UNIT 5 CHANGING DIMENSIONS OF

DEVELOPMENT*
Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Development: Conceptual Framework
5.3 Concept of Development: Changing Dimensions
5.4 Theories of Development
5.5 Approaches to Development
5.6 Women and Marginalised as Constituents of Development
5.7 Conclusion
5.8 Glossary
5.9 References
5.10 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

5.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you should be able to:
• Explain the meaning of development;
• Discuss the various theories of development;
• Trace the trajectory of the process of development;
• Explore the changing dimensions of development; and
• Analyse the emergence of women and marginalised as constituents of development.

5.1 INTRODUCTION
The term “development” is ambiguous and vague. It is often gauged by economic
parameters. Many consider development to be holistic that brings in overall betterment,
in personal, professional and social life. If the term development concerns a country, it
may refer to the social, political and economic features of the same. In the era of market
economy and technological advancement, it can even refer to developments in
information and communication technology. Irrespective of the various aspects related
to this term, the present unit discusses and elaborates the meaning of development in a
holistic perspective. It also explores how the dimensions of development are viewed
differently in different periods to comprehend the changes in the socio-economic and
political arena of a country.

* Contributed by Dr. G.Uma, Assistant Professor, School of Gender and Development Studies,
IGNOU 69
Governance and
Development 5.2 DEVELOPMENT: CONCEPTUAL
FRAMEWORK
Development is bringing about change, a process that starts with setting of goals. The
next step is identifying means to achieve the goals. Whether the process of change
brings in positive results or not is debatable. Development is perceived variedly by the
extent of change and progress, rapid industrialisation, adopting latest technologies,
reducing poverty and inequality and achieving economic growth and so on. Regardless
of this, development is a multidimensional and a multisectoral process. It is about using
the available resources to improve the quality of life of the target population.
Usually the development of a country is measured by its economic growth and the
employment opportunities it offers. It is beyond doubt that economic development is
important. There are various approaches for development. One approach is, giving the
choice to people and enabling them to live a life they value. Globally, the concept of
development gained momentum after the Second World War. The process of
decolonisation and the realisation of the importance of growth and development by the
then newly decolonised states led to the implementation of huge projects. In the newly
independent countries such as India, construction of large dams and establishment of
industries was considered to be part of the modernisation process. Jawaharlal Nehru,
India’s first Prime Minister (1947-64), in an oft-quoted speech in July 1954, said a
dam was a “modern temple”. He also told the people, who were displaced due to the
construction of the Hirakud Dam in 1948 that, “if you are to suffer, you should suffer in
the interest of the country”. Gradually the notion of development underwent change.
Two important economic changes led to the debate on development – capitalism and
industrialisation. During the 18th century, these gradually spread to the United States of
America, Western European countries and Japan in the 19th century, later to other
parts and recently to China and a few South Asian countries. There are attempts to
explore the reasons for poverty, inequality, environmental degradation, financial crisis,
lack of access to basic amenities for a considerable part of population in the world and
climate change. This has lead social scientists undertake studies to understand the process
of development. Most of these studies concentrate on the huge economic, social and
political transformation the world is undergoing and the technological, cultural changes
that complement this change. There are two kinds of development. The first one is the
State-led development. The former Soviet Union and India followed this model and the
latter till 1991. On the other hand, the United States and western European Countries
followed market-led development, where the State’s interference in the economy is
limited. At the international level, development of theories and various policy approaches
helped countries in bringing about appropriate policies to intervene in the process of
development. At the same time, efforts of people at local level to improve their lives are
also noteworthy. But these initiatives many a times are local/ area specific and these
may be replicated or not. According to Papaioannou and Butcher (2013) “development
here implies actions aimed at achieving something that is desirable or progressive”.
When we talk about development, it relates to the improvement in the life of the humans,
the betterment or improvement in society that brings good change (Chambers, 1997).
Development is in a way multidimensional encompassing various dimensions-economic,
social, human, cultural, and political that enhance the quality of life of people. There are
debates on the changing dimensions of development, means of achieving them, costs
and benefits and its impact on the marginalised population and ways to integrate them in
the process of development to ensure social justice.
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 Changing
5.3 CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT: CHANGING Dimensions of
DIMENSIONS Development

