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Engineering Physics
Notes
(Theory & Problems)

Our greatest glory is not in never falling, but in

rising every time we fall – Confucius

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
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UNIT 1 - LASERS AND OPTICAL FIBERS

Introduction on LASER

• Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation is LASER. A laser is a generator of

highly monochromatic, coherent, intense light. The production of laser is the consequence of
interaction of radiation with matter, which occurs under appropriate conditions leading to the
transition of the system from one energy level to another.

• The transition of an atom or molecule from one energy level to another occurs in a jump & is
called quantum transitions. Quantum transition may be induced by the various causes. In
particular, they can occur when the atoms interact with optical radiation.

• The system of energy levels of atoms governs the behavior of electrons performing the transition
in atoms.

• Unlike other sources of light, the laser produces radiation with highly regular light field,
outstanding in its coherence, monochromaticity and directivity.

Interaction of radiation with matter

Interactions of radiation with matter can take place through three possible ways. They are
(1) Induced Absorption:
Let the energy of the lower level be E1 and that of the upper level be E2. Assume that the atom is in
lower level and a photon of energy hυ = E2- E1 travels nearer the atom. The atom can absorb this
photon and rise from the level E1 to E2 thus making a transition upon the absorption of a quantum of
light. This is called induced or stimulated absorption and can be represented as
atom + photon = atom*

E2 E2

E1 + hυ = E2

E1 E1

(2) Spontaneous Emission:

When an atom is in the level E2 makes transition to E1 by spontaneously emitting a photon of energy
E2 – E1 without any stimulus, then the process is called Spontaneous emission. In this case,
atom* = atom + photon E2
hυ = E2 – E1

E1
Due to spontaneous emission, the photons are emitted in all possible directions. There is no phase
relationship between the photons. Thus, the emitted light is incoherent. The number of spontaneous
transitions taking place in a system depends only on the number of atoms N2 in the excited state E2.

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 3 of 32

(3) Stimulated Emission:

The emission of photons by an atom under the influence of a passing photon of just right frequency due to
which the atom makes a transition from a higher energy state to a lower energy state is called stimulated
emission. A photon of energy E2 – E1 induces the excited atom to make downward transition releasing
the energy in the form of photon. Thus, the interaction of a photon with an excited atom triggers the
exited atom to drop to the lower energy state emitting a photon. The phenomenon of forced emission of
photons is known as stimulated emission a photon emitted during stimulated emission has the same
energy as the incident photon. It is emitted in the same direction and as the same phase as the incident
photon thus the photons are coherent. If these two coherent photons then interact with two more excited
state atoms, four coherent photons are produced and so on. Therefore the stimulated process leads to
photo amplification. The process is represented by
Atom* + Photon = Atom + 2 photons

E2
hυ

hυ
E1

The stimulated transition depends on both the energy density of incident radiation and the number of
atoms N2 available in the excited state E2 for de excitation.

Conditions, requisites & properties of laser

(i) Conditions for Laser

Presence of metastable states: An atom can remain in the excited state for a limited time of about 10-
8
s. However, there exist such excited states in which the lifetime is greater than 10-8s. These states are
called as metastable states.

Population inversion: For lasing action to occur there should be more number of atoms in the higher
state than the lower state. Over a period of time atomic density in the higher level decreases. The
process of achieving back higher atomic density in the higher level is known as population inversion.

(ii) Requisites of a Laser system

Energy Source (Excitation Source) : Which will rise the system to an excited state.
Active medium: Which when excited achieves population inversion. It may be a solid,
Liquid or gas.
Optical Cavity: Consisting of two mirrors facing each other. The active medium is enclosed in this
cavity. One of the mirrors is 100% reflective and the other is partially transparent to let the some of the
radiation to pass through. The optical cavity is made use of to make the stimulated emission possible
in more number of atoms in the active medium. This naturally increases the intensity of the laser
beam.

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
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Einstein’s coefficients and expression for energy density of photons at a given frequency and
temperature.

Einstein’s coefficients are transition probabilities, which tell us about the extent of stimulated &
spontaneous emission and induced absorption.

Let A21 = Spontaneous emission transition probability / unit time

E(υ) = Energy density of the atomic field
E1 & E2 = Two energy levels occupied by N1 & N2 atoms
B12 E(υ) = Absorption transition probability/unit time
B21 E(υ) = stimulated emission transition probability/unit time

The no. of atoms that fall from level E2 to E1 / unit time = [A21 + B21E(υ)]N2
The no. of atoms that raise from level E1 to E2 / unit time = B12E(υ)N1
Therefore net rate of change of atoms in the level E2 / unit time is
[dN2/dt] = {B12E(υ)N1 - [A21 + B21E(υ)]N2} ------------------------ (1)
Under equilibrium conditions, the net rate of change of atoms in any level must be zero. So
[dN2/dt] = 0 ------------------------(2)
Comparing eqns.(1) & (2)
B12E(υ)N1 = [A21 + B21E(υ)]N2
N2/N1 = {B12E(υ) / [A21 + B21E(υ)]} ------------------------(3)

According to Boltzmann, the atomic population at different energy levels at a given temperature T is
given by
N2/N1 = exp[-hυ/kBT] ------------------------(4)
Comparing eqns. (3) & (4)
B12E(υ) / [A21 + B21E(υ)] = exp[-hυ/kBT]
[B12 exp(hυ/kBT) - B21]E(υ) = A21 ( where kB = 1.38x10-23 J/K )

E(υ) = (A21/ B12) / [exp(hυ/kBT) – (B21/ B12)] ------------------------(5)

This is the expression for the energy density of the photons at a given frequency & temperature
Planck’s formula for the energy density of radiation at a given temperature T is given by

E(υ) = (8πhυ3/c3) / [exp(hυ/kBT) – 1] ------------------------(6)

Comparing eqns. (5) & (6)

A21/ B12 = 8πhυ3/c3 and B21/ B12 = 1

Note:
(1) eqn. (5) can be written as
[A21/ B12 E(υ)] = [exp(hυ/kBT) – 1]
If hυ > kT then A21/ B12 E(υ) is +ve and large. Then spontaneous emission is much more probable
than stimulated emission.
(2) If hυ < kT then A21/ B12 E(υ) is +ve and small. Then stimulated emission may become
Important
(3) The ratio A21/ B12 α υ3. This shows that the probability of spontaneous emission increases
rapidly with the energy difference between two states

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
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Construction and working of semiconductor laser

A semiconductor laser is a specially fabricated pn junction device (both the p and n regions are highly
doped) which emits coherent light when it is forward biased. It is made from Gallium Arsenide (GaAs).
They are of very small size (0.1 mm long), efficient, portable and operate at low power. These are widely
used in Optical fiber communications, in CD players, CD-ROM Drives, optical reading, laser printing etc.

p and n regions are made from same semiconductor material (GaAs). A p type region is formed on the n
type by doping zinc atoms. The diode chip is about 500 micrometer long and 100 micrometer wide and
thick. The top and bottom faces have metal contacts to pass the current. The front and rear faces are
polished to constitute the resonator.

Active medium:

The active medium in GaAs is GaAS. But it is also

commonly said that depletion region is the active
medium in semiconductor laser. The thickness of the
depletion layer is usually very small (0.1 μm).

Pumping Source: Forward biasing is used as pumping

source. The p-n junction is made forward biased that is p
side is connected to positive terminal of the battery and n
side to negative. Under the influence of forward biased
electric field, conduction electrons will be injected from n
side into junction area, while holes will enter will enter the
junction from the p side. Thus, there will again be
recombination of holes and electrons in depletion region
and thus depletion region becomes thinner. If Efc is the quasi conduction Fermi level and if Efv is the quasi
Fermi valence level then the condition for lasing action is Efc - Efv > Eg.

