Slate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery DATE: EXPERIMENT 8 STUDY OF ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENTS CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE An outline explanation of how an oscilloscope works can be given using the block diagram shown below. semana ejle) Hr we 1 1 pot Mankod out oe ees ; eater aa acldo. wae eT E ‘itch cathode atodoo plates ate = { t ¥ PDAAy- elle geson ——beREDN YOUN FOS Fig. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope Like a television screen, the screen of an oscilloscope consists of a Cathode Ray Tube. Although the size and shape are different, the operating principle is the same. Inside the tube is vacuum. The electron beam emitted by the heated cathode at the rear end of the tube is accelerated and focused by one or more anodes, and strikes the front of the tube, producing a bright spot on the phosphorescent sereen. The electron beam is bent, or deflected, by voltages applied to two sets of plates fixed in the tube. The horizontal deflection plates or X-plates produce side to side movement, and they are linked to a system block called the time base. This produces a saw tooth waveform. During the rising phase of the saw tooth, ruvoauenra.scretecrmca. aciecrronis excneennatan [BE © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery the spot is driven at a uniform rate from left to right across the front of the screen, During the falling phase, the electron beam returns rapidly from right to left, but the spot is 'blanked out’ so that nothing appears on the screen. In this way, the time base generates the X-axis of the V/t graph The slope of the rising phase varies with the frequency of the saw tooth and can be adjusted, using the TIME/DIV control, to change the scale of the X-axis. Dividing the oscilloscope screen into squares allows the horizontal scale to be expressed in seconds, milliseconds or microseconds per division (s/DIV, ms/DIV, us/DIV). Alternatively, if the squares are | cm apart, the scale may be given as s/m, ms/cm or us/em. The signal to be displayed is connected to the input. The AC/DC switch is usually kept in the DC position (switch closed) so that there is a direct connection to the Y-amplifier. In the AC position (switch open) a capacitor is placed in the signal path. The capacitor blocks DC signals but allows AC signals to pass. ‘The Y-amplifier is linked in turn to a pair of Y-plates so that it provides the Y- axis of the V/t graph. The overall gain of the Y-amplifier can be adjusted, using the VOLTS/DIV control, so that the resulting display is neither too small nor too large, but fits the screen and can be seen clearly. The vertical scale is usually given in V/DIV or mV/DIV. The trigger circuit is used to delay the time base waveform so that the same section of the input signal is displayed on the screen each time the spot moves across. The effect of this is to give a stable picture on the oscilloscope screen, making it easier to measure and interpret the signal Changing the scales of the X-axis and Y-axis allows many different signals to be displayed. Sometimes, it is also useful to be able to change the positions of the axes. This is possible using the X-POS and Y-POS controls. For example, with no signal applied, the normal trace is a straight line across the centre of the screen. Adjusting Y-POS allows the zero level on the Y-axis to be changed, ruvpauenra.scretecrmca. aciecrronics excneennatan [BB © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery moving the whole trace up or down on the screen to give an effective display of signals like pulse waveforms which do not alternate between positive and negative values. Fig: Front View of Oscilloscope Seren: Usually displays a V/t graph, with voltage V on the vertical axis and time t on the horizontal axis. The scales of both axes can be changed to display a huge variety of signals. Fig, 1.3: Screen display of Oscilloscope On/Off Switch: Pushed in to switch the oscilloscope on. The green LED illuminates. ruvoauenra.scretecrmca. aeiecrronis excneennatan EU © scanned with omen camerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery X-Y Control: Normally in the OUT position. When the X-Y button is pressed IN, the oscilloscope does not display a V/t graph, Instead, the vertical axis is controlled by the input signal to CH II. This allows the oscilloscope to be used to display a V/V voltage/voltage graph. The X-Y control is used when you want to display component characteristic curves, or Lissajous figures TV-Separation: Oscilloscopes are often used to investigate waveforms inside television systems. This control allows the display to be synchronized with the television system so that the signals from different points can be compared. Time / Div: Allows the horizontal scale of the V/t graph to be changed. Y-POSI | X-POS INVERT © O\g Fig.: Time division, Intensity, focus, X-Y mode knobs Intensit and Focus: Adjusting the INTENSITY control changes the brightness of the oscilloscope display. The FOCUS should be set to produce a bright clear trace. If required, TR can be adjusted using a small screwdriver so that the oscilloscope trace is exactly horizontal when no signal is connected. X-POS: Allows the whole V/t graph to be moved from side to side on the oscilloscope screen. This is useful when you want to use the grid in front of the screen to make measurements, for example, to measure the period of a waveform. ruvpauenra.scretzcrmca. aciecrronis excneennatan BB © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery Y-POS I and Y-POS II: These controls allow the corresponding trace to be moved up or down, changing the position representing 0 V on the oscilloscope screen To investigate an alternating signal, you adjust Y-POS so that the 0 V level is close to the centre of the screen. For a pulse waveform, it is more useful to have 0 V close to the bottom of the screen. Y-POS I and Y-POS II allow the 0 V levels of the two traces to be adjusted independently. Invert: When the INVERT button is pressed IN, the corresponding signal is tured upside down, or inverted, on the oscilloscope screen. This feature is sometimes useful when comparing signals. CHI And CH II Inputs: Signals are connected to the BNC input sockets using CHI VERT INE. 10MM 1 30pF ‘op © pe aa L 6D BNC plugs Fig.: Voltage division, Channels, AC, DC and GND knobs The smaller socket next to the BNC input socket provides an additional 0 V, GROUND or EARTH connection. Volts / Div: Adjust the vertical scale of the V/t graph. The vertical seales for CH Land CH II can be adjusted independently ruvpauenra.scretecrmca. aciecrronis excneennatan [EB © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery DC/AC/GND Slide Switches: In the DC position, the signal input is connected directly to the Y-amplifier of the corresponding channel, CH I or CH II. In the AC position, a capacitor is connected into the signal pathway so that DC voltages are blocked and only changing AC signals are displayed. In the GND position, the input of the Y-amplifier is connected to 0 V. This allows you to check the position of 0 V on the oscilloscope screen, The DC position of these switches is correct for most signals. Trace Selection Switches: The settings of these switches control which traces appear on the oscilloscope screen FUNCTION GENERATOR The function generator is used to generate a wide range of alternating-current (AC) signals. A function generator is a device that can produce various patterns of voltage at a variety of frequencies and amplitudes. Features and controls Most function generators allow the user to choose the shape of the output from a small number of options. Square wave- The signal goes directly from high to low voltage Sine waye- The signal curves like a sinusoid from high to low voltage Triangle wave- The signal goes from high to low voltage at a fixed rate. The amplitude control on a function generator varies the voltage difference between the high and low voltage of the output signal. The direct current (DC) offset control on a function generator varies the average voltage of a signal relative to the ground. The frequency control of a function generator controls the rate at which output signal oscillates. On some function generators, the frequency control is a combination of different controls. ruvoauenra.scretgcrmca. aciecrronis excneenna.aa BBY © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery One set of controls chooses the broad frequency range (order of magnitude) and the other selects the precise frequency. This allows the function generator to handle the enormous variation in frequency scale needed for