MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II)

Gaurav Dwivedi
Department of Mathematics
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus.
 Module 10-11
Complex Integration
 Chapter 4
Integrals

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 3 / 67
The derivative of a complex
valued function

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 4 / 67
The derivative of a complex
valued function

Let w(t) = u(t) + iv(t) be a complex valued function of

a real variable t, where u(t) and v(t) are real-valued
functions of t. Then

w′ (t) = u′ (t) + iv ′ (t),

provided each of the derivatives u′ (t) and v ′ (t) exists at

t.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 4 / 67
Recall: Mean Value Theorem for
Real Valued Functions

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 5 / 67
Recall: Mean Value Theorem for
Real Valued Functions

If f is a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b],

and differentiable on the open interval (a, b), then there
exists a point c ∈ (a, b) such that

f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (c) = .
b−a

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 5 / 67
Recall: Mean Value Theorem for
Real Valued Functions

If f is a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b],

and differentiable on the open interval (a, b), then there
exists a point c ∈ (a, b) such that

f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (c) = .
b−a

Remark The mean value theorem does not hold for

complex valued functions.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 5 / 67
Example
Let w(t) = eit , 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π. Then w′ (t) = ieit and so
|w′ (t)| = 1 for all 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 6 / 67
Example
Let w(t) = eit , 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π. Then w′ (t) = ieit and so
|w′ (t)| = 1 for all 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π. Now

f (b) − f (a) e2πi − e0

= = 0.
b−a 2π − 0
Hence LHS ̸= RHS.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 6 / 67
Definite Integral of w(t)

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 7 / 67
Definite Integral of w(t)
Let w(t) = u(t) + iv(t) be a complex valued function of
a real variable t. Then the definite integral of w(t) over
[a, b] is defined as
Z b Z b Z b
w(t) dt = u(t) dt + i v(t) dt,
a a a
where the individual integrals on the right exist.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 7 / 67
Definite Integral of w(t)
Let w(t) = u(t) + iv(t) be a complex valued function of
a real variable t. Then the definite integral of w(t) over
[a, b] is defined as
Z b Z b Z b
w(t) dt = u(t) dt + i v(t) dt,
a a a
where the individual integrals on the right exist.
Thus Z b Z b
Re w(t) dt = u(t) dt,
a a
and Z b Z b
Im w(t) dt = v(t) dt.
a a
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 7 / 67
Example
Z 1 Z 1
2
(1 + it) dt = (1 − t2 + 2it) dt
0
Z0 1 Z 1
2
= (1 − t ) dt + 2i t dt
0 0
= 2/3 + i.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 8 / 67
Some Definitions

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 9 / 67
Some Definitions

1. Curve. A set of points

z(t) = x(t) + iy(t),

where x(t) and y(t) are continuous functions of a real

variable t is called a curve in the complex plane.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 9 / 67
Some Definitions

1. Curve. A set of points

z(t) = x(t) + iy(t),

where x(t) and y(t) are continuous functions of a real

variable t is called a curve in the complex plane.
We write

C : z(t) = x(t) + iy(t) or x = x(t), y = y(t).

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 9 / 67
2. Arc. The portion between any two points of a curve
is called an arc of the curve, i.e.,

C : z(t) = x(t) + iy(t), a ≤ t ≤ b,

is an arc.

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3. Simple Arc or Jordan Arc. An arc C is said to be
simple (Jordan) if it neither touches nor crosses itself i.e.,

C : z(t) = x(t) + iy(t),

is simple if z(t1 ) ̸= z(t2 ) whenever t1 ̸= t2 .

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 11 / 67
3. Simple Arc or Jordan Arc. An arc C is said to be
simple (Jordan) if it neither touches nor crosses itself i.e.,

C : z(t) = x(t) + iy(t),

is simple if z(t1 ) ̸= z(t2 ) whenever t1 ̸= t2 .

4. Simple Closed Curve or Jordan Curve. When the

arc C is simple except for the fact that z(a) = z(b), then
is said to be a simple closed curve or a Jordan curve.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 11 / 67
5. Differentiable Arc. An arc

z(t) = x(t) + iy(t), a ≤ t ≤ b,

is said to be differentiable if x′ (t) and y ′ (t) exist and

continuous in [a, b].