Social Scientists from Ricardo to Marx have addressed economic development in their
theories. Interpretation of social and production relations dominated in their development
thinking. As mentioned earlier, during the cold war period, two competing development
strategies were practiced – central planning in the Soviet Union, East European countries
and China and the western development strategies (Pieterse, 2001).
In the nineteenth century, development meant remedies for the shortcomings and progress
to the development (Cowen and Shenton, 1996). According to Pieterse (op.cit.),
progress and development (which is often viewed as a seamless web) are in contrast
with each other and development complements progress.
The above discussion clarifies that the twentieth century development thinking in Europe
and the colonies are the reactions and experiences of nineteenth century. They tried to
understand development and progress through the policy failures of industrialisation
that impacted people on several fronts.
Table 1: Conceptualisation of Concept of Development over Time

Period Perspectives Meaning of Development

1850 Latecomers Industrialisation, catching up
1870 Colonial Economies Resource Management,
Trusteeship
1940 Development Economies Economic( growth)-
industrialisation
1950 Modernisation Theory Growth, political and social
modernisation
1960 Dependency theory Accumulation- national,
autocratic
1970 Alternative development Human flourishing
1980 Human Development Capacitation, enlargement of
people’s choices
1980 Neoliberalism Economic growth, structural
reform, deregulation,
liberalisation, privatisation
1990 Post development Authoritarian, engineering

Source: Pieterse, Jan Nederveen, Development Theory, Deconstructions/Reconstructions, 2001

Before we discuss modern development economics and related theories, let us examine
the trajectory of the development theories. Wherever colonial economy dominated like
Europe and colonised countries, these went through different stages of development. It
started with trade and then plantation and mining. In the later stages of colonial economy,
there was trusteeship and development of local economy. Industrialisation was also a
part of the colonial economy.
In present day economy, the concept of development is associated mostly with economic
growth. Along with economic growth, political modernisation and social development
also takes place. In the dependency theory, the core meaning of development is
accumulation of wealth which leads to “development of underdevelopment” (Pieterse,
op.cit.).
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Governance and Later on there were discussions regarding alternative development, in which Amartya
Development Sen’s human development and capability approach are considered important. We have
already discussed about this in Unit 11on Sustainable development of this Course. In
the twenty-first century, two dominant development strategies prevail. One is neo-
liberalism, where the State was to play a minimum role and the market forces take
control of the development. In the neo-liberal strategy, economic development can be
achieved thorough de-regulation, decontrol, structural reforms, liberalisation and
privatisation. Here, economic development and growth are significant, but the means to
achieve this are considered to be “anti-development”. There is no strong alternate model
to neo-liberal economic development. However, there are some approaches such as
local development, people’s participation, community development and Gandhian
development model. Thus development includes various stages, activities and factors.
Technology also plays a significant role.
There are different ways to approach the concept of development. The first one is to
trace the history of development discourse to deconstruct the process of development.
The second is to approach development in a historical context and explore how it
transforms according to the circumstances and changes, the world faces over a period
of time. The third view is to recombine these development views and dimensions and
reconstruct them (Pieterse, op.cit.).