Optical resonator system: The two faces of semiconductor which are perpendicular to junction plane
make a resonant cavity. The top and bottom faces of diode, which are parallel to junction plane are
metallised so as to make external connections. The front and back faces are roughned to suppress the
oscillations in unwanted direction.

Achievement of population inversion: When p-n junction diode is forward biased, then there will be
injection of electrons into the conduction band along n-side and production of more holes in valence band
along p-side of the junction. Thus, there will be more number of electrons in conduction band

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
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Applications of laser

 Measurement of Pollutants in Atmosphere:

Atmospheric optics uses lasers for the remote probing of the atmosphere, including the measurement
to traces of pollutant gases, temperature, water vapour concentration, sometimes at ranges greater than
8 to 15 km away.
The pollutants in the atmosphere include carbon monoxide, nitrous oxide, sulphur dioxide, Freon,
ethylene, vinyl chloride (the cancer causing agent from plastic industries) and other matter.
The laser technique consists of a laser source, a transreceiver optical system, a signal processing
electronic unit and retro reflector. The principle involves projecting a laser beam, through the
atmosphere. The area where the pollutants are to be measured. The system employs a pulsed laser as a
source of light energy. The measurement is based on the spectral absorption of the laser beam. Since
different gases in atmosphere absorb laser energy at different wavelengths, the amount of absorption
by each wavelength indicates the amount of pollutant in the atmosphere. Light that is back scattered
by the congestion of matter is detected by a photo detector. The reflected laser beam undergoes
attenuation due to spectral absorption by the pollutants in the atmosphere. The distance of the
scattering matter is calculated from the time the laser pulse takes to go to the matter and return back to
the system. The attenuated beam received at the photo detector and the beam energy is integrated and
compared with reference laser energy source, the difference in the energy called error signal is
analyzed and converted into a direct readout by the computer. The reading indicates the concentration
and the distribution of pollutants in different vertical sections.

 Laser welding
The spot to be welded is focused by a laser beam. Due to the generation of heat, the material melts
over a tiny area on which the laser beam is focused. The impurities in the material float up on the
surface of the material and upon cooling the material becomes homogeneous solid structure which
makes the stronger joint.

 Laser Drilling
The spot to be drilled is focused by a laser beam. Drilling is done with high power pulsed lasers. The
light pulses will be of the order of 10-4s to 10-3s duration. The principle of laser drilling is mainly to
heat the metal to its boiling point and vapourise it or remove it by high pressure vapour. When high
power pulsed lasers are projected onto the metal spot, a vapour keyhole surrounded with molten metal
is formed. With continued heating by laser beam, the metal vapourises and atoms ionize. The metal
vapour then interacts with light beam and thereby the electrons get accelerated by electromagnetic
radiation. This further heats the metal vapour, increasing the number of ions, forming plasma. Plasma
absorbs laser light and emits blackbody radiation. Since the plasma interactions in the keyhole
generate detonation waves, combined with the high power pressure, the molten metal gets ejected
from the keyhole, thereby forming drilling operation.

 Laser Cutting
Lasers are found to be very effective in cutting different types of material. The material to be removed
in laser cutting can be accomplished by melting and blowing out the molten metal. For blowing out
the molten metal, a very high velocity gas jet of some inert gas is used. This process is known as Gas
assisted laser beam machining.

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 7 of 32

Laser Printer:
A laser beam that can emit red or infrared light projects an
image of the page to be printed onto an electrically-charged,
selenium-coated, rotating, cylindrical drum.
Charging:
In older printers, a corona wire positioned parallel to the drum or,
in more recent printers, a primary charge roller, projects an
electrostatic charge onto the photoreceptor (otherwise named the
photoconductor unit), a revolving photosensitive drum or belt,
which is capable of holding an electrostatic charge on its surface
while it is in the dark.

Exposing
A laser printer uses a laser because lasers are able to form highly-focused, precise, and intense beams of
light, especially over the short distances inside of a printer. The laser is aimed at a rotating polygonal
mirror which directs the light beam through a system of lenses and mirrors onto the photoreceptor drum,
writing pixels at rates up to sixty-five million times per second

Developing
As the drums rotate, toner is continuously applied in a 15-micron-thick layer to the developer roll. The
surface of the photoreceptor with the latent image is exposed to the toner-covered developer roll. Toner
consists of fine particles of dry plastic powder mixed with carbon black or coloring agents. The toner
particles are given a negative charge inside the toner cartridge, and as they emerge onto the developer
drum they are electrostatically attracted to the photoreceptor's latent image (the areas on the surface of the
drum which had been struck by the laser). Because negative charges repel each other, the negatively-
charged toner particles will not adhere to the drum where the negative charge (imparted previously by the
charge roller) remains.

Transferring
A sheet of paper is then rolled under the photoreceptor drum, which has been coated with a pattern of
toner particles in the exact places where the laser struck it moments before. The toner particles have a
very weak attraction to both the drum and the paper, but the bond to the drum is weaker and the particles
transfer once again, this time from the drum's surface to the paper's surface.

Fusing
The paper passes through rollers in the fuser assembly under high temperatures and pressure are used to
permanently bond the toner to the paper. One roller is usually a hollow tube (heat roller) and the other is a
rubber-backed roller (pressure roller).

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
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THE BARCODE
• A barcode is used to encode information in a visual pattern readable by a machine. Barcodes are
used for a variety of reasons including tracking products, prices, and stock levels for centralized
recording in a computer software system. In June of 1974, the first barcode appeared on a pack of
Wrigley Company chewing gum
• Barcode scanner usually consists of three different
parts including the illumination system, the sensor,
and the decoder. In general, a barcode scanner “scans”
the black and white elements of a barcode by
illuminating the code with a red light, which is then
converted into matching text. More specifically, the sensor
in the barcode scanner detects the reflected light from the
illumination system (the red light) and generates an analog signal that is sent to the decoder.
• The decoder interprets that signal, validates the barcode using the check digit, and converts it into
text. This converted text is delivered by the scanner to a computer software system holding a
database of the maker, cost, and quantity of all products sold.
• Most barcodes display a twelve-digit number, usually printed underneath as a backup for possible
complications. Here are what the numbers represent:
• First Number: Product Type. The product type is typically
denoted by 0,1,6,7 or 8.
• Following 5 Numbers: The Manufacturer Code. The five
numbers are a unique code that identifies the
manufacturer or distributor of the product.
• Following 5 Numbers on the Right: Product Code. This part
of the code is unique to the individual product.
• Final Number: Check Digit (a Self-Policing System). The final digit of a barcode number is a
computer check digit which makes sure the barcode is correctly composed.
• However, there are a variety of diverse types of barcodes. The most common type is UPC or
Universal Product Number restricted to around 20 alpha-numerical characters. Any more than that
would need a QR (2D Barcode) code.

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 9 of 32

Principle of ray propagation in an optical fiber :

Optical fibers are wires of either glass of plastics and are used in modern communication systems. The
optical fiber consists of a central core, medium of higher refractive index n1, and an outer cladding of
slightly lesser refractive index n2. The Optical fiber is protected from the external corrosive atmosphere
and handling with an outer polyurethane jacket.

Light propagates in a optical fiber by the

phenomena of Total Internal reflection at the
core cladding interface. If the angle of
incidence at the core cladding interface is
greater than the critical angle of incidence
then the ray of light would be totally reflected back into the optical fiber’s core. The ray propagates
through the fiber through reflections at the core cladding interfaces.
The angle of incidence θo at the core end face has to be less than a critical value called as the angle of
acceptance. The cylindrical symmetry of the optical fiber corresponds to a conical shape for the rays with
an acceptance angle θo. Hence, it also called as the acceptance cone half angle.
Condition for ray propagation in an optical fiber :

n1> n2

ic n1= R I of core
Өc

Өa

n2= R I of cladding

A ray of light incident at an angle of incidence θo on the end face of the fiber undergoes refraction. The
angle of refraction being θ1 . Applying Snell’s law at the end face of the core we have

n0 sin 0 = n1 sin 1
n0
sin 1 = Sin 0  (1)
n1
The ray travels in the core and undergoes refraction at the core cladding interface. The angle of incidence
at the interface is θ2 (equal to 90- θ1). If this angle is equal to the critical angle for Total internal
refraction then the ray travels along the core cladding interface and the angle of refraction is 900 .