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 12 / 67
5. Differentiable Arc. An arc

z(t) = x(t) + iy(t), a ≤ t ≤ b,

is said to be differentiable if x′ (t) and y ′ (t) exist and

continuous in [a, b].
We write z ′ (t) = x′ (t) + iy ′ (t), a ≤ t ≤ b.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 12 / 67
5. Differentiable Arc. An arc

z(t) = x(t) + iy(t), a ≤ t ≤ b,

is said to be differentiable if x′ (t) and y ′ (t) exist and

continuous in [a, b].
We write z ′ (t) = x′ (t) + iy ′ (t), a ≤ t ≤ b.
A differentiable arc is said to be smooth if
z ′ (t) ̸= 0, a < t < b.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 12 / 67
6. Piecewise Smooth Arc or Contour. An arc
consisting of a finite number of smooth arcs joined end
to end is called a piecewise smooth arc or a contour.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 13 / 67
6. Piecewise Smooth Arc or Contour. An arc
consisting of a finite number of smooth arcs joined end
to end is called a piecewise smooth arc or a contour.
When the initial and the final values of the contour are
the same, the contour is called simple closed contour (or
simple closed curve).

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 13 / 67
7. Length of a differentiable curve. Let

C : z(t) = x(t) + iy(t), a ≤ t ≤ b,

be a differentiable curve (arc). Then the length L of the

curve C is given by
Z b
L= |z ′ (t)| dt.
a

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 14 / 67
Contour Integrals

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 15 / 67
Contour Integrals
Let f (z) be piecewise continuous function on the curve
C : z(t) = x(t) + iy(t), a ≤ t ≤ b. Then, the integral
Z
f (z) dz,
C

is called the counter integral (or line integral) of f along

C (or over C). The integral can be calculated in terms
of the parameter t as
Z Z b
f (z) dz = f (z(t))z ′ (t) dt.
C a

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 15 / 67
Properties of Contour Integrals

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 16 / 67
Properties of Contour Integrals
1. Let C : z = z(t), a ≤ t ≤ b be a curve, then
Z  Z
|f (z(t))z ′ (t)| dt.
 
 f (z) dz  ≤
 
C C

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 16 / 67
Properties of Contour Integrals
1. Let C : z = z(t), a ≤ t ≤ b be a curve, then
Z  Z
|f (z(t))z ′ (t)| dt.
 
 f (z) dz  ≤
 
C C

2. For a constant z0
Z Z
z0 f (z) dz = z0 f (z) dz.
C C

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 16 / 67
Properties of Contour Integrals
1. Let C : z = z(t), a ≤ t ≤ b be a curve, then
Z  Z
|f (z(t))z ′ (t)| dt.
 
 f (z) dz  ≤
 
C C

2. For a constant z0
Z Z
z0 f (z) dz = z0 f (z) dz.
C C

R R R
3. C [f (z) ± g(z)] dz = C f (z) dz ± C g(z) dz.
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 16 / 67
4. If contour C : z = z(t), a ≤ t ≤ b expanded from
z1 (t = a) to z2 (t = b) then the contour −C is expanded
from z2 to z1 i.e., −C : z = z(−t), −b ≤ t ≤ −a and
Z Z
f (z) dz = − f (z) dz.
−C C

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 17 / 67
5. Let C = C1 ∪ C2 where

C : z = z(t), a ≤ t ≤ b,
C1 : z = z(t), a ≤ t ≤ c,
C2 : z = z(t), c ≤ t ≤ b.

Then,
Z Z Z
f (z) dz = f (z) dz + f (z) dz.
C C1 C2

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 18 / 67
Question

Evaluate C z+2
R
z dz, where C is the semicircle
iθ
z = 2e , (0 ≤ θ ≤ π).

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 19 / 67
Question

Evaluate C z+2
R
z dz, where C is the semicircle
iθ
z = 2e , (0 ≤ θ ≤ π).
Sol. We have (by converting into parametric form)
Z Z π iθ
z+2 2e + 2
dz = iθ
2ieiθ dθ
C z 0 Z 2e
π
= 2i (eiθ + 1) dθ
0
= −4 + 2πi.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 19 / 67
Question
R
Evaluate C f (z) dz, where
(
1 when y < 0,
f (z) =
4y when y > 0,

and C is the arc from z = −1 − i to z = 1 + i along the

curve y = x3 .

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 20 / 67
Question
R
Evaluate C f (z) dz, where
(
1 when y < 0,
f (z) =
4y when y > 0,

and C is the arc from z = −1 − i to z = 1 + i along the

curve y = x3 .
Sol. Take C = C1 ∪ C2 where C1 is the arc from
z = −1 − i to z = 0 along the curve y = x3 and C2 is
the arc from z = 0 to z = 1 + i along the curve y = x3 .