signals. ‘WScientech 4061 aun Fncton Pave Geretor wens Frequency Couto ange) Fig.: Signal generator DC REGULATED POWER SUPPLY Regulated power supply is an electronic circuit that is designed to provide a constant de voltage of predetermined value across load terminals irrespective of ac mains fluctuations or load variations. A regulated power supply essentially consists of an ordinary power supply and a voltage regulating device, The output from the ordinary power supply is fed to the voltage regulating device that provides the final output. The circuit of a regulated power supply with a transistor series regulator as the regulating device consists of a step-down transformer, full wave bridge rectifier circuit and a filter. tod Regula sv 0c Block diagram of SV regulated power supply. FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LAB [ES] © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery The ac voltage typically 230 Vrms is connected to the transformer which transforms that ac voltage to the level of desired de output. The bridge rectifier then provides a full wave rectified voltage that is then filtered to produce a de voltage. The resulting de voltage has some ripples or ac voltage variations. A regulating circuit uses this de input to provide a de voltage that has comparatively much lesser ripples and also remains constant even if the input de voltage varies or load connected to the output varies Fig.: DC power supply MULTIMETER A digital multi meter is a test tool used to measure two or more electrical values—principally voltage (volts), current (amps) and resistance (ohms). It is a standard diagnostic tool for technicians in the electrical/electronic industries. How to use digital multi meter? Digital multi meters combine the testing capabilities of single-task meters— the voltmeter (for measuring volts), ammeter (amps) and ohmmeter (ohms). Often, they include several additional specialized features or advanced options. Technicians with specific needs, therefore, can seek out a model targeted to meet their needs. The face of a multi meter typically includes four components: © Display: Where measurement readouts can be viewed ruvpauenra.scretgcrmca. aciecrronics excneennatan [BP © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery © Buttons: For selecting various functions; the options vary by model © Dial (or rotary switch): For selecting primary measurement values (volts, amps, ohms), ¢ Input jacks: Where test leads are inserted. Fig.: Digital multi meter Display Buttons Dial (or rotary switch) Input jacks Test leads are flexible, insulated wires (red for positive, black for negative) that plug into the DMM. They serve as the conductor from the item being tested to the multi meter. The probe tips on each lead are used for testing circuits. RESOURCES REQUIRED SI. No. | Name of resource | Suggested Specification Quantity T CRO 0-20 MHz, dual trace, dual beam | T no. 2 Signal generator | 0-1 MHz Tho 3 DC power supply | 0-30V Tho. 4 Digital multi meter | 3% Digital DMM To ruvoauenra.scretecrmca. aciecrronis excneennatan BBY © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery PROCEDURE Setting up an oscilloscope: Oscilloscopes are complex instruments with many controls and they require some care to set up and use successfillly. It is quite easy to ‘lose’ the trace off the screen if controls are set wrongly There is some variation in the arrangement and labelling of the many controls so the following instructions may need to be adapted for this instrument 1. Switch on the oscilloscope to warm up (it takes a minute or two). Do not connect the input lead at this stage. Set the AC/GND/DC switch (by the Y INPUT) to DC. Set the SWP/X-Y switch to SWP (sweep). Set Trigger Level to AUTO. Set Trigger Source to INT (internal, the y input). Set the Y AMPLIFIER to 5V/cm (a moderate value), Set the TIMEBASE to 10ms/cm (a moderate speed). ‘Turn the time base VARIABLE control to 1 or CAL, 10.Adjust Y SHIFT (up/down) and X SHIFT (lefv/right) to give a trace across the middle of the screen, like the picture. 11.Adjust INTENSITY (brightness) and FOCUS to give a bright, sharp trace Swern annewn The following type of trace is observed on CRO after setting up, when there is no input signal connected FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LAB JEP} © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery signal gives a horizontal line trace for which the time base setting is not critical © The TRIGGER control is usually best lefi set to AUTO. How to use function generator After powering on the function generator, the output signal needs to be configured to the desired shape. Typically, this means connecting the signal and ground leads to an oscilloscope to check the controls. Adjust the function. generator until the output signal is correct, then attach the signal and ground leads from the function generator to the input and ground of the device under test. For some applications, the negative lead of the function generator should be attached to a negative input of the device, but usually attaching to ground is sufficient, How to use DC power supply To set the output voltage of one of the channels, turn the corresponding "VOLTAGE' knob and watch the voltage readout until it settles on the desired voltage. Along with this, also set the maximum current by increasing the ‘CURRENT knob. If too much demand is placed on the power supply, and you attempt to draw more current than what is set by the current limit knob, the supply enters constant current mode, and the CC indicator LED will come on The current limit feature is useful if you need to prevent a load from being supplied with too much current, however this will not be a concern in the labs, so set the limit as high you need it to be. RESULT Studies various electronic equipment and their applications ruvpauenra.scretecrmca. aciecrronis exaneennatan BR © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery REFERENCES x ea Author | Publication Electronic HS 1 Instrumenta Kalsi McGraw Hill Edition, Third Edition, 2017 tion © https://circuitglobe.com/cathode-ray- oscilloscope-cro.html © https://youtu.be/X2IqQzi4bow © https://www.electricalengineeringinfo.com/ Web 2016/03/cathode-ray-oscilloscope-cro- 2 construction-of-cathode-ray-oscilloscope- references cro.html © https://circuitglobe.com/signal- generator. html © https: //electronicsdesk.com/signal- generator html ruvpauenra.scretzcrmca. aciecrronis excneeninaian BU © scanned ith oxen scarSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery DATE: EXPERIMENT 9 ‘AVEFORM ANALYSIS USING CRO AIM To measure amplitude, frequency and time period of sine wave and square wave using a CRO. THEORY Sine wave A signal generator will normally have the capability to produce a standard sine wave output. This the standard waveform that oscillates between two levels with a standard sinusoidal shape. Sinusoidal Wavetorm (One Full Cyl Pai) Second Pv (27) Fig. Sine wave Square wave The square wave consists of a signal moving directly between high and low levels. $f, 3 z 2 £ Fig. Square wave FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LAB EL} © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery PRACTICAL CIRCUIT DIAGRAM Fig, Front panel of CRO } . Ww Fig, Front panel of signal generator Function Generator co ‘Cathode Ray Oscitoscope ca ape oO Fig. Connecting function generator to CRO RESOURCES REQUIRED SI.No. | Name of resource | Suggested Specification Quantity 1 CRO 0-20 MHz, dual trace, dual beam | 1 no 2 Signal generator_[ 0-1 MHz To 3 Connecting wires_[ Banana plugs tno 4 CRO probes Any To. each FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LAB JEL) © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery PROCEDURE Sine wave Measurement of amplitude 1. Make the connections as per the diagram. 2. Put the CRO on single channel mode and bring the CRO into operation by adjusting the trace of the beam to a normal brightness and into a thin line. 3. Now apply the sinusoidal wave of different amplitudes by using signal generators. 4. Note on the vertical scale the peak-to-peak amplitude (V;p) Measurement of frequency 1. Make the connections as per the diagram. 2. Put the CRO on single channel mode and bring the CRO into operation by adjusting the trace of the beam to a normal brightness and into a thin line. 3. Now apply the sinusoidal wave of different amplitudes by using signal generators. 4. Note down the horizontal scale period(T) in second by observing difference between the two successive peaks of the waveform. Square wave Measurement of amplitude: 1. Make the connections as per the diagram 2. Put the CRO on single channel mode and bring the CRO into operation by adjusting the trace of the beam to a normal brightness and into a thin line. 3. Now apply the square wave of different amplitudes by using signal generators. 