3M 6/9/15 HTD5M 9/15/25

OMEGA-5M 9/15/25 HTD8M 20/30/50/85

RPP8 20/30/50/85 OMEGA-8M 20/30/50/85

HTD14M 40/55/85/115/170 OMEGA14M 40/55/85/115/170

HTD20M 115/170/230/290/340 MXL 3.2/4.8/6.4

XL 6.4/7.9/9.5 L 12.7/19.1/25.4

H 19.1/25.4/38.1/50.8/76.2 XH 50.8/76.2/101.6/127

5 Nagel, Thomas: Zahnriemengetriebe, 2008, Carl Hanser Verlag, p. 103, table 5.7

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Standard Belt Width for Timing Belts Made of Polyurethane6

Prole Standard Width bs in mm Prole Standard Width bs in mm

T2 4/6/10/16/25/32 T2,5 6/10/16/25/32

T5 6/10/16/25/32/50/75/100 T10 16/25/32/50/75/100/150

T20 32/50/75/100/150 AT3 6/10/16/25/32

AT5 6/10/16/25/32/50/75/100 AT10 16/25/32/50/75/100/150

AT20 32/50/75/100/150 AT3-GENIII 6/10/16/25/32

AT5-GENIII 6/10/16/25/32/50/75/100 AT10-GENIII 16/25/32/50/75/100/150

ATP10 16/25/32/50/75/100/150 ATP15 25/32/50/75/100/150

6 Nagel, Thomas: Zahnriemengetriebe, 2008, Carl Hanser Verlag, p. 103, table 5.7

23.7.2 Safety Factors

The total safety factor Sges (Sges = S1 + S2 + S3 ) takes into account the possible shock loads depending on
the starting torque of the motor as well as gearboxes with transmissions into higher speeds and the operating
time per day.

- S1 safety depending on the starting torque

- S2 safety for transmission into higher speeds

- S3 safety depending on the operating time per day

Reference Values for the Safety Factors7

Safety S1 = 1.2 for motors with low starting torque Considers type of

S1 S1 = 1.5 for motors with medium starting torque driving machine high and

S1 = 1.8 for motors with high starting torque shock loads when starting

Safety S2 = 0 for transmissions i> 0.8 Considers transmissions

S2 S2 = 0.1 for transmissions 0.6 <i≤ 0.8 into higher speed

S2 = 0.2 for transmissions 0.4 <i≤ 0.6

S2 = 0.3 for transmissions 0.2 <i≤ 0.4

S2 = 0.4 for transmissions i≤ 0.2

Safety S3 = 0.1 for daily operating time up to 8 hours Considers continuous operation

S3 S3 = 0.2 for daily operating time up to 16 hours per day

S3 = 0.4 for daily operating time over 16 hours

7 Nagel, Thomas: Zahnriemengetriebe, 2008, Carl Hanser Verlag, p. 96, table 5.2

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23.8 Documentation: Calculation Report

After the completion of your calculation, you can create a calculation report. Click on the `Report' button to
open the calculation report.

Figure 23.25: Button `Report'

The calculation report contains a table of contents. You can navigate through the report via the table of
contents that provides links to the input values, results and gures. The report is available in HTML and PDF
format. Calculation reports, saved in HTML format, can be opened in a web browser or in Word for Windows.
You may also print or save the calculation report:

- To save the report in the HTML format, please select `File' ⇒ `Save as' from your browser menu bar.
Select the le type `Webpage complete', then just click on the `Save' button.

- If you click on the symbol `Print', then you can print the report very easily.

- If you click on the symbol `PDF', then the report appears in the PDF format. If you right-click on the
PDF symbol, you should see the `Save Target As' option. Click on that option and you will see the
Windows save dialog.

Figure 23.26: Calculation report

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23.9 How to Save the Calculation

When the calculation is nished, it is easy to save the calculation. You can save your calculation either to the
eAssistant server or to your computer. Click on the button `Save'.