5.4 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

In this section, we shall discuss key development theories.
Modernisation Theory
The modernisation theory emerged during the period 1945 to 1960 in America and
Europe. The main proponents of this theory have been W.W. Rostow, Emile Durkheim,
and Max Weber. The newly independent states experienced poverty and low economic
growth. A few countries too faced political unrest too. After the end of the world war II,
ideologically the world split into two. The modernisation theory equated development
with modernity. The developed countries were advanced in science and technology
and industrialisation and this gave more importance to individualism. According to this
theory, all societies go through similar stages of development for progress. Rostow
(1960) gave five stages of development to become modern. Society can be seen as
‘traditional’ in the first step. During this period, society would be dominated by poverty
and they may use primitive methods for production and cherish traditional values. The
second stage is called ‘pre-conditions for takeoff’. In this stage, countries take outside
help for development. The third stage is the ‘take off’. Here the country gives emphasis
on investment and high economic growth. The fourth step is called ‘drive to maturity’.
In this stage, prosperity can be witnessed among all the people. The fifth and final stage
is ‘high mass consumption’. This school of thought considers that to a great extent,
traditionalism and resistance towards modernisation are responsible for under
development of the third world countries and it makes a case for emulating the USA/
European model of development.
This theory was criticised by proponents of dependency theory of development who
were of the view that exploitation of developing countries by the developed is to a great
extent responsible for their underdevelopment.
Dependency Theory
It was proposed by Andre Gunder Frank in 1960s and 70s by rejecting modernisation
72 theory. According to him, underdeveloped countries were not primitive, but they were
exploited by the developed countries. Developed countries generally would provide Changing
obsolete technology to these countries. It is difficult for developing countries to survive Dimensions of
Development
with outdated technology. The developed countries would make poorer nations depend
on them for technology and resources. Dependency theory evolved as a sharp reaction
to the conventional approach to development in the aftermath of the second world war.
The protagonists considered underdevelopment as not a location but a process of link
of impoverishment to development. The developed nations have a tendency of usurping
natural resources, cheap labour and take advantage of market conditions prevalent in
under developed countries. This is done for their advantage and creates dependency of
under developed countries.
World-Systems Theory
It criticised modernisation theory. It insisted on exploitation-free world. It emphasises
on areas, such as economics, culture, history, sociology, politics and development
studies, unlike modernisation and dependency theories. According to this theory, two
types of systems prevail in the world. One is world empire, like the British empire, with
a single political centre. Another one is world economy, that is, capitalism with multiple
centres and multiple cultures. This theory was proposed by Immaneul Wallerstein.
According to him, the entire economic world is divided into core and periphery. The
core would control the peripheral and semi-peripheral areas through production, that
is, labour, raw materials, capital investment, brain drain and so on.
Stand-Point Theory
According to this theory, each one in this world would take a position to view the
world. Each social group in a society has a perception. The perception of one group
affects other individuals or groups. As per stand-point theory, the privileged class’s
position in the society provides limited understanding about the others in the same. It
further added that the ruling groups dominate subordinate groups. The opinions of
subordinate groups hardly have an impact on governance. Hence, the marginalised are
generally not a part of the process of development.
So far we have seen various theories of development. Let us now discuss the various
approaches to development.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
1) Explain the concept of development.
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2) Discuss modernisation theory.
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Governance and .....................................................................................................................
Development
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3) What is dependency theory of development?
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5.5 APPROACHES TO DEVELOPMENT