4. Note on the vertical scale the peak-to-peak amplitude (V;). Measurement of frequency: 1. Make the connections as per the diagram 2. Put the CRO on single channel mode and bring the CRO into operation by adjusting the trace of the beam to a normal brightness and into a thin line. 3. Now apply the sinusoidal wave of different amplitudes by using signal generators. ruvoauenra.scretgcrmca. aciecrronis excneennataa [BB © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery 4. Note down the horizontal scale period(T) in second by observing difference between the two successive peaks of the waveform. OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS Vertical | ¥ siisiaiv | Amplitude | #29"! | pimesaiv | ™° | Frequency Function | division 4) (ep anb | avision | Oy period [iit (@) PR ©) (T)=c%d Sine Square RESULTS Amplitude of sine wave is (any one) Amplitude of square wave is (any one) Frequency of sine wave is (any one) Frequency of square wave is (any one) ruvoauenra.scretzcrmca. aeiecrronis excneenna cas [EI © scanned ith oxen scarSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery REFERENCES SL Text Book/ itt, No. Website Author Publication Web references © https://youtu be/ynP2G4UI4Iw © https://youtu.be/kh-ollf4e3Y * http://eleceng dit. ie/dsp/elab/ ruvoauenra.scretgcrmca. aeiecrronis excneenna tan [BAY © scanned wih one scaneSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery DATE: EXPERIMENT 10 IDENTIFICATION OF PASSIVE ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS, AIM To identify different electronic components and measure their values. THEORY Resistors Resistors are electronic components that are used to oppose the flow of current. Resistance is the property of a material which oppose the flow of current through it. Resistors offer a specific value of resistance to control current in a circuit or to develop voltage across it. Unit of resistance is ohm(Q). Specifications: 1. Resistance — This is value of resistance expressed in ohms. 2. Tolerance — This is the variation in the value of resistance 3. Power rating — This determines the maximum current that a resistor can withstand without being destroyed. Resistors are of two types: (1) Fixed and (2) Variable Fixed resistor: A fixed resistor is one for which the value of resistance is specified and cannot be varied. Various types are: (a) Carbon film resistor: This the most general purpose, cheap resistor. Usually, the tolerance value is +5%. Power ratings of 1/8W, 1/4W, 1/2W are frequently used. The disadvantage is that they are noisy (b)Metal film resistor; They are used when a high tolerance is needed Nichrome is generally used for the material of resistor. They are much more accurate. ruvpatenra.scretecrmca. aeiecrronis excneenina tan [BAY © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery (c) Wire wound resistor: It is made up of metal resistance wire and because of this, they can be manufactured to precise values. Also, high-wattage resistors can be made by using a thick wire material (d) Ceramic resistors: These are wire wound resistors in ceramic case, strengthened with a special cement. They have very high-power ratings, from | or 2 watts to dozens of watts. They can become extremely hot when used for high power applications Variable resistors or Potentiometers: They have their value marked with maximum value in ohms. Smaller trimpots may use a 3-digit code where the first 2 digits are significant, and 3" is the multiplier (basically the number of 0s after the first 2 digits). For example, 104 = 10 followed by four 0s = 100000 ohms = 100 K ohms. Colour coding of resistor: Colour Codes are used to identify the value of resistor. The numbers to the Colour are identified in the following sequence which is remembered as BBROY GREAT BRITAN VERY GOOD WIFE (BBROYGBVGW) and their assignment is listed in following table Black |Brown| Red |Orange|Yellow|Green| Blue | Violet) Grey | White 0 1 2 é 4 s 6 7 8 9 ruvoauenra.scretzcrmca. aciecrronis excneennatan [ERI © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery First find the tolerance band, it will typically be gold ( 5%) and sometimes silver (10%). Starting from the other end, identify the first band - write down the number associated with that color Now read the next color, so write down a its value next to the first value. Now read the third or ‘multiplier exponent’ band and write down. that as the number of zeros, If the ‘multiplier exponent’ band is Gold move the decimal point ‘one to the left. If the ‘multiplier exponent’ band is Silver move the Istdigit aosgt decimal point vt . ‘th two places to the left. If the resistor has one more band past the lea tolerance band it is a quality band | Read the number as the % Failure rate per 1000 hour This is rated assuming full wattage being applied to the resistors. (To get better failure rates, resistors are typically specified to have twice the needed wattage dissipation that the circuit produces). Some resistors use this band for temco information. 1% resistors have three bands to read digits to the left of the multiplier. They have a different temperature coefficient in order to provide the 1% tolerance. At 1% the temperature coefficient starts to become an important factor. at +/-200 ppm a change in temperature of 25 Deg C causes a value change of up to 1% Capacitors An electrical device capable of storing electrical energy. In general, a capacitor consists of two metal plates insulated from each other by a dielectric. The ruvpauenra.scretecrmca. aeiecrronis excneenna tan [BEY © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery capacitance of a capacitor depends primarily upon its shape and size and upon the relative permittivity ¢, of the medium between the plates. In vacuum, in air, and in most gases, ¢; ranges from one to several hundreds. One classification of capacitors comes from the physical state of their dielectrics, which may be gas (or vacuum), liquid, solid, or a combination of these. Each of these classifications may be subdivided according to the specific dielectric used. Capacitors may be further classified by their ability to be used in alternating-current (ac) or direct- current (de) circuits with various current levels. Capacitor identification code: There are no international agreements in place to standardize capacitor identification. Most plastic film types (Figure 3.1) have printed values and are normally in microfarads or if the symbol is n, nanofarads. Working voltage is easily identified. Tolerances are upper case letters: M= 20%, K = 10%, J=5%, H=2.5% and F = + IpF. rr] O2zHFK ov ov 0003 wr 220% 022 prs 10% 18006 10% tenr100v ourve 100¥ 76 aay Fig. Plastic Film Types A more difficult scheme is shown in Figure 3.2 where K is used for indicating Picofarads, The unit is picofarads and the third number is a multiplier. A capacitor coded 474K63 means 47 x 10000 pF which is equivalent to 470000 pF or 0.47 microfarads. K indicates 10% tolerance. 50, 63 and 100 are working volts. ruvpauenra.scretzcrmca. aciecrronis excneennatan [BR © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery += ep o2206 10? = 22000 rae 20022 yr 2108 SEs 69 woting a OC Fig, Picofarads Representation Ceramic disk capacitors have many marking schemes. Capacitance, tolerance, working voltage and temperature coefficient may be found which is as shown in Figure Capacitance values are given as number without any identification as to units (uF, nF, pF) Whole numbers usually indicate pF and decimal numbers such as 0.1 0 0.47 are microfarads. Odd lool 1g numbers such as 473 is the previously explained system and means 47nf. 2aph 220% 0.033 nF 220% 1000"W 1% 0-56 vanson ‘tom st0rcw esc TF 205 pF *80ppm76 tom e250 9850 109F 10% 7 vF 220% 215% aration form +209 10-70% vatiabon S50 125" om +25°C10 85°C 000 Ww Ceramic Disk Capacitor Electrolytic capacitor properties: There are a number of parameters of importance beyond the basic capacitance and capacitive reactance when using electrolytic capacitors. When designing circuits using electrolytic capacitors it is necessary to take these additional parameters into consideration for some designs, and to be aware of them when using electrolytic capacitors ruvpauenra.scretzcrmca. aciecrronics excneennatan [EI © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery © ESR Equivalent series resistance: Electrolytic capacitors are often used in circuits where current levels are relatively high. Also, under some circumstances and current sourced