Applying Snell’s law at the core cladding interface

n1 sin(90 − 1 ) = n2 sin 90

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
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n2
 cos1 = ----- ( 2)
n1

From equations 1 and 2 we have

2
n0  n2  n12 − n22
Sin 0 = sin1 = (1 − cos 1 ) =
2
1− 
n 
 =
n1  1  n1

n12 − n22
sin  0 =  (3)
n0
Thus a ray of light has to be incident at an angle less than or equal to the acceptance angle as given by
equation 3 for the ray to propagate through the fiber. If the optical fiber is placed in air then

sin 0 = n12 − n22

This is also referred to as the Numerical Aperture (NA) of the optical fiber and determines the maximum
angle of incidence for a given combination of core and cladding refractive indices.

Numerical Aperture = sin 0 = n12 − n22

The Numerical aperture of an optical fiber measures the ability of the fiber to gather light incident on it. It
also is an index of the fiber’s capability to carry multiple modes of communication.

Types of optical fibers and modes of propagation :

Optical fibers are classified according to their ability to propagate an optical signal effectively through the
fiber and the number of modes supported by the fiber. In practice three types of fibers are in use
• Single mode step index fiber
• Multi mode step index fiber
• Graded Index multimode fibers.
Single mode fiber
In a single mode fiber only a single mode of propagation is allowed.
In these types of fibers the diameter of the core is about 8μm to
10μm and a cladding diameter of about 125 μm. The optical signal
is injected along the axis of the fiber and travels along the axis of the
fiber. Single mode fibers have lower attenuation losses compared to the multimode fibers.
Single mode fibers require precision connectors for coupling between fiber and equipments. The Single
mode fibers use precision laser light sources for optical signals. Manufacturing costs of single mode
fibers are very high. These factors make the use of single mode fibers expensive. However, the
reliability of transmission and low losses in the fiber make them attractive for high reliability
transmissions.

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 11 of 32

Multi mode step index fibers

Multimode fibers have a core diameter of about 50μm
and a cladding diameter of about 250 μm. Since the V
number of the fiber is much greater than 2.405 the
number modes that can be propagated through the fiber
can be about 400. The different modes are incident at
different angles at the endface of the fiber and traverse increasing path lengths with increasing angle of
incidence. This increased path lengths are traversed with the same velocity and hence the different
signals arrive at different time intervals. This phenomena is called the inter modal dispersion of signals in
a multi mode fiber.
The light source in the case of step index multimode fibers can be either LEDs or LASERS. Multimode
fibers find extensive application in commercial optical communication systems.

Graded Index multimode fibers (GRIN)

Graded index multimode fibers are similar to Multimode fibers in
construction. However in these fibers the problem of multimodal
dispersion of the Step index fiber is overcome by varying the
refractive index of the core. The refractive index of the core
region decreases in a designed profile as the distance from the center of the core. Signals traveling
through the lower refractive index regions travel with increased velocities. Thus signal traveling through
the axis and the outer regions effectively arrive the same time, eliminating the problems of inter modal
dispersion.
The GRIN multimode fiber can propagate upto 800 modes. Though expensive it is commonly used in
high reliability communication systems.

n1 core
n1 core
n1 core
Refractive

Index
Index

Refractive
Refractive
Index

n2 cladding n2 cladding n2 cladding

Radial distance Radial distance Radial distance
Single mode step index fiber Multi-mode step index fiber Graded index multi-mode fiber

Refractive index profiles of different types of optical fibers

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 12 of 32

Attenuation in optical fibers

The attenuation of an optical fiber measures the amount of light lost between input and output. When a
ray of light propagates through the optical fiber, energy is lost by. The loss of energy in the fiber is
mostly attributed to three different mechanisms.
[1] Absorption [2] Scattering [3] Radiation losses
Absorption
All materials absorb some amount of light energy incident on it. The absorption depends on the
composition of the material and the wavelength of light incident on it. Most of the glasses absorb strongly
in the ultraviolet and minimum in the infrared.
Intrinsic absorption
Intrinsic absorption arises out of the electronic configuration and the bond formation of the basic
materials of the optical fiber. The absorption loss exhibited by the material in the highest purity is
attributed to the intrinsic absorption of the material. Intrinsic absorption in the ultraviolet regions are
contributed to the electronic transitions and that at the infra-red tail is attributed to the vibration of the
atomic bonds.
Extrinsic absorption
Absorption losses due to external impurities are termed as extrinsic absorption. Impurities such as iron,
nickel, and chromium included in the core material either in the raw material or during the fiber
processing contribute strongly to losses due to absorption. Extrinsic absorption also occurs when
hydroxyl ions (OH-) are introduced into the fiber. Absorption losses contribute to approx. 3-4 percent of
the total losses in a fiber. With improved technology and high purity raw materials, the loss due to
absorption can be minimized to a large extent.
Scattering
Loss due to scattering of light occurs when atoms or other particles whose sizes are less than 1/10th of λ
to the wavelength of the light known as Rayleigh scattering. The scattering can also occur due to density
fluctuations in the fiber and the size of these regions is comparable to the wavelength of light. Loss
caused by Rayleigh scattering is proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength (1/λ 4). As the
wavelength increases the loss caused by Rayleigh scattering decreases. The Rayleigh scattering is a
inherent feature of Optical fiber losses and cannot be controlled in the manufacturing of the fibers.
Rayleigh’s scattering account for 94% of the power loss in an optical fiber.

Radiation loss :
Bending the fiber also causes attenuation. Bending
loss is classified according to the bend radius of
curvature: micro bend loss or macro bend loss.
Macro bends are bends having a large radius of
curvature relative to the fiber diameter. During
installation, if fibers are bent too sharply the ray of
light is refracted out of the fiber is the angle of
incidence at the bend is less than the critical angle. This results in loss of power.
Micro bend losses are caused by small discontinuities or imperfections in the fiber. Uneven coating
applications and improper cabling procedures increase micro bend loss. External forces are also a source
of micro bends. An external force deforms the cabled jacket surrounding the fiber but causes only a small
Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 13 of 32

bend in the fiber. Micro bends change the path that propagating modes take. Micro bend loss increases
attenuation because low-order modes become coupled with high-order modes that are naturally lossy.
Micro bend and macro bend losses are very important loss mechanisms, but can be controlled by ensuring
that the radius of the bends are greater than the value specified by the manufacturer.

These attenuation phenomena in an optical fiber define three regions or windows of preferred operation.
The first window is centered at 850 nm. The second window is centered at 1300 nm. The third window is
centered at 1550 nm. Fiber optic systems operate at wavelengths defined by one of these windows.

Normalized frequency or V number of an optical fiber:

Electromagnetic waves bound to an optical fiber are described by the fiber's normalized frequency. The
normalized frequency determines the number of modes supported in a fiber. Normalized frequency is a
dimensionless quantity. Normalized frequency is also related to the fiber's cutoff wavelength. Normalized
frequency (V) is given by

V =
d (n2
1 − n22 )


where n1 is the core index of refraction, n2 is the cladding index of refraction, a is the core diameter, and λ
is the wavelength of light in air.
The number of modes that can be propagated in an optical fiber is given by
V2
N when V >> 1
2
When V is  2.405 only a single mode at the specified wavelength is propagated through the fiber. In
multimode fibers the V number is quite large and can propagate about 400 independent modes depending
on the wavelength and the characteristics of the optical fiber.