Figure 23.27: Button `Save'

Before you can save the calculation to your computer, you need to activate the checkbox `Local' in the
calculation module. A standard Windows dialog for saving les will appear. Now you will be able to save the
calculation to your computer.

Figure 23.28: Windows dialog for saving the le

In case you do not activate the option in order to save your les locally, then a new window is opened and
you can save the calculation to the eAssistant server. Please enter a name into the input eld `Filename' and
click on the button `Save'.

Figure 23.29: Save the calculation

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23.10 The Button `Redo' and `Undo'

The `Undo' button allows you to reset your inputs to an older state. The `Redo' button reverses the undo.

Figure 23.30: The button `Redo' and `Undo'

23.11 The Button `Options'

Click on the button `Options' in the top menu bar of the eAssistant software to modify some general settings.

Figure 23.31: Button `Options'

Change the unit system, the factor for the minimum safety or the number of decimal places in the calculation
report.

Figure 23.32: The options

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Chapter 24

Tolerance Fit Calculator DIN ISO

286, Edition 1990

This calculation module enables you to determine the deviations of dierent tolerance ts for a given nominal
diameter very easily and fast. Here all IT classes and tolerance elds according to the standard DIN ISO 286
are available. The program determines only interferences or expects a user input.

A clearance species a negative interference.

Figure 24.1: General overview

24.1 Selection of Fits

The upper part, the `selection of ts', calculates the minimum and maximum interference by the determined
deviations (UK = ei-ES and Ug = es-EI). Positive values indicate an interference, negative values indicate a

892
24. Tolerance Fit Calculator DIN ISO 286, Edition 1990 893

clearance. The upper part of the t calculation allows you to select the tolerance eld for the shaft and the
hub very easily from the listbox. The t calculator provides the tolerance system according to DIN ISO 286
including all IT classes. The upper part of the t calculator allows to choose the tolerance eld for the hub
and the shaft.

Figure 24.2: Tolerance eld

The program determines the lowest and highest interference or the clearance of the selected t. Thereby, the
calculator displays the type of t:

- Clearance t

- Transition t

- Interference t

Figure 24.3: Deviation for the selected t

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The deviations of shaft and hub can be entered manually. In order to do so, please enable the option `Activate
the input of user dened tolerances'.

Figure 24.4: User-dened tolerances

24.2 Calculation of Possible Fits

For the calculation of possible ts, the desired interferences must be entered by the user. The clearance is
also specied as a negative interference.

Examples:

- Search for interference ts between 18 µm and 59 µm interference: Enter Uk = 18, Ug = 59.

- Search for transition ts between 18 µm clearance and 15 µm interference: Enter Uk = -18, Ug = 15.

- Search for clearance ts between 42 µm and 18 µm clearance: Enter Uk = -42, Ug = -18.

Tolerance ts can be searched on the basis of default settings. For the dimensioning of a t you have dierent
possiblities.

First Option
You can specify the lowest and highest interference for the calculation.

Figure 24.5: Lowest and highest interference

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24. Tolerance Fit Calculator DIN ISO 286, Edition 1990 895

The button `Search ts' shows you all possible ts.

Figure 24.6: Search ts

The option `Show only preferred ts' is enabled by default. The list of ts is limited. Disable this option and
click the button `Search ts'. The number of ts increases. The message `More than 500 ts were found. Only
preferred ts are shown' may occur. If you conrm this message with `OK', the option `Show only preferred
ts' is automatically enabled. Then you can choose a t from the listbox.

Second Option
Enable the following options and easily take over the tolerances from the upper t calculation. Click the
button `Search ts' and the appropriate ts will be displayed.