from them needs to have low source impedance, for example when the capacitor is being used in a power supply circuit as a reservoir capacitor. Under these conditions it is necessary to consult the manufacturers” datasheets to discover whether the electrolytic capacitor chosen will meet the requirements for the circuit, If the ESR is high, then it will not be able to deliver the required amount of current in the circuit, without a voltage drop resulting from the ESR which will be seen as a source resistance. © Frequency response: One of the problems with electrolytic capacitors is that they have a limited frequency response. It is found that their ESR rises with frequency and this generally limits their use to frequencies below about 100 kHz. This is particularly true for large capacitors, and even the smaller electrolytic capacitors should not be relied upon at high frequencies. To gain exact details it is necessary to consult the manufacturer’s data for a given part. © Leakage: Although electrolytic capacitors have much higher levels of capacitance for a given volume than most other capacitor technologies, they can also have a higher level of leakage. This is not a problem for most applications, such as when they are used in power supplies. However, under some circumstances they are not suitable. For example, they should not be used around the input circuitry of an operational amplifier, Here even a small amount of leakage can cause problems because of the high input impedance levels of the op-amp. It is also worth noting that the levels of leakage are considerably higher in the reverse direction. © Ripple current: When using electrolytic capacitors in high current applications such as the reservoir capacitor of a power supply, it is FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LAB [ft © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery necessary to consider the ripple current it is likely to experience. Capacitors have a maximum ripple current they can supply. Above this they can become too hot which will reduce their life. In extreme cases it can cause the capacitor to fail. Accordingly, it is necessary to calculate the expected ripple current and check that it is within the manufacturer’s maximum ratings. © Tolerance: Electrolytic capacitors have a very wide tolerance Typically, this may be -50% + 100%. This is not normally a problem in applications such as decoupling or power supply smoothing, ete However, they should not be used in circuits where the exact value is of importance © Polarization: Unlike many other types of capacitors, electrolytic capacitors are polarized and must be connected within a circuit so that they only see a voltage across them ina particular way The physical appearance of electrolytic capacitor is as shown in Figure. The capacitors themselves are marked so that polarity can easily be seen. In addition to this it is common for the can of the capacitor to be connected to the negative terminal. oor AGU Fig. Electrolytic Capacitor It is necessary to ensure that any electrolytic capacitors are connected within a circuit with the correct polarity. A reverse bias voltage will cause the centre oxide layer forming the dielectric to be destroyed as a result of electrochemical reduction. If this occurs a short circuit will appear, and excessive current can FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LAB © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery cause the capacitor to become very hot. If this occurs the component may leak the electrolyte, but under some circumstances they can explode. As this is not uncommon, it is very wise to take precautions and ensure the capacitor is fitted correctly, especially in applications where high current capability exists Inductors Inductor is just a coil wound which provides more reactance for high frequencies and low reactance for low frequencies Colour coding of inductors: Moulded inductors follow the same scheme except the units are usually micro Henries. A brown-black-red inductor is most likely a 1000 uH. Sometimes a silver or gold band is used as a decimal point. So a red-gold-violet inductor would be a 2.7 ul. Also expect to see a wide silver or gold band before the first value band and a thin tolerance band at the end. The typical colour codes and their values are shown in Figure wire 68 uH, 9% Fig, Typical inductors colour coding and their values FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LAB © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery RESOURCES REQUIRED Sl. No, [Name of resource | Suggested specification Quantity 0. Digital i 3 % Digit DMM 1 Multimeter/ Ino. each 20 MHz dual trace dual beam CRO CRO. 5 Electronic Resistors, Capacitors, Inductors,]10 no. Components transformers, LEDs each PROCEDURE Using multimer 1 2. 3. 4 Identify each terminal of the given component. Select the proper range and position of various knobs of multimeter to test the given component. Observe the value of given component on the multimeter Compare the obtained value with its theoretical value. Using CRO 1 2. woe Switch on CRO. Select component test mode on CRO. Ensure short stable horizontal line on screen. Connect the probe to the CRO. Perform open circuit test by keeping two terminals open. Observe waveform on the screen. Perform short circuit test by shorting two terminals. Observe waveform on screen. Connect resistance components in terminals of probe. Observe waveform on screen, FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LAB © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery 9 Repeat procedure step 7 and 8 for other components like capacitor, inductor etc. 10. Switch off the CRO. 11. Infer from the patterns obtained on the display sereen of the CRO OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS Resistor Colour Code Value by Colour Code Measured Value SL Tolerance | Min & 1s jam /3 [4 | Resistance Resistance | Resistance No (Value) | Max Band | Band | Band | Band | In Q inQ inkQ inQ Values 1 2 3 a a ruvoauenra.scretzcrmca. aeiecrronis excneennatan [BO © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery Capacitor Value as per Code Measured Value Code on Tolerance [Min & SLNo. | the Capacitance Capacitance | Capacitance (Value) in | Max capacitor | in uF in pE in uF uF Values 1 2 3 a 5 Inductor Colour Code Value by Colour Code Measured Value SI Tolerance | Min & 1 Ja |3% | 4* | Inductance Inductance | Inductance No, (Value) | Max Band | Band | Band | Band | in wH in wH inH inwH | Values 1 = 3 4 5 RESULTS Studied different electronic components and measured their values. ERENCE FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LAB © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery REFERENCES Sl. | Text Book/ a Ne! Website | Author Publication 1 |, Plootrome | HS. McGraw Hill Edition, Third Edition, 2017 Instrumentation | Kalsi https://circuitglobe.com/cathode-ray-oscilloscope-cro html htips:/voutu be/X2iqQzi4b9w https://www electricalengineeringinfo.com/2016/03/cathode- 2. | Web references ray-oscilloscope-cro-construction-of-cathode-ray- oscilloscope-cro. html. https://circuitglobe.com/signal-generator. html https://electronicsdesk.com/signal-generator html FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LAB © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery DATE: EXPERIMENT 11 HALF WAVE RECTIFIER AIM Design a half wave rectifier circuit and analyse the waveforms. THEORY Half Wave Rectifier is a diode circuit which is used to transform Alternating Voltage (AC Supply) to Direct Voltage (DC Supply). A single diode is used in the HWR circuit for the transformation of AC to DC. During the positive half cycle of the AC voltage, the diode will be forward biased and the current flows through the diode. During the negative half cycle of the AC voltage, the diode will be reverse biased and the flow of current will be blocked. So only the positive half cycles will be obtained across the load. i.e. the diode conduct current only during the positive half cycle of AC input and does not conduct during negative half cycle. This is called half wave rectification Efficiency: The efficiency is defined as the ration output DC power to the input AC power Pac Pac Theoretical value of efficiency of Full Wave Rectifier is 40.5% Peak Inverse Voltage: The peak inverse voltage is the maximum voltage that n can a diode withstand without destruction when reverse bias is applied to it. PIV = Vn RMS Value of Load Current |r rms ruvoauenra.scretecrmca. aciecrronis excneennatan [BEY © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery Average Value of Load Current leog == Form factor RMS Value _ Vins Avg. Value Vavg Form Factor = Ripple factor: Ripple Factor gives the information about how a HWR can transform input AC voltage to output DC voltage. It is given by V, Ripple factor = ( ) Vavg The theoretical value of ripple factor for Full Wave Rectifier is 1.21 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM Load Primary J L Secondary Step-down Transformer FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LAB © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery RESOURCES REQUIRED SL. No. | Name of resource | Suggested specification | Quantity 1 CRO 0-20 MHz(Dual Trace) | 1 2 DC Voltmeter | 0-20V To 3 DC Ammeter 0-200mA Tho 4 Breadboard 5 Transformer 220V/9V AV, 500mA_ | Ino 6 Diode TN4001 Tho 7 Resistor 1KQ Tho 8 Connecting wires | Single strand 9 CRO probes 2 no. PROCEDURE 1. Connect the electronic circuit of Half Wave Rectifier on breadboard as shown in the diagram 2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to AC mains. Connect the CRO probes across the secondary and measure Vin.» appearing across the diode. Now connect the probes across the load resistor. 