Materials: from Chemistry to Properties

Periodic Table of Elements

and
Stœchiometry

 Periodic table of the elements

 Periodicity

 Stoechiometry of molecules and ionic compounds

 Chemical equations

Eva Klok 3 - periodic table of the elements 1

 Blocks and Sublevels

The periodic table is built using the Aufbau principle, adding an electron (and a proton)
to the atom with the next lower atomic number. The periodic table allows a quick
reading of the electronic configuration of an atom based on the electronic configuration
of the previous noble gas and on the position of the element in the table.

3 - periodic table of the elements 2

 History of the Periodic Table
Dimitri Mendeleev 1869: periodic table of elements relating mass and chemical properties.
Postulates the existence of missing elements. Triumph after discovering some of these missing
elements .
Henry Moseley (1887-1915): Discovery of the atomic number (charge of the nucleus) from the
X-rays emission of the elements
Chemical properties in a column: atomic mass
Table reversed from today’s table

3
3 - periodic table of the elements
 Atomic Number and Mass
Atomic number Z = number of protons in the nucleus
= number of electrons (for electrically neutral atoms)

Atomic mass A = number of nucleons (protons + neutrons)

Real atomic mass must take into account the presence of isotopes and the
mass defect due to the binding energy of the nucleus.

C C
13 14

X C
A 12
A atomic mass
Z Z atomic number 6 6 6

A - Z = number of neutrons: 6 7 8

The isotopes of an element are distinguished only by their number neutrons in the nucleus
Example: 235U
92
; 238
92
U

3 - periodic table of the elements 4

 Arrangements of the Elements
Arrangement of the elements according to ascending atomic number Z

First 92 elements are naturally occuring. No empty case

Following elements ( Z = 93- 118…..) are prepared artificially.

The columns are numbered from 1 to 18 or by the symbols (IA, IIA, IIB…)

Elements of the same column form a group, some of which have a special name
(alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, noble gas, halogens,…)

The rows are called periods numbered from 1 to 7

There are 4 blocks of elements (s, p, d, f) depending on the nature of the level being filled.

The members of the same column all have the same number of valence electrons.
They have similar properties.

valence electrons: electrons of the outermost shell of the atom

3 - periodic table of the elements 5

Periodic Table of the Elements

6
 The Groups of the Periodic Table

METALS: good conductors of electricity and heat, malleable

group of the alkali metals (Ia)
group of the alkaline earth metals (IIa)
group of the transition metals d
Sodium

Magnesium
Copper Scandium

NON-METALS: poor conductors of electricity and heat

Carbon group Iodine

Nitrogen group solid blue-black
Oxygen group Fluorine
Halogen group : gas yellow-green Bromine
liquid red-brown
3 - periodic table of the elements 7
 The Groups of the Periodic Table

NOBLE GAS:
electron configuration ns2 np6 (shell completed containing 8 electrons)

Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr), Xenon (Xe), Radon (Ra)

SEMI-METALS (metallöides) are elements besides the black line (see next page).
They possess certaines properties of metals and certaines of non-metals.
Following elements are considered as semi-metals: B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Bi, Te, At

3 - periodic table of the elements 8

 The Groups of the Periodic Table

3 - periodic table of the elements 9

Separation in metals and non-metals by semi-metals
 Periodicity: Atomic Radius
Definitions:
1) half-distance between the centers of neighbouring atoms (experimental data)
2) calculation, mathematically the atom is not finite, we define a zone where we have 90%
probability to find the electrons)

The atomic radius increases from one

period to the next due to the addition
of extra electronic layers

The atomic radius decreases as the charge of the

nucleus increases, the attractive forces on the
electronic layer increase.
Atomic Radius [pm]
3 - periodic table of the elements 10
 Periodicity: Ionic Radius
Size of atoms and of their
- e-
+ Cation cations anions

+ e- - Anion

3 - periodic table of the elements 11

 Periodicity: Ionization Energy
The energy required to remove an electron to form a positive ion in the
gaseous state. Ex: K K+ + e-

First Ionization Energy

[kJ / mol]
Ionization Energy increases

Ionization Energy increases

3 - periodic table of the elements 12
 Periodicity: Electron Affinity
Energy associated with the attachment of an electron by an atom in the gas phase.
(relative stability of the anion compared to the neutral atom)

Na + e- Na- ∆E = -53 kJ/mol

Cl + e- Cl- ∆E = -349 kJ/mol

Ne + e- Ne- ∆E > 0 Gaz nobles : exceptions (positive electron affinity)

Electron affinity increases

Electron affinity increases

3 - periodic table of the elements 13

 Periodicity: Electronegativity
Refers to the electron-withdrawal power of an atom when it is engaged in a bond.
Arbitrary scale proposed by Linus Pauling ranging from 0 to 4.
Electronegativity increases

Electroattracting power of atoms

The electrons are

delocalized in the
direction of atom B

Electronegativity increases

-Two atoms with similar electronegativity share the electrons equally in the bond.