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 14 of 32

Advantages of optical fibers:

• Noise Immunity
Optical fibers are used in environments where electromagnetic interference is prominent and
unavoidable. While cables are normally contained in protective sheaths and often run inside conduit,
there is no need to physically isolate fiber optic cables from electrical cables. This makes cable
routing simpler.
• Electrical Isolation
The problem of ground loop noise and common mode potential differences is eliminated by the use of
fiber optic cables. Field signals, generated by devices floating at high potentials, can be coupled to
other equipment at much lower potentials without the risk of damage. This is particularly desirable in
industrial applications.
• Safe for Use in Hazardous Areas
Fiber optic links can be used to couple signals into areas with potentially explosive atmospheres
without a risk to delivering or storing sufficient energy to ignite an explosion. This makes fiber optic
technology particularly useful when designing intrinsically safe systems.
• Wide Bandwidth
Fiber optic cables can carry very wide bandwidth signals, well into the GHz range. Many individual,
lower bandwidth signals can be multiplexed onto the same cable. In commercial systems fiber optic
cable often carries a mixture of signal types, including voice, video and data all on the same fiber.
• Low Signal Attenuation
Optical fibers do exhibit some attenuation due to absorption and scattering. However, this attenuation
is relatively independent of frequency, a factor that is significant in copper cables.
• Light Weight, Small Diameter
Because many signals can be multiplexed onto one fiber, cables tend to be smaller and lighter. This
makes installation easier.
• No Crosstalk
Since fibers do not pick up electromagnetic interference, signals on adjacent cables are not coupled
together.
• Inherent Signal Security
Optical fibers cannot be ‘tapped’ and hence signal security is very high as compared to copper wires.

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 15 of 32

Expression for attenuation coefficient of an optical fiber.

According to Lambert’s law, the rate of decrease of intensity of light with distance travelled in a
homogeneous medium is proportional to the initial intensity
i.e. –[dP/dL] proportional to P where P = Initial intensity, L = Length travelled

–[dP/dL] =α P where α = attenuation coefficient

–[dP/P] = -α dL
𝑑𝑃
∫ = −∝ ∫ 𝑑𝐿
𝑃

Let Pin = Initial intensity with which light is launched ; Pout = Light intensity received as output
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑑𝑃 𝐿 𝑃
∫𝑃𝑖𝑛 = −∝ ∫0 𝑑𝐿 or log [ 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 ] = −∝ 𝐿
𝑃 𝑖𝑛

−1 𝑃 −𝟏𝟎 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕
∝= log [ 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡] 𝐵𝑒𝑙/𝑘𝑚 or ∝= 𝐥𝐨𝐠 [ ] 𝒅𝑩/𝒌𝒎
𝐿 𝑖𝑛 𝑳 𝑷𝒊𝒏

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 16 of 32

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 17 of 32

UNIT 1: QUANTUM MECHANICS

1 Calculate the number of photons emitted per second by a 100 watt sodium vapour lamp.
Assume λ = 5893Å for sodium light.
Solution:
Given data:
No. of photons /second = ? λ = 5893Å

WKT E = hυ = hc/ λ = (6.634x10-34x3x108)/5893x10-10 = 3.375x10-19 J

Further, the rate of energy emission from a 100watt lamp is 100 joules/second. So the number
of photons (each having energy 3.375x10-19 emitted per second is
100 / 3.375x10-19 = 2.96 x 1020 photons per second

2 In an expt. Tungsten cathode which has threshold of 2300Å is irradiated by UV light of

wavelength 1800Å. Calculate i) maximum energy of emitted photoelectrons ii) work
function for tungsten. Given, h = 6.634x10-34 J-s, 1eV = 1.6x10-19J and c = 3x108m/s.
Solution:
WKT
i) KEmax = h(υ – υo) = h(c/λ - c/λo)
= 6.634x10-34x3x108 (1/1800x10-10 – 1/2300 x10-10) = 1.48eV

ii) Work function Wo = hυo = (6.634x10-34x3x108 /2300 x10-10) = 5.38eV

3 Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of the following and justify your answers
i. a 1000kg automobile traveling at 100m/s
ii. a smoke particle of mass 10-9g moving at 1cm/s
iii. an electron with KE 1eV
Solution:
i. we have λ = h/mv = 6.634x10-34/1000x100 = 6.634x10-29 m
ii. we have λ = h/mv = 6.634x10-34/10-12x10-2 = 6.634x10-20 m
iii. we have λ = h/(2meV)½ = 6.634x10-34/(2x9.1x10-31x1.6x10-19)½ = 1.22x10-9 m
From the above results it is clear that smaller the mass of the object, more prominent will be
its de Broglie wavelength and vice versa.

4 Calculate the de Broglie wavelength associated with a proton moving with 1/20th the
velocity of light, mass of proton is 1836 times the mass of electron.
Solution:
mp = 1836 me ; me = 9.1x10-31kg ; v = 1/20 x velocity of light
λ = h/mv = 6.634x10-34 x 20/(1836x9.1x10-31x3x108)= 2.64x10-14m

5 If an electron has a de Broglie wavelength of 2nm, find its KE and group velocity.
Solution:
KE = p2/2m = h2/ 2mλ2 = (6.634x10-34)2/(2x9.1x10-31x(2x10-9)2) = 6.038x10-20 J
Group velocity = p/m = h/mλ = 6.634x10-34/9.1x10-31x2x10-9 = 364285 m/s

6 An electron has a speed of 600m/s with an accuracy of 0.005%. Calculate the certainty
with which the position of the electron can be located?
Solution:
We have Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle
∆x ∆p ≥ h/4π or ∆x m∆v ≥ h/4π
∆v is 0.005% of 600m/s that is ∆v = (0.005x600)/100 = 0.030m/s
∆x = h/4π m∆v = 6.63x10-34/4x3.14x9.1x10-31x0.03 = 1.93x10-3m
Hence, certainly there exists an electron with in 1.93x10-3m

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 18 of 32

7 If an electron has a deBroglie wavelength of 2nm, find its kinetic energy and group
velocity.
Solution:
vg = vparticle = p/m = h/λm = 6.63x10-34/2x10-9x9.1x10-31 = 3.64 x105m/s

8 A particle of mass 1.67x10-27kg is confined to the 2nd excited state in a one dimensional
potential well of infinite height & width L = 0.1nm. Calculate (a) its energy (b)
momentum and (c) the probability of finding the particle between 0 & L/3.
Solution:
E = n2h2/8ml2 = 29.34x10-21J
p = (2mE)½ = 10-23kg-m/s
L L 2 L
3 3
 2  n  
3
2  n  
p =  | | dx =
2
  sin   x  dx =   L sin 2   x  dx
0 0  L  L   0  L  
L
 L3 L

 2  1   2n  1  2n 
3 3

p =   
 L  2 
 (1 - cos
 L 
 x )dx =   
L 0
1dx -  cos
 L


x dx

0
 0

 1   L 1
p=    =
L  3 3

9 A nucleon is confined to a nucleus of diameter 5x10-4m. Calculate the minimum

uncertainty in the momentum of the nucleon. Also calculate the minimum kinetic energy
of the nucleon.
Solution:
∆x ∆p ≥ h/4π or ∆p = h/∆x4π = 6.634x10-34/5x10-4x4x3.14 = 1.056x10-31kg-m/s
Since p ≥ (∆p)min, let us consider p = (∆p)min
Emin =p2/2mn = 3.33x10-36J

10 If the uncertainty in the location of a particle is equal to its de-Broglie wavelength, what
is the uncertainty associated with the velocity?
Solution:
∆x ∆p ≥ h/4π or ∆x m∆v ≥ h/4π or ∆v ≥ h/∆x m 4π
But ∆x = λ therefore ∆v ~ h/(h/p) m 4π ~ v/4π

11 For a particle having energy E & momentum P, show that the group velocity of matter
waves associated with a moving particle on which no forces act is twice the phase
velocity.
Solution: vph = ω/k = 2πν/(2π/λ) = νλ =(E/h)(h/p)= E/p =p2/2mp
= p/2m=1/2(vparticle) = 1/2(vpgroup)
Hence vpgroup = 2vph

12 For surface tension waves in shallow water, the relation between frequency &
1
 2T  2
wavelength is given by  =  3  find the group velocity.
  