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 20 / 67
Then, we have (by converting into parametric form)
Z Z Z
f (z) dz = f (z) dz + f (z) dz
C C1 C2
Z 0 Z 1
2
= 1(1 + 3ix ) dx + 4x3 (1 + 3ix2 ) dx
−1 0
= 2 + 3i.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 21 / 67
Lemma, page 137
If w(t) is a piecewise continuous complex-valued function
defined on interval a ≤ t ≤ b, then
Z b  Z b
 
 w(t)dt ≤ |w(t)|dt.
 
a a

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 22 / 67
 Z b
Proof. If w(t)dt = 0, the inequality is trivial.
a
(Why?)

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 23 / 67
 Z b
Proof. If w(t)dt = 0, the inequality is trivial.
a
(Why?)
Z b Z b
If w(t)dt ̸= 0, then assume that w(t)dt = r0 eiθ0 .
a a

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 23 / 67
 Z b
Proof. If w(t)dt = 0, the inequality is trivial.
a
(Why?)
Z b Z b
If w(t)dt ̸= 0, then assume that w(t)dt = r0 eiθ0 .
a a
This gives
Z b
r0 = e−iθ0 w(t)dt
a
Z b Z b
−iθ0
= Re e w(t)dt = Re[e−iθ0 w(t)]dt
a a
 Z b
Proof. If w(t)dt = 0, the inequality is trivial.
a
(Why?)
Z b Z b
If w(t)dt ̸= 0, then assume that w(t)dt = r0 eiθ0 .
a a
This gives
Z b
r0 = e−iθ0 w(t)dt
a
Z b Z b
−iθ0
= Re e w(t)dt = Re[e−iθ0 w(t)]dt
a a

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 23 / 67
Observe that

Re[e−iθ0 w(t)] ≤ |e−iθ0 w(t)| = |e−iθ0 ||w(t)| = |w(t)|

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 24 / 67
Observe that

Re[e−iθ0 w(t)] ≤ |e−iθ0 w(t)| = |e−iθ0 ||w(t)| = |w(t)|

Thus Z b
r0 ≤ |w(t)|dt.
a
This completes the proof.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 24 / 67
M L-inequality

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 25 / 67
M L-inequality

Theorem
Let C be a contour of length L and f (z) is piecewise
continuous on C. If

|f (z)| ≤ M,

for all points z on C. Then

Z 
 
 f (z) dz  ≤ M L.
 
C

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 25 / 67
Proof
Let z = z(t), a ≤ t ≤ b be the parametric representation
of C, then
Z Z b
f (z) dz = f (z(t))z ′ (t) dt,
C a
which gives
Z  Z b 
′
   
 f (z) dz  =  f (z(t))z (t) dt
   
C a
Z b
≤ |f (z(t))||z ′ (t)| dt
a
Z b
≤M |z ′ (t)| dt = M L.
a
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 26 / 67
Question
Without evaluating the integral, show that
Z 
 dz  π
 z2 − 1  ≤ 3 ,
 
C

where C is the arc of the circle |z| = 2 from z = 2 to

z = 2i that lies in the first quadrant.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 27 / 67
Question
Without evaluating the integral, show that
Z 
 dz  π
 z2 − 1  ≤ 3 ,
 
C

where C is the arc of the circle |z| = 2 from z = 2 to

z = 2i that lies in the first quadrant.
Sol. We have
|z 2 − 1| ≥ |z|2 − 1 = 3,
and so  
 1  1 1
|f (z)| =  2 = ≤ .
z − 1  |z 2 − 1| 3
Also L = π. Hence, by M L-inequality, we get the result.
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 27 / 67
Question

1 Let C be the arc of the circle |z| = 2 from z = 2 to

z = 2i that lies in the first quadrant. Then show
that Z 
 z − 2  4π
 z 4 + 1  ≤ 15 .
dz
 
C
2 Let CR denote the semicircle z = Reiθ , 0 ≤ θ ≤ π
from z = R to z = −R, where R > 3. Then show
that Z
(z + 1)dz
lim = 0.
R→0 C (z 2 + 4)(z 2 + 9)
R

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 28 / 67
Question
Let C be the boundary of the triangle with vertices
0, 3i, −4 oriented with counterclockwise direction. Show
that Z 
 (ez − z̄) dz  ≤ 60.
 
 
C

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 29 / 67
Question
Let C be the boundary of the triangle with vertices
0, 3i, −4 oriented with counterclockwise direction. Show
that Z 
 (ez − z̄) dz  ≤ 60.
 