3. Keep CRO in DC mode, adjust the zero-de level and measure the accurately the peak value of input voltage (Vin). 4. Trace the waveforms. 5. Calculate the average or de value of voltage and frequency of output waveform. 6. Using a DC voltmeter, measure the DC voltage across the load resistance (Vac). ruvpauenra.scretzcrmca. aciecrronis excneennatan [PU © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery 7. Measure the AC voltage across the load resistance by setting multimeter to AC mode (Vx). 8. Calculate the ripple factor. MPLE WAVEFORMS Ye OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS Load Input signal Output signal Vac | Vac | Ripple resistance Vinp- | Frequency | Vom | Frequency (V) | (V) | factor (Ri) » (V) | (Hz) ec) FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LAB © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery RESULTS Successfully implemented a half wave rectifier and obtained the parameters given below Vade calculated 7 Ripple factor calculated = FERENCE REFERENCES SL. Text Book/ Author — | Publication No. Website ‘Applied RS 1 ‘S. Chand and Co., New Delhi Electronics Sedha_ _btips://www.tutorialspoint.com/half-wave- rectifier 2 | Web references * _htips:/iwww.electrical4u.com/half-wave- rectifiers! FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LAB © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery DATE: EXPERIMENT 12 FULL WAVE RECTIFIER AIM Design a full wave rectifier circuit and analyse the waveforms THEORY Rectifier is a diode circuit which is used to transform Alternating Voltage (AC Supply) to Direct Voltage (DC Supply). Full Wave Rectifier also produces a pulsating DC output just as Half Wave Rectifier. A rectifier circuit whose transformer secondary is tapped to get the desired output voltage, using two diodes alternatively, to rectify the complete cycle is called as a Center-tapped Full wave rectifier circuit. The center-tapped full wave rectifier uses a center-tapped transformer to convert the input AC voltage into output DC voltage, When input AC voltage is applied, the secondary winding of the center-tapped transformer divides this input AC voltage into two parts: positive and negative. During the positive half cycle of the input AC signal, terminal A become positive, terminal B become negative and center-tap is grounded (zero volts) The positive terminal A is connected to the p-side of the diode D1 and the negative terminal B is connected to the n-side of the diode D1. So the diode D1 is forward biased during the positive half cycle and allows electric current through it. On the other hand, the negative terminal B is connected to the p- side of the diode D2 and the positive terminal A is connected to the n-side of the diode D2. So the diode D2 is reverse biased during the positive half cycle and does not allow electric current through it. The diode D1 supplies DC current to the load RL. The DC current produced at the load R,, will return to the secondary winding through a center-tap ruvpatenra.scretgcrmca. aciecrronis exaneennatae BBY © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery During the negative half cycle of the input AC signal, terminal A become negative, terminal B become positive and center-tap is grounded (zero volts). The negative terminal A is connected to the p-side of the diode D1 and the positive terminal B is connected to the n-side of the diode D1. So, the diode DI is reverse biased during the negative half cycle and does not allow electric current through it. On the other hand, the positive terminal B is connected to the p-side of the diode D2 and the negative terminal A is connected to the n- side of the diode D2. So, the diode D2 is forward biased during the negative half cycle and allows electric current through it. The diode D2 supplies DC current to the load Ry. The DC current produced at the load Ry will return to the secondary winding through a center-tap. Efficiency: The efficiency is defined as the ration output DC power to the input AC power. Pac Pre Theoretical value of efficiency of Full Wave Rectifier is 81.2% n Peak Inverse Voltage: The peak inverse voltage is the maximum voltage that can a diode withstand without destruction when reverse bias is applied to it. PIV= 2m 1S Value of Load Current Im tems = a z Average Value of Load Current tavg = Form factor RMS Value _ V, Avg. Value Vang Form Factor = ruvpatenra.scretecrmca. aeiecrronis exaneenna.aa EMM © scanned ith oxen scar‘State Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery Ripple factor: Ripple Factor gives the information about how a HWR can transform input AC voltage to output DC voltage. It is given by V, Ripple factor = ( ) Vavg The theoretical value of ripple factor for Full Wave Rectifier is 0.482 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM D RESOURCES REQUIRED SI. No. | Name of resource | Suggested specification | Quantity 1 CRO, 0-20 MHz (Dual Trace) I Z Breadboard I no. 3 Digital Multimeter | 3 “4 DMM. I no. 4 Transformer 220V/12-0-12V AV, 500mA | | no. 5 Diode IN4001 2 no. 6 Resistor 1KQ I no. 7 Connecting wires | Single strand 8 CRO probes Ino. ruvpatenra.scretecrmca. aeiecrronis exaneennataa PY © scanned wih one scaneSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery PROCEDURE 1. Connect the electronic circuit of Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier on breadboard as shown in the diagram, 2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to AC mains. Connect the CRO probes across the secondary and measure Vip.» appearing across the diode. Now connect the probes across the load resistor. 3. Keep CRO in DC mode, adjust the zero-de level and measure the accurately the peak value of input voltage (Vin). 4. Trace the waveforms. 5. Calculate the average or de value of voltage and frequency of output waveform, 6. Using aDC voltmeter, measure the DC voltage across the load resistance (Vac) 7. Measure the AC voltage across the load resistance by setting multimeter to AC mode (Vac) 8. Calculate the ripple factor. SAMPLE WAVEFORMS a Rectified Output Waveform ruvpauenra.scretecrmca. aeiecrronis exaneennatae BEY © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS Load Input signal Output signal Vac | Vac | Ripple resistance Vinp. | Frequency | Voma | Frequency (V) | (V) | factor (Ri) p (V) | (Hz) (V) | (Hz) RESULTS Successfully implemented a half wave rectifier and obtained the parameters given below Vie calculated = Ripple factor calculated = INFERENCE ruvpatenra.scretecrmca. aeiecrronis exaneennatae EI © scanned wih oKEnscamerREFERENCES Slate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery SI. | Text Book/ Author | Publication No. | Website Applied [RS 1 S. Chand and Co., New Delhi Electronics | Sedha Basic VK 2 S. Chand and Co., New Delhi Electronics | Mehta © https/vww physics-and-radio- electronics.com/electronic-devices-an circuits/rectifier/fullwaverectifier html Web 3 © hups:/Avww eircuitstoday com/centre-tap-full- references wave-rectifier © btips/www.electricaldu.com/full-wave- rectifiers! ruvpauenra.scretecrmca. aeiecrronis exaneennatae BEY © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery DATE: EXPERIMENT 13 RECTIFIER WITH FILTER AIM Design half wave and full wave rectifiers with filter and analyse the waveforms. THEORY A rectifier is a circuit which converts AC signal to pulsating DC signal. Since it is pulsating, it contains both AC and DC components. To convert it to more DC signal, rectifiers are always followed by filter circuits which converts pulsating DC to pure DC by eliminating the AC components. The filter is one type of electronic device