-If the electronegativity of the two binding atoms are very different the electrons are delocalized
in the direction of the more electronegative atom of the bonding

3 - periodic table of the elements 14

 Summary of the Periodicities in the Table of Elements
F
Cs, Fr

Weak attraction of valence electrons Strong attraction of valence

by the nucleus Electrons by the nucleus

Large atomic radius Small atomic radius

Small ionisation energy High ionisation energy

Small electron affinity High electron affinity

(absolute value) (absolute value)
F
Electronegativity small High electronegativity

Strong metallic character Cs Low metallic character

Fr
Reducing agent Oxidizing

http://www.elementschimiques.fr/?fr/elements/z/1

3 - periodic table of the elements 15

 Stoechiometry
The laws of chemical combinations are:

- The law of conservation of mass (by Lavoisier)

- The law of definite proportions (by Proust)
- The law of multiple proportions (by Dalton)

Molecule: group of two atoms or more of an element according to an arrangement in

the space determined by forces leading to covalent bonds H2, S8

A molecular compound is constituted by atoms of at least two different elements

CO2, H2O

Ionic compound: when a single atom or a group of atoms gives away or acquires
electrons, ions are formed. The formula of an ionic compound is based
on an electrically neutral combination of cations and anions called a formula unit
NaCl, CuSO4

3 - periodic table of the elements 16

 The Mole
Unit that allows the simple reporting of huge numbers of atomic number
of atoms and molecules in visible samples. Number of protons

Definitions
1 mole of atoms = quantity of a substance containing the
same number of atoms as 12 g of pure 12C.
Atomic mass
Number of Avogadro (NA) = 6.02 x 1023 particels mol-1 Number of protons
and neutrons

1 1 −24 𝑔𝑔
1 𝑎𝑎. 𝑚𝑚. 𝑢𝑢. = 1𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = = 𝑔𝑔 = 1.66 𝑥𝑥 10
𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 6.02 𝑥𝑥 1023

Definition: Atomic mass unit (a.m.u.) is exactly one twelfth the mass of an atom
of the isotope 12 of carbon

atomic mass (M) : mass in grams of one mole of atoms of an element,

has the unit of grams per mole [g.mol-1]

3 - periodic table of the elements 17

 The Mole
Description
macroscopic molar Masses-Mole

Avogadro Number
Quantity of matter 6.02 x 1023 (particels, atoms,
molecules, ions…par mole

Description
microscopic atomic Masses-Atomes

The mole is used as unit for the quantity of matter in chemistry.

Examples:
one mole of carbon weights 12,011 g and contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms of carbon.
one mole of lead weights 207,2 g and contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms of lead.

3 - periodic table of the elements 18

 Isotope

Isotope: atoms having the same number of protons (atomic number is identically)
but not the same number of neutrons (masse atomic is different)

Number of neutrons = A – Z A: atomic mass of the isotope

Z: atomic number

Isotope Proportion in Proportion in

pourcentage fraction
Carbon 12 98.892 % 0.988 92
Carbon 13 1.108 % 0.011 08
Carbon 14 0,000 000 000 1 %
instable(radioactive)

3 - periodic table of the elements 19

 Molar Mass of Molecular and Ionic Compounds
Molecular mass (molar mass): the sum of the atomic mass Mi of each element Ei
that constitutes the molecule, multiplied by the number ni of atoms of that element
present in the molecule.