- Use above mentioned tolerance for hub

- Use above mentioned tolerance for shaft

Figure 24.7: Specied tolerance eld

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24. Tolerance Fit Calculator DIN ISO 286, Edition 1990 896

For the calculation of possible ts, the IT scope can be selected. The following IT scopes are available:

- Common mechanical engineering

- Gauge

- Rolled, pressed, forged products

- All

- User-dened

Figure 24.8: IT scope

24.3 Example for Cylindrical Fits

The following section gives some guidance on selecting ts according to E. & K. Felber. There are features
that can be expected in general during the assembly. The assembly rules specify the character of the t and
all features correspond to the mean value of ts.

The list contains ts that are used frequently. Almost all ts can be formed in quality (e.g., from H8/f8 to
H8/f7 to H6/f6). In general, the standard ts (e.g., H8/f7) can be used. According to the function, you have
to select ne qualities (e.g., H6/f6) for larger requirements (requirements for accuracy and uniformity).

The following examples are taken from the mechanical engineering and cannot to be considered as complete
in any detail.

24.3.1 Examples for Interference Fits

Interference Fit: H8/u8; U8/h7; H8/s7; S7/h6; H7/r6; R7/h6

Feature, Assembly: The parts are assembled and tightened and have a strong interference. The parts
are pressed together or assembled into position while hot and cooled. In general, a safety device against
torsion or shifting in lengthwise direction is not necessary.

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24. Tolerance Fit Calculator DIN ISO 286, Edition 1990 897

Examples: Spur gears that are mounted tightly on a shaft, couplings, collar rings, press rings, wheel rims,
bearing bushings in housings, bushings in gear hubs, tight pivots, bushings made of synthetic resin pressed
material, parts which cannot be loosened by large forces.

24.3.2 Examples for Transition Fits

Transition Fit: H7/n6; N7/h6

Feature, Assembly: The parts are mounted against each other. High pressure is necessary to join and
separate the parts. Due to clearance, the parts have to be secured against torsion.
Examples: Bearing bushings at machine tools, wheel rims on wheel bodies, levers and cranks on shafts,
impact-loaded parts, bushings in basic bodies, gears and couplings on shafts.

Transition Fit: H7/m6; M7/h6

Feature, Assembly: Parts sit tightly on top of each other. Joining and separating cases require large
expenditure of energy by using a hammer, parts have to be secured against torsion and shifting.
Examples: Pulleys, gears, bushings, lever on shafts, cranks for lower forces, piston pins in pistons, coupling
pins, xing pins

Transition Fit: H7/k6; K7/h6

Feature, Assembly: Parts stick together and can be joined and separated by using some hammer blows
without enormous expenditure of energy. Parts have to be secured against torsion and shifting.
Examples: Coupling parts, pulleys, ywheels, handwheels, hand levers on shafts, gears on machine tool spin-
dles, bearing bushings in wheels and in basic bodies, xing pins, pins, bolts, centralisations, coupling halves
and gears on shaft ends of electric motors over Ø 50 mm.

Transition Fit: H7/j6; J7/h6

Feature, Assembly: Easy to join by hammer blows, often movable by hand, not intended for functional
shifting, applicable for parts which have to be disassembled very often, a securing against torsion and shifting
is possibly necessary.
Examples Change gears, gears, pulleys, adjusting rings, bushings, bearing bushings and handwheels which
have to be removed very often, centralisations, coupling halves and gears on shaft ends on electric motors up
to Ø 50 mm.

24.3.3 Examples for Clearance Fits

Clearance Fit: H7/h6

Feature, Assembly: Parts can be moved manually by using lubricants. Still usable for a slow shifting.
Examples: Centralisations, change gears, adjusting rings, coupling parts wedged on shafts, tools on arbors
(e.g., milling cutters on milling-machine arbor), idler bushings, handwheels on spindles, spacer sleeves, sealing
rings, all kind of guides, tailstock sleeve, plain bearings with very small clearance, chain wheels, large gears.