 
C

Sol. We have
L = Perimeter of the triangle = 12.
Also
|f (z)| = |ez − z̄| ≤ |ez | + |z̄| ≤ 1 + 4 = 5.
Hence, by M L-inequality, we get the result.
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 29 / 67
Antiderivative

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 30 / 67
Antiderivative

Let f (z) be a continuous function in a domain D. If

there exists a function F (z) such that

F ′ (z) = f (z) for all z ∈ D,

then F (z) is called an antiderivative of f (z) in D.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 30 / 67
Antiderivative

Let f (z) be a continuous function in a domain D. If

there exists a function F (z) such that

F ′ (z) = f (z) for all z ∈ D,

then F (z) is called an antiderivative of f (z) in D.

Example
z3
F (z) = 3 is antiderivative of f (z) = z 2 .

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 30 / 67
Antiderivative

Let f (z) be a continuous function in a domain D. If

there exists a function F (z) such that

F ′ (z) = f (z) for all z ∈ D,

then F (z) is called an antiderivative of f (z) in D.

Example
3
F (z) = z3 is antiderivative of f (z) = z 2 .
F (z) = sin z is antiderivative of f (z) = cos z.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 30 / 67
Antiderivative

Let f (z) be a continuous function in a domain D. If

there exists a function F (z) such that

F ′ (z) = f (z) for all z ∈ D,

then F (z) is called an antiderivative of f (z) in D.

Example
3
F (z) = z3 is antiderivative of f (z) = z 2 .
F (z) = sin z is antiderivative of f (z) = cos z.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 30 / 67
Remark
An antiderivative of a given function f is an analytic
function.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 31 / 67
Remark
An antiderivative of a given function f is an analytic
function.
An antiderivative of a given function is unique
except for an additive constant.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 31 / 67
Theorem, Page 141
Suppose that a function f (z) is continuous on a domain
D. Then the following statements are equivalent:

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 32 / 67
Theorem, Page 141
Suppose that a function f (z) is continuous on a domain
D. Then the following statements are equivalent:
f (z) has an antiderivative F (z) throughout D.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 32 / 67
Theorem, Page 141
Suppose that a function f (z) is continuous on a domain
D. Then the following statements are equivalent:
f (z) has an antiderivative F (z) throughout D.
The integrals of f (z) along contours lying entirely
in D and expanding from any fixed point z1 to
another fixed point z2 all have same value i.e.,
Z z2
f (z) dz = F (z2 ) − F (z1 ).
z1

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 32 / 67
Theorem, Page 141
Suppose that a function f (z) is continuous on a domain
D. Then the following statements are equivalent:
f (z) has an antiderivative F (z) throughout D.
The integrals of f (z) along contours lying entirely
in D and expanding from any fixed point z1 to
another fixed point z2 all have same value i.e.,
Z z2
f (z) dz = F (z2 ) − F (z1 ).
z1

The integral of f (z) around closed contours lying

entirely in D all have value zero.
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 32 / 67
Question
R i/2
Evaluate i eπz dz.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 33 / 67
Question
R i/2
Evaluate i eπz dz.
Sol. Note that f (z) = eπz has an antiderivative
πz
F (z) = eπ . Therefore,
i/2 i/2
eπz
Z 
πz
e dz =
i π i
1 iπ/2
h
iπ
i
= e −e
π
1+i
= .
π

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 33 / 67
Cauchy-Goursat Theorem

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 34 / 67
Cauchy-Goursat Theorem

Theorem
If a function f is analytic at all points interior to and on
a simple closed contour C, then
Z
f (z) dz = 0.
C

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 34 / 67
Example
If C is any simple closed contour, in either direction, then
Z
2
ez dz = 0,
C
2
because the function ez is analytic everywhere (in
particular analytic in and on C).

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 35 / 67
Questions

2
Evaluate C f (z) dz, where f (z) = ze−z and
R
1

C : |z| = 1.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 36 / 67
Questions

2
Evaluate C f (z) dz, where f (z) = ze−z and
R
1

C : |z| = 1.
Ans. 0.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 36 / 67
Questions

2
Evaluate C f (z) dz, where f (z) = ze−z and
R
1

C : |z| = 1.
Ans. 0.
2
Evaluate C f (z) dz, where f (z) = z z−3
sin z
R
2 and
C : |z| = 2.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 36 / 67
Questions

2
Evaluate C f (z) dz, where f (z) = ze−z and
R
1

C : |z| = 1.
Ans. 0.
2
Evaluate C f (z) dz, where f (z) = z z−3
sin z
R
2 and
C : |z| = 2.
Ans. 0.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 36 / 67
Converse of CGT
The converse of Cauchy-Goursat theorem is not
true, i.e., if for a closed contour C
Z
f (z) dz = 0,
C

then f (z) may not necessarily be analytic in C.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 37 / 67
Converse of CGT
The converse of Cauchy-Goursat theorem is not
true, i.e., if for a closed contour C
Z
f (z) dz = 0,
C

then f (z) may not necessarily be analytic in C.