=M ∑ M (E ) × n
i
i i i

Chemical formula : indication the number of atoms ni of each element Ei

composing a molecule.
Ex : C6H6 (benzene), C2H6 (ethane), C6H12 (cyclohexane)

Mass of a formula unit the sum of the masses of the atoms and ions present in a
formula unit of the compound Ex: NaCl, CaSO4

Ex : molecular mass of ethane C2H6 sodium chloride NaCl

M = (2 x 12.011) + (6 x 1.008) = 30.070 [g.mol-1] M = (1 x 22.99) + (1 x 35.45) = 58.44 g/mol

3 - periodic table of the elements 20

 Molar Volume – Ideal Gas Law
Ideal Gas Law
Perfect gas: ideal gas obeys the ideal gas law under all conditions
thermodynamic model describing the behaviour of all real gases at low pressure.

interactions between gas particles can be neglected p : pressure

V : volume occupied by the gas
pV = nRT n : number of moles
T : temperature
Molar Volume R : gas constant

Volume occupied by 1 mol of gas at a given temperature and pressure;

At normal conditions (0°C, 1 bar), the molar volume of an ideal gas is 22.7 L.

Normal Conditions (TPN): p = 1 bar = 100 kPa

T = 273,15 K (0°C)

Standard conditions
p = 1 bar = 100 kPa
to carry out experimental p = 1 atm = 101,325 kPa Definition IUPAC
formerly
measurements and compare them
The temperature is not directly part of the standard conditions,
but it is generally chosen at 25°C (298K). 21
 The Ideal Gas Constant R
1 atm = 1.013 bar = 1.013 x 105 Pa
pV=nRT
1 bar

R V p T n

0.0821 L.atm.K-1.mol-1 L atm K mol

0.0831 L.bar.K-1.mol-1 L bar K mol

8.314 L.kPa.K-1.mol-1 L kPa K mol

8.314 J.K-1.mol-1 m3 Pa K mol

For n= 1 mol, T = 273.15 K, p =1 atm

Molar volume: V= nRT/p = (1 mol * 0.0831 L bar K-1 mol-1 *273.15 K)/ 1 bar= 22.711 L
or V= nRT/p = (1 mol * 8.314 J K-1 mol-1 *273.15 K)/ 1.013 105 Pa = 2.24 x10-2 m3
1 J = 1 Nm et 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
3 - periodic table of the elements 22
 Chemical Equations
starting reagent formed substances
= =
Reactants Products

- Formula of reactants and products

- Numbers of participating molecules, atoms, ions
- Arrow to the right : the inversed reaction does not take place
Example

2 Na + 2 H 2O → 2 NaOH + H 2 ► Conservation of the number of each atom

► Conservation of the total electric charge
stoechiometric coefficient

Additional Indications On the right side of the formula

(g) gas phase C2 H 5OH (l ) + 3O2 ( g ) → 2CO2 ( g ) + 3H 2O(l )

(l) liquid phase
(s) solid phase When there are the same number of atoms of
each element on both sides of the arrow, the
(aq) aqueous solution
reaction is balanced

3 - periodic table of the elements 23

 Classification of Reactions
Types of Reactions:
(1) Equilibrium (general case, definied by thermodynamics)

N 2 ( g ) + 3H 2 ( g )  2 NH 3 ( g )
(2) Complete Reaction

CaCO3 ( s ) 
∆
→ CaO( s ) + CO2 ( g )
lime Industry: steelworks, glassworks, cement works
∆ : heating
Calcium oxide, "quicklime", is a product obtained by
calcining limestone CaCO3 at 825°C.
By chemical transformation:

• Transfer of protons  acid-base

• Transfer of electrons  oxidation-reduction
• Fixation of ligands  complexation
• Substitution, dissociation, precipitation….

3 - periodic table of the elements 24

 Stœchiometry
before after
Law of conservation of mass

During a chemical reaction, it can be considered that the mass

is conserved. (except in the event of a nuclear reaction)
Dalton's Interpretation: During a chemical reaction, atoms are
neither created nor destroyed, they change partners. reactants products

The stoichiometric coefficients are introduced to balance the reactions:

same number of atoms of each element on either side of the arrow.