1 −3
 2T  2 − 3 2  2  
=  = X (2 ) 2 k 2
−3
2 −3 3
 =    = X  2 = X  
Solution:     k  or 2
1 1/2 1 1/2
d −1  2  3  2T  1 3  2T 
= X (2 ) 2 k 2 = X (2 ) 2 
−1 3 2 2
1 3
 =     =  
 = X (2 )
−1 3
2 k 2
dk 2 2    2      2   
or

13 In a particular substance the phase velocity of waves doubles when the wavelength is
Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 19 of 32

halved. Show that wave groups in this system move at twice the central phase velocity.
Solution:
vp α 1/λ or vp = A/λ, we have vg =vp –λ[dvp/dλ]
vg =vp –λ[-A/λ2] = vp + A/λ = 2 vp

14 A particle is confined to a one-dimensional box of length 0.2nm. It is found that when the
energy of the particle is 230eV, its wave function has five antinodes. Find the mass of the
particle and show that it can never have energy equal to 1keV.
Solution: Given data,
L = 0.2nm, E = 230eV and for five antinodes n=5
E = n2h2/8mL2 or m = n2h2/8EL2 = 52x (6.6x10-34)2/8x230x1.6x10-19x(0.2x10-9)2
= 9.24x10-31kg
For E = 1keV we get n =10.42 which is a fraction and hence not allowed

15 A quantum particle confined to one-dimensional box of width ‘a’ is in its first excited
state. What is the probability of finding the particle over an interval of a/2 marked
symmetrically at the centre of the box.
Solution:
3a 3a 2 3a
4 4
 2  2  
4
2 2  2  
p =  | |2 dx =   sin   x  dx =   a sin  a  x  dx = 0.5
a a  a  a   a    
4 4 4

16 A plane wave is travelling in a dispersive medium with phase velocity vph given by vph =
a+bλ where a & b are constants. Show that the group velocity is equal to ‘a’.

Solution:
We have vph = ω/k ------ (1) and vph = a+bλ ------ (2)
Combining equations (1) & (2) we get
ω = (a+bλ)k
dω dλ dω 2π −2π
= (a + bλ) + k (0 + b ) 𝑜𝑟 = vg = a + b ( ) + kb ( 2 ) = a
dk dk dk k k

17 Find the value of ‘A’ in terms of ‘k’ for a wave function ψ = Aexp (-kx) for 0 < x < ∞.
Solution :
∞ ∞
∫0 | ψ|2 dx = 1 implies ∫0 𝐴2 𝑒 −2𝑘𝑥 dx = 1

𝐴2 1
[ − 1] = 1 implies A = (2k)1/2
−2𝑘 𝑒 ∞

18 An excited atom has an average life time of 10-8s. During this period, it emits a photon
and returns to the ground state. What is the minimum uncertainty in the frequency of
this photon.
Solution:
∆E ∆t ≥ h/4π or h∆ʋ ∆t ≥ h/4π or ∆ʋ ≥ [1/4π ∆t] or ∆ʋ ~ 8 x 106 cps
But ∆x = λ therefore ∆v ~ h/(h/p) m 4π ~ v/4π

19 Estimate the minimum time spent by an atom in the excited state during the excitation &
de-excitation process, when a spectral line of wavelength 546nm & width 10-14 m is
emitted.
Solution :
We have E = hc/λ
ΔE = [hcΔλ/λ2] ------(1)

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 20 of 32

Also ∆E ∆t ≥ h/4π ------(2) Comparing eqns. (1) & (2) we get

∆t ~ (λ2/4π)(1/cΔλ) ~ (546x10-9)2/4π x 1/3x108x10-14 = 8x10-9s

20 Compare the kinetic energy of a photon with that of an electron when both are
associated with a wavelength 0.2nm.
Solution:
KEelectron = p2/2m = h2/2m λ2 ; KEphoton = hc/λ

[KEelectron]/ [KEphoton] = [hc/λ]x[2m λ2 /h2] = 2mcλ /h = [2x9.1x10-31x3x108x0.2x10-9]

/6.63x10-34

[KEelectron]/ [KEphoton] = [164.70/1]

21 Calculate the momentum of an electron and the deBroglie wavelength associated with it
if its kinetic energy is 1.5 keV
Solution:
λ = h/(2meV)½ = 6.634x10-34/(2x9.1x10-31x1.5x103x1.6x10-19)½ = 3.172x10-11 m
λ = h/p or p = h/ λ = 6.634x10-34/3.172x10-11 = 2.09x10-23 kg-m/s
22 Estimate the potential difference through which a proton is needed to be accelerated so
that its de Broglie wavelength becomes equal to 1 Å. Given mproton 1.673x10-27 kg.
Solution:
λ = h/(2meV)½ or
v = h2/2me λ2 = (6.634x10-34)2/(2x1.673x10-27x1.6x10-19x (1x10-10)2) = 0.0822 volts
23 Calculate the energy required for an electron to jump from second excitation state to
third excitation state in a box of width 1Å width.
Solution:
E1 = n2h2/8ml2, E2 = 32h2/8ml2, E3 = 42h2/8ml2
Therefore, E = E3 - E2 = [h2/8ml2] (42 -32) = 4.23x10-17J = 264eV

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 21 of 32

UNIT 2: LASERS AND OPTICAL FIBERS

1 Calculate the ratio of

i) Einstein coefficient and
ii) Stimulated to spontaneous emissions for a system at 350K in which radiations of
wavelength 1.5µm are emitted

Solution:
A21/B12 = 8πhν3/c3 = 8πh/λ3 = 8x3.14x6.63x10-34/(1.5x10-6)3 = 4.93x10-15
Also
Rate of stimulated emission/Rate of spontaneous emission = B21N2E(ν)/A21N2 = B21E(ν)/A21 ---
----(1)
But E(ν) = [8πhν3/c3][1/{exp(hν/kT) -1}] = {A21/B21}[1/{exp(hν/kT) -1}] -------(2)

Comparing eqns.(1) & (2) we get

[Rate of stimulated emission/Rate of spontaneous emission] = B21E(ν)/A21

= (B21/A21) (A21/B21)[1/exp(hν/kT) -1]
= [1/exp(hν/kT) -1] =1.19x10-12

2 A pulse from a laser with power 1mW lasts for 10ns. If the number of photons emitted in a
pulse is 3.491x107, calculate the wavelength of laser.

Solution: We have
No. of photons x Energy = Power x Time
Energy = (Power x Time)/ No. of photons
hc/λ = (1x10-3x10x10-9)/3.491x107 = 2.86x10-19
λ = hc/2.86x10-19 =6943Å

3 At what temperature are the rates of spontaneous & stimulated emission equal? Given λ =
400nm.

Solution:
[Rate of stimulated emission] / [Rate of spontaneous emission] = B21N2E(ν)/A21N2
= B21E(ν)/A21
But E(ν) = [8πhν /c ][1/{exp(hν/kT) -1}] = A21/B21[1/{exp(hν/kT) -1}]
3 3

[Rate of stimulated emission] / [Rate of spontaneous emission] =1

(B21/A21) (A21/B21)[1/exp(hν/kT) -1] = 1
exp(hν/kT) -1 = 1
exp(hν/kT) =2 or hν/kT =ln2 or
T = hc/λk ln2 = [6.634x10-34x3x108]/[400x10-9x1.38x10-23x0.6931]=52019K

4 Calculate the NA, relative refractive index difference, V-number and no. of modes in an
optical fiber of core diameter 50µm, core & cladding RIs 1.41 & 1.40 at wavelength
820nm.