Example
Z
1
2
dz = 0,
|z|=1 z
1
but z2 is not analytic in C.
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 37 / 67
Morera’s Theorem

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 38 / 67
Morera’s Theorem

Morera’s Theorem(Page 169)

If a function f is continuous in a domain D and if for
every closed contour C lying in D,
Z
f (z) dz = 0,
C

then f is analytic in D.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 38 / 67
Simply Connected Domain

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 39 / 67
Simply Connected Domain

Simply Connected Domain

A domain D is said to be simply connected if every
simple closed contour within it encloses only points of D.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 39 / 67
Simply Connected Domain

Simply Connected Domain

A domain D is said to be simply connected if every
simple closed contour within it encloses only points of D.

Example
The disk |z − z0 | ≤ R.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 39 / 67
Simply Connected Domain

Simply Connected Domain

A domain D is said to be simply connected if every
simple closed contour within it encloses only points of D.

Example
The disk |z − z0 | ≤ R.
The interior of a rectangle (boundary include or
not).

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 39 / 67
Multiply Connected Domain

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 40 / 67
Multiply Connected Domain

Multiply Connected Domain

A domain which is not simply connected is called
multiple connected.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 40 / 67
Multiply Connected Domain

Multiply Connected Domain

A domain which is not simply connected is called
multiple connected.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 40 / 67
Examples

Figure: Domain 1

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 41 / 67
Examples

Figure: Domain 1 Figure: Domain 2

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 41 / 67
Examples

Figure: Domain 1 Figure: Domain 2

Figure: Domain 3
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 41 / 67
Examples

Figure: Domain 1 Figure: Domain 2

Figure: Domain 3 Figure: Domain 4

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 41 / 67
Cauchy-Goursat Theorem for a
Simply Connected Domain

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 42 / 67
Cauchy-Goursat Theorem for a
Simply Connected Domain

Theorem
If f is analytic throughout a simply connected domain
D, then Z
f (z) dz = 0,
C
for every closed contour C in D.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 42 / 67
Cauchy-Goursat theorem
for multiply connected domain

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 43 / 67
Cauchy-Goursat theorem
for multiply connected domain

Suppose that
1 C is a simple closed contour described in the
counterclockwise direction,

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 43 / 67
Cauchy-Goursat theorem
for multiply connected domain

Suppose that
1 C is a simple closed contour described in the
counterclockwise direction,
2 Ck (k = 1, 2, . . . , n) are finite number of simple
closed contours interior to C described in the
counterclockwise direction, that are disjoint and
whose interiors have no point in common.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 43 / 67
Cauchy-Goursat theorem
for multiply connected domain

Suppose that
1 C is a simple closed contour described in the
counterclockwise direction,
2 Ck (k = 1, 2, . . . , n) are finite number of simple
closed contours interior to C described in the
counterclockwise direction, that are disjoint and
whose interiors have no point in common.
If f is analytic in and on C except the points interior to
Ck . Then,
Z Xn Z
f (z) dz = f (z) dz.
C k=1 Ck

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 43 / 67
Corollary
Let C1 and C2 denote positively oriented simple closed
contours, where C1 is interior to C2 . If a function f is
analytic in the closed region consisting of those contours
and all points between them, then
Z Z
f (z) dz = f (z) dz.
C1 C2

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 44 / 67
Cauchy-Integral Formula
Let f be analytic everywhere in and on a simple closed
contour C, taken in the positive sense. If z0 be any point
interior to C, then
Z
1 f (z)dz
f (z0 ) = .
2πi C z − z0

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 45 / 67
Cauchy-Integral Formula
Let f be analytic everywhere in and on a simple closed
contour C, taken in the positive sense. If z0 be any point
interior to C, then
Z
1 f (z)dz
f (z0 ) = .
2πi C z − z0

An extension of the Cauchy’s integral formula is

Z
(n) n! f (z)dz
f (z0 ) = (n = 1, 2, . . .).
2πi C (z − z0 )n+1

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 45 / 67
Question

Let C denote the positively oriented boundary of the

square whose sides lie along the lines x = ±1 and
y = ±1. Evaluate the following integral:
Z
cos z
2
dz.
C z(z + 8)

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 46 / 67
Sol. We have
cos z/(z 2 + 8)
Z Z
cos z
dz = dz.
C z(z 2 + 8) C z

Here f (z) = cos z/(z 2 + 8) is analytic in and on C,

therefore by using Cauchy-integral formula

cos z/(z 2 + 8)
Z
dz = 2πif (0) = πi/4.
C z

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 47 / 67
Question
dz
R
Evaluate C z 2 +4 where C : |z − i| = 2.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 48 / 67
Question

Evaluate C z 2dz+4 where C : |z − i| = 2.