Example : combustion of butane (C4H10)

mole 2 13 8 10
Mass [g] 2 x 58 13 x 32 8 x 44 10 x 18
= 116 = 416 = 352 = 180
total = 532 total = 532

3 - periodic table of the elements 25

 Limiting Reagent
(conditions: non-stœchiometric)

The limiting reagent for a given reaction is the reagent, which determines the
maximum amount of product that can be formed

limiting reagent
product

reactant in excess

3 - periodic table of the elements 26

 Formation Efficiency of a Product B

A → B
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐵𝐵 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐵𝐵 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝜂𝜂𝑠𝑠 % = 𝑥𝑥 100 = x 100
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐵𝐵 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐵𝐵 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

η < 100% if:

i) Reactions are incomplete (reversibles)
A B

ii) Formation of sideproducts (C et D)

B C
A
D

3 - periodic table of the elements 27

 Summary

 The periodic table of elements can be explained through energy levels of the atomic
orbitals. In the case of main groups, the number of each group corresponds to the
number of valence electrons of the elements of this group (electrons at the highest
energy level)

 Certain atomic properties recur periodically when examining the elements in

ascending order of atomic number - atomic radius -ionic radius -ionization energy -
electronic affinity -electronegativity

 The chemical equation of a reaction is written from the symbols of the elements or
formulas of the compounds which participate in the reaction. The mole is used as unit
of the quantity of matter in chemistry based on the Avogadro constant.

 The ideal gas law is presented as a standard condition relation for a reaction.
Chemical reactions are classified.

3 - periodic table of the elements 28

 To remember from the course

 Knowing how to find the fillings of electronic orbitals from the Z

number of an element or its place in the periodic table.

 Explain the periodic changes in atomic and ionic radii, ionization

energies, electronic affinities and electronegativities.

 Use Avogadro's constant, mole, molar mass and molar volume and
convert one into the other by using the ideal gas law.

 Write and balance a chemical equation.

3 - periodic table of the elements 29

 Antoine Lavoisier (born Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier on 26 August 1743 in Paris and guillotined on 8 May 1794 in Paris)
was a French chemist, philosopher and economist. He formulated the first version of the law of conservation of matter.
Identified and named oxygen (1778), participated in the reform of chemical nomenclature,...Lavoisier is often referred to
as the father of modern chemistry. Lavoisier's experiments are among the first truly quantitative chemical experiments
ever performed. He proved that, although matter changes state in a chemical reaction, the quantity of matter remains
the same from the beginning to the end of the reaction. from the beginning to the end of the reaction. He burned
phosphorus and sulphur in the air, and showed that the products weighed more than the original reactants. than the
original reactants. Nevertheless, the mass gained was lost to the air. These experiments provided the evidence for the
law of conservation of matter.
Lavoisier also studied the composition of water, and called its components "oxygen" and "hydrogen".

When the candle burns, the balance tilts towards the device, even though the candle is partly burnt! There is therefore an
increase in the mass on the side of the device. Lavoisier concludes that :
the mass of the candle is not destroyed (conservation of matter) the air (oxygen) recombines with the products of the
candle's combustion.
The experiment was carried out in a closed system. After a certain time, the candle goes out, because it has consumed all
the available air (oxygen). Under these conditions (closed system), the balance remains in equilibrium!

3 - periodic table of the elements 30

 The law of definite proportions
At that time a great difficulty for chemists was to distinguish between compounds and mixture (melting and
boiling temperatures!). Once this difference was well established, they could deal with compounds and their
composition. In 1807, Proust measured the masses of the elements present in a compound body with the
help of a balance (for example the masses of oxygen and hydrogen obtained by analysis of the compound
body water or the masses of sulphur and iron which combine to form the compound body iron sulphide).

Substances always combine in constant and definite proportions in mass

3 - periodic table of the elements 31

Dalton was a schoolteacher in Manchester. He is now considered the undisputed creator of modern atomic theory. In his famous
1808 work "New System of Chemical Philosophy", he made the essential assumptions of atomic theory:

1. A simple body is made up of one kind of atom

2. All atoms in a simple body are identical
3. Atoms remain unchanged in chemical reactions
4. In the formation or destruction of compound bodies, atoms are separated or recombined in a different ratio.

With the help of Dalton's atomic hypothesis, Lavoisier's and Proust's laws can be explained quite naturally:
Explanation of the law of conservation of mass: According to Dalton, a chemical reaction is a simple rearrangement of atoms,
for example:

reactant 1 reactant 2 product 1 product 2

Since all atoms are kept intact by keeping their mass, the mass of the reactants
( in our case mass of 6 "red" atoms + mass of six "green" atoms + mass of three "purple" atoms)
is equal to the mass of the products
( in our case mass of 6 "red" atoms + mass of six "green" atoms + mass of three "purple" atoms)

3 - periodic table of the elements 32