mainly used to perform signal processing. The main function of this filter is to allow the ac components and blocks the de components of the load. The filter circuit output will be a stable de voltage. The construction of a filter circuit can be done with the basic electronic components like resistors, inductors, and capacitors, There are different types of filters available namely LPF (low pass filter), BPF (bandpass filter), HPF (high pass filter), capacitor filter, etc. The main function of the capacitor, as well as an inductor in this circuit, is, a capacitor allows the ac and blocks the de, whereas an inductor permits only DC components to supply and blocks ac. Half Wave Rectifier with Capacitor Filter The main function of half wave rectifier is to change the AC (Altemating Current) into DC (Direct Current), However, the acquired output DC is not pure and it is an exciting DC. To overcome this problem and to get a smooth DC, there will be solutions namely filter. ruvoatenra.scretecrmca. aeiecrronis exaneennatae BE © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery Whenever AC voltage is applied to the circuit throughout the positive half cycle, then the diode lets the flow of current through it. We know that the capacitor gives high-resistive lane to DC components as well as low-resistive lane to AC components. The flow of current always chooses to supply through a low resistance lane. So, when the flow of current gets the filter, the ac components experience a low-resistance and de components experience a high- resistance from the capacitor. The DC components flow through the load resistor. Throughout the conduction time, the capacitor gets charged to the highest value of the voltage supply. As the voltage among the two plates of the capacitor is equivalent to the voltage supply, then it is said to be completely charged. When it gets charged then it holds the supply until the supply of input AC toward the rectifier achieves the negative half cycle. Once the rectifier reaches to negative half cycle, the diode acquires reverse biased & stops letting the flow of current through it. Throughout this, the supply voltage is low then the voltage of a capacitor. Thus, the capacitor releases all the stored current through the Ry. This stops the output load voltage from falling to nil Once the rectifier reaches the positive half cycle, then the diode acquires forward biased & allows the flow of current to make the capacitor charge again The capacitor filter through a huge discharge will generate an extremely smooth DC voltage. Therefore, a smooth DC voltage can be attained with this filter. Full Rectifier with Capacitor Filter In the full wave rectifier circuit using a capacitor filter, the capacitor C is located across the Ri load resistor. The working of this rectifier is almost the same as a half wave rectifier. The only dissimilarity is half wave rectifier has just one-half cycles (positive or negative) whereas in full wave rectifier has two cycles (positive and negative). runpauenra.scretgcrmca. ariecrronis excneennatan EU © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery Once the input AC voltage is applied throughout the positive half cycle, then the D1 diode gets forward biased and permits flow of current while the D2 diode gets reverse biased & blocks the flow of current. Throughout the above half cycle, the current in the DI diode gets the filter and energizes the capacitor. But the capacitor charging will occur just when the voltage which is applied is superior to the capacitor voltage. Firstly, the capacitor will not charge, as no voltage will stay among the capacitor plates. So, when the voltage is switched on, then the capacitor will get charged immediately Throughout this transmission time, the capacitor gets charged to the highest value of the input voltage supply. The capacitor includes a highest charge at the quarter waveform in the positive half cycle. At this end, the voltage supply is equivalent to the voltage of the capacitor, Once the AC voltage begins falling & turns into less than the voltage of the capacitor, after that the capacitor begins discharging gradually. As the input AC voltage supply gets the negative half-cycle, then the D1 diode gets reverse biased but the D2 diode is forward biased. Throughout the negative half cycle, the flow of current in the second diode gets the filter to charge the capacitor. But the capacitor charging occurs simply while the applied AC voltage is superior to the voltage of the capacitor The capacitor in the circuit is not charged fully, so the charging of this does not occur instantly. Once the voltage supply becomes superior to the voltage of the capacitor, the capacitor gets charging. In both the half cycles, the flow of current will be in the similar direction across the R, load resistor. Thus, we acquire either whole positive half cycle otherwise negative half cycle. In this case, we can get the total positive half eycle. ruvpauenra.scretgcrmca. aeiecrronis exaneennataa BEY © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery CIRCUIT DIAGRAM Half Wave Rectifier with Capacitor Filter ¥ pc AC | RL hs ip c F RESOURCES REQUIRED SI. No. [Name of resource | Suggested specification | Quantity 1 CRO 0-20 MHz (Dual Trace) 1 2 Breadboard Tho. 3 Digital Multimeter | 3 4 DMM Tho. 4 ‘Transformer 220V/12-0-12V AV, 500mA | T no. 3 Diode IN4001 2 no. 6 Resistor 1KQ Tho. 7 Capacitor 2.2uF Tho. 8 Connecting wires | Single strand 9 CRO probes 2no. ruvpatenra.scretecrmca. aeiecrronis exaneennaiae BEY © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery PROCEDURE Half Wave Rectifier 1. Connect the electronic circuit of Half Wave Rectifier on breadboard as shown in the Figure 1 2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to AC mains. Connect the CRO probes across the secondary and measure Vip.» appearing across the diode. Now connect the probes across the load resistor. 3. Keep CRO in DC mode, adjust the zero de level and measure the accurately the peak value of input voltage (Vin). 4. Trace the waveforms across load resistor Ry. 5. Measure the peak-to-peak ripple volage by keeping the CRO in AC mode. 6. Replace with a lower and higher value capacitor and observe the change in the ripple voltage Full Wave Rectifier 1. Connect the electronic circuit of Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier on breadboard as shown in the Figure 2. 2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to AC mains. Connect the CRO probes across the secondary and measure Vip.» appearing across the diode. Now connect the probes across the load resistor. 3. Keep CRO in DC mode, adjust the zero de level and measure the accurately the peak value of input voltage (Via) 4. Trace the waveforms across load resistor Ri. 5. Measure the peak-to-peak ripple volage by keeping the CRO in AC mode. 6. Replace with a lower and higher value capacitor and observe the change in the ripple voltage 7. Compare the waveforms of Half Wave Rectifier with filter with Full Wave Rectifier with filter. ruvpauenra.scretecrmca. aciecrronics excneennataa [BB © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery SAMPLE WAVEFORMS Half Wave Rectifier with Capacitor Filter ruvoauenra.scretecrmca. aeiecrronis excneennaiaa [PU © scanned with omen camerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS Ripple | Input signal ‘Output signal Load | Capacitance | peak Rectifier type _| resistance | Value to Frequency | Vena: | Frequency (Ri) © peak » (Hz) (vy) | ay Vern Half Wave Rectifier: Measure the DC component in the output without filter = Measure the DC component in the output with filter = V. Full Wave Rectifier: Measure the DC component in the output without filter = Measure the DC component in the output with filter = V. ruvpauenra.scretecrmca. aciecrronis excneenina tan [BBY © scanned ith oxen scarRI Successfully implemented a half wave rectifier and full TS Slate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery filter and obtained the parameters given below, Rectifier type Capacitor value Ripple Peak to Peak value Half Wave Rectifier Full Wave Rectifier wave rectifier with INFERENCE REFERENCES sl Text Book/ Author | Publication No. | Website Applied RS. 1 S. Chand and Co., New Delhi Electronics | Sedha Basic VK 2 S. Chand and Co, New Delhi Electronics| Mehta © https://www.elprocus.com/half-wave-and- full-wave-rectifier-with-capacitor-filter/ Web 3 © hups://www electronies- references tutorials ws/power/single-phase- rectification html FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LAB © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery DATE: EXPERIMENT 14 FULL WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER AIM Design a full wave bridge rectifier and analyse the waveforms THEORY We can define bridge rectifiers as a type of full-wave rectifier that uses four or more diodes in a bridge circuit configuration to efficiently convert alternating (AC) current to a direct (DC) current. The bridge rectifier circuit is made of four diodes D1, D2, D3, D4, and a load resistor RL. The four diodes are connected in a closed-loop configuration to efficiently convert the alternating current (AC) into Direct Current (DC). The main advantage of this configuration is the absence of the expensive center- tapped transformer. Therefore, the size and cost are reduced. The input signal is applied across terminals A and B and the output DC signal is obtained across the load resistor RL connected between terminals C and D. The four diodes are arranged in such a way that only two diodes conduct electricity during each half cycle. DI and D2 are pairs that conduct electric current during the positive half cycle. Likewise, diodes D4 and D3 conduct electric current during a negative half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown below During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but diodes D1 and D2 switch “OFF” as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load is the same direction as before. As the current FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LAB © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across the load is also unidirectional. Efficiency: The efficiency is defined as the ration output DC power to the input AC power. Pie © Pac Theoretical value of efficiency of Full Wave Rectifier is 81.2% Peak Inverse Voltage: The peak inverse voltage is the maximum voltage that can a diode withstand without destruction when reverse bias is applied to it. PIV = Vn RMS Value of Load Current Im Inns = v2 Average Value of Load Current 21, Tavg = = Form factor RMS Value _ Vins Form Factor = Avg. Value Vavg Ripple factor: Ripple Factor gives the information about how a HWR can transform input AC voltage to output DC voltage. It is given by Ripple factor = ( The theoretical value of ripple factor for Full Wave Rectifier is 0.482 ruvoauenra.scretzcrmca. aciecrronis excneennatan [BEY © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery CIRCUIT DIAGRAM Mt Dy ai Se ¢ [| vs NF Y RESOURCES REQUIRED SL. No. | Name of resource | Suggested specification | Quantity 1 CRO. 0-20 MHz (Dual Trace) | 1 2 Breadboard Ino. 3 Digital Multimeter | 3 % DMM Ino 4 Transformer 220V/12V AV, 500mA | I no 5 Diode 1N4001 4no. 6 Resistor 10KQ Ino 7 Connecting wires | Single strand 8 CRO probes 2no PROCEDURE 1. Connect the electronic circuit of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier on breadboard as shown in the diagram 2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to AC mains. Connect the CRO probes across the secondary and measure Vip.» appearing across the diode. Now connect the probes across the load resistor. 3. Keep CRO in DC mode, adjust the zero-de level and measure the accurately the peak value of input voltage (Vin). 4. Trace the waveforms. ruvoauenra.scretzcrmca. aeiecrronics excneennatan [BBY © scanned ith oxen scarSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery 5. Using CRO measure the maximum voltage Vn of the AC input voltage (at anode) of the rectifier and AV voltage (at the cathode) at the output of the rectifier. 6. Calculate the average or de value of voltage and frequency of output waveform. 7. Measure the AC voltage across the load resistance by setting multimeter to AC mode (Vix). 8. Calculate the ripple factor SAMPLE WAVEFORMS Aw pe AC Supe = 2 es Rectified Output Waveform OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS Load Input signal Output signal Vue | Vue | Ripple resistance Viap- | Frequency | Vomax | Frequency (V) | (V) | factor (Ri) p (V) | (Hz) (V) | (Hz) valk Cn Vin Vems = v2 ruvoauenra.scretzcrmca. aciecrronis excneenna tan [PU © scanned ith oxen scarSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery DATE: EXPERIMENT 15 FULL WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER WITH FILTER AIM Design a full wave bridge rectifier with filter and analyse the waveforms THEORY The filtered Full Wave Rectifier with filter is made by adding a capacitor across the output. The result of addition of a capacitor is a smoothing of the Full Wave Rectifier output. Rectifier output is a pulsating DC with a peak to peak variation alled ripple. The magnitude of ripple depends on the input voltage magnitude and frequency, filter capacitance and load resistance. The smoothing capacitor converts the Full Wave Rectifier output into smooth de voltage. A high value capacitor C is placed directly across the output terminals, as shown in figure. During the conduction period capacitor gets charged and during non- conduction period it discharges. The time duration taken by capacitor C to get charged to peak value is negligible because there is no resistance (except the negligible forward resistance of diode) in the charging path. But the discharging time is quite large (roughly 100 times more than the charging time depending upon the value of Rx) because it discharges through load resistance Ri. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM ov AC WP Supply Mt ruvoauenra.scretgcrmca. aeiecrronis excneeninatan [BB © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery RESOURCES REQUIRED SI. No. | Name of resource | Suggested specification | Quantity 1 CRO 0-20 MHz(Dual Trace)_| 1 2 Breadboard To 3 Digital Multimeter | 3 DMM Tno q Transformer 220V/12V AC, 500mA | T no 3 Diode TN4001 tno 6 Resistor 10K To 7 Capacitor 2.2F Tno 8 Connecting wires | Single strand 9 CRO probes 2n0 PROCEDURE 1. Connect the electronic circuit of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier on breadboard as shown in the Figure 2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to AC mains. Connect the CRO probes across the secondary and measure Vinp-y appearing across the diode. Now connect the probes across the load resistor. 3. Keep CRO in DC mode, adjust the zero-de level and measure the accurately the peak value of input voltage (Vin). 4. Trace the waveforms across load resistor Ri. 5. Measure the peak-to-peak ripple volage by keeping the CRO in AC mode. 6. Replace with a lower and higher value capacitor and observe the change in the ripple voltage FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LAB |) © scanned ith oxen scarSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery SAMPLE WAVEFORMS Full Wave Rectifier with Capacitor Filter OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS Ripple | Input signal ‘Output signal Load Capacitance Rectifier peak to resistance | Value Vinp-p | Frequency | Vomax | Frequency type peak ; Ry © . mo ja (vy) | ty Vere FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LAB © scanned wih one scaneSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery Measure the DC component in the output without filter = V. Measure the DC component in the output with filter = V. RESULTS Successfully implemented a half wave rectifier and full wave rectifier with filter and obtained the parameters given below. Capacitor value | Ripple Peak to Peak value ERENCE REFERENCES Si. | Text Book’ Author | Publication No. | Website Applied RS 1 8. Chand and Co , New Delhi Electronies | Sedha Basic VK. 2 S. Chand and Co., New Delhi Electronics | Mehta © https:/www physies-and-radio-electronies com/electronic- 3 |we devices-and-circuits/rectifier/bridgereetifierwithfilter html references + https:/wwwwallaboutcircuits comtextbook/experiments/chpt- S/rectifier-filter-circuit! FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LAB © scanned ith oxen scarSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery DATE: EXPERIMENT 16 VOTAGE REGULATOR USING REGULATOR IC AIM Design a voltage regulator using regulator IC and analyse the performance THEORY IC 78XX is positive series of regulators. For ICs within the 78XX family, the XX is replaced with two digits, indicating the output voltage. For example, 7805 is a5 volt output, while the 7812 produces 12 volts. The LM78XX series of three terminal regulators is available with several fixed output voltages making them useful in a wide range of applications. The LM78XX series is available in an aluminium TO-3 package which will allow over 1.0A load current if adequate heat sinking is provided. Current limiting is included to limit the peak output current to a safe value. Safe area protection for the output transistor is provided to limit internal power dissipation. If internal power dissipation becomes too high for the heat sinking provided, the thermal shutdown circuit takes over preventing the IC from overheating. Voltage ranges are LM7805 — SV; LM7812 — 12V; LM7815 — 15V. The LM79XX series of 3-terminal regulators is available with fixed output voltages of SV, 8V, 12V and 15V. These devices need only one external component, i.