Clearance Fit: H8/h9

Feature, Assembly: Parts t easily into each other and are easy to move.
Examples: Less important centralisations, adjusting rings, crank handles, gears, couplings, pulleys which have
to be moved over shafts, idler bushings, use of cold nished round steel (round steel, nish polishing made of

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24. Tolerance Fit Calculator DIN ISO 286, Edition 1990 898

tool steel, cold work steel, high-speed steel).

Clearance Fit: H11/h9; H11/h11

Feature, Assembly: Parts can be easily stuck together. Clearance as low as possible with relatively large
manufacturing tolerances.
Examples: Less important centralisations, parts which are to be stuck together, soldered or welded, parts
that are pinned, bolted or clamped on shafts, spacer sleeves, hinge and snap pins, extensive use of cold drawn
steel bar (e.g., round steel, uncoated according to ISO tolerance eld h9/h11).

Clearance Fit: H7/g6; G7/h6

Feature, Assembly: Parts are easily movable and twistable but without noticeable clearance.
Examples: Bearings for high requirements, change gears, movable coupling parts, indexing pin, valve lever,
cluster gears in gearboxes.

Clearance Fit: H7/h7

Feature, Assembly: Parts have noticeable clearance and are movable into each other.
Examples: Main bearing on machine tools, gear shafts, main bearing for shafts that run in two bearings,
cardan shafts, camshafts, crankshafts, bearing bushes, sleeves and oating sleeves on shafts, timing shafts,
slide blocks in guides, snap rings.

Clearance Fit: F8/h9

Feature, Assembly: Parts are movable, run easily and have large clearance.
Examples: Shafts with multi-bearing system, bearing shells, bearings where viscous lubricants have to be
used, bearings that are exposed to contamination (e.g., bearings on brackets), bearings of lead screws in
slides, chain sprockets run loosely, rope sheaves, axle boxes, use of cold drawn round steel, bearing of shafts
of dynamos, fans, centrifugal pumps.

Clearance Fit: H8/e9; E8/h9

Feature, Assembly: Parts are movable into each other and have a small to large clearance.
Examples: Main bearings for crankshafts, guide crossheads, guide for piston rods, pistons in cylinder, bearings
for gear wheel pumps, rope sheaves, bearings in internal combustion engines.

Clearance Fit: D10/h9

Feature, Assembly: Parts are very easily movable into each other and have a very large clearance.
Examples: Transmission shafts and countershafts, plain bearings for rough and adverse conditions, secondary
bearings for agricultural machinery, loose pulley, common bearings for locomotives, stung boxes, bearings in
centrifuges, axle boxes for conveyances, general centralisations, spindles for textile machinery.

Clearance Fit: H11/d9, H11/d11; D11/h11

Feature, Assembly: Parts have large clearance and large manufacturing tolerances.
Examples: Guides and plain bearings of secondary importance, heat-treated plain gearings (e.g., by liquids
and gases), hinge pins and forked bolts, rivet pins, rivet joints, removable levers and cranks, socket wrenches,
bad lubrication of parts, shafts for turbogenerators and continuous-ow machines, high-speed spindles for
textile machinery, holes H11 (producible by using a twist drill that is guided in sleeves), use of cold nished
round steel h11.

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24. Tolerance Fit Calculator DIN ISO 286, Edition 1990 899

Clearance Fit: C11/h11; H11/c11

Feature, Assembly: Parts with larger clearance and large manufacturing tolerances.
Examples: Secondary bearings for agricultural machinery and household appliances, pivot pins.

Clearance Fit: H11/a11; A11/h11; H12/b12; B12/h12; H11/b11; B11/h11

Feature, Assembly: Parts with very large clearance and large manufacturing tolerances.
Examples: Secondary bearings in locomotive and railway carriage construction, hinges, bearings for agricul-
tural and construction machinery, door hinges, pivot pins, bearings that are exposed outside to elements.

24.4 Further Possibilities

Clicking the link `More calculation modules' leads you to our web site. Here you can register for a free test
account in order to use all eAssistant calculation modules (e.g., shafts, cylindrical gears, bevel gears, springs).
Find more information in section 2 `Registration').