R
Sol. We have
Z Z
dz 1/(z + 2i)
2
= dz·
C z +4 C z − 2i

Here f (z) = 1/(z + 2i) is analytic in and on C, therefore

by using Cauchy-integral formula
Z
1/(z + 2i)
dz = 2πif (2i) = π/2.
C z − 2i

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 48 / 67
Question
dz
R
Evaluate C (z 2 +4)2 where C : |z − i| = 2.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 49 / 67
Question
Evaluate C (z 2dz
R
+4)2 where C : |z − i| = 2.
Sol. We have
1/(z + 2i)2
Z Z
dz
2 2
= 2
dz·
C (z + 4) C (z − 2i)

Here f (z) = 1/(z + 2i)2 is analytic in and on C,

therefore by using Cauchy-integral formula

1/(z + 2i)2
Z
2
dz = 2πif ′ (2i) = π/16.
C (z − 2i)

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 49 / 67
Question
Let C be any simple closed contour, described the
positive sense in the z-plane and write

z 3 + 2z
Z
g(z0 ) = 3
dz·
C (z − z0 )
Show that
g(z0 ) = 6πiz0 ,
when z0 is inside C and that

g(z0 ) = 0,

when z0 is outside C.
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 50 / 67
Sol. When z0 is inside C, the given integral is of the form
Z
f (z)
g(z0 ) = 3
dz,
C (z − z0 )

where f (z) = z 3 + 2z is analytic in and on C.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 51 / 67
Sol. When z0 is inside C, the given integral is of the form
Z
f (z)
g(z0 ) = 3
dz,
C (z − z0 )

where f (z) = z 3 + 2z is analytic in and on C.

Therefore, the Cauchy-integral formula gives

z 3 + 2z
Z
2πi ′′
g(z0 ) = 3
dz = f (z0 ) = 6πiz0 .
C (z − z0 ) 2!

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 51 / 67
 3
z +2z
When z0 is outside C, the integrand (z−z 0)
3 is analytic in

and on C and therefore, the Cauchy-Goursat theorem

gives
z 3 + 2z
Z
g(z0 ) = 3
dz = 0.
C (z − z0 )

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 52 / 67
Question
Show that if f is analytic within and on a simple closed
contour C and z0 is not on C, then
f ′ (z)
Z Z
f (z)
dz = 2
dz·
C z − z0 C (z − z0 )

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 53 / 67
Question
Show that if f is analytic within and on a simple closed
contour C and z0 is not on C, then
f ′ (z)
Z Z
f (z)
dz = 2
dz·
C z − z0 C (z − z0 )

Sol. Consider two cases:

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 53 / 67
Question
Show that if f is analytic within and on a simple closed
contour C and z0 is not on C, then
f ′ (z)
Z Z
f (z)
dz = 2
dz·
C z − z0 C (z − z0 )

Sol. Consider two cases:

Case I. z0 lies inside C. In this case evaluate both sides
(which will be equal to 2πif ′ (z0 )) using Cauchy-integral
formula.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 53 / 67
Question
Show that if f is analytic within and on a simple closed
contour C and z0 is not on C, then
f ′ (z)
Z Z
f (z)
dz = 2
dz·
C z − z0 C (z − z0 )

Sol. Consider two cases:

Case I. z0 lies inside C. In this case evaluate both sides
(which will be equal to 2πif ′ (z0 )) using Cauchy-integral
formula.
Case II. z0 lies outside C. In this case both sides are
zero using Cauchy-Goursat theorem.
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 53 / 67
The Derivative of an
Analytic Function

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 54 / 67
The Derivative of an
Analytic Function

Theorem 1(Page 168)

The derivative of an analytic function is also analytic i.e.,

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 54 / 67
The Derivative of an
Analytic Function

Theorem 1(Page 168)

The derivative of an analytic function is also analytic i.e.,
If f is analytic at a given point, then its derivatives of all
orders are analytic there too.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 54 / 67
Cauchy’s Inequality

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 55 / 67
Cauchy’s Inequality

Cauchy’s Inequality(Page 169)

If f is analytic in and on CR : |z − z0 | = R and
|f (z)| ≤ MR on CR , then
n!MR
|f (n) (z0 )| ≤ , n = 1, 2, . . . .
Rn