Solution:
NA = [(n1)2-(n2)2] ½ /no = [(1.41)2-(1.40)2] ½ = 0.167
V = (πd/λ)NA = [(3.14x50x10-6)/820x10-9]x0.167 = 31.97
No. of modes = V2/2 = 511

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 22 of 32

5 An optical fiber has cladding of RI 1.50 & NA 0.39. Find the RI of the core and the
acceptance angle

Solution:
NA = [(n1)2-(n2)2] ½ or (n1)2 = (NA)2 + (n2)2 = (0.39)2 + (1.50)2 or n1 = 1.54

Also we know that NA = Sin θa or θa = Sin-1(0.39) = 22.92 degree

6 The attenuation of light in an optical fiber is estimated at 2.2dB/km. What fractional

initial intensity remains after 8km?
Solution:
Given, α = 2.2dB/km, L =8km, [Pout/Pin]=?
α = (-10/L)log10[Pout/Pin]dB/km
log10 [Pout/Pin] = -αL/10 = -2.2x8/10 = -1.76
[Pout/Pin]=10-1.76 = 0.0173
7 Calculate the number of modes that an optical fiber would transmit with the following
data. ncore = 1.50, nclad = 1.48, core radius = 50µm, λ = 1µm
Solution:
V = (πd/λ)NA = (3.14/1x10-6)x[(1.50)2-(1.48)2] ½ = 76.65
No. of modes = V2/2 = 5875
8 The numerical aperture of an optical fiber is 0.39. If the difference in the RIs of the
material of its core & the cladding is 0.05, calculate the RI of the material of the core.
Solution:
Given NA = 0.39, n1-n2 = 0.05, n1=? and let no =1
We have NA = [(n1)2-(n2)2] ½ /no
[NA x no]2 = [(n1-n2) (n1+n2)] = [(0.05) (n1+n2)]
(n1+n2) = [0.39 x 1]2/0.05 = 3.042
0.05+n2+n2 = 3.042
n2 = 1.546 & n1 = 0.05+ n2 = 1.596
9 Two optical fibers A&B of lengths L1 & L2 are connected in series. The output of A is fed
as input of B. If the attenuation coefficients of A&B are α1 & α2 respectively then show
that the attenuation coefficient of the combination of the optical fiber as
[α1L1+ α2L2]/[ L1+L2]

Solution:

α1 = (-10/L1)log10[Pout/Pin] or log10[Pout/Pin] = (-α1L1 /10) --------(1)

α2 = (-10/L2)log10[P’out/Pout] or log10[P’out/Pout] = (-α2L2 /10) --------(2)

α = (-10/L1 + L2)log10[P’out/Pin] = (-10/L1 + L2) [log10(P’out/Pout)(Pout/Pin)]

α = (-10/L1 + L2) [log10(P’out/Pout) + log10(Pout/Pin)]
α = (-10/L1 + L2) (-α2L2 /10 - α1L1 /10)
α = [α1L1+ α2L2]/[ L1+L2]

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 23 of 32

10. An optical fiber of 600m long has input power of 120mW which emerges out with power of
90mW. Calculate attenuation in the fiber.

Solution:
Given, α = ? , L =600x10-3 km, Pin= 90mW
α = (-10/L)log10[Pout/Pin] = (-10/600x10-3)log10[90/120] = 2.082 dB/km

11. The attenuation coefficient of a fiber of length 500m is found to be 0.915 dB/km. If the
output power is 90mW then calculate the input power.

Solution:
Given, α = 0.915dB/km, L =500x10-3km, Pout = 90mW
α = (-10/L)log10[Pout/Pin] dB/km

0.915 = -10/500x10-3 log10[90mW/Pin]

-0.915x[500x10-3 /10] = -0.04575 = log10[90mW/Pin]

[90mW/Pin] = 10-0.04575 = 0.9000

Pin = 100mW

T = I/Io = Transmittance, A = log10[Io/I] = - log10[T]

Absorbance of zero corresponds to transmittance of 100%

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 24 of 32

UNIT 3: ELECTRICAL & THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

1 Calculate the Fermi energy of sodium assuming that the metal has one free electron per
atom. Given the density of sodium = 970kg/m3 and atomic weight of sodium = 22.99
Solution:
EF = (3/π)2/3 (h2/8m)n2/3 = 3.65x10-19x n2/3 eV = 3.65x10-19x (N/V)2/3 eV
=3.65x10-19x (6.023x1026/[22.99/970])2/3 eV = 3.92eV
Note: one free electron /atom means NA atoms have NA electrons
n= NA/V and V = mass/density

2 Find the average drift velocity of electrons in a copper conductor with cross sectional area
of 10-6m2 carrying a current of 4A. The atomic weight of Cu is 63.6 and density is 8.9g/cm3.
NA = 6.02x1023
Solution:
n = NA/V = (NA x density)/mass = (6.02x1026x8.9x103)/63.6 = 8.424x1028
vd = I/nAe = 4/(8.424x1028x10-6x1.6x10-19) = 3x10-4m/s
3 Find the relaxation time in a current carrying metallic wire. The metal has 5.8x10 28
conduction electrons/m3 and its resistivity is 1.54x10-8 ohm-m.
Solution:
σ = 1/ρ = ne2τ/m or τ = m/ne2ρ = 9.1x10-31/[5.8x1028 x (1.6x10-19)2 x 1.54x10-8]=3.97x10-14s

4 The free electron density of a conductor is 1025/m3. Find the drift velocity of the free
electrons when the conductor has a current whose density is 1.12x106 amp/m2 .
Solution: Given data
n = 1025/m3, vd = ?, J =1.12x106 amp/m2
WKT, J = I/A = q/tA = (nAL)e/(L/vd)xA = nevd or
vd =J/ne = 1.12x106/1025x1.6x10-19 = 0.7m/s
5 Calculate the drift velocity & thermal velocity of conduction electrons in Al at 300K when
an Al wire of length 5m & resistance 0.08ohm carries a current of 15A. Given the mobility
of free electrons in Al is 1.28x10-3 m2V-1s-1.
Solution:
vth = [3kT/m]½ = [3x1.38x10-23x300/9.1x10-31]½ =1.168x105m/s
vd = µE = µv/d = µRI/d =1.28x10-3x0.08x15/5 = 3.07x10-4m/s
6 What is the probability that a quantum state whose energy is 0.1eV above & below Fermi
energy will be occupied? Assume a sample temperature of 800K
Solution:
0.1eV above EF implies EF + 0.1 =E i.e E-EF =0.1eV
0.1eV below EF implies EF - 0.1 =E i.e E-EF = -0.1eV
F(E) = 1/{exp[(E-EF)/kT]+1} = 0.19 or 19% above EF and
= 0.81 or 81% below Fermi level
7 Evaluate the Fermi function for an energy kT above the Fermi level.
Solution:
kT above EF implies EF + kT =E i.e E-EF = kT

F(E) = 1/{exp[(E-EF)/kT]+1} = 1/{exp[kT/kT]+1} = 1/(e+1) = 1/(2.718+1) = 0.268

8 Show that the occupation probability at E = EF+∆E is equal to the non-occupation

probability at E = EF - ∆E

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 25 of 32

F(E) = 1/{exp[(E-EF)/kT]+1} at E = EF+∆E we have E - EF = ∆E

Then F(E) = 1/{exp(∆E/kT)+1} let x = exp(∆E/kT)
Non-occupation probability = 1- occupation probability
= 1- [1/(1+x)] = 1/[1+(1/x)] =1/[1+exp(-∆E/kT)]
at E = EF-∆E we have E - EF = -∆E
9 Find the temperature at which there is 1% probability that a state with an energy 0.5eV
above Fermi energy will be occupied?
Solution:
F(E) = 1/{exp[(E-EF)/kT]+1} and E = EF+0.5 or E - EF = 0.5eV = 0.5x1.6x10-19J
1/100 = 1/{exp[0.5x1.6x10-19 /1.38x10-23xT]+1}
T=1261K