Figure 24.9: Link to our web site

Please Note: If you registrate for the rst time, you will receive a password in order to login. The project
management helps you to start the calculation modules. The list on the left side shows all calculation modules
including the free modules. If you use these modules, then no time will be deducted from your account.

Our manual is improved continually. Of course we are always interested in your opinion, so
we would like to know what you think. We appreciate your feedback and we are looking
for ideas, suggestions or criticism. If you have anything to say or if you have any questions,
please let us know via telephone +49 (0) 531 129 399-0 or email www.eAssistant.eu.

www.eAssistant.eu
Chapter 25

Approximate Shaft Dimensioning

According to Niemann 2001, 3rd
Edition, Page 742

The required dimensions for the design of shafts and axes with full circular cross-section will be estimated with
an approximate calculation. It is assumed that the main load is well-known.

`The permissible nominal torsional stress is set so low that the neglected bending stress will be considered as
well as increasing stresses due to impact forces (external forces), notches, cross-sections, etc. The basis for
the design of axes under bending stress is the nominal stress' (from Niemann 2001, 3. Edition, p. 741).

Figure 25.1: Shaft dimensioning

The material can be selected for the calculation from the database. It is also possible to use individual material
by the default of the maximum permissible torsion and bending tension.

900
25. Approximate Shaft Dimensioning According to Niemann 2001 901

25.1 Material Selection

For the calculation the material can be selected from the following listbox.

Figure 25.2: Material selection

25.1.1 Dene your Own Material

In case you cannot nd the material you are looking for in our extensive database, simply dene your individual
material. You will nd the entry `User-dened' in the listbox. If you select this option, the input elds will be
enabled, so that you can enter your own input values.

Figure 25.3: User-dened material

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25. Approximate Shaft Dimensioning According to Niemann 2001 902

25.2 Material Number

Every material has a material number. With the material selection, the material number is displayed automti-
cally. If you have specied an user-dened material, then `0.0000' appears in the listbox `Material number'.

Figure 25.4: Material number

25.3 Load Types

Four dierent load types are available for the calculation:

- Idle axle (bending)

- Circulating axle (bending)

- Shaft (torsion)

- Shaft (torsion and bending)

Figure 25.5: Load types

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25. Approximate Shaft Dimensioning According to Niemann 2001 903

- Idle axle: Usually repeated load and impact load are superimposed to the static base load, therefore a
uctuating stress is assumed for the dimensioning and the permissible bending stress is derived dependent
upon the alternate strength.

- Circulating axle: For the determination of the permissible reversed bending stress, superimposed re-
peated and impact load have to be considered as well.

- Shaft: Bending and torsional moments are the main factors inuencing shaft design. For the dimension-
ing you have to dierentiate between shafts where only a torsion acts on the shaft or shafts that transmit
also bending stresses. Accordingly, the permissible nominal tension has to be estimated dierently.

After the input of the load - bending and torsion load or both - as well as the desired safety factor, the required
minimum diameter of the axle or shaft is determined.

Figure 25.6: Required minimum diameter

25.4 Further Possibilities

Clicking the link `More calculation modules' leads you to our web site. Here you can register for a free test
account in order to use all eAssistant calculation modules (e.g., shafts, cylindrical gears, bevel gears, springs).
Find more information in section 2 `Registration').

Figure 25.7: Link to our web site

Please Note: If you registrate for the rst time, you will receive a password in order to login. The project
management helps you to start the calculation modules. The list on the left side shows all calculation modules
including the free modules. If you use these modules, then no time will be deducted from your account.