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 55 / 67
Cauchy’s Inequality

Cauchy’s Inequality(Page 169)

If f is analytic in and on CR : |z − z0 | = R and
|f (z)| ≤ MR on CR , then
n!MR
|f (n) (z0 )| ≤ , n = 1, 2, . . . .
Rn
Proof. Use Cauchy’s integral formula.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 55 / 67
Question
Let f be entire function such that |f (z)| ≤ A|z| for all
z, where A is a fixed positive number. Show that
f (z) = a1 z, where a1 is a complex constant.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 56 / 67
Question
Let f be entire function such that |f (z)| ≤ A|z| for all
z, where A is a fixed positive number. Show that
f (z) = a1 z, where a1 is a complex constant.
Sol. Let CR be the circle |z − z0 | = R, then we have
Z
2! f (z)
f ′′ (z0 ) = dz,
2πi CR (z − z0 )3

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 56 / 67
Question
Let f be entire function such that |f (z)| ≤ A|z| for all
z, where A is a fixed positive number. Show that
f (z) = a1 z, where a1 is a complex constant.
Sol. Let CR be the circle |z − z0 | = R, then we have
Z
2! f (z)
f ′′ (z0 ) = dz,
2πi CR (z − z0 )3
which gives
 Z 
1 f (z)
|f ′′ (z0 )| = 
 
3
dz 
πi CR (z − z0 ) 
Z 
1  f (z) 
=  dz 
π CR (z − z0 )3 
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 56 / 67
Now we try to apply M L inequality to estimate the
integral on the right. Let z be a point on CR ,

|f (z)| ≤ A|z| = A|z − z0 + z0 |

≤ A(|z − z0 | + |z0 |) = A(R + |z0 |)

Thus for all z on CR ,

 
 f (z)  A(R + |z0 |)
 (z − z0 )3  ≤ .
 
R3

The length of CR , L = 2πR.

Now we try to apply M L inequality to estimate the
integral on the right. Let z be a point on CR ,

|f (z)| ≤ A|z|
≤ A(|z − z0 | + |z0 |) = A(R + |z0 |)

Thus for all z on CR ,

 
 f (z)  A(R + |z0 |)
 (z − z0 )3  ≤ .
 
R3

The length of CR , L = 2πR.

Now we try to apply M L inequality to estimate the
integral on the right. Let z be a point on CR ,

|f (z)| ≤ A|z| = A|z − z0 + z0 |

≤ A(|z − z0 | + |z0 |) = A(R + |z0 |)

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 57 / 67
Now we try to apply M L inequality to estimate the
integral on the right. Let z be a point on CR ,

|f (z)| ≤ A|z| = A|z − z0 + z0 |

≤ A(|z − z0 | + |z0 |) = A(R + |z0 |)

Thus for all z on CR ,

 
 f (z)  A(R + |z0 |)
 (z − z0 )3  ≤ .
 
R3

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 57 / 67
Now we try to apply M L inequality to estimate the
integral on the right. Let z be a point on CR ,

|f (z)| ≤ A|z| = A|z − z0 + z0 |

≤ A(|z − z0 | + |z0 |) = A(R + |z0 |)

Thus for all z on CR ,

 
 f (z)  A(R + |z0 |)
 (z − z0 )3  ≤ .
 
R3

The length of CR , L = 2πR.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 57 / 67
Therefore by M L inequality:

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 58 / 67
Therefore by M L inequality:
Z 
′′ 1  f (z)  2A(R + |z0 |)
|f (z0 )| ≤  dz ≤ .
π CR (z − z0 )3  R2

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 58 / 67
Therefore by M L inequality:
Z 
′′ 1  f (z)  2A(R + |z0 |)
|f (z0 )| ≤  dz ≤ .
π CR (z − z0 )3  R2

Since f is entire so we can take the circle of large radius

(R → ∞) which gives f ′′ (z0 ) = 0.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 58 / 67
Therefore by M L inequality:
Z 
′′ 1  f (z)  2A(R + |z0 |)
|f (z0 )| ≤  dz ≤ .
π CR (z − z0 )3  R2

Since f is entire so we can take the circle of large radius

(R → ∞) which gives f ′′ (z0 ) = 0. Since z0 is an
arbitrary point, so we must have f ′′ (z) = 0 for all z and
hence f (z) = a1 z + b.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 58 / 67
Therefore by M L inequality:
Z 
′′ 1  f (z)  2A(R + |z0 |)
|f (z0 )| ≤  dz ≤ .
π CR (z − z0 )3  R2