We shall now examine important approaches to development.
Neo-liberalism
The current neo-liberal policies emerged from capitalism, which was conceived 200
years ago. It was proposed by Adam Smith. The present neo-liberal approach that
emerged during 1980s lays emphasis on free market, less governmental interventions
and restrictions for import and export of products. The neo-liberal thinking started
gaining prominence in 1980s and continued till 1990s. It is reflected in the policies of
international organisations such as the World Bank and International Monetary Fund
(IMF). The main purpose of these institutions is to expand neo-liberal economy and
stabilise currency in the world. These were needed to be accomplished during the
balance-of-payments and financial crisis in several countries. The General Agreement
on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was added later. Neo-liberals favour market forces for
people’s benefit instead of the State’s intervention. As a result, they strongly believed
that if something went wrong in the market, it would take care of itself. The market
could enforce law, stabilise currency and uphold contracts between different stakeholders.
The competition between various players in the market brings efficient production and
the distribution of services. Also creation of more wealth through market activities gives
benefits to everyone. Eventually wealth shall trickle down to the poorest of the poor.
Neo-liberalism does not favour State intervention in economic matters. It fosters individual
entrepreneurial freedom and skills and gives importance to free market and free trade.
Minimal State intervention in market is preferred.
Structuralism
According to structuralism, market activities lead to the establishment and reinforcement
of different structures instead of economic growth. Apart from market, there are various
structures like class, caste and gender in the society. It is important to consider them as
well, apart from economic growth for development. Some structures have a powerful
impact on the society. Some may act in a passive way. Some may benefit from market-
based economic growth due to their distinctive structural characteristics. Others may
not benefit. It is the responsibility of the government and international agencies to ensure
meaningful and fair distribution of wealth. It is also their function to regulate market
activities for ensuring social justice. The neo-liberal economic activities believe in trickle
74
down effect. The existing research studies point out that wealth never reaches the Changing
marginalised. Market economy has produced huge income inequalities. The Oxfam Dimensions of
Development
Report (2018) conveys that one per cent of India’s richest hold 58 per cent of the total
wealth of the country. As many as 57 billionaires in India hold USD 216 billion worth of
wealth. According to the global wage report 2018-19 of International Labour
Organisation, gender based wage discrimination exists in India. The wage gap between
men and women persists in India. Women are paid the most unequally in India, compared
to men, when it comes to hourly wages for labour. On an average, women are paid 34
per cent less than men. This gap in wages, known as the gender wage gap, is the highest
among 73 countries studied in the report.
Interventionism
It is a synthesis of structuralism and neo-liberalism. According to interventionists, both
the market and the State are important. They need to work together to create a conducive
environment for development. Development should also address inequality, redistribution
of wealth and sustainable environment. Some of the social protection schemes and
programmes such as old age pension, free education for all, mid-day meal scheme,
scholarships to the disadvantaged sections of the community, etc., are in this direction.
The aim of the social protection programmes are to reduce vulnerability and promote
individual, community and societal resilience. At the international level, the social
protection schemes were successful to a large degree. For example, as indicated by
various studies, South American countries have implemented cash transfer schemes for
low economic groups and it had positive impact on the women and vulnerable. Like
cash transfer scheme in Sub Saharan Africa, pro-poor insurance schemes too had
notable success. Even the states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana in
India have successfully implemented health insurance schemes for the poor and
marginalised.
The existing studies all over the world indicate that the social protection schemes proved
helpful for the poor and vulnerable to cope up with improved food security, opportunity
to work during agriculture work deficient season and increased access to basic amenities
like health and education. In India, the Social Protection programmes based on the
rights based approach, primarily have been reflected in the 12th five year plan and the
previous 11th five year plan even though the government implemented a number of anti-
poverty and empowerment programmes from 6th five year plan onwards. Among the
noteworthy schemes during this period, are Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment
Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS), National Rural Housing Scheme (Indira Awas
Yojana), National Food Security Act 2013, Rajiv Awas Yojana (RAY) National Rural
Livelihoods Mission, Street Vendors Protection and Livelihoods Act, 2014. The shift in
government policies towards rights based approach was realised in the 11th five year
plan and it resulted in formulation of policies like right to education, right to work and
right to livelihoods. Some recent schemes include Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima
Yojana (PMJJBY), Pradhan Mantri Bima Suraksha Yojana (PMBSY), Atal Pension
Yojana and so on.
People-centered Approach
The people-centred approach criticises all existing economic approaches. It focuses
on redistribution of wealth and education for all. It also emphasises accessible health
facilities. The government should be an enabler to improve the living conditions of people.
This approach is more concerned about the implementation of the principles of good
governance. Good governance proposes to concentrate on ensuring human rights, proper
functioning of the rule of law, strengthening democracy, promoting transparency and 75
Governance and accountability in the system. The people-centric approach stresses on participation of
Development people in all government activities to empower them. Here, participation would be
ensured by bringing change in the existing structures. In India, the 73rd Constitutional
Amendment Act and the subsequent State Acts created the ‘gram sabha’. All eligible
voters of the particular gram panchayat are members of the gram sabha. The State
panchayat Acts and the subsequent government orders mandated the gram panchayats
to conduct two to four gram sabha meetings in a year. The gram panchayats have to
submit its statement of accounts to the gram sabha. They also discuss the selection of
beneficiaries for various programmes. Apart from gram sabha meetings, non-
governmental organisations enable people to conduct social audit to bring transparency
in the governance process. Social audit is a tool through which government can plan,
manage and measure non-financial activities and monitor both internal and external
consequences of the various departments’ social and commercial operations. We shall
discuss the significance of social audit as a tool of accountability in Unit 12 of this
Course.
The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme is one of the
biggest anti-poverty programmes of the country, based on rights-based approach, which
has been operational since the year 2006. It provides legal guarantee for 100 days of
work in a year to India’s rural households, to adult members who are willing to do
unskilled manual labour. The gram panchayats have been delegated to implement the
programme in all parts of the country. Various factors contributed to the successful
implementation of the programme. The good governance principles of transparency,
accountability and participation of various stakeholders are incorporated in the
MGNREGS Act itself. Active participation of people in the gram sabha for the proper
selection of work sites and beneficiaries, has brought success to the programme. Social
audit provisions have been included in the act. The non-governmental organisations
along with beneficiaries conduct social audit to improve the successful implementation
of the programme.
Sustainable Development
The term ‘sustainable development’ came into use after the publication of World
Commission’s Report on Environment and Development in 1987. This approach gained
prominence in the wake of situation of distortion and excessive exploitation of natural
resources, posing harm to the environment in achieving economic growth and
development by nation-states. The Brundtland Commission for environment and
development in its report ‘Our Common Future’ made a case for sustainability being
the cardinal principal for all development initiatives. Referred to as Brundtland Report,
it defined sustainable development as ‘development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’ (WECD,
1987). The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has defined sustainable
development as “development that not only generates economic growth but distributes
its benefits equitably, that regenerates the environment rather than destroying it, and
that empowers people rather than marginalising them. It is development that gives priority
to the poor, enlarging their choices and opportunities and providing for their participation
in decisions that affect their lives.” Sustainable development proposes to work for
ecological balance, conservation through participation of stakeholders, achievement of
social justice and equality and recognising cultural diversity. It attempts at maintaining a
balance between economy, ecology and society.
Human Development Approach