Our manual is improved continually. Of course we are always interested in your opinion, so
we would like to know what you think. We appreciate your feedback and we are looking
for ideas, suggestions or criticism. If you have anything to say or if you have any questions,
please let us know via telephone +49 (0) 531 129 399-0 or email www.eAssistant.eu.

www.eAssistant.eu
Chapter 26

Rough Estimation of Bolted Joints

According to VDI 2230 Sheet 1
(2003-02)

A bolted joint is a typical connection of two or more parts that are held together by a bolts. The main function
of the bolts is to transmit the forces and moments between the connected parts. The minimum bolt diameter
can be roughly determined according to the VDI 2230 guideline. The guideline VDI 2230 is one of the common
methods of design used for bolted joints. VDI 2230 applies to steel bolts in high-duty and high-strength bolted
joints (for strength grades 8.8 to 12.9) and a frictional transmission of the working load. The working load
consists of a static or dynamic axial load. In addition, bending moments and transverse loads may occur.

Figure 26.1: Estimation of bolted joints

With entering the maximum axial load and/or transverse load, the mimimum and maximum preload as well
as minimum bolt diameter can be estimated. For the estimation of the transverse load, the friction value is
taken into consideration at the interface.

904
26. Rough Estimation of Bolted Joints According to VDI 2230 Sheet 1 (2003-02) 905

26.1 Axial Load

Axial force FA is an operating force directed in bolt axis and acting proportionally on a bolt.

Figure 26.2: Axial load

26.2 Transverse Load

The transverse load FQ is a load applied perpendicularly to the bolt axis.

Figure 26.3: Transverse load

Bolted joints are designed that the transverse loads are transmitted to the interface of a preload joint by static
friction. It is also possible that the connecting elements (t bolts, pins, sleeves) transmit transverse loads in a
positive manner. Please click the `Question mark' button next to the friction coecient in order to open the
following table. This table shows approximate values for the static friction coecients at the interface:

Approximate Values for Static Friction Coecients at the Interface According to VDI 22301
Material Combination Static Friction Coecient in the State

Dry Lubricated

Steel - Steel/Cast Steel 0.1 to 0.23 0.07 to 0.12

Steel - Gray Cast Iron 0.12 to 0.24 0.06 to 0.1

Gray Cast Iron - Gray Cast Iron 0.15 to 0.3 0.2

Bronze - Steel 0.12 to 0.28 0.18

Gray Cast Iron - Bronze 0.28 0.15 to 0.2

Steel - Copper Alloy 0.07 -

Steel - Aluminum Alloy 0.1 to 0.28 0.05 to 0.18

Aluminum - Aluminum 0.21 -

1 Table from: VDI 2230, Part 1, February 2003: Systematic Calculation of High Duty Bolted Joints,

Joints with One Cylindrical Bolt, Table A6, Approximate Values for Static Friction Coecients,
p. 114

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26. Rough Estimation of Bolted Joints According to VDI 2230 Sheet 1 (2003-02) 906

26.3 Strength Grade

The calculation module takes three strength grades into consideration: 8.8, 10.9 and 12.9. The strength
grades describe the properties of a bolt (e.g., hardness, tensile strength Rm and yield point Re ). The most
common grade for bolted joints is grade 8.8. The strength grades 10.9 and 12.9 are used in particular for
preloaded bolted joints.

Figure 26.4: Strength grade

26.4 Load Introduction

The following options for the selection of the load introduction are available:

- Static and und concentric axial load

- Dynamic and concentric axial load

- Static and eccentric axial load

- Dynamic and eccentric axial load

Figure 26.5: Load introduction

Clicking the `Question mark' button next to the listbox opens a new window showing an illustration of the
load introduction.