Since f is entire so we can take the circle of large radius

(R → ∞) which gives f ′′ (z0 ) = 0. Since z0 is an
arbitrary point, so we must have f ′′ (z) = 0 for all z and
hence f (z) = a1 z + b. Now |f (z)| ≤ A|z| gives f (0) = 0
and so b = 0. Hence f (z) = a1 z.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 58 / 67
Liouville’s Theorem

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 59 / 67
Liouville’s Theorem

Liouville’s Theorem
A bounded entire function is a constant.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 59 / 67
Liouville’s Theorem

Liouville’s Theorem
A bounded entire function is a constant.
Proof. Take n = 1 in Cauchy’s inequality.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 59 / 67
Liouville’s Theorem

Liouville’s Theorem
A bounded entire function is a constant.
Proof. Take n = 1 in Cauchy’s inequality.

Example
Show that sin z is unbounded.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 59 / 67
Liouville’s Theorem

Liouville’s Theorem
A bounded entire function is a constant.
Proof. Take n = 1 in Cauchy’s inequality.

Example
Show that sin z is unbounded.
Sol. We know that sin z is entire. If it is bounded then
by Liouville’s theorem it must be a constant. Thus, we
get a contradiction and hence sin z is unbounded.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 59 / 67
Question

Suppose f (z) is entire and u(x, y) ≤ u0 for all points

(x, y) in xy-plane. Show that u(x, y) must be a constant
throughout the xy-plane.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 60 / 67
Question

Suppose f (z) is entire and u(x, y) ≤ u0 for all points

(x, y) in xy-plane. Show that u(x, y) must be a constant
throughout the xy-plane.
Sol. Since f is entire so ef is also entire. Now

|ef | = |eu+iv | = |eu | ≤ eu0 .

Therefore using Liouville’s theorem ef is a constant

throughout the plane and so f is a constant throughout
the plane. Hence, u is a constant throughout the plane.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 60 / 67
Question

Suppose f (z) is entire and that v(x, y) = Im[f (z)] > 0.

Show that f (z) must be a constant throughout the
plane.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 61 / 67
Question

Suppose f (z) is entire and that v(x, y) = Im[f (z)] > 0.

Show that f (z) must be a constant throughout the
plane.
Sol. Since f is entire so eif is also entire. Now

|eif | = |eiu−v | = |e−v | ≤ 1.

Therefore using Liouville’s theorem eif is a constant

throughout the plane and so f is a constant throughout
the plane.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 61 / 67
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
Any polynomial

P (z) = a0 + a1 z + · · · + an z n , (1)

of degree n ≥ 1 has at least one zero. That is, there

exists at least one point z0 such that P (z0 ) = 0.
Corollary: P (z) given by Equation of (1) can be written
as
P (z) = c(z − z1 )(z − z2 ) . . . (z − zn ),
where c and zk (k = 1, 2, . . .) are complex constants.
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 62 / 67
Exercise I
Z
z+1 π π
1 Show that 4 3
dz = − + i, where C is
C z + 2iz 4 2
the circle |z| = 1, in a positive direction.
Z
2 Use Cauchy’s integral formula to evaluate (z)2 dz,
C
where C is the circle with center at z = 1 and
radius 1 in positive direction.
3 Without using Cauchy-GoursatZ theorem for multiply
1
connected domain, show that 2
dz = πi,
C z(z + 1)
where C : |z + i| = 23 .

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 63 / 67
Exercise II
Z
3z + 1
4 Show that 2
dz = −πi, where C is the
C z(z − 2)
following contour

5 Show that if f is entire and |f (z)| ≤ A + B|z|α for

all z, for some fixed constants A, B and
0 ≤ α < 1, then f (z) is a constant.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 64 / 67
Exercise III
6 Show that if f is entire and |f ′ (z)| ≤ |z| for all z,
then f is of the form a + bz 2 with |b| ≤ 1/2.
7 Suppose f and g are entire functions such that
|f (z)| ≤ |g(z)| for all z. Prove or disprove whether
f (z) = kg(z) for some constant k.
8 Show that if c is a complex number and f is entire
function such that |f (z) − c| > M > 0 for all z,
then f (z) is a constant.
9 Let f be an entire function and suppose that there
is constant M, and R > 0, and an integer n ≥ 1
such that |f (z)| ≤ M |z|n for |z| > R. Show that f
is a polynomial of degree at most n.
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 65 / 67
Exercise IV

10 Let f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) be an entire function

such that au + bv ≥ ln(ab), a > 1, b > 1. Then
Z
f (z)
evaluate 2021
dz, where C is an equilateral
C (z − 1)
triangle of side 1 with centroid at z = 1.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 16, 2023 66 / 67