¢., compensation capacitor at the output. The LM79XxX series is packaged in the TO-220 power package and is capable of supplying 1.5A of output current ruvpauenra.scretecrmca. aeiecrronis exaneenna tan [BBY © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery CIRCUIT DIAGRAM Positive voltage regulator Pin Diagram of LM7805 LM7805_as_ Positive voltage regulator iweut oureur 3% OnE Negative voltage regulator Pin Diagram of LM7905 LM7905 as Negative voltage regulator cet 1k INPUT O LM79xxCT O output FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LAB © scanned wih one scaneSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery RESOURCES REQUIRED Sl. Name of Suggested specification Quantity No. | resource M7805 is a micro SMD package Output voltage tolerance of +5% over 1C7805, 7812, 1 the temperature range leach 7815 Output current of 100mA. Internal thermal overload protection Thermal, short circuit and safe area protection 2 1C7905, 7912, Hich f — igh ripple rejection eacl 7915 igh ripple re} 1.SA output current 4% tolerance on output voltage Digital 3 . 3'4DMM 1 multimeter 4 Voltmeter 0-20 V I no. 5 Breadboard General purpose Tno 6 | Capacitors O.01nF, 0,33 HF, 22 pF, | pF Teach PROCEDURE 1. Connect the circuit on the breadboard. Apply the unregulated DC input to the circuit Measure input voltage with multimeter or voltmeter. Measure output voltage with multimeter or voltmeter wk wn Increase the input voltage and observe that the output voltage remains unchanged ruvpauenra.screizcrmca. aciecrronis excneennatan [BEY © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS Positive voltage regulator 7805 7812 7815 Sl. | Input Output | Input Output | Input Output No. | DC DC Dc DC DC DC voltage | voltage |voltage | voltage | voltage | voltage 1 2 a 4 5 Negative voltage regulator 7905 7912 7915 SL [Input [Output [Input [Output [Input — | Output No. | DC DC pc DC DC DC voltage | voltage voltage | voltage | voltage | voltage 1 2 3 a 3 RESULTS ruvoauenra.scretecrmca. aciecrronics excneenia tan [BB © scanned ith oxen scarSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery INFERENCE REFERENCES Si] Text Book? Author | Publication No. | Website (Op-Amps and pane Ramakant Linear 1 A Pearson Education, Fourth Edition, 2015 Integrated Gayakwad Circuits D Roy Linear Choudhury, 2 Integrated New Age International Publishers, 2018 Shail B Circuits Jain * _ https:/;www electronicsforu com/technology- trends/learn-electronics/7805-ic-voltage- regulator 3 Web references + htips:/ivww electrical4u.com/voltaze- regulator-7805/ © https://turbofuture com/industrial/IC-79xx- Negative-Voltage-Regulator FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LAB © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery DATE: EXPERIMENT 17 FAMILIARIZATION OF LOGIC GATES AIM Familiarize the truth table of different logic gates. THEORY Circuit that takes the logical decision and the process are called logic gates Each gate has one or more input and only one output OR, AND and NOT are basic gates. NAND, NOR and X-OR are known as universal gates. Basic gates form these gates AND GATE: ‘The AND gate performs logical multiplication more commonly known as AND operation. The AND gate output will be in high state only when all the inputs are in high state. IC 7408 is a digital IC in the TTL family and contains four AND gates. For this reason, it is called a quad two input AND gate. Every AND gate has two inputs, in this Dual-in-Line package (DIP). Pin 14 is the supply pin. For standard TTL devices to work properly, the supply voltage level must be between +4.75 and +2.75. This is why +5V is the nominal supply voltage specified for all TTL devices. Pin 7 is the common ground for the chip. The other pins are input and output. OR GATE: The OR gate performs a logical addition commonly known as OR function The output is high when any one of the inputs is high. The output is low level when both the inputs are low. IC 7432 is a quad two input OR gate. ruvpauenra.scretzcrmca. aciecrronis excneennatan [BB © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery NOT GATE: The NOT gate is called an inverter. The output is high when the input is low. The output is low when the input is high. The purpose of the inverter is to change one logic level to opposite level. IC 7404 is a hex inverter NAND GATE: The NAND gate is a contraction of AND-NOT. The output is high when both inputs are low and any one of the inputs is low. The output is low level when both inputs are high. IC 7400 is a quad 2 input NAND gate NOR GATE. The NOR gate is a contraction of OR-NOT. The output is high when both inputs are low. The output is low when one or both inputs are high. IC 7402 is a quad 2 input NOR gate. EX-OR GATE: ‘The output is high when any one of the inputs is high. The output is low when both the inputs are low and both the inputs are high. Its output will be high if and only if one input is in high state. IC 7486 is a quad 2 input EX-OR gate ruvpauenra.scretzcrmca. aciecrronics excneennatan [BB © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery RESOURCES REQUIRED SI [Name of Suggested specification Quantity No. | resource ,_ [PisitalIc DIGITAL IC RANGE: 74 series of | | no. Tester TIL ICs DC power 2 +5V fixed power supply Ino. supply 3 [Breadboard [| 5.5emx 17cm Tno. 4 Ic 7408,7432,7404,7400,7402, 7486 Teach 5 [LED Red/Yellow, 5mm Ino. Connecting - As 6 Single strand 0.6mm wires needed 7 [Resistors 3302 Tno. PROCEDURE 1. Identify pin configuration of logic gate IC7408 and test with digital IC tester to ensure that the gates are properly working 2. Make the connections as per the figure on breadboard and give supply voltage to relevant pin as per logic level. 3. Observe whether the LED is ON or OFF for all four input combinations as per the truth table. 4. Verify the truth table 5. Repeat the process for 1C7432.7404,7400,7402,7486. FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LA [ut © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery PRACTICAL CIRCUIT DIAGRAM LOGIC GATE IC INTERNAL DIAGRAM AND GATE, SYMBOL: PIN DIAGRAM: A 1 vee 414 B 74080 2 ; 8 TRUTH TABLE ‘ 12 A B AB 2 in 7 o folio ‘ 4 = 5 of 1 | o 5 i + [ol] o 9 i 1 4 8 s{ zheng Cs ruvpauenra.scretecrmca. aeiecrronis exaneennatae BE © scanned ith oxen scarSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery OR GATE. SYMBOL: PIN DIAGRAM: a Feats ——— i Veo 414 B “7432 2 rm : é 12 2 7 TRUTH TABLE a 4 nt sly LI 3 ho aA _| 6 | aw 3 o a o 2 o 1 1 . 4 9 4 7/-Gna 8 1 1 1 NOT GATE: SYMBOL: PIN DIAGRAM: 4 1 Veo 414 “ Ly i ts 3 c 12 7 1 A Y TRUTH TABLE : 7 0 Ho 4 9 ot y o 1 3 4 0 7}-Gna ruvoauenra.scretgcrmca. aeiecrronis exaneennatan EB © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery EX-OR GATE SYMBOL : PIN DIAGRAM : Y= AB+AB B veo 414 *aeen ; . 1 3 TRUTH TABLE: c 12 7 B [ABI AB yt ? 0 : . . 4 Ch 1 0 1 Oo 8 . 1 1 o 6 sf Gnd 8 2-INPUT NAND GATE: SYMBOL: PIN DIAGRAM: Vv 1 vee 714 aw 1 13 12 ‘TRUTH TABLE W c 3 7 a | 8 | me 4 4 ran o | o 1 5 ol 1 . ie 1 1 : . ri4 o et UJ 7}Gnd Us ruvpauenra.scretgcrmca. aiecrronis excneennataa ERE © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery 2-INPUT NOR GATE: SYMBOL: PIN DIAGRAM: al Vee 14 ' roe 2 c 3 ee it 12 TRUTH TABLE 4 4 1 A | 8 | me ° ya ojo 1 5 : o [4 1 ‘ on 1 | o 4 8 1 | 4 0 7+Gnd 8 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS Top 1CHO8 1782 e708 C700 1c 702 e786 ‘apa up foupa {ier fou {rep Joupe fur — Joupe fue — [oupe |ue> | Vatawe vy A Ja | sue | votage | stu — | votage | situs | votuge | situs | votage | sixos | Vole | stave coworr) fv) | oworm Jey [eoxorm |e — | onorr | (wf onorr |v» | concer) ov) | ov) o fi ow | ow 1 fo ov | ov vfa oy) | ow FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LAB © scanned wih oKEnscamerSlate Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Kalamassery RESULTS INFERENCE REFEREN Sl] Text Book/ No. | Website Author | Publication Modern’ RP 1 | Digital ; McGraw Hill Edition, Fourth Edition, 2009 jain Electronics Fundamentals | A 2 | of Digital Anand _ | PHI, Fourth Edition, 2016 Circuits Kumar © htips/www electronics: tutorials ws/logie/logic_1 html 5 [we © https://learnabout-electronics org/Digital/dig?1_php references © https:/www eselectricalandelectronics com/different- types-of-logic-gates- working/ numbers-table-diagram- FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LAB © scanned ith oxen scar