10 A copper rod 19 cm long and having an area of cross section of 0.785cm 2 thermally
insulated is heated at one end through 1000C while the other end is kept at 300C. Calculate
the amount of heat which will flow in 10 minutes along the way. Thermal conductivity of
copper is 380 W/m/K.
Solution :
Given data A = 0.785cm2 = 785x10-7m2, x=19cm=0.19m, T2-T1 =100-30=700C, t= 10x60=600s
and K = 380 W/m/K

Q = [KA (T2-T1)t]/x = 380 x 785x10-7 x 70x600]/0.19 = 6.6x103J

11 The total area of the glass window pane is 0.5m2. Calculate how much heat is conducted
per hour through the glass window pane if thickness of the glass is 6mm, the temperature
of the inside surface is 230C and of the outside surface is 20C. Thermal conductivity of
glass is 0.1 W/m/K.
Solution :
Given data A = 0.5m2, x=6mm=6x10-3m, T2-T1 =23-2=210C, t = 1hr=3600s and K = 1 W/m/K

Q = [KA (T2-T1)t]/x = 1 x 0.5x21x3600]/ 6x10-3 = 63x105J

12 Calculate the electrical and thermal conductivities for a metal with relaxation time 10 -14
second at 300K. Also, calculate the Lorentz number using the above result (Density of
electrons = 6x1028m-3).
Solution :
Given data τr = 10-14 second, T=300K and n = 6x1028m-3
σ = ne2 τr /m = [6x1028 x (1.6x10-19)2 x 10-14]/[9.1x10-31] = 1.687x107 /ohm-m
2
𝑛𝜋 2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝜏𝑟
𝐾= = [6x1028 x (3.14)2 x (1.38x10-23)2x 300 x 10-14]/3x9.1x10-31 = 124 W/m/K
3𝑚

L = K/ σT = 124/(1.687x107 x 300) = 2.447 x 10-8 WΩK-2

13. The density & atomic weight of Cu are 8900 kg/m3 and 63.5. The relaxation time of electrons
in Cu at 300K is 10-14 s. Calculate the electrical conductivity of Cu
Solution :
Given data density = 8900 kg/m3 , m = 63.5 and time = 10-14 s , σ = ?
n = NA/V = (NA x density)/mass = (6.02x1026x8.9x103)/63.5 = 8.44x1028 /m3
σ = ne2 τr /m = [8.44x1028 x (1.6x10-19)2 x 10-14]/[9.1x10-31] = 2.347x107 /ohm-m

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 26 of 32

UNIT 4: MATERIALS SCIENCE

1 Calculate the electronic polarizability of an isolated Se atom. The atomic radius of a Se

atom is 0.12nm.

Solution:
Atomic radius of Se atom = 0.12nm
electronic polarizability 𝛼𝑒 = 4πεoR3 = 4 x3.14x8.854x10-12x(0.12x10-9)3 = 1.9226x10-40 Fm2

2 Argon gas contains 2.7x1025 atoms per m3 at 0oC and at 1 atmospheric pressure. Calculate
the dielectric constant of the Ar gas at this temperature if the radius of the Ar atom is
0.384nm.

Solution:
Electronic polarizability 𝛼𝑒 = 4πεoR3 = 4 x3.14x8.854x10-12x(0.384x10-9)3 = 0.63x10-40F/m2
From Claussius-Mossotti relation we have
(∈𝑟 −1) 𝑁𝛼
= 3∈ after substitution we get ∈𝒓 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟗𝟐𝟏
(∈ +2)
𝑟 𝑜

3 A solid contains 5x1028 identical atoms per m3, each with a polarizability of 2x10-40 Fm2.
Assuming that the internal field is given by the Lorentz relation, calculate the ratio of the
internal field to the applied field.

Solution:
The Lorentz relation Ei = E + [P/3εo]
The Polarization P = NαeEi = 5x1028x2x10-40xEi = 1x10-11xEi
Ei = E + [1x10-11xEi /3εo]
[1 – (1x10-11/3εo)] Ei = E
[Ei / E] = 1/[1 – (1x10-11/3εo)] = 1.60379
4 The dielectric constant of Helium at 0oC is 1.000074 and is having 2.7x1025 atoms per m3.
Calculate the dipole moment induced in each atom when the gas is in an electric field of
3x104 V/m.
Solution:
Electronic polarizability αe
∈ (∈ −1)
𝛼𝑒 = 𝑜 𝑁𝑟 =[ 8.854x10-12x (0.000074)]/ 2.7x1025 = 2.4255x10-41 Fm2

Dipole moment = αe E = 2.4255x10-41 x 3x104 = 7.2767 x 10-37 C-m

5 What is the polarization produced in sodium chloride by an electric field of 500V/m. Given
that its relative permittivity is 6?
Solution:
𝑃 = ∈𝑜 (∈𝑟 − 1)𝐸 = 8.854x10-12x5x 500 = 2.214x10-8 C/m2

6 The atomic weight and density of Sulphur are 32 and 2.08x103 kg/m3 respectively. The
electronic polarizability of the atom is 3.28x10-40 Fm2. If Sulphur solid has cubic structure,
calculate its dielectric constant.
Solution:
(∈𝑟 − 1) 𝑁𝛼
=
(∈𝑟 + 2) 3 ∈𝑜

N = NA/V = 6.023x1023/ (32x10-3/2.08x103) = 3.914x1028

∈𝒓 = 𝟑. 𝟕𝟖

7 For intrinsic gallium arsenide, the room temperature electrical conductivity is 10 -6 /Ω-m,
the electron and hole mobilities are respectively 0.85 m2/Vs and 0.04 m2/Vs. Compute the
Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 27 of 32

intrinsic carrier concentration at room temperature.

Solution:
We know that σi = nie (μe + μh) or ni = [σi /e (μe + μh)] = 10-6/[1.6x10-19x (0.85+0.04)] = 7x1012
/m3

8 The following data are given for intrinsic germanium at 300K, ni = 2.4x1019 /m3, μe =
0.39m2/Vs , μh = 0.19 m2/Vs. Calculate the resistivity of the sample.

Solution:
σi = nie (μe + μh) = 1/ρi or ρi = 1/[nie (μe + μh)] = 1/[2.4x1019x 1.6x10-19 x (0.39+0.19)] = 0.449
Ω-m

9 Calculate the concentration at which donor atoms need to be added to a silicon

semiconductor so that it results in an n-type semiconductor with a conductivity of 2.2x10-4
S/m and the mobility of electrons being 125 x10-3 m2/Vs.

Solution:
σe = Ne e μe or Ne = σe /e μe = 2.2x10-4/[1.6x10-19 x 125 x10-3] = 1.1x1016 /m3
10 The Hall coefficient of a material is -3.68x10-5 m3/C. What is the type of charge carriers?
Also calculate the carrier concentration.