76 We have seen different theories and approaches to development. Many of these give
importance to economic growth, except sustainable development and people-centric Changing
development approaches. The objective for achieving economic growth is to create Dimensions of
Development
employment and wealth for the poor. As we have seen already in this unit, high economic
growth makes only a few people wealthy. The trickle down effect has not happened in
market economy.
We need to consider an approach to development in which, the objectives are to expand
peoples’ choices and peoples’ freedom. Human development approach puts people
first. A healthy economy, good education, job opportunities, access to good health
facilities, physical safety and a democratic government are proposed in the human
development approach. This approach is profoundly inspired by Amartya Sen’s
pioneering work in welfare economics, social choice, poverty and famine and
development economics. His capability approach has provided a paradigm for social
science and human development. In his book Inequality Re-examined he says “a
person’s capability to achieve functioning that he or she has reason to value provides a
general approach to the evaluation of social arrangements, and this yields a particular
way of viewing the assessment of equality and inequality”. The capability approach is a
broad normative framework, which evaluates social arrangements and the extent of
freedom people have, to promote or achieve what they value. It examines what people
are actually able to do, the range of alternatives they have while performing the functions
they value and to what extent they make decisions that matter to them.
It not only has philosophical foundation, but also measures the progress of a country
through human development indicators. United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) publishes global national and regional human development reports every year
to assess the quality of life of people. The first Human Development Report, the brain-
child of the Economist Mahbub ul Haq was published in 1990. The findings of the
human development report were used as a tool for policy advocacy for further
improvement. The analysis draws up data regarding health, education, nutrition,
environment, political freedom, security and work. The Human Development Report
(2001) looks at human development as something more than the mere rise or fall of
national incomes. It is about creating an environment in which people can develop their
full potential and lead productive and creative lives in accordance with their needs and
interests. Development is thus about expanding the choices people have, and lives they
lead that they value. We have discussed in detail in Unit 11 of this Course.
Millennium Development Goals
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were introduced in 2000. It is considered
the next stage of measurement after the human development indicators to measure the
progress of a country. The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are recognised as
guiding principles for countries seeking to eradicate poverty and improve the welfare of
people. There were eight goals and 21 related targets to be achieved by 2015 with
1990 value as the base and 60 indicators to monitor progress. The eight specific goals
include:
1) Eradicating poverty and hunger
2) Achieving universal primary education
3) Promoting gender equality and empowering women
4) Reducing child mortality
5) Improving maternal health
6) Combating HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
77
Governance and 7) Ensuring environmental sustainability; and
Development
8) Establishing global partnership for development.
Sustainable Development Goals
On, 25 September 2015, 193 Countries of the United Nations General Assembly
adopted the 2030 Development Agenda. It identified 17 specific sustainable development
goals. All stakeholders agreed to work towards sustainable development. The Paris
Agreement on climate change also gave importance to limit the rise of global temperature.
The countries agreed to mobilise necessary resources to end poverty, fight inequality
and address climate change within the next fifteen years. Countries, irrespective of
being rich or poor, understand the significance of reducing poverty, address the need
for education, health, social protection and job opportunities along with economic growth.
To measure the progress, the countries agreed to collect necessary data in regular
intervals. The nations have been urged to work towards attainment of these goals.
• End poverty everywhere.
• End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable
agriculture.
• Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.
• Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote life long learning
opportunities for all.
• Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.
• Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.
• Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all.
• Promote sustained, inclusive, and sustainable economic growth, full and productive
employment and decent work for all.
• Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialisation and
foster innovation.
• Reduce inequality within and among countries.
• Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable.
• Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns.
• Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.
• Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources for sustainable
development.
• Protect, restore, and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably
manage forests, combat desertification, and halt land degradation, and biodiversity
loss.
• Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide
access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at
all levels.
• Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalise the global partnership for
78
sustainable development.
 Check Your Progress 2 Changing
Dimensions of
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers. Development

ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
1) What are millennium development goals?
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2) Explain sustainable development goals.
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5.6 WOMEN AND MARGINALISED AS

CONSTITUENTS OF DEVELOPMENT
We have traced the history and process of development. Having a look at these different
stages, the emphasis on inclusiveness in development has assumed significance over
time.. Among them, Esther Boserup’s study on African agriculture system opened up
the debate on gender concerns among policy makers. In this process, the United Nations
(UN) also played a key role in integrating gender into development debate. Since early
60s, the UN has been marking each decade as “decade of development”. The declaration
of first development decade (1961-1970) did not make any reference to women. A
brief reference to the importance of encouraging ‘the full integration of women in the
total development effort’, in the international development strategy for the second decade,
brought new consciousness. In the 1980s, it was proposed to have women “agents and
beneficiaries” in all sectors and all levels. The emergence of perspectives of Women in
Development (WID) Women and Development (WAD), Gender in Development (GID)
and Gender and Development (GAD) culminated in the integration of gender
perspectives into development. Accordingly, globally the empowerment of women to
make them key constituents of development process led to serious debates, discussions
and policy interventions.
India has also ratified various international conventions and human rights instruments to
secure equal rights for women. The National Commission for Women was set up by an
Act of Parliament in 1990 with the key objective of safeguarding the rights and legal
entitlements of women. The National Policy on Women Empowerment was passed in
2001. Similarly, the socially marginalised are being empowered socially, economically 79
Governance and and politically through many strategies by central and state governments. These include
Development schemes such as National Rural Health Mission, Ujjwala scheme, STEP, reservation of
seats in educational institutions, panchayati raj institutions, and so on.

5.7 CONCLUSION
We have discussed development theories and approaches in the unit. It is important for
us to understand the relationship of development with governance. Good governance
stresses on transparency, accountability, participation of stakeholders in the process of
governance, providing voice to the powerless against deprivation, giving choice and
interest to the people to grow. By looking at the good governance principles, the human
development and people centred approaches of development foster inclusive
development. Human development approach provides good understanding for
governance. Good economic development also needs to stabilise macro economy,
generate sustainable employment, ensure environmental protection and keep inflation
under control.
As we have explained there are various theories and dimensions in the development.
Development has been always perceived along with growth. Growth has contributed
for the economic development of the country. The theories of development and
approaches developed in the late 20th century and 21st century have focused on inclusive
development by incorporating governance principles.

5.8 GLOSSARY
Market Economy: It refers to an economic system where the prices for goods and
services are set freely by the forces of supply and demand. There is no interference in
this by the government.
STEP: Support to Training and Employment Programme for Women (STEP) aims to
provide competencies and skills that give employability to women and make them self-
employed /entrepreneurs.
Ujjwala Scheme: It is the scheme for providing LPG connections to women from
below poverty line (BPL) households. Under this, financial support of Rs. 1600 for
each LPG connection to the BPL households is given.

5.9 REFERENCES
Bhattacharya, M. (2001). Globalization, Governance and Development . The Indian
Journal of Political Science. 62(3): 349- 357.
Boserup, E. (2008). Women’s role in economic development. London, UK.
Earthscan.
Kothari, S. & Harcourt, W. (2004). Introduction: The Violence of Development.
Development. 47(1): 3-7.
Kabeer, N. (1994). Reverse Realities Gender Hierarchies in Development Thought.
New Delhi, India. Kali for Women.
Murthy, R.K. (2014). Feminist Debate on Development. MWG 009. Women and
Social Structure. New Delhi, India: SOGDS, IGNOU.
Papaioannou, T. & Butcher, M. (2013). International Development in a Changing
80 World. London, UK: Bloomsbury Academic.
Pattanaik, B.K. (2016). Introduction to Development Studies. New Delhi, India: Changing
Sage. Dimensions of
Development
Pieterse, J.N. (2001). Development Theory, Deconstructions/Reconstructions. New
Delhi, India: Vistaar.
Uma, G. (2014.) Development and Violence. MWG 009. Women and Social
Structure. New Delhi, India: SOGDS, IGNOU

5.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress 1
1) Your answer should include the following points:
• The concept of development is multidimensional and multisectoral.
• It encompasses various dimensions-economic, social, human, cultural and
political that enhance the quality of life.
• Development is also bringing about change.
2) Your answer should include the following points:
• The modernisation theory emerged during 1945-60 in America and Europe.
• All societies are considered to go through similar stages of development to
become modern.
• According to Rostov, one of the major proponents of the theory, every society
goes through five stages of development to become modern.
• These five stages are: a) traditional b) pre-conditions for take-off c) take-off
d) drive to maturity and e) high mass consumption.
3) Your answer should include the following points:
• The theory propounded by Andre Gunder Frank in 1960s and 1970s,
considers the reason for underdevelopment in certain countries as exploitation
by the developed countries.
• Developed countries have the tendency of usurping natural resources, cheap
labour and take advantage of market conditions prevalent in under developed
countries.
• This results in their dependency on developed countries.
Check Your Progress 2
1) Your answer should include the following points:
• Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) introduced in 2000 indicated certain
guiding principles for countries seeking to eradicate poverty and improve the
welfare of people.
• The MDGs outlined 8 goals and 21 related targets which were to be achieved
by 2015.

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Governance and 2) Your answer should include the following points:
Development
• Sustainable development goals have been adopted by 193 countries of the
United Nations General Assembly.
• It encompasses 17 specific sustainable development goals.
• The goals aim at reducing poverty, address the needs of education, health,
social protection and job opportunities, for sustainable development.
• It focuses on building inclusive societies, strengthen the implementation means
and revitalise global partnership.

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