Figure 26.6: `Question mark' button

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26. Rough Estimation of Bolted Joints According to VDI 2230 Sheet 1 (2003-02) 907

Static or Dynamic Transverse Load

Figure 26.7: Static or dynamic transverse load

Static and Concentric Axial Load

Figure 26.8: Static and concentric axial force

Dynamic and Concentric Axial Load

Figure 26.9: Dynamic and concentric axial load

Static and Eccentric Axial Load

Figure 26.10: Static and eccentric axial load

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26. Rough Estimation of Bolted Joints According to VDI 2230 Sheet 1 (2003-02) 908

Dynamic and Eccentric Axial Load

Figure 26.11: Dynamic and eccentric axial load

26.5 Tightening Technique

The tightening technique may inuence the required dimensions of the bolt and must be carefully considered.
Select the following tightening techniques from the listbox:

- Simple tightening spindle

- Torque wrench/precision spindle

- Angle-controlled tightening

Figure 26.12: Tightening technique

26.6 Preload
During the assembly of the joint, a preload FM is produced and this produces a clamp load FK . FM min is the
required minimum assembly preload which can occur at FM max resulting from inaccuracies in the tightening

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26. Rough Estimation of Bolted Joints According to VDI 2230 Sheet 1 (2003-02) 909

technique and maximum friction. FM max is the maximum preload for which a bolt must be designed so
that, in spite of inaccuracies in the tightening technique, the required clamp load in the joint is produced and
maintained.

26.7 Further Possibilities

Clicking the link `More calculation modules' leads you to our web site. Here you can register for a free test
account in order to use all eAssistant calculation modules (e.g., shafts, cylindrical gears, bevel gears, springs).
Find more information in section 2 `Registration').

Figure 26.13: Link to our web site

Please Note: If you registrate for the rst time, you will receive a password in order to login. The project
management helps you to start the calculation modules. The list on the left side shows all calculation modules
including the free modules. If you use these modules, then no time will be deducted from your account.

Our manual is improved continually. Of course we are always interested in your opinion, so
we would like to know what you think. We appreciate your feedback and we are looking
for ideas, suggestions or criticism. If you have anything to say or if you have any questions,
please let us know via telephone +49 (0) 531 129 399-0 or email www.eAssistant.eu.

www.eAssistant.eu
Chapter 27

Hardness Conversion According to

DIN 50150: 2000-10

This calculation module helps to convert dierent hardness values into one another. The hardness values also
can be determined by the input of the tensile strength.

Figure 27.1: Hardness conversion

27.1 Kind of Material

For the calculation the following kind of material can be selected:

- Unalloyed and alloy-treated steels and cast steel (tab. A.1)

- Heat treatable steel (heat treatened) (tab. B.2)

- Heat treatable steel (not heat treatened, spheroidized / normalized) (tab. B.3)

- Heat treatable steel (hardened) (tab. B.4)

910
27. Hardness Conversion According to DIN 50150: 2000-10 911

- Cold tool steels (hardened and drawed) (tab. C.2)

- High speed tool steels (tab. D.2)

Figure 27.2: Selection from the listbox

27.2 Hardness Values

The program provides the dierent hardness values depending on the selected kind of material:

- Vickers hardness HV, HV5, HV10

- Brinell hardness HB

- Brinell hardness (steel ball) HBS

- Brinell hardness (hard metal ball) HBW

- Rockwell hardness HRB, HRF, HRC, HRA, HRD, HR15N, HR30N, HR45N, HR15T, HR30T and HR45T

Figure 27.3: Hardness values

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27. Hardness Conversion According to DIN 50150: 2000-10 912

27.3 Further Possibilities

Clicking the link `More calculation modules' leads you to our web site. Here you can register for a free test
account in order to use all eAssistant calculation modules (e.g., shafts, cylindrical gears, bevel gears, springs).
Find more information in section 2 `Registration').

Figure 27.4: Link to our web site

Please Note: If you registrate for the rst time, you will receive a password in order to login. The project
management helps you to start the calculation modules. The list on the left side shows all calculation modules
including the free modules. If you use these modules, then no time will be deducted from your account.

Our manual is improved continually. Of course we are always interested in your opinion, so
we would like to know what you think. We appreciate your feedback and we are looking
for ideas, suggestions or criticism. If you have anything to say or if you have any questions,
please let us know via telephone +49 (0) 531 129 399-0 or email www.eAssistant.eu.

www.eAssistant.eu