Solution:
RH = 1/ρ = 1/ne or n = 1/ RHe = 1/[3.68x10-5 x 1.6x10-19] = 1.7x1023 /m3
11 The Hall coefficient of a specimen of doped silicon is found to be 3.66x10-4m3/coulomb. The
resistivity of the specimen is 9.93x10-3 Ω-m. Find the mobility and density of the charge
carrier, assuming single carrier conduction.
Solution:
RH = 1/ne = 1/ Nh e or Nh = 1/ RH e = 1/[3.66x10-4x1.602x10-19] = 1.7055x1022/m3
Since we know σe = Ne e μe and σh = Nh e μh or μh = 1/ρi Nh e =1/[9.93x10-
3
x1.7055x1022x1.6x10-19]
μh = 0.041 m2/Vs

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 28 of 32

UNIT 5 : OSCILLATIONS & RESONANCE

1. A 3.94 kg block extends a spring 15.7 cm from its un-stretched position. The block is removed
and a 0.520 kg object is suspended from the same spring and is set into oscillations. Find the period
of oscillation.

Solution: M=3.94 kg, x=15.7 cm

m=0.520 kg what is period?

Mg 3.94  9.8
Mg = kx  k = =
x 0.157

= 245.9 N m-1

Now the spring is set into oscillations with mass m=0.520 kg

m 0.520
The period T = 2 = 2 = 0.298 s
k 245.9

2. A particle executes SHM of amplitude 5 cm. When the particle is 3 cm from the mean position its
acceleration is found to be 48 cm s-2. Calculate (a) its velocity at the same instant, (b) its time period
and (c) its maximum velocity.

Solution: xm=5 cm; x=3 cm; a=48 cm s-2

(a) Velocity at position x is

k 2
v= (x m − x 2 we need to find k/m
m

k a 48
ma = kx gives = = = 16 s-2
m x 3

 v =  16(25 − 9) = 16  16 = 16 cm s-1

m 1
(b) Time period T = 2 = 2 = 1.57 s
k 16

(c) Maximum velocity occurs at x=0

k 2
vmax = x m = 16  25 = 20 cm s-1
m

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 29 of 32

3. A 5.22 kg object is attached to the bottom of a spring and set vibrating. The maximum speed of
the object is 15.3 cm s-1, and the period is 645 ms. Find (a) the force constant, (b) the amplitude of
the motion and (c) the frequency of oscillation.

Solution: m=5.22 kg, vmax=15.3 cm s-1, T=0.645 s

1 1
(c) f = = = 1.55 Hz
T 0.645

m 42 m
(a) T = 2 k= 2
k T

42  5.22
= 2
= 495.3 N m-1
0.645

(b)

k 2 v
v max =  x m  x m = max
m k
m
0.153
= = 1.57 cm
94.89

4. A certain spring hangs vertically. When a body of mass M=1.65 kg is suspended from it, its
length increases by 7.33 cm. The spring is then mounted horizontally, and a block of mass m=2.43
kg is attached to the spring. The block is free to slide along a frictionless horizontal surface.
Calculate (a) the force constant of the spring, (b) how much horizontal force is required to stretch
the spring by a distance of 11.6 cm? and (c) when the block is displaced a distance of 11.6 cm and
released, with what period it will oscillate?

Solution: M=1.65 kg, x=0.0733 m

M=2.43 kg, x=0.116 m

(a) At equilibrium, kx = Mg , k = Mg/x = 1.65x9.8/0.0733 = 221 N/m

(b) Using Hooke’s law F = kx = 221 0.116 = 25.6 N

(c) Period m 2.43

T = 2 = 2 = 0.6589 s
k 221
=659 ms

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 30 of 32

5. The vibration frequencies of atoms in a solid are of the order of 10 THz at normal temperatures.
Imagine the atoms to be connected to one another by springs. Suppose that a single silver atom
vibrates with this frequency and all other atoms are at rest. Compute the effective force constant.
One mole of silver has a mass of 108 g and contains 6.02×1023 atoms.

Solution: Mass of NA silver atoms=108×10-3 kg

Mass of one atom of silver is

108 10−3
m= kg
6.02 1023

The angular frequency

ω = 2πf = 2π x 10 x 1012 = 6.2813x1013 rad/s

k
2 = gives k=2 m
m
108 10−3
i. e., k=(6.2813 10 ) 
13 2

6.02 1023
= 708.2 N m-1

6. An automobile can be considered to be mounted on four springs as far as vertical oscillations are
concerned. The springs of a certain car of mass 1460 kg are adjusted so that the vibrations have
frequency of 2.95 Hz. (a) Find the force constant of each spring (assumed identical) and (b) what
will be the vibration frequency if five persons, averaging 73.2 kg each ride the car?

Solution: The total mass=1460 kg. This load is equally divided among the four springs. Therefore, load
1460
on each spring is m = = 365 kg
4

k
2 = gives k=m2 = (2) 2 mf 2
m
k = (2) 2  365  2.952 = 125399.7 N m-1

Now, when five persons are riding the car, the load on the springs increase.

The total load is =1460+73.2×5=1829 kg

Now the effective load on each spring is

1826
m= 456.5 kg .
4

Now,

k 125399.7
= = =16.57 rad s-1
m 465.5
 16.57
f= = = 2.63 Hz
2 2

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 31 of 32

7. In a thought experiment a tunnel is drilled through the Earth from pole to pole. A body of mass
10 kg is dropped at one pole. The body executes SHM. Find (a) its period, (b) force acting on the
body, and (c) the velocity of the body when it crosses the center of the Earth.

Given: Radius of the Earth RE=6000 km

Solution: We have

k g 9.8
mg = kx  = =
m x 6000 103
k
= 1.633  10−6 s -2
m
m
= 6.122 105 s 2
k

(a) Period,

m
T = 2 = 2 6.122 105 = 4916 s
k
=1 h 21 m 57 s

(b) Force,

F = mg = 10  9.8 = 98 N

(c) Maximum velocity occurs when the particle crosses the center of the Earth.

k 2
vat the center =  xm − x2
m
v =  1.633 10−6  (6000 1000) 2 − 02 
= 7667 m s-1

8. The amplitude of an oscillator of frequency 200 cycles per second falls to 1/10 of its initial value
after 2000 cycles. Calculate (a) its relaxation time, (b) quality factor, (c) time during which the
energy falls to 1/10 of its initial value, and (d) the damping constant.

Solution: The instantaneous amplitude of a damped oscillator is

x = Pe− bt

(d) Let x=x0 at t=0 s be the initial amplitude.

Since the frequency is 200 cycles/second, 2000 cycles correspond to 10 s.

Therefore, after 10 s, the amplitude is x0/10.

x0
= x 0 e− b10  10 = e10b
10
ln10 = 10b
ln10
b = = 0.23 s-1
10
Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 32 of 32

(a) Relaxation time,

1 1
= = = 2.172 s
2b 2  0.23

(b) Quality factor,

Q = 2f = 2 200  2.174 = 2730

t t
− E0 −
E = E 0e 
= E0e 
gives
10
t
t
(c)  e  = 10  ln10 =

t=ln10=2.174  2.3=5 s

9. The Q factor of a spring loaded with 0.3 kg is 60. It vibrates with a frequency of 2 Hz. Calculate
the force constant and the mechanical resistance.

1 k
Solution: Frequency of an un damped oscillator is f = .
2 m

Therefore,

1 k
f2 = gives k=42 f 2 m
(2) 2 m
k = 4  2  4  0.3 = 47.37 N m-1

The quality factor,

 
Q =  = =
2b rm
m 2fm 2   2  0.3
r= = =
Q Q 60
= 0.06282 kg m-1

10. An oscillator starts with an initial amplitude of 5 cm, with period, T=0.897 s. The damping
forces in the system with coefficient b=0.075 s-1 continuosly reduce the amplitude. Calculate the
logarithmic decrement and amplitudes after first and second periods of motion.

Given: b=0.075 s-1, T=0.897 s

Solution: logarithmic decrement

 = bT = 0.075 0.899 = 0.07627

Ratio of successive amplitudes

xo/x1 = ebT = 1.0695

x1 = xo/ebT = xo/1.0695 = 4.674
x2 = x1/ebT = x1/1.0695 = 4.371

*********** All the Best ************

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka