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INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
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cal picture below was deduced from the
 INTRODUCTION TO
GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

MILTON B. DOBRIN
Triad Oil Co. Ltd.
Calgary, Alberta, Canada

SECOND EDITION

MeGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.

New York Toronto London
1960
 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

Copyright © 1960 by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. Copy-

right, 1952, by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. Printed in
the United States of America. All rights reserved. This boot, or
parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form without permission
of the publishers. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 59-11928

5 6789 10 ll-MP-987 6

17194

THE MAPLE PRESS COMPANY, YORK, PA.

 PREFACE

In the eight years since the first edition of " Introduction to Geo-
physical Prospecting" was published, there have been more extensive
technical advances in the field of geophysical exploration than in any
similar period since the earliest years of the art.The changes in many
branches of the subject have been so far-reaching that a large part of the
original text has had to be completely rewritten for the second edition.
The remainder has been thoroughly revised with a view both to modern-
izing the subject matter and improving clarity and readability.
The first edition of the book, as indicated in its preface, was intended
mainly for four groups of readers: (1) students of geology and mining
who expect to enter the field of petroleum or mineral exploration; (2)
professional geologists, mining engineers, or executives engaged in explora-
tion, whose work involves contact with geophysics and who feel the need
for further instruction in the subject; (3) professional geophysicists who
desire a broader view phases of geophysical exploration, particularly
of all
those outside their own field of specialization and (4) students preparing
;

for a career in geophysics, who want a general survey of geophysical

prospecting as an introduction to their more advanced and more special-
ized courses in the subject. Although the second edition was written
with the same groups in mind, the needs of the practicing geophysicist
have now been given greater attention. The current literature on
exploration geophysics has become so voluminous that it is difficult for
many engaged in this field to keep abreast of new developments. A
properly organized resume in nonmathematical form of recent advances
in the various geophysical techniques, along with references to the most
useful and accessible papers, should be helpful to those who may have
difficulty in keeping up with original sources. It is hoped that this
edition will provide such guidance to professional geophysicists as well
as to students.
The chapters on seismic prospecting, particularly those on instrumenta-
tion and on reflection and refraction techniques, have been substantially
enlarged to provide proper coverage of new developments. The discus-
sions of gravity interpretation, aeromagnetic prospecting, and electrical
vi
PREFACE

prospecting have also been augmented. A new chapter, which may turn
out to be rather controversial, has been added on coordination of geology
and geophysics with particular reference to reflection prospecting.
In order to accommodate this additional material it has been necessary
to delete the last three chapters of the previous edition. These chapters,
on well logging, radio position location for geophysical work, and geo-
physical research, were looked upon as being less directly related to geo-

physical prospecting than the remaining chapters. The decision to

delete the chapter on well logging was made with particular regret because
this one of the most important applications of geophysics. However,
is

several very good elementary treatments of well-logging methods have

recently become available. Among these are Pirson's "Oil Reservoir
Engineering" (2d ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1958), Haun
and LeRoy's " Subsurface Geology in Petroleum Exploration" (Colorado
School of Mines, 1958), and the new Schlumberger manual entitled
" Document No. 8." Moreover, knowledge in this field has grown to
such an extent that it is impossible even to summarize it adequately in
a single short chapter.
The sequence in which the various major methods are discussed has
been changed with respect to the first edition in that the seismic methods
are now taken up first. This change is in recognition of the dominant
position that seismic prospecting now occupies in geophysical exploration
from the standpoint of expenditure and of personnel engaged.
Acknowledgment is again made to all those who assisted with the first
edition, although the list of their names, because of its length, will not
be repeated here. In addition, I am indebted to Dr. W. B. Agocs of Aero
Service Corporation; Drs. N. R. Paterson and A. K. Mousuf of Hunting
Airborne Geophysics, Ltd. Dr. Kenneth L. Cook of the University of
;

Utah; Mr. R. B. Ross of British American Oil Co., Ltd.; and Dr. T. C.
Richards, Mr. D. J. Walker, Mr. W. G. Rimmer, Mr. D. L. Barss, Dr.
E. W. and Dr. P. E. Kent of Triad Oil Co. Ltd. for comments and
Best,
which were useful to me in revising the original text. The
criticisms
many organizations which provided illustrative material are noted indi-
vidually in the figure captions, although special acknowledgment should
be made to Triad Oil Co. Ltd. for its contributions in this respect.
My wife, Stefanie Z. Dobrin, who wrote the chapter on prospecting
for radioactive minerals in the first edition, has revised it quite
thoroughly
and has enlarged somewhat. This expansion was necessary in view
it

of the increased activity and interest in this field which has

resulted
from the great strides that have now been made toward the commercial
exploitation of atomic energy. I am most grateful to her for this assist-
ance and for help of many other kinds.
Milton B. Dobrin
 CONTENTS

Preface

1. Introduction

Geophysics in the Oil Industry. Geophysics in Mining Exploration.

Relationship between Exploration Geophysics and the Basic Sciences.
The Methods of Geophysical Prospecting. The Literature of Applied
Geophysics. Brief Histories of Geophysical Methods.

2. Seismic Wave Propagation 16

The Elastic Constants. Elastic Waves. Attenuation, Reflection, and

Refraction. Principle of the Seismograph.

3. Earthquakes and the Structure of the Earth 31

Observational Data on Earthquakes. Paths of Earthquake Waves. Loca-

tion of Epicentersand Determination of Earthquake Times. The Earth's
Internal Structure as Deduced from Earthquake Evidence. The Earth's
Crustal Structure as Deduced from Earthquake Evidence.

4. Seismic Instruments and Seismic Surveys 40

Instruments Used in Seismic Prospecting. Seismic Operations on Land.
Seismic Operations in Water-covered Areas. High-resolution Techniques.
Surface Sources of Seismic Energy.

5. The Seismic Refraction Method 69

Wave Paths and Time-distance Relations for Horizontal Layers. Con-

tinuous Change of Speed with Depth. Refraction Shooting across a Fault.
Dipping Beds. Delay Times. Refraction Operations in the Field.
Refraction Records; First and Second Events. Shot and Detector Arrange-
ments in Common Use. Corrections Used in Refraction Interpretation.
Detailing Salt Domes by Refraction.

6. The Seismic Reflection Method 105

Geometry Paths for Horizontal Interfaces. Reflection from

of Reflection
Dipping Interfaces. Reflection Records. Choice of Shooting Procedures.
Determination of Average Velocity. Corrections Used in Reduction of
Reflection Records. Plotting and Mapping of Reflection Data. Multiple
Reflections and "Ghosts." Shot and Detector Patterns.

7. Interpretation and Geologic Coordination of Reflection Data 143

The Meaning of Interpretation. The Origin of Reflections. Geologic

Aspects of the Reflection Process in the Earth. Use of Velocity Informa-
VIII CONTENTS
Data with Geology. Correlation of Seismic
tion in Coordinating Reflection
Data with Surface and Subsurface Geology. Seismic Mapping of Strati-
graphic Features. Administrative Aspects of Geological-Geophysical
Coordination.

8. Fundamental Principles of Gravity Prospecting 169

Newton's Law of Gravitational Attraction. Application of Newton's Law

toMasses with Large Dimensions. Gradients and Curvatures.

9. The Earth's Gravity and the Concept of Isostasy .184

The Figure of the Earth. Reduction of Gravity to the Geoid. The Con-
cept of Isostasy. Gravitational Evidence for Isostasy. Earth Tides.

10. Instruments for Measuring Gravity 200

The Eotvos Torsion Balance. The Pendulum. The Gravimeter.

11. Gravity Field Measurements and Reductions 218

Measurement of Gravity on Land. Measurement of Gravity in Water-

covered Areas. Determination of Densities. Reductions of Gravity Data.
Some Gravity Results over Known Geologic Structures.

12. The Interpretation of Gravity Data 242

Isolation of Residual Gravity Effects. Choice of Density. Determining
Subsurface Structure from Gravity Data.

13. Magnetic Prospecting: Fundamental Principles and Instruments 263

Basic Concepts and Definitions. Magnetic Susceptibility of Rocks.
Magnetic Effects from Buried Magnetic Bodies. Instruments Used for
Magnetic Measurements.

14. The Magnetism of the Earth 292

The Earth's Magnetism as Observed through Field Measurements. Analy-
sis of the Earth's Permanent Field. Variations with Time in the Earth's
Magnetic Field.

15. Magnetic Measurements on Land and Interpretation of Vertical-field Data 304

Field Procedures. Reduction of Magnetic Data. Interpretation of Mag-
netic Data. Results of Typical Magnetic Surveys.

16. Prospecting with the Airborne Magnetometer 321

Development Method. Position Location. Operating Procedures.
of the
Interpretation of Aerial Magnetic Data. Effect of Flight Elevation and
Flight Spacing on Observed Fields. Advantages and Limitations of
Aeromagnetic Surveying. Results of Some Typical Aeromagnetic Surveys.

17. Electrical Prospecting Methods 339

Electrical Properties of Rocks. The
Self-potential Method. Equipo-
Method. Resistivity Methods. Telluric Currents and Natural
tential-line
Alternating Magnetic Fields. Inductive Methods. Induced Polarization
Methods. Applicability of Electrical Methods.
CONTENTS lx

18. Prospecting for Radioactive Minerals 374

Fundamental Principles of Radioactivity. Detection of Radiation. Com-
mon Minerals of Radioactive Elements. Prospecting Techniques; Use and
Limitations of Counters. Examples of Radioactivity Surveys.

19. Integration of Geophysical Methods as Illustrated by Case Histories 398

Significance ofCase Histories. Case Histories of Petroleum Surveys.
Integration of Methods in Mining Geophysics.

Index 433
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Geophysical prospecting is the art of searching for concealed deposits of

hydrocarbons (oil and gas) or useful minerals by physical measurements
from the earth's surface. Ordinarily, these measurements yield informa-
tion on the physical properties of material within the earth. Such
information, when properly interpreted, can be used to locate mineral
deposits having economic value.
To be effective for this purpose, the data from geophysical surveys must
be expressed in terms of geology. The reliability of the geological picture
thus derived, which is greater for some techniques than others, depends
on the quality of the data and the skill displayed in their interpretation.
Ever since geophysics was first used in exploration, there has been con-
tinual improvement both in instruments and techniques and in methods of
interpretation. These improvements have taken full advantage of our
rapidly advancing technology. Yet the rate of discoveries which can be
credited to geophysics has remained static during the past few decades,
with some decline since the early 1950's. Geophysical methods have
become more effective but their increased capabilities have not quite kept
pace with the increasing difficulty of finding new oil and minerals as the
sources easiest to locate at any time are progressively found and exploited.
Geophysicists now face the discouraging, yet challenging, problem d~
having to run faster and faster just to stay in the same place. Since the
end of the Second World War, there has been an enormous expansion in
geophysical research and development directed toward the improvement
of techniques for maintaining the world's supplies of oil and minerals.

1-1. Geophysics in the Oil Industry

When the earliest geophysical crews, using the torsion balance and
refraction seismograph, looked for shallow salt domes along the Gulf
Coast of the United States and Mexico during the middle 1920's, their
effortswere spectacularly successful. Dozens of oil fields associated
with domes of this type were discovered each year until by 1930 there-
were few left to be found. No statistics are available on the amount of
1
2 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

oilfound by geophysics as a result of this campaign. In the quarter

century from 1930 to 1955, geophysics yielded 22.5 billion barrels of oil
and 134 trillion cubic feet of natural gas in the United States alone.
This represents between a third and a half of all the hydrocarbons dis-
1
covered there during this period.
Since 1937, when became available, one out of every six
statistics first
wildcat wells located by geophysics has brought in commercial produc-
tion. This would appear to be a very poor showing for geophysics until
one realizes that only one out of twenty wells located without any techni-
cal aid at all has been a commercial producer. For wells located by
geology but no geophysics, the success ratio has averaged one in ten. 2
In evaluating these figures, we should bear in mind that geology alone
may be more effective and economical than geophysics in some areas,
while the reverse will be true in others. The two approaches should not
be considered to be in competition, but to complement each other.
While the ratio of new-field discoveries to dry holes has remained
virtually constant on wildcat prospects located by geophysics, the average
size of the individual pools in the United States has steadily dropped since
1938. Here the larger pools that were easy to discover by geophysics
have been mostly found, so that the industry is willing to drill on more
modest prospects as the good ones have become scarcer. Thus, a greater
number of geophysical crews is necessary to locate the same number of
barrels of oil each successive year so that exploration costs per barrel
increase. Many companies have been meeting this problem by
oil

expanding their operations outside the United States and Canada, apply-
ing geophysical methods in areas where they have not been used before.
Others have been concentrating on offshore exploration, particularly in
the Gulf of Mexico, where geophysics has been notably successful both in
percentage of wildcats opening new fields (one in 2.5 up to 1956 3 ) and in
size of pools discovered. But foreign operations are quite expensive and
often involve political risk while offshore leasing and production are very
costly. Thus there appears danger that geophysical explora-
to be little
tion for oil over land areas in the United States and Canada will grind to
a halt in the foreseeable future.

1-2. Geophysics in Mining Exploration

By far the greatest portion of the activity in geophysical prospecting

has been in the search for oil and gas. Only a small fraction of this
effort has gone into the search for solid minerals. Yet geophysical
methods were used to explore for ores several centuries before there was
any oil industry at all. Magnetic surveys have been carried out to find
iron-ore deposits since 1640, according to Heiland, 4 and Robert Fox, who
INTRODUCTION 3

discovered that rocks show spontaneous electrical polarization, proposed

as early as 1815 that this effect be used to locate certain types of ores.
Although the total extent of geophysical work in the mineral industry
is small compared to that in the petroleum industry, geophysical surveys
have resulted in some spectacular discoveries of ore deposits. In recent
years, magnetic, electromagnetic, and radioactivity detecting instru-
ments have been adapted for airborne surveys which offer increased speed
and efficiency.
There are a number of reasons why geophysics has had less widespread
application in mineral prospecting than in oil and gas exploration. In
the first place, the physical properties of many ore bodies do not show
substantial contrasts with the corresponding properties of the country
rock which surrounds them. Thus there are many deposits which are not
intrinsicallypromising as geophysical targets. Moreover, mining com-
panies tend to be smaller on the average than oil companies and many
cannot afford the necessary outlay for geophysical work, even though
most techniques used in mining are cheaper than those used in petroleum
prospecting. For the same reason, the mining industry has not been in a
position to support research and development on the scale that would be
necessary for geophysics to reach its full potential as an effective tool for
mineral exploration.

1-3. Relationship between Exploration Geophysics and the Basic

Sciences

One most recently established branches of applied science,

of the
exploration geophysics is actually an offshoot of several basic disciplines,
such as physics, chemistry, and mathematics. The various techniques
of geophysical prospecting are based on a number of fundamental princi-
ples of physics, such as the laws of gravitational and magnetic attraction,
the laws governing reflection and refraction in optics (as applied to
seismic prospecting), and the elements of electricity and electromagnetic
theory. Although these principles are quite simple, it is generally diffi-
cult to apply them to the study of rock materials, which are seldom
homogeneous and which often have complex physical properties.
Nearly all the major methods of geophysical prospecting evolved from
techniques originally employed for more or less academic studies of the
earth's large-scale features. Gravity prospecting was developed after
pendulum measurements had been carried out for several decades to
determine the earth's precise shape from changes in gravitational pull
between different observing stations. The seismic refraction method
makes use of principles worked out early in the present century by earth-
quake seismologists who developed them to unravel the structure of the
 4 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

earth's interior. Magnetic instruments which were basically the same

as those used in present-day prospecting made it possible to chart some
of the earth's magnetic elements on a global scale as early as the seven-
teenth century.
Today there is a much greater volume of activity in geophysical
exploration than in basic research on the physics of the earth. The
dependence of geophysical prospecting upon the scientific work which
preceded it has now evolved into a fruitful interdependence between the
two. Many of the tools and techniques developed to explore for oil and
minerals have been advantageously used in academic studies on the
structure of the earth's crust and its interior. Also the training of men
for exploration Avork has given economic incentive and support to a grow-
ing volume of research in geophysics at universities.

1-4. The Methods of Geophysical Prospecting

All geophysical methodspetroleum prospecting, as well as many

of
methods of mineral prospecting, are designed to locate geologic structures
favorable for deposits of economic value. Such methods may not be
capable of finding the deposits directly. Where petroleum occurs in
structural traps these methods usually turn out to be quite satisfactory.
Stratigraphic accumulations, on the other hand, are at best difficult to
locate by geophysics and often impossible. What is needed is a geo-
physical technique that detects oil in the ground directly. Despite
occasional claims in the trade journals, there is no real evidence that such
a technique has been developed. A number of geochemical and micro-
biological approaches show promise, however, at least for special types
of accumulations.
In petroleum exploration, the seismic reflection method is by far the
most widely used, with gravity, seismic refraction, and magnetics follow-
ing in that order. One electrical technique, telluric current prospecting,
issometimes used in searching for oil in the Eastern Hemisphere. In
mining exploration, magnetic, electrical, and radioactive techniques are
most common, although seismic and gravity methods are occasionally
employed.
Seismic Reflection Method. With this technique, the structure of
subsurface formations is mapped by making use of the times required

for a seismic wave (or pulse), generated in the earth by a near-surface

explosion of dynamite, to return to the surface after reflection from the
formations themselves. The reflections are recorded by detecting instru-
ments responsive to ground motion, which are laid along the ground near
the shot hole. Variations in the reflection times from place to place
on the surface usually indicate structural features in the rocks below.
Depths to reflecting interfaces can be determined from the times if the
INTRODUCTION 5

velocity of seismic waves in the overlying section

can be measured.
Reflections from depths as great as 20,000 can normally be observed
ft

from a single explosion so that in most areas geologic structure can be

determined over the whole sedimentary section. The reflection technique
furnishes more and better structural information than any other geo-
physical method, but it has the disadvantage of being slower and more
expensive than most of the other methods. Moreover, there are numer-
ous areas where reflections can be obtained only with great difficulty.
Seismic Refraction Method. In refraction shooting, the detecting
instruments are laid down at a distance from the shot hole that is large
compared to the depth of the horizon to be mapped. The explosion
waves travel large horizontal distances through the earth and the time
required for travel gives information on the velocity and depth of certain
subsurface formations. Variations in this time as shot and detector
positions are moved indicate the structure of the formations. Although
the refraction method does not give as much information or as precise a
structural picture as does the reflection method, it provides data on the
velocity of the refracting beds which often allow the geophysicist to
identify them or to specify their lithology. The method usually makes it
possible to cover a given area in a shorter time than with the reflection
method.
Gravity Method. In gravity prospecting one measures minute varia-
tions in the pull of gravity from rocks within the first few miles of the
earth's surface. Different types of rocks have different densities and the
denser rocks have the greater gravitational attraction. If the denser
rocks are arched upward in a structural high, such as an anticline, the
earth's gravitational field w ill be
T
greater over the axis of the structure than
along its flanks. A salt dome,
on the other hand, which is less dense than
the rocks into which it is intruded, may be detected from the low value
of gravity normally recorded above it. Anomalies in gravity which are
sought in oil exploration may represent only one millionth or even one
ten-millionth of the earth's total field. For this reason, gravity instru-
ments are designed to be extremely sensitive, and modern gravimeters
can detect variations in gravity to within one hundred-millionth of the
earth's field.
Magnetic Method. Magnetic prospecting maps variations in the
magnetic field of the earth which are attributable to changes of structure
or magnetic susceptibility in certain near-surface rocks. Sedimentary
rocks generally have a very small susceptibility compared with igneous
or metamorphic rocks and most magnetic surveys are designed to map
structure on or within the basement, or to detect magnetic mineral?
directly. The magnetic method is useful in petroleum exploration where
structure in oil-bearing sedimentary layers is controlled by topographic
features, such as ridges or faults, on the basement surface. Magnetic
 TABLE 1-1. Comparison of Major

Seismic refraction Seismic reflection Gravity

Principal Reconnaissance explora- Detailed exploration for Reconnaissance explora-

applications tion for oil oil tion for oil

Engineering geology Regional geologic studies

Regional geologic studies

Principal in- Geophones Geophones Gravimeter

struments in Recording system Recording system
current use

Quantity actu- Time for explosion wave Time for explosion wave Variations in earth's gravi-
ally measured to return to surface after to return to surface after tational field attribut-

refraction by subsurface t
reflection by subsurface able to geologic
formations formations structures

Quantity com- Depths to refracting hori- Depths to reflecting hori- Density contrasts of rocks,
puted from zons, horizontal speeds zons, dips depths to zones of anom-
measure- of seismic waves alous density
ments

Geologic or Anticlines, faults, salt Structural oil traps of all Salt domes, anticlinal
economic domes kinds, reefs axes, buried ridges
features
sought by
method

Corrections ap- Weathering, elevation, Weathering, elevation, Latitude, free-air, Bou-

plied to data "onset-to-trough" filter shift guer, terrain
interval

Size of crew 15 or more 11-20 5

(number of
men)

Can measure- No No No
ments be
made from
aircraft?

Is method used Yes Yes Yes

offshore?

Cost per crew- $30,000-80,000 est. $25,000-40,000 $6,000-9,000

month

Crew-months 11,062 1,954

over world in

oil explora-
tion, 1957*
Expenditure in
$625,000 $570,000
mining
exploration,
1957*

* Figures from H. G. Patrick, Geophysical Activity in 1957, Geophysics, Vol. 23, pp. 953-971, 1958
6
Geophysical Prospecting Methods

Magnetic Electrical Radioactivity

Exploration for minerals Exploration for minerals Exploration for radioac

Reconnaissance exploration for oil Engineering geology tive minerals

Regional geologic studies

Magnetic balance Electrodes Geiger counter

Fluxgate magnetometer Potentiometers Scintillation counter

Nuclear resonance magnetometer Detecting coils

Variation in magnetic elements Natural potentials Natural radioactivity of

attributable to geologic structures Current transmitted between elec- earth materials
trodes, resulting potential drop
Induced electric fields

Susceptibility contrasts of rocks, Resistivities of beds, approximate Uranium content of rocks

approximate depths to zones of depths of interfaces between beds
anomalous magnetization of contrasting resistivity

Basement topography, deposits of Ore deposits having anomalous Uranium deposits

magnetic ores, dikes, and similar electrical properties, depth to
igneous features bedrock, depth to ground water
surface

Diurnal variation, normal

3 (ground) 2 or 3 1-4

Yes Yes Yes

Yes Yes No

$4,000 ground
$6/mile airborne

400

$2,700,000 $4,000,000 No reliable statistics

8 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

anomalies from the top of the basement may thus give clues to structure
higher in the section. magnetic anomalies
It is often difficult to separate

due tobasement topography from those which result from lateral changes
in basement rock composition, and this ambiguity limits the reliability
of the method. Most magnetic prospecting is now carried out with air-
borne instruments.
Electrical Methods. There are several geophysical techniques which
are designed to detect anomalies in the electrical properties of rocks.
Among these properties are the conductivity, self -potential, and inductive
response. From such anomalies it may be possible to locate minerals
having distinctive electrical characteristics or to map structural features
associated with oil or mineral occurrence. The resistivity method is

used to determine lateral or vertical variations in conductivity within

the earth. It is frequently used to measure depth to bedrock in connec-
tion with civil engineering projects, since there is normally a large con-

trast in conductivity between unconsolidated overburden material and

the hard rock below. The telluric current method uses natural earth
currents as a source instead of artificially generated currents injected
into the ground.
The self-potential method is used to detect the presence of certain
minerals which react with electrolytes in the earth in such a way as to
generate electrochemical potentials. A sulfide body oxidized to a greater
extent at shallow depths than at greater depths will generate such poten-
tials, and these can be detected by electrodes at the surface.
Electromagnetic methods detect anomalies in the inductive properties
of subsurface rocks. An alternating current, usually of high frequency, is
introduced into the earth and the strength and phase shift of the poten-
tials induced by buried rocks are measured on the surface or in the air

with detecting coils. Many ores of base metals generate induced currents
having a much greater strength than those from surrounding rocks.
Most electromagnetic prospecting is now carried on from airplanes.
Radioactivity Prospecting. The current need for fissionable raw
materials to be used in nuclear reactors has set off a boom in uranium
prospecting that has been unique in the history of mineral exploration.
Most of this activity has involved the use of geophysical tools, i.e., radia-
tion detectors such as Geiger counters or scintillation counters. The
low cost of some of these instruments has resulted in much week-end
geophysical work, a small portion of which has been highly successful.
A great deal of uranium exploration has been carried on from airplanes,
using specially adapted scintillation counters. Of all the geophysical
methods, the radioactivity methods have the smallest penetration, since
such radiation is absorbed by less than 3 ft of cover over the source
material.
INTRODUCTION 9

Well Logging. This widely used geophysical technique involves prob-

ing of the earth with instruments lowered into boreholes, their readings
being recorded at the surface. Among rock properties currently being
logged are electrical resistivity, self-potential, gamma-ray generation
(both natural and in response to neutron bombardment), density, mag-
netic susceptibility, and acoustic velocity. Several of these logs are
used more extensively by geologists than any other type of geophysical
data.
Table 1-1 presents information about the various major prospecting
methods in a form that should facilitate comparisons between them.

1-5. The Literature of Applied Geophysics

Geophysical prospecting is such a new branch of technology that its

literatureis not as scattered as in many other technical fields. Only a
small number of text books and reference books have been written on
applied geophysics and most of the original papers have appeared in only
a few journals. This concentration of material simplifies the problem
of ready access to published information, a problem which has become
acute in such chemistry and nuclear physics.
fields as
The textbook on geophysical prospecting was that of Ambronn, 5
earliest
published in German in 1926 and translated into English in 1928. Eve
and Keys's 6 book on geophysics in mineral exploration first appeared in
1929 and three subsequent editions have been issued, the most recent in
1954. In 1940 Heiland 4 and Jakosky 7 came out with reference books,
each covering petroleum and mineral prospecting, and a revised and
expanded edition of Jakosky's book w as published in 1950. Also in 1940,
r

Nettleton's textbook 8 on geophysical prospecting for oil made its appear-

ance. Twelve years later Dix's book on seismic prospecting 9 (the first
textbook in English on a single geophysical method) was published.
During the early 1950's Rothe and Rothe 10 published a comprehensive
two-volume textbook in French on geophysical prospecting. About the
same time Cagniard 11 prepared a short treatise on the subject, also in
French, which was intended mainly for the nontechnical reader.
The leading journal in English on geophysical prospecting is Geophysics,
a quarterly published since 1936 by the Society of Exploration Geo-
physicists. Most of the papers in the field by American and Canadian
authors have appeared here. A useful cumulative index to this and other
SEG publications was issued by the Society in 1955 as a separate book.
Since 1953 the European Association of Exploration Geophysicists has
published Geophysical Prospecting, with papers in English, German, and
French; thus far the majority of the contributions have been in English.
During an earlier phase in the development of geophysical prospecting
10 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

techniques, the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petro-

leum Engineers (AIMME) published numerous papers on the subject in
its Transactions and reprinted them in five books entitled " Geophysical
Prospecting" or " Geophysics," issued at irregular intervals between
1929 and 1945. Most of this material was concerned with mining geo-
physics but a portion of it, particularly in the papers published before
1936, referred to petroleum prospecting methods.
Three special publications of the Society of Exploration Geophysicists
should be noted. For several years prior to its inauguration of Geo-
physics in 1936, the Society sponsored the publication of papers in several
other journals such as the Bulletin of the AAPG. Material from this
period was reprinted in 1947 as a collection entitled " Early Geophysical
Papers." Two volumes of geophysical case histories have been published
by the Society, " Geophysical Case Histories, Vol. I," edited by L. L.
Nettleton, in 1949, and " Geophysical Case Histories, Vol. II," edited
by Paul L. Lyons, in 1956. With a few exceptions, the histories in both
books are devoted to petroleum exploration. In most of these papers, the
discovery of various oil fields is reviewed, and geophysical maps and cross
sections obtained prior to discovery are presented along with geological
maps and sections based on subsequent drilling.

1-6. Brief Histories of Geophysical Methods

The earliest use of applied geophysics was in the search for magnetic
minerals, particularly iron This dates back several centuries.
ore.
Electrical methods were introduced during the nineteenth century in the
search for base metals. The use of geophysics in petroleum exploration
is only about 35 years old but the volume of activity in this field is now

much greater than the volume in mining geophysics. The seismic reflec-
tion and gravity techniques have been most widely used in petroleum
prospecting, with particular emphasis on the former.
Early Use of Geophysics in Mining Exploration. Although there is
evidence that the magnetic compass was used in prospecting for iron ore
in Sweden as early as 1640, it was not until 1870 that a special instrument
was developed for such purposes. This instrument, the Swedish mining
compass of Thalen and Tiberg, had its magnetic needle so suspended that
it could be rotated about both horizontal and vertical axes. The " Ameri-
can mining compass," first introduced about 1860, was similar to the
Swedish instrument and was used in Xew Jersey for a magnetic survey
in 1880. Modified forms of this instrument were widely used in Michigan
later in the nineteenth century.
The use of electrical properties of rocks as a basis for mineral explora-
tion was first proposed in 1815 by Robert Fox, who discovered that certain
INTRODUCTION 11

minerals are spontaneously polarized in the earth. Carl Barus, a dis-

tinguished physicist from Brown University,made measurements of
polarization over the Comstock lode in Nevada during the 1880's. In
1913, this method was successfully employed by C. Schlumberger to
locate a commercial sulfide deposit at Bor. In 1893, experiments were
conducted in the Quincy Mine in Michigan on the location of copper-
bearing ore bodies making use of differences in electrical conductivity
between the lodes and the country rock. Shortly after this, equipotential
lines were mapped by Osborn over iron and copper deposits of the Lake
Superior area. C. Schlumberger was the first to develop practical tech-
niques for resistivity and equipotential-line prospecting. His pioneering
studies were carried out from 1912 to 1914.
Recent Development of Mining Techniques. About 1915, two
magnetic instruments were introduced which are still being used for
mining exploration. These are the dip needle and the Schmidt mag-
netometer. The Hotchkiss superdip, a more sensitive type of dip needle,
was developed in the 1920's. The most recent developments in magnetic
instrumentation are the flux-gate and nuclear resonance magnetometers,
both of which have been used mainly in airborne prospecting operations,
the former since 1945, the latter since 1955.
Electrical prospecting activity since 1915 has been mainly confined
to the resistivity, spontaneous potential, telluric current, and electro-
magnetic methods. Schlumberger and Wenner developed multielec-
trode techniques for resistivity measurements which are still in use. In
the middle 1920's, Hans Lundberg developed inductive techniques using
high-frequency electrical signals which were applied by Sundberg to
geological investigations in Sweden. The electromagnetic methods were
made airborne in the middle 1950's and there has been a recent revival of
interest in these methods on account of some important base-metal dis-
coveries credited to them in the Maritime Provinces of Canada during
the early 1950's.
Geophysics in the Search for Oil. The two types of measurement
most widely used in oil exploration, gravity and seismic, were originally
carried out for quite different purposes.
In 1887 Von Sterneck developed a portable pendulum suitable for
measuring the earth's gravity in the field. At that time it was employed
solely for geodetic surveys to determine the figure of the earth. During
the period from 1890 to 1902, Baron Roland von Eotvos of Hungary
perfected the torsion balance that bears his name. In the latter year
he demonstrated its possibilities as a tool for geologic exploration by
mapping the subsurface extension of the Jura Mountains. About 1915
Hugo de Boeckh pointed out that the torsion balance might be able to
locate domes or anticlines with cores that are lighter or heavier than the
12 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

surrounding formations. In 1915 and 1916, a successful 100-station

torsion balance survey was carried out over what was then a one-well oil
field at Egbell in Czechoslovakia. Schweydar in 1917 employed the same
instrument to detail the Hanigsen salt dome in northern Germany.

About the same time E. S. Shaw proposed the use of pendulums to locate
saltdomes along the Gulf Coast of the United States. In 1918 Ising
constructed the first gravity meter suitable for geologic studies.

In 1922, the first torsion balance surveys were conducted for the pur-
pose of exploring for oil. These were in California and Texas. The first
oil field discovery by geophysics followed in 1924, when the productive
Nash dome Texas was located with the torsion balance. A spectacular
in
series of geophysical saltdome discoveries, many based on the combined
use of the torsion balance and refraction seismograph, followed during
In 1932, the pendulum w as put to use in the field by
T
the later 1920's.
Gulf Research and Development Co. for gravity surveys. The first
gravimeter (giving a direct reading of gravity differences) was used in
1935 and this tool, because of its greater speed of operation, soon dis-
placed the torsion balance and pendulum altogether. About 1939, the
gravimeter was first employed under water for submarine prospecting.
The first seismographs w ere used to record earthquakes. In 1848,
T

Robert Mallet proposed that artificial earthquakes be set up by exploding

gunpowder for surveying subsurface formations on land and the " bottom
of the great ocean." Two years later he had constructed the first seismo-
graph system (a mercury with a telescope to observe and time the
bowi of
onset of ripples on the mercury surface) and had used it to measure the

velocity of sound (actually surface waves) in granite. More than half a

century afterward L. P. Garrett proposed the use of seismic refraction to
locate salt domes, and in 1919 Ludger Mintrop in Germany applied for
a patent on the refraction method for determining the nature and depth
of subsurface formations. In 1922 E. DeGolyer sponsored the first
refraction surveys for oil exploration inMexico and in the Gulf Coast.
The Seismos Co. of Germany
two crews into these areas to locate
sent
salt domes. In 1924 a Seismos party working for Gulf Oil Corp. dis-
covered the Orchard dome in Texas by the fan shooting method. From
1924 to 1930, there was an intense campaign of refraction fan shooting to
locate shallow salt domes in Louisiana and Texas. By 1930 virtually
every salt dome in the Gulf Coast shallow enough to be located by this
method had been discovered. Refraction was introduced into the Middle
East in 1928 by D'Arcy Exploration Co. (a subsidiary of what is now
the British Petroleum Co.), which employed it successfully in Iran over
the next two decades.
The reflection method had its beginnings with Reginald Fessenden's
sonic sounder for determining water depths and locating icebergs. Dur-
INTRODUCTION 13

ing the years from 1919 to 1921, J. C. Karcher designed and developed a

reflectionseismograph and used it successfully in Oklahoma to detail the

flank of a known dome. Commercial exploitation of this technique did
not begin until 1927 when it was employed by the Geophysical Research

Corp. to discover the Maud Field in Oklahoma. By the early 1930's

the method was the most widely used of all geophysical techniques, a
status it still enjoys.
At the conclusion Second World War the seismic method was
of the
put to use offshore in the Gulf of Mexico and since that time the extent
of marine seismic activity has steadily grown in the Gulf as well as off
California, in the Persian Gulf, and in other parts of the world. In the
early 1950's a new recording medium, magnetic tape, was introduced in
seismic exploration and by 1956 enough units employing this medium
had been manufactured to equip half the world's seismograph crews.
Geophysical Logging. The use of geophysical tools to give con-
tinuous records from boreholes was introduced by C. and M. Senium-
berger in France about 1929 with the development of resistivity logging.
Multielectrode techniques for measuring earth resistivities on the surface
were adapted for use in boreholes and these measurements were combined
with simultaneous spontaneous potential measurements to yield more
complete information on borehole lithology. Virtually all wells drilled
for oil are logged electrically as a routine operational procedure.
Although two surveys of radioactivity in boreholes were reported
before 1909, the first publication on continuous radioactivity logging was
by Howell and Frosch in 1939. Other publications in 1940 showed
widespread activity in the development of gamma-ray logging techniques
during the late 1930's. Neutron logging was developed by Fearon over
the period from 1938 to 1940. Over the next decade radioactivity logging
techniques were improved to the extent that they have become almost as
widely used as electric logs in most areas.
In 1951, continuous velocity logging was introduced. This provides
information useful for interpreting seismic records; it is also helpful for
correlation and identification of subsurface formations in the same
manner as electric logs.
Statistics. The volume of geophysical activity both in the petroleum
and mining industry has fluctuated from year to year but the trend until
recently has been predominantly upward. The Society of Exploration
Geophysicists' Committee on Geophysical Activity has maintained a
continuous report of activity on a month-by-month basis since 1932 for
seismic prospecting and since 1938 for gravity exploration. Figure 1-1
shows the monthly variations for both methods to the end of 1957 in the
United States. The seismic method reached its peak of activity in 1952
while the gravity method reached its peak in 1945. During 1955 the
14 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

equivalent of 33 full-time offshore seismic crews and 9 offshore gravity

crews operated on the continental shelf off Louisiana and Texas, although
by 1957 the numbers had decreased to 14 seismic crews and 6 gravity
crews. The over-all decline in gravity work after 1950 was due partly
to the fact that most petroleum provinces had been so well covered with
gravity surveys by that time that further field work was not considered
necessary.
Both in seismic and gravity prospecting, the volume of activity outside

tUU
y^^

L
OUU
r
\ Y\
f*
p-%
\

A
4DD r
\f
V \ Vy

,*r
r>*
S <Seismo grop h

f
1
,^v

/v r^' or
r

?nn V>w^
*~Gr 01/ it} f

100 \

^- r
\ r^1, — *. r-^~^ > ~f
V

1939 '40 '41 42 '43 '44 '45 '46 '47 '48 '49 '50 '51 '52 '53 '54 '55 '56 '57

Fig. 1 - 1 . Number of seismic and gravity parties in the United States each month for 1 9-year period from
1939 to end of 1957. (After Eckhardt and Patrick, Geophysics.)

the United States has increased greatly during the 1950's. By 1957 12
the equivalent of 922 full-time seismic crews was operating on a world-
wide basis. Of these, 209 were in the Eastern Hemisphere, 109 in Canada,
and 80 in Western Hemisphere countries other than the United States and
Canada. The equivalent of 163 full-time gravity crews operated over
the world during the same year. About half of these were in the United
States.
on mining geophysics have not been kept on a crew-month
Statistics
basis, but there has been a substantial increase in world-wide activity
since the early 1950's from the standpoints both of the number of profes-
sional geophysicistsemployed and of annual expenditure. In 1957, 598
geophysicists were engaged in mineral exploration and the total expendi-
ture was more than 11.5 million dollars. About one-quarter of this
expenditure was for aeromagnetic work.
INTRODUCTION 15

Sources of Further Information. The reader desiring more complete

accounts of the history of exploration geophysics is referred to a number
of useful publications. For seismic prospecting up to 1940, see Weath-
erby 13 ; for gravity exploration up to the same year, see Eckhardt 14 for ;

electrical prospecting up to 1938, see Rust. 15

Historical papers of amore
general kind have been published by DeGolyer 16 and Macelwane. 17
Jakosky's book 7
contains a rather comprehensive historical review of
exploration geophysics up to the late 1940's. A thorough and very useful
history of the subject was prepared by Paul L. Lyons for the program
booklet of the 1955 annual meeting of the Society of Exploration Geo-
physicists in Denver.* This gives a chronology of significant events in
the development of exploration geophysics and of the basic sciences, such
as seismology and earth magnetism, upon which it depends.

REFERENCES

1. Lyons, Paul L.: Crossroads of Geophysics, Geophysics, Vol. 21, pp. 1-15, 1956.
2. Lahee, F. H.: Exploratory Drilling in 1955, Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists,
Vol. 40, pp. 1057-1075, 1956.
3. Goedicke, Thomas: Paper presented at 1956 convention of Society of Exploration
Geophysicists, New Orleans, La.
4. Heiland, C. A.: "Geophysical Exploration," Prentice-Hall, Inc., New York, 1940.
5. Ambronn, R.: "Elements of Geophysics" (translated by Margaret Cobb),
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1928.
6. Eve, A. S., and D. A. Keys: "Applied Geophysics in the Search for Minerals,"
4th ed., Cambridge University Press, New York, 1954.
7. Jakosky, J. J.: "Exploration Geophysics," 2d ed., Trija Publishing Company,
Los Angeles, 1950.
8. Nettleton, L. L.: "Geophysical Prospecting for Oil," McGraw-Hill Book Com-
pany, Inc., New
York, 1940.
9. Dix, C. H.: "Seismic Prospecting for Oil," Harper & Brothers, New York, 1952.
10. Rothe, Edmond, and J. P. Rothe: "Prospection Geophysique," Gauthier-Villars,
Paris, Vol. 1, 1950; Vol. 2, 1952.
11. Cagniard, L.: "La Prospection Geophysique," Presses universitaires de France,
Paris, 1950.
12. Patrick, H. G.: Geophysical Activity in 1957, Geophysics, Vol. 23, pp. 953-971,
1958.
13. Weatherby, B. B.: The History and Development of Seismic Prospecting, Geo-
physics, Vol. 5, pp. 215-230, 1940.
14. Eckhardt, E. A.: A Brief History of the Gravity Method of Prospecting for Oil,
Geophysics, Vol. 5, pp. 231-242, 1940.
15. Rust, W. M., Jr.: A Historical Review of Electrical Prospecting Methods, Geo-
physics, Vol. 3, pp. 1-6, 1938.
16. DeGolyer, E.: Notes on the Early History of Applied Geophysics in the Petroleum
Industry, "Early Geophysical Papers," pp. 245-254, Society of Exploration
Geophysicists, 1947.
17. Macelwane, J. B.: Fifteen Years of Geophysics: A Chapter in the Exploration of
the United States and Canada, 1924-1939, Geophysics, Vol. 5, pp. 250-258, 1940.

* Copies of this may be obtainable from the Business Manager of the Society.
 CHAPTER 2

SEISMIC WAVE PROPAGATION

We begin our study of individual geophysical methods with seismic

prospecting. This is by far the most widely used of all the geophysical
methods. Also, it gives results that are easiest to translate into geo-
logical terms. A seismic reflection map, for example, resembles a geo-
logic subsurface map much more closely than does a gravity, magnetic,
or electrical resistivity map. On the other hand, the seismic reflection
and refraction methods are intrinsically more complicated because they
require the introduction, through controlled explosions, of energy into
the earth. With gravity and magnetic prospecting it is only necessary
to measure existing influence fields, as is also true of the spontaneous
polarization method.
Both the reflection and refraction methods yield information on differ-
ences in elastic properties of rocks. To understand how each method
works, one should have an elementary knowledge of the principles of
elasticity and elastic (seismic) wave propagation. We shall review these
principles in this chapter, with particular emphasis on the way inwhich
seismic velocity depends on measurable elastic constants of rocks and on
the behavior of seismic waves at places in the earth where these veloci-
ties change. It is these changes, usually corresponding to lithologic con-
tacts, that we seek to detect and map in seismic prospecting.

2-1. The Elastic Constants

Stress and Strain. When a force F is applied uniformly to a small

surface of area A, we designate the force per unit area F/A as the stress
S. If the force is perpendicular to the area it is called a tensile or com-
pressive stress, depending on whether it is exerted away from or into the
body on which it acts. If the force is parallel to the area, it is called a
shearing stress. A tensile stress gives rise to elongation within the body,
a compressive stress to shortening, and a shearing stress to shear deforma-
tion. The ratio of the elongation or shortening Al caused by a stress to
the original length I before the stress was applied is defined as the longi-
16
SEISMIC WAVE PROPAGATION 17

tudinal strain ej. The angle of deformation, <f>, caused by a shearing stress

is called the shearing strain. Figure 2-1 illustrates these concepts.

Young's Modulus. In the case of a tensile or compressive stress,
it is known from experiment that when the strain is small its magnitude

is proportional to the stress, so that

1

or S = Ee (2-1)

The proportionality constant E is called Young's modulus. The greater

the value of E for a solid, the less will be the deformation resulting from

Compression Tension
r. , ,,

ItHUIHH (c)
To fa I force =F Total force -F
Stress - -f Stress - -~
A A
(a) (b)

Dotted fines show shapes before e/asf/c deformation

Longitudinal strain, c?
A7 A\V—- or ~
Transverse strain, $w *
Aw a.-
Poisson's ratio, (T w/ei
w/ i
Shearing strain, €sf, = ^
Fig. 2-1. Relationships between stresses and strains, (a) Compressive. (b) Tensile, (c) Shear.

a given tensile or compressive stress. For steel, to take one example,

Young's modulus has a value of 2 X 10 12 dynes/cm 2 For most rocks, .

E lies within the range between 10 n-10 12 dynes/cm 2 .

Poisson's Ratio. Figure 2-1 shows that when a body is elongated by

a tensile stress it will at the same time be shortened in the direction per-
pendicular to that of the stress. Similarly, when it is shortened by a
compressive stress itbe elongated at right angles to the direction of
will
shortening. The ratio of the strain perpendicular to either type of
deforming force to that in the direction of the force itself is called Pois-
son's ratio and is designated as a. Using the symbols of Fig. 2-1,

Aw/w _ ew
= (2-2)
~aUT " Ti

The value of a can never be greater than 0.5. It averages, for most
elastic solids, about 0.25.
18 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

Rigidity or Shear Modulus. In the case of a shearing stress, it is

observed that the stress is proportional to the shearing strain if the mag-
nitude of the deformation is small. The relation is
Ssh = fjL<f> (2-3)

where the proportionality constant, is the rigidity (or shear) modulus.

jjl,

For most materials n is numerically about half as great as E.

Bulk Modulus and Compressibility. If a body of volume V is sub-
jected to a uniform compressive stress in all directions, its volume will
be decreased by an amount AV. The bulk modulus k is defined as the
stress or pressure divided by the corresponding proportional change in
volume, which is to say

k = Am '
v-v
The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is called the compressibility.
Relations between Elastic Constants. There are a number of con-
venient relations between the preceding elastic constants. Two of the
most useful of them are

" = 2ipb) ^
k (2 " 6)
= W^T)
Derivation of these relations may
be found in any elementary textbook
on mechanics, such as that of Frank. 1
Typical Values for Rocks. The range of variation of the elastic con-
stants in rock materials is large. The highest value of E, Young's
modulus, recorded by Birch 2 for a rock is 16.49 X 10 11 dynes/cm 2 for ,

massive pyrite. The lowest is 0.05 X 10 11 dynes/cm 2 for a specimen of ,

sandstone. The modulus is from a third to a half as large as

rigidity
Young's modulus for most materials. Poisson's ratio generally ranges
from 0.05 to 0.40, averaging about 0.25 for hard rocks.

2-2. Elastic Waves

The simplest type of wave propagated in a homogeneous, infinite elas-
ticmedium consists of alternating condensations and rarefactions, during
which adjacent particles of the solid are closer together and then farther
apart than normal as one goes from one cycle to the next. If a pressure
is suddenly applied, as by an impact, at a point inside such a medium,

the region where the material of the body is most compressed will move
outward from the disturbance in a sphere whose radius increases at a rate
determined by the elastic properties of the body. Following this sphere
SEISMIC WAVE PROPAGATION 19

of maximum compression at a constant distance is another expanding

sphere representing maximum rarefaction or dilatation. Its radius
increases at the same rate. At an equal distance behind the sphere of
maximum rarefaction is another sphere of maximum compression. The
resulting pattern of concentric enlarging wavefronts is illustrated in
Fig. 2-2. The wavelength X is the distance between one sphere of maxi-
mum rarefaction (or compression) and the next sphere of the same kind.

Rarefaction

ression

Distance

Fig. 2-2. Cross section through source, showing propagation of spherical compressional waves through
homogeneous elastic medium.

If the radius is very large compared with the wavelength, the wavefronts
become straight parallel lines and one refers to the wave as plane.
The equation for the pressure at time t and distance x within a plane
elastic wave with a length X traveling at a velocity V is

S sin ^A (x - Vt) (2-7)

This type of vibration is known as simple harmonic motion. The period

T represents the time interval between successive maximum compres-
sions (or rarefactions) at any point. The frequency n, which is 1/T,
represents the number of cycles passing the point each second. The
velocity V depends on the elastic constants and density of the medium
inwhich the wave is propagated. The velocity, wavelength, and fre-
quency are related by the formula

Several types of elastic waves are particularly important in seismic

prospecting. We each type briefly.
shall consider the properties of
Longitudinal Waves.
In these waves the direction of particle motion
fs the same as (or at an angle of 180° with) the direction of wave propaga-
20 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

tion, asshown in Fig. 2-3a. They are also referred to as compressional

waves. The speed of longitudinal waves, VL is related to the elastic ,

constants and the density as follows:

-^-VfO + nH^W
E 1

P (1 - 2<r)(l + <0

(2-8)

,:> being the density. These are the waves actually used in seismic reflec-

tion and refraction prospecting.

—
Direction
>-
propagation
of Direction
propagation
of
10
\\ t
Direction ofparticle motion indicated by arrows

h- A, --H
waves
i<— a— *i
"""^
(o) Longitudinal (b) Transverse waves
D~ Dilatationaf motion
C~ Compressional mot/on '

Direction of Direction of
propagation propagation

.
Particle
O Q motion
O.
trajectories
ct o _ iZ
^^^rr
(c^
v ; Rayleiqh
y waves
^ (d) Love waves
Fig. 2-3. Characteristics of elastic waves in solid.

Since a is usually in the neighborhood of 0.25 and since the density p

does not usually vary by as much as a factor of 2 in earth materials, we
see that the modulus of elasticity E is the most important variable con-
trolling the velocity of seismic waves in rocks.
Transverse Waves.
In transverse waves the particle motion within
the transmitting medium is at right angles to the direction of the wave's
propagation. Since the deformation here is essentially a shearing
motion, transverse waves are sometimes referred to as shear waves. The
characteristics of these waves are illustrated in Fig. 2-36. The velocity
VT of transverse waves depends on the elastic constants and the density
as follows:

V'i == (2-9)
\p Vp 2(1 + a)

Comparing Eqs. (2-8) and (2-9), we see that the ratio of VL to VT is

— a
+
"
Vm 3 VH
SEISMIC WAVE PROPAGATION 21

Either expression tells us that the longitudinal speed will always be

greater than the transverse speed in a given medium. The first radical
must be greater than one, because k and fi are always positive; the second,
because <r cannot be greater than J^. If, during the passage of a trans-
verse wave, the particles all move in parallel lines, the wave is said to be
polarized in the direction of the lines. A horizontally traveling transverse
wave so polarized that the particle motion is all vertical is designated as
anSV wave; when its motion is all in the horizontal plane, it is called an
SH wave.
Transverse waves are not used in seismic prospecting although a great
deal of research has been carried out inoil company laboratories with the

objective of putting them to use. An interesting series of experiments to

study their properties has been described by Jolly. 3
Rayleigh Waves. These waves travel only along the free surface
of an elastic solid (Fig. 2-3c). The particle motion, always in a vertical
plane, is elliptical and retrograde with respect to the direction of propaga-
tion. The amplitude of the motion decreases exponentially with depth
below the surface. The speed of Rayleigh waves is slower than for body
waves, being about nine-tenths that of transverse waves in the same
medium.
When there is a low-speed surface layer overlying a much thicker
material in which the speed of elastic waves is higher, the Rayleigh wave
velocity varies with frequency. For very short wavelengths compared
to the layer thickness, the speed is about nine-tenths of the shear velocity
in the material comprising the surface layer. This material governs the
speed since such short waves will not penetrate below the surface layer.
For very long wavelengths the speed is nine-tenths the shear velocity
in the substratum material since the effect of the surface layer is negligi-
ble when most of the wave travels in the zone below it. For intermediate
wavelengths the velocity falls between these extremes. This variation
of velocity with frequency or wavelength is known as dispersion. Since
different wavelengths travel with different speeds, a dispersive wave will
appear as a train of events with successive cycles having increasing or
decreasing periods. With Rayleigh waves, where the longer wavelengths
ordinarily have higher velocities, the periods decrease from the begin-
ning of the train to the end. Some examples of such dispersion are illus-
trated in a review of this subject by Dobrin. 4
Rayleigh waves are believed to be the principal component of " ground
roll,"a disturbance which often interferes with the discernibility of reflec-
tions on seismic records.
Love Waves. These are surface waves which are observed only when
there is a low-speed layer overlying a medium in which elastic waves have
a higher speed. The wave motion is horizontal and transverse (Fig.
22 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
TABLE 2-1. Velocities of Seismic Waves in Rocks*

Longitudinal wave
Mcferial Depth, ft
velocity, Vl, ft/sec

Granite 13,100-18,700
Norite, Sudbury 20,400
Basalt, Germany 1 8,300

Gabbro, Mellen L40,000t 22,900

Diabase, Vinal Haven L40,000 22,800
Dunite, Balsam Gap L40,000 26,400
Cap rock (anhydrite, gypsum) 11,500-18,100
Dolomite 16,200-20,200
Dolomitic limestone 19,600
Salt, carnallite, sylvite 14,400-21,400
Alluvium 1,640- 6,600
Alluvium 6,500 9,800-11,500
Clay 3,300- 9,200
Limestone
Arbuckle (Cambro-Ordovician). 17,400
Viola (Ordovician) 16/00
Viola (Ordovician) 4,000 20,000
Hunton (Devonian) 1 3,800

Hunton (Devonian) 4,600 17,500

Edwards (Cretaceous) 11,000
Edwards (Cretaceous) 3,300 1 3,500
Slate and shale 7,500-15,400
Sandstone 4,600-14,100
Shale and sandstone
Devonian 2,000-3,000 13,400
Pennsylvanian 2.000-3,000 11,200
Permian 2,000-3,000 10,000
Cretaceous 2,000-3,000 9,300
Eocene 2.000-3,000 9,000
Pleistocene-Oligocene 2,000-3,000 7,200

Transverse wave
velocity, Vt, ft /sec

Granite 6,900-10,800
Norite, Sudbury 11,400
Dolomitic limestone. . .
10,700
Gabbro, Mellen L0 11,100
Gabbro, Mellen L5,000 12,000
Gabbro, Mellen L40,000 12,200
Diabase, Vinal Haven L0 10,400
Diabase, Vinal Haven L5,000 1 2,600

Diabase, Vinal Haven L40,000 12,800

Sandstone, quartzitic. L0 11,100
Sandstone, quartzitic. L5,000 12/00
Sandstone, quartzitic. L40,000 13,400
Slate, Everett, Mass.. L0 9,500
Slate, Everett, Mass. L40,000 10,500

* From Birch's "Handbook of Physical Constants," 1942.

f The depths preceded by L (laboratory) were artificially reproduced in high-pressure apparatus
which the velocities were obtained by dynamical methods.
 ;

SEISMIC WAVE PROPAGATION 23

2-Sd). Love demonstrated that these waves propagate by multiple

reflection between the top and bottom surface of the low-speed layer.
All Love waves are dispersive, the velocity increasing with wavelength.
The Love wave speed is equal to that of transverse waves in the upper
layer for very short wavelengths and to the speed of transverse waves in
the lower medium for very long wavelengths. Because their particle
motion always horizontal, Love waves are never recorded in the course
is

of seismic prospecting operations where detectors are designed so as to

respond to vertical ground motion only.
Typical Velocities. The variations in the elastic constants of rocks
are reflected in a wide range of elastic wave velocities. Some typical
longitudinal and transverse velocities are given in Table 2-1.
Whereas igneous rocks in general have higher seismic velocities than
sedimentary rocks, there is considerable overlap in their respective speeds.
Many limestones, for example, have speeds higher than some granites.
The increase in the average speeds of limestones, sandstones, and shales
with increasing geologic age and depth of burial is evident from the table.
The data which demonstrate this were collected by Weatherby and
Faust. 5 Faust 6 has shown on the basis of extensive statistical studies of
well velocity data that for shales and sandstones the velocity is propor-
tional to (ZT) V* where Z is depth of burial and T is geologic age expressed
in units of time. Subsequently 7 he introduced a "lithologic factor,"
proportional to the one-sixth power of electrical resistivity which was
believed to improve the precision with which velocity could be predicted
for a particular formation.

2-3. Attenuation, Reflection, and Refraction

The wave propagation which apply in seismic prospecting

principles of
are quite general and apply to electromagnetic disturbances (such as
light, infrared, and radio waves) as well as to elastic waves.
Fall-off of Energy with Distance. The energy of a wave in a given
medium is proportional to the square of its amplitude (which may be
expressed in terms either of pressure or displacement). As a spherical
wave spreads out from its source, the energy must be distributed over an
area that increases as the square of the sphere's radius. Thus the energy
per unit area varies inversely as the square of the distance from the source
the amplitude, which is proportional to the square root of the energy per
unit area, should be inversely proportional to the distance the wave has
traveled. In addition to the loss of amplitude due to spreading out of
the wave, there is also a certain loss from absorption, due to frictional
dissipation of the elastic energy into heat. The loss from this source is
exponential with distance. The total fall-off from both sources should
24 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

follow the formula

/ = 7o (2-10)

where I is the amplitude at a distance r from the source, the initial h

amplitude, and q a constant dependent on the material. Values of q
determined in the laboratory are tabulated by Birch for a few igneous
2

rocks, but in general such data on absorption are sparse. The attenu-
ation constant q is related to the frequency of the seismic waves but the

Reflected transverse
wave
incident
wave
\/ Reflected longitudinal

Equivalent ray diagram

Fig. 2-4. Reflection of plane elastic waves at interface.

form of the relationship is not certain. On the basis of waveform analy-

sis, Ricker 8
has concluded that the attenuation is proportional to the
square of the frequency. More direct measurements by McDonal et al.
9

have indicated that the attenuation is directly proportional to frequency

over the range of interest in seismic prospecting.
Huygens' Principle. As previously pointed out, waves in a homoge-
nous medium spread out from a point source as expanding spheres. Huy-
gens' principle states that every point on a wavefront is the source of a
new wave that travels out from it in spheres also. If the spherical waves
have such a large radius that they can be treated as plane, the lines per-
pendicular to the wavefronts can often represent the waves quite con-
veniently. These perpendicular lines are referred to as wave paths or
rays.
Reflection. Let us apply Huygens' principle to the case of a plane
longitudinal wave impinging obliquely upon an interface between two
elastic media having longitudinal velocities of V L i and V L 2, transverse
velocities of V T and V T2 and densities of pi and p 2 respectively (Fig. 2-4).
\ , ,
SEISMIC WAVE PROPAGATION 25

Consider the incident wavefront AB. The point A will become the cen-
ter of a new disturbance from which both longitudinal and transverse
waves spread out hemispherically into each medium. Considering only
the waves that return into the upper medium, we see that by the time
the ray that passed through B reaches the interface at C, sl distance x
from B, the longitudinal spherical wave from A will also have traveled
a distance x and the transverse spherical wave a distance (V T i/V L i)x.
Drawing a tangent from C to the first sphere, we get the wavefront of
the reflected longitudinal wave, which has an angle of reflection r L (with
the perpendicular to the interface) equal to the angle of incidence, i. A
tangent to the smaller circle represents the reflected transverse wave-
front, which will make an angle tt with the interface determined by the
relation

sin r T = jf— sin i (2-11)

In the case of normal incidence (i = 0), the ratio of reflected energy

in the longitudinal wave E r to the incident energy Ei is

Er (P2VL2 - piV Ll ) 2
(2-12)
E x =0 (p 2 7 L2 + Pl v Ll y

The square root of this ratio, known as the reflection coefficient, gives the
relative amplitudes of the reflected and incident waves. The amount of
energy reflected in this case is thus seen to depend on the contrast in the
product of density by velocity (acoustic impedance) on opposite sides of
the interface and is independent of the side from which the incident wave
approaches. As i increases, this ratio decreases slightly with increasing
i, reaching a minimum and then increasing slowly until the critical angle,

after which the increase is more pronounced. When the medium contain-
ing the incident wave has a smaller acoustic impedance than the medium
across the interface, there no phase change on reflection. When the
is

incident wave is from the side of the interface having the higher acoustic
impedance, the reflected wave shows a phase shift of 180°. Thus, a com-
pression becomes a rarefaction upon reflection from a medium having a
lower product of seismic velocity and density. Muskat and Meres 10 give
tables and graphs of the reflection coefficient as a function of the angle of
incidence and the density and velocity ratios of the media on opposite
sides of the discontinuity.
From a practical standpoint, the reflection coefficient depends mainly
on the velocity contrast on opposite sides of the interface, since the vari-
ation in density among different rocks is usually small. In special cases,
however, the velocity can increase and the density can decrease across
26
INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

an interface in such proportions that there may be no contrast in acoustic

impedance, in which case no reflection would be expected.
Refraction; Snell's Law. When an incident wave strikes an interface,
each point along the interface becomes the center of new hemispherical
elastic waves that travel into the second medium with a
speed of 7 L2
for the longitudinal event, and of VT 2 for the transverse event. From

incident
wave

Refracted
longitudinal
Refracted
wave
transverse

fnterface

Rl
wave J-ong%

wave y
Tr:

Equfvafenf ray diagram

Fig. 2-5. Refraction of plane elastic waves across interface.

Fig. 2-5 one sees that the longitudinal wave in the lower medium travels
a distance AD, while the wavefront in the upper medium travels the dis-
tance x from C to B. The resulting refracted wave makes an angle Rl
with the interface. Now, from the diagram,
BC
Smi =
. .

AB
Sln p =
Rl _
AD = V L2 BC
V L1 AB
sin i VL \
so that (2-13)
sin RL VL 2

This is SneWs law. For the transverse wave, the angle of refraction RT
is expressed by the relation
sin i VT \
(2-14)
sin RT Vtz
SEISMIC WAVE PROPAGATION 27

When sin i = V L i/V L2 ,

sin RL becomes unity, and RL becomes 90°.
This means that the refracted wave does not penetrate the medium but
travels along the interface. The angle i c = sin -1 Vl\/Vlz is known as

the critical angle of incidence for longitudinal refraction. For any value
of i greater than this critical value, there is no refraction into the second
medium and the wave is totally reflected. This concept of the critical
angle is most important in seismic refraction work, since the wave actually
used is the one which hits the top surface of a high-speed bed at the
Surface

7777777777777777777777A

from an edge. The source (A) of diffracted radiation has been set into oscillation
Fig. 2-6. Diffraction

by reflected or refracted waves from above. Radial lines with arrows are ray paths; circular arcs are
wavefronts.

critical angle, travels horizontally along this surface, and eventually is

refracted back to the earth's surface at the same angle.

Diffraction. When seismic waves strike the corner or end of a reflect-
ing or refracting surface, this corner will in itself serve as a point source
for radiating waves back to the surface (Fig. 2-6). This radiation is

known as diffraction. In the illustration shown, the first diffracted wave

to reach the surface will be observed at a point vertically above the edge,
the diffracted event appearing at successively later times as one moves
away from this point along the surface. The amplitude of a diffraction
falls off rapidly with distance from the source and, along the receiving
surface, with distance from the closest point to the diffracting edge.

2-4. Principle of the Seismograph

When elastic waves pass through any solid medium they give rise to
oscillatory movement within the medium and at its surface. Seismic
waves passing through the earth cause harmonic motion of the ground
that can be measured and recorded with the proper instruments placed
on or just below the surface. Such instruments are called seismographs.
28 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

For a full discussion of their characteristics, the treatment by Byerly 11

is recommended.

The most elementary kind of seismograph is the simple pendulum

(Fig. 2-7). The natural period of a pendulum of length I is 2w y/TJg
where g is the acceleration of gravity. If the support is in firm contact
with the earth, any horizontal motion of the earth will of course cause
corresponding motion of the support. The pendulum bob, on the other
hand, being free to move with respect to the support tends, because of
its inertia, to remain where it was.
'//////////////?/////////////.
The relative motion between the
bob and its support is superimposed
upon that of the support. A weight
hanging from a spring could in a
Mot ion similar way be used to indicate
- of -»
Support V////////A
Fixed

6
Motion of bob with>
respect fo support
(a) bob at rest (b) Bob at position
of maximum Mass
displacement
Fig. 2-7. Motion of a pendulum on moving sup- Fig. 2-8. Long-period vertical seismograph of
port. (After Perry Byerly, "Seismology," copy- Galitzin type (schematic).
right 1942 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.)

vertical motion of its support. A device of this kind with spring stiffness*
k and mass m has a natural period of 2x y/m/k.
The between the motion of the earth and that of the pendulum
relation
or spring complicated, depending on the relation between the natural
is

period of the instrument and the period of the impressed motion as well
as on the damping of the system. Where the natural period is the same
as, or close to, the period of the earth motion that drives the seismo-
graph, there will be a resonance that increases the amplitude of the
response. Because the frequency bands in which such resonance occurs
are limited, it is necessary to "tune" the instrument by adjusting the
pendulum length or spring constant and the mass to the frequency range
of particular interest.
Figure 2-8 illustrates the principle of a vertical seismograph designed
to measure long-period earthquake vibrations. A horizontal boom is
hinged at one end to a rigid support. A mass is attached to the other
* If the restoring force of the spring F is proportional to the displacement x,
F = -kx.
SEISMIC WAVE PROPAGATION 20

end. A spring attached to the boom between the hinge and mass keeps
the system in equilibrium when the boom is horizontal. Any vertical
motion of the support (such as in an earthquake) will set up an oscilla-
tory motion of the boom in the vertical plane. The spring is attached
below the line connecting the hinge and mass in order to increase the
natural period and thus the maximum period of earth motion to which it
can respond. Galitzin vertical seismographs are designed on this princi-
ple. The period can be lengthened if the spring makes an angle with the
boom and is attached at such a point that the equilibrium at rest is
unstable. The Sprengnether seismograph operates according to this
principle, as does the LaCoste-Romberg gravimeter (see Chap. 10).
The relation between the natural period of the seismograph and the
period of the waves being recorded determines whether the instrument
will measure the displacement, velocity, or acceleration associated with
the earth motion. If the natural period is much less than that of the

earth vibration (frequency greater) the displacement of the seismograph

becomes proportional to the acceleration of the earth and the instrument
acts as an accelerometer. If the two periods are approximately equal,

the instrument reading will be proportional to the velocity of earth motion.

If the natural period is much greater than the period of earth vibration
(frequency lower) the reading becomes proportional to the actual displace-
ment recorder.
Seismographs recording natural earthquake vibrations are seldom
designed for periods less than 1 sec. In seismic prospecting, on the other
hand, artificial earthquake waves are recorded at very much shorter
periods. Reflections and refracted waves are most usually observed
with periods in the 0.01- to 0.05-sec range. The frequency range is a
controlling factor in the design not only of the detecting elements but
also of the amplifiers and recorders. Detectors used in seismic prospect-
ing will be discussed further in Chap. 4.

REFERENCES

1. Frank, N. H.: "Introduction to Mechanics and Heat," McGraw-Hill Book

Company, Inc., New York, 1939.
2. Birch, Francis (ed.): "Handbook of Physical Constants," pp. 88-92, Geological
Society of America Special Paper 36, 1942.
3. Jolly,R. N.: Investigation of Shear Waves, Geophysics, Vol. 21, pp. 905-938, 1956.
4. Dobrin, Milton B.: Dispersion in Seismic Surface Waves, Geophysics, Vol. 16,
pp. 63-80, 1951.
5. Weatherby, B. B., and L. Y. Faust: Influence of Geological Factors on Longitu-
dinal Seismic Velocities, Bull. Am.
Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, Vol. 19, pp. 1-8, 1935.
6. Faust, L. Y.: Seismic Velocity as a Function of Depth and Geologic Time, Geo-
physics, Vol. 16, pp. 192-206, 1951.
7. Faust, L. Y.: A Velocity Function Including Lithologic Variation, Geophysics,
Vol. 18, pp. 271-288, 1953.
30 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
8. Ricker, Norman: The Form and Laws of Propagation of Seismic Wavelets,
Geophysics, Vol. 18, pp. 10-40, 1953.
9. McDonal, F. J., F. A. Angona, R. L. Mills, R. L. Sengbush, R. G. Van Nostrand,
and J. E. White: Attenuation of Shear and Compressional Waves in Pierre Shale,
Geophysics, Vol. 23, pp. 421-439, 1958.
10. Muskat, M., and M. Meres: Reflection and Transmission Coefficients for Plane
Waves in Elastic Media, Geophysics, Vol. 5, pp. 115-148, 1940.
11. Byerly, Perry: "Seismology," Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1942.
 CHAPTER 3

EARTHQUAK ES AND THE

STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

Although the subject of earthquakes may at first glance seem quite far
removed from seismic prospecting, the relation is sufficiently close both
historically and conceptually to justify a brief chapter in a book on geo-
physical prospecting. Moreover, the study of earthquake data has
yielded a large amount of information on the structure of the earth's
crust and interior that has been helpful to geologists in interpreting their
surface observations and in formulating their concepts of the earth's
tectonic history.
The seismic refraction technique, which has been widely used in the
search for oil, was originally developed to deduce the earth's internal
structure from earthquake seismograms. The theoretical analysis by
Wiechert and Herglotz that made it possible to infer the variation of
seismic velocity with depth down to the center of the earth from earth-
quake data has been found equally useful in mapping shallower struc-
tures from time-distance curves for explosion waves. The detecting
instruments used in all seismic prospecting, both refraction and reflec-
tion, evolved directly from the seismometers first developed for record-
ing earthquakes.
Recent investigations of earthquake waves have yielded a great deal
of valuable information on the basic structure of the earth's crust, infor-
mation that has made it possible for geologists to develop constructive
working hypotheses on the origin of mountain systems, continents, ocean
basins, and similar large-scale features. Such hypotheses have been use-
fully applied to the study of regional geology in many areas of interest
from the standpoint of petroleum or mineral exploration.

3-1. Observational Data on Earthquakes

Earthquakes originate from fairly localized disturbances within or

beneath the earth's crust, in which large masses of rock yield suddenly
by faulting or fracture to long-continued stresses beyond the limit of
elastic deformation. At large distances away, the source of an earth-
31
32 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

quake may be considered to be at a single point, usually below the earth's

surface. This point is called the focus. The point on the surface verti-
cally above the focus is called the epicenter. The methods by which
focal depths of earthquakes are determined and epicenters are located
from seismograms will be considered later. It is customary to separate
earthquakes into three types those with foci deeper than 300 km (deep-
:

focus earthquakes); those with foci 70 to 300 km deep (intermediate-

focus earthquakes) and those with foci 60 km or less deep (shallow-focus
;

earthquakes). Gutenberg and Richter have analyzed the distribution

1

of the world's deep- and intermediate-focus earthquakes since 1911 and

of itsimportant shallow-focus earthquakes since 1904.
Location of Seismic Belts. Deep-focus earthquakes are concentrated
along the west coast of South America several hundred miles inland from
the Pacific Ocean and in the vicinities of Kamchatka, Japan, the
East Indies, and the southwest Pacific islands. The only recorded deep-
focus earthquake outside of the circum-Pacific belt occurred on Mar. 29,
1954, in southern Spain. The more numerous intermediate-focus earth-
quakes occur in the same general areas and are also observed to extend
into Mexico and Central America on one side of the Pacific and into
central Eurasia on the other. Both deep and intermediate shocks occur
most frequently along belts surrounding the Pacific basin. Shallow
earthquakes also tend to occur in localized zones, particularly around
the Pacific Ocean basin. They are common in the Caribbean island area,
the Mediterranean region, and in a belt extending across Eurasia from
Burma to the Azores.
Intensity Scales. It is useful to express intensities of earthquakes on
some quantitative scale. The simplest method of estimating the inten-
sity of a shock is to observe the extent to which it is felt by observers in
the epicentral area as well as the degree of damage and dislocation. The
Mercalli intensity scale, one of the most widely used yardsticks of this
type, classifies earthquakes more or less subjectively by numbers ranging
from I to XII. Because nature of such ratings, intensity
of the arbitrary
scales based on instrumental amplitudes have turned out to be more
satisfactory for most purposes. Richter 2 established the first instru-
mental magnitude scale of this type.

3-2. Paths of Earthquake Waves

Waves traveling outward from the focus of an earthquake spread out
in all directions. In studying earthquake records to deduce the earth's
structure we are most interestedin the travel times for the first wave of
each type (longitudinal, transverse, etc.) to arrive at a recording station.
The trajectory of least travel time for each type of wave depends on the
 1

EARTHQUAKES AND THE STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH 33

distribution of the respective wave velocities within the earth. If the

speed of seismic wave propagation were the same throughout the earth,
the trajectory would of course be a straight line between the focus and
the reception point, as shown in Fig. 3-1. Actually, the speed of longi-
tudinal and transverse waves increases with depth, and it can be shown
that the wave of each type that is first
to arrive will travel along a curved ft
ofsurface
path convex with respect to the
earth's center. Surface waves, such
as Love and Rayleigh waves, are con-
strained to travel around the earth's
periphery.
of least
Figure 3-2 shows the appearance time
of a typical seismogram from a dis- E= Epicenter
tant earthquake. Although the earth F= Focus
appears to exhibit continuous un- 0= Station
A m Ep/ centra/ ang/e
rest over a long time interval fol-
Fig. 3-1. Trajectories of P and S phases and
lowing the initial arrival of energy,
of surface waves from earthquake focus to
the seismologist can identify various station O.
bursts energy on the record as
of
" phases" corresponding to characteristic wave paths of the type illus-
trated in Fig. 3-3. The earlier part of the record exhibits lower ampli-
tudes and shorter periods than the later portion. The first event to
arrive is the longitudinal wave P that has taken the ray path of shortest
time. The next phase is the PP, a longitudinal wave reflected once at
the earth's surface and continuing as a P wave after the reflection. The

'4V-

i 1 i i
IT.
SKS S SP 1957 Aug. 23 Ntw Britain A 92* PE
I.

(U/D) and horizontal (N/S) seismograms recorded at Pasadena from earthquake at

Fig. 3-2. Vertical

New about 5,500 miles away. (Reproduced by permission of the author and publisher from
Britain
"Elementary Seismology" by Charles F. Richter, W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco, 958.) 1

PPP phase represents a longitudinal wave that has been doubly reflected
at the surface. Next to arrive is the S phase, the transverse wave which
has taken the curved path of minimum time shown in Fig. 3-1. Since
transverse waves have roughly half the speed of longitudinal waves in
the same medium, their travel time is about twice that for the P wave.
Subsequently we observe the PS phase, a wave leaving the focus as a P
wave, but transformed upon reflection at the surface to an S wave. The
SS wave, which arrives still later, originated as an S wave and remains
one after reflection.
34 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

Other waves are refracted through the earth's core or reflected from
its surface, and some of these are indicated in the wave-path diagram

(Fig. 3-3). The boundary of the core sets a limit to the epicentral dis-
tance at which a direct P wave can be received, although diffracted P
waves are observed beyond this limiting distance. No transverse waves
are transmitted by the core, and S waves reaching it from outside are
refracted as longitudinal waves.
Last of all surface waves (Love and Rayleigh), which have
come the
traveled at relatively slow speeds along the earth's circumference. These

Focus

PP

PKP SKKS

Symbol K represents portion

of path (compress'/on at)
through core
Fig. 3-3. Paths of various types of waves through earth. {After Perry Byerly, "Seismology," copy-
right 1942 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.)

have a long period and such high amplitude that the portion of the record
containing them was originally referred to as the " principal part."
The paths of the various phases, the distribution of seismic velocities
within the earth, and the locations of discontinuities are deduced from
time-epicentral distance relations for the various phases. The data
for establishing such relations can come from records of the same earth-
quake at a number of stations with different epicentral distances or from
records made at one station of many earthquakes at various distances.
The plotting of time-distance curves requires accurate knowledge of the
time and location of the earthquakes. Methods by which these are
ascertained from data recorded at seismological stations will be outlined
later in this chapter. Figure 3-4 shows typical time-distance curves for
various waves identified from earthquakes. The phases indicated here
represent trajectories of the kind shown in Fig. 3-3.
The mathematical procedures employed in deducing seismic speed
variation with depth from time-distance data are beyond the scope of
this book. They are discussed in some detail by Byerly 3 and Bullen. 4
EARTHQUAKES AND THE STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH 35

40
S/TATS-f
^/^o
^^^'^
/

PA-/TS
55

PKKP
^^^5v
30 -
Cz^S#^>
Vyf J^k~
$
25
A
&/
V A^*/^s^—
i /
1

{Rs /JKP.
v
E 20
//
c yk^-
E 15
P A y y^
10
// // y P

L 1 I l 1 ., 1 1 1 1

20 40 80 60
100 120 140 160 180
360 340 320 300 280 260 240 220 200
Epicentre*! angle in Degrees
(lower scale applies for higher branches
of PP, PPP and SKKS-1 waves)
Fig. 3-4. Travel-time curves for shallow-focus earthquakes. Paths illustrated in Fig. 3-3. [After Perry
Byerly, "Seismology," copyright 1942 by Prentice- Hall, Inc.)

3-3. Location of Epicenters and Determination of Earthquake Times

The epicenter of an earthquake can be located approximately from

data obtained at a single station with three-component instruments and
much more precisely from records made at a number of stations. The
instant of the shock can also be determined from such records. Virtual^
all location methods involve, as a first step, the measurement of the time

interval between the P on each record. Since the P wave

and S arrivals
is the first on the record is seldom difficult,
to arrive, its identification
but the S phase must often be picked on a disturbed trace and its precise
arrival time may be uncertain. Special tables are used to convert the
S-P time interval to approximate epicentral distance.
A commonly used technique for locating epicenters and determining
epicentral times precisely is the Geiger method. With this an approxi-
mate epicentral distance is determined from the S-P interval at a number
36 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

of stations. Using these individual distance estimates, one strikes arcs

of appropriate length from each station location on a globe and notes the
area where they come nearest to intersecting. A hypothetical epicenter
is assumed in the center of this area, and the times that would be required
for the P wave to reach each detecting station from it are ascertained

from charts. This interval is subtracted from the time observed at the
station. If the assumed epicenter is correct, the time after subtraction

should be the same for each station. Any differences are used to adjust
the assumed epicentral location, the final position being calculated by
least squares.
In the case of intermediate-focus and deep-focus earthquakes, focal
depths can be ascertained from seismograms by noting systematic devi-
ations of observed P arrival times from those predicted (for the best-
established epicentral distance) by the standard charts based on data
from shallow-focus earthquakes. The larger the deviation the greater
the depth. Brunner has designed a chart with which focal depths can
be determined directly if the travel times and epicentral distances are
known. Focal depths are also determined from the time interval between
the P and pP wave (the latter being the wave reflected from the earth's
surface in the neighborhood of the epicenter).

3-4. The Earth's Internal Structure as Deduced from Earthquake Evidence

Time-distance data from earthquakes have been analyzed by several

seismologists 5 with the object of determining the variation of P and S
velocities with depth down to the earth's center. The results of two such
analyses are shown in Fig. 3-5. The respective curves show only slight
differences.
The large drop in the P velocity at about 2,900 km represents the
boundary of the core. Since no S waves appear to pass through the core
it is concluded that the core will not support transverse waves and that it

therefore acts as a liquid. The discontinuity 50 km or less below the

surface of the earth (known as the Mohorovicic discontinuity) represents
the base of the crust. The region between the crust and the core is
known as the mantle. The outermost portion of the mantle has a P
velocity of 8.1 km/sec, which increases steadily, with minor discon-
tinuities, to the core. At the boundary of the core it drops suddenly by
a factor of almost 2. The S velocity increases steadily down to the base
of the mantle, showing variations in the rate of increase that are similar
to the corresponding variations in the velocity.P
Inside the core, the P velocity increases rapidly with depth until at
the earth's center it is about 80 per cent as high as at the core boundary.
Other workers have obtained somewhat different velocity distributions,
but all indicate the same basic constitution of the earth's interior.
EARTHQUAKES AND THE STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH 37

Although it iscompute curves showing the variation of

possible to
elastic constants, such as compressibility and rigidity, with depth on the
basis of these velocity variations (see Bullen, 6 page 104), it is a more
difficult task to identify the materials in the earth's interior and to infer
their physical state. The pressures encountered in the interior of the
earth are so much greater than any that have been reproduced at the

Crust
-*• - Montle >p Core —=»
\H f

yy
\C

r
/y
'

^"in
1U
O

£
fl
/
-y
^
yyyy -
sy
"o /j
y
Jr o
>
--
—
— Jeffr eys -
Gutei iberg
b
^ ^^S
-/ -

4
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Depth, km

Fig. 3-5. Variation in P and S velocities with depth in the earth as deduced independently by Jeffreys
and Gutenberg.

surface that there is at present very little basis for predicting the proper-
ties of material in the earth's mantle or core.

3-5.The Earth's Crustal Structure as Deduced from

Earthquake Evidence

It is paradoxical that the size and shape of the earth's core were deter-
mined from earthquake records long before the earth's crustal structure
could be detailed from seismograms. Earthquake waves have been used
in two ways to study the characteristics of the earth's crust. From
arrival times of P waves from nearby earthquakes, seismologists have
determined crustal thicknesses in various parts of the earth by standard
refraction methods. Also, the dispersive characteristics of surface waves
from distant earthquakes have made it possible to derive a great deal of
information on the structure of the crust over both oceanic and conti-
nental areas.
First-arrival data from near earthquakes seldom give reliable informa-
tion on crustal thickness because of the poor precision with which the
epicenters and focal depths can be determined. Also there are few areas
38 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

where earthquake recording stations are close enough together along the
line of wave travel to give adequate spacing of points on a time-distance
curve. Much better results have been obtained by recording large arti-
ficial explosions with receiving instruments especially set up for the pur-

pose. A large number of experiments of this type have been conducted

by various research groups over the past decade. One of the most
active programs has been sponsored by the Department of Terrestrial
Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, 7 which has car-
ried outan extensive series of explosion studies in many parts of North
and South America with the object of learning more about the nature and
thickness of the earth's crust.
The use of artificial explosions has contributed greatly to our knowl-
edge of crustal structure. Many such experiments are necessary to get
a true picture of crustal characteristics over the earth because the results
from each explosion apply only to the area where the survey is being
made.
In the dispersion studies, the seismologist takes advantage of the fact
that the velocity of Rayleigh and Love waves varies with period. Except
in special cases, the longer period waves travel faster because of the effect
of the crustal layer at the surface. This effect results in the sorting out
of component frequencies wave train the periods of
so that in the surface
successive cycles decrease systematically with time on the record. When
velocity is plotted against period, the shape of the resultant curve depends
on the characteristics (thickness and velocities) of the crust and sub-
stratum over the entire wave path.
Dispersion of earthquake surface waves has been a particularly effec-
tive tool in crustal investigations for a number of reasons. In the first

place, a seismogram from a distant earthquake will show surface waves

whose characteristics will be determined by crustal thicknesses and
lithology over many thousands of miles of wave path. The information
it yields represents an average over a great distance. Secondly, a proper
choice of earthquakes and recording stations makes it possible to select
wave paths covering areas of particular interest. For example, all-
continental or all-oceanic paths can be studied and the results can be
systematically compared.
The information on the earth's crustal structure derived from surface
waves has been summarized by Press and Ewing. 8 From the results of
refraction studies and surface-wave studies, several generalizations can
be made. Under the oceans, the crust is very thin, its base lying only
10 or 11 km below sea level. Since the ocean depth averages about 6 km,
the solid crust is only about 5 km thick. Its seismic velocity averages
about 6.5 km/sec, while the velocity at the top of the mantle is about
8 km/sec. Under the continents, the crustal thickness is much greater,
EARTHQUAKES AND THE STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH 39

averaging about 35 km. The average is about 6.5

velocity in the crust
km/sec, which suggests that the rocks in this layer are silicic. The
velocity below the Mohorovicic discontinuity is about 8.1 km/sec under
continental areas as well as oceanic, and the subcrustal material is conse-
quently believed to be ultramafic. There is reason to expect that the
crust should be thicker under mountainous areas than it is under areas
at or near sea level. Seismic evidence for such thickening has been
reported 9 but other evidence 7 indicates that in some mountainous areas
the crustal thickness is the same as under the coastal plains. Thus the
matter is presently somewhat controversial.

REFERENCES

1. Gutenberg, Beno, and C. F. Richter: "Seismicity of the Earth and Associated

Phenomena," 2d ed., Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., 1954.
2. Richter, C. F.: An Instrumental Earthquake Magnitude Scale, Bull. Seis. Soc. Am.,
Vol. 25, pp. 1-32, 1935; History and Applications of the Magnitude Scale, Trav.
sci., U. G.G.I, assoc. seis., pp. 217-224, Toulouse, 1950.

3. Byerly, Perry: " Seismology," pp. 57-58, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs,
N.J , 1942.
4. Bullen, K. E.: "An Introduction to the Theory of Seismology," 2d ed., Cambridge
University Press, New York, 1954.
5. Gutenberg, Beno, and C. F. Richter: On Seismic Waves (Third Paper), Gerlands
Beitr. Geophys., Vol. 47, pp. 73-131, 1936.
6. Bullen, K. E.: Seismic Wave Transmission, in "Encyclopedia of Physics," Vol. 47,
Geophysics, Springer- Verlag, Berlin, 1956.
7. Tatel, H. E., and M. A. Tuve: Seismic Exploration of a Continental Crust, in
"Crust of the Earth," Geological Society of America Special Paper 62, 1955.
8. Press, Frank, and Maurice Ewing: Surface Waves and Crustal Structure, in "Crust
of the Earth," Geological Society of America Special Paper 62, 1955.
9. Press, Frank Determination of Crustal Structure from Phase Velocity of Rayleigh
:

Waves, Part I: Southern California, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 67, pp. 1647-1658,
1956.
 CHAPTER 4

SEISMIC INSTRUMENTS AND SEISMIC SURVEYS

Although the seismic method is a relatively new prospecting tool, having

been in use for only a few decades, the techniques and instruments it
employs have been improved continually over this period. The improve-
ment has been accelerated during the years since the Second World War,
largely because of the quickened pace of research and development activ-
ity in this phase of the oil industry. In the current chapter we shall
consider the instruments used in seismic prospecting and the techniques
employed in field operations. Because the instruments used for refrac-
tion and for reflection are almost identical in principle and design we shall
consider both types together. There are some differences between the
field procedures employed for the two techniques, but both kinds of sur-

vey are operated in an essentially similar way. We shall discuss the

aspects of field operation common to both refraction and reflection in this
chapter, leaving the more specialized procedures for the two chapters
that follow.

4-1. Instruments Used in Seismic Prospecting

Geophones. The geophone, also referred to as the detector or seis-

mometer, converts the seismic oscillations of the earth into electrical
signals. In exploration for oil, the instruments ordinarily used are sensi-
tive only to vibrationsbetween about 5 and 100 cycles per second for
refraction work and between 10 and 150 cps for reflection. For either
application the geophone responds only to the vertical component of the
earth's motion. For practical purposes it is considered to move as if it
were part of the earth, whether it is buried or just sitting on the surface.
The detecting instruments employed in seismic exploration operate
according to the same principles as the seismographs used for recording
earthquakes (Chap. 2). All modern types require electrical or elec-
tronic amplificationand recording, since earth movements as small as
10 -8 in. Gardner ) are expected to yield observable deflections on
(see 1

the records. Richards 2 has reviewed the historical development of

40
SEISMIC INSTRUMENTS AND SEISMIC SURVEYS 41

seismic detectors, showing how all modern types have evolved from
instruments originally employed for earthquake detection.
Electromagnetic Type. The sim-
plest and by far the most widely
used type of geophone is the elec- ^SH^ Coil
-Suspension
springs

— Permanent
tromagnetic. This consists of a
magnet
coil and a magnet, one rigidly fixed
with respect to the earth and the //////////////////////////////////////////
other suspended from a fixed sup- Earth
port by a spring. Any relative mo- Fig. 4-1. Schematic diagram of electromagnetic
geophone. Magnet is inertial element, Case
tion between the coil and magnet
moves with earth.
produces an electromotive force
across the coil's terminals which is proportional to the velocity of the
motion. Figure 4-1 illustrates the principle for a fixed coil and movable
magnet. In this, the coil, attached to the case, moves with the earth
while the magnet acts as the inertial element. When the coil constitutes

to
>
Si.

Fig. 4-2. Electromagnetic geophone with coil, wound about bobbin C, as inertial element. Suspension
springs B support bobbin. Pole pieces A ofmagnet are attached to case. Terminals D are for
connection to recorder. [Hall-Sears, Inc.)
42 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

it is ordinarily suspended from the frame by a spring.

the inertial element,
Figure 4-2 shows the inner workings of the latter type of instrument; the
bobbin on which the coil is wound is coupled to the detector case by a
pair of strip springs. The sensitivity of this type of geophone depends on
the strength of the magnet and the number of turns in the coil, as well as
the geometry of the system. Recently developed ferromagnetic alloys
having high magnetic susceptibility and improved techniques of coil design
have made it possible to reduce
Case
the size of electromagnetic geo-
phones without appreciable loss of
sensitivity.
Reluctance Type. The reluctance
Non- type of electromagnetic geophone,
magnetic now virtually obsolete, is so designed
rigid
member that earth motion causes variations
Coil
N in the width of an air gap, giving
Air gap J
J rise to corresponding changes in the
Armature reluctance of a magnetic circuit.
{attached to coil and cose)
A ir gap 2 Such changes can be converted into
— S N — electrical oscillations by electromag-
netic induction.
Figure 4-3 illustrates the principle
of the variable reluctance geophone.
The inertial member, attached to the
case, is a coil and armature system.
Fig. 4-3. Variable reluctance geophone (sche-
matic).
The movable part, suspended from
the case by a spring, is a pair of per-
manent magnets aligned in magnetic opposition and separated from the
armature by air gaps as shown. When the system is in equilibrium, the
two air gaps are equal and the magnetic circuits of the upper and lower
magnets, having equal and opposite magnetomotive forces and equal
reluctances, exactly cancel so that there is no magnetic flux through the
armature. When
the armature is displaced from its equilibrium posi-
tion, the two air gaps are no longer equal and the reluctance in the mag-
netic circuit comprising the upper magnet and the armature is no longer
the same as the reluctance in the circuit of the lower magnet. Thus there
willbe a net flux through the armature and the coil will generate an elec-
tromotive force as this flux changes. The maximum rate of change
takes place when the armature is passing through equilibrium position
and the induced voltage is greatest here. The voltage is zero at the posi-
tion of maximum displacement. This type of detector responds to veloc-
ity and its output signal is thus 90° out of phase with the displacement.
SEISMIC INSTRUMENTS AND SEISMIC SURVEYS 43

Capacitive Type. In the capacitive type of geophone, long obsolete,

the inertial element is attached to one plate of a condenser, the other
plate being fixed with respect to the earth (Fig. 4-4). Motion of the
ground varies the separation of the plates and hence the capacitance of
the condenser. In one such detector, the variable capacitance changes
the tuning and hence the output of an oscillatory circuit. In another
kind, the capacitance change simply controls the grid voltage on the first
stage of an amplifier, as in a condenser microphone. Output here is
proportional to displacement if the natural frequency of the instrument
is below the range of seismic frequencies to be recorded.

To
amplifier
Weight

I t"T| ----- Metal

**+ *! plates
I

Mass "'Suspension
I
* ?TT |
spring
iH3$ Crystals
3£
Transforme
'"Condenser TTTT
plates
/77777777777777777777777777777777777 77777777777777777777777777777777/77777~
Earth Earth
Fig. 4-4. Capacitative geophone (schematic). Fig. 4-5. Piezoelectric geophone (schematic).

Pressure Type. In the piezoelectric geophone, a weight rests on a bat-

tery of plates made of some piezoelectric material such as quartz, tour-
maline, or barium titanate and cut parallel to their optic axes (Fig. 4-5).
Any acceleration of the ground downward will decrease the apparent
weight of the mass, while acceleration upward will increase the pressure
on the crystals. As the pressure changes, voltage variations are induced
in the plates. it responds to pressure changes, this instrument
Because
measures accelerations rather than displacements or velocities.
Pressure geophones in commercial usage are confined to borehole
devices employed in velocity surveys and to certain marine surveys.
Virtually all of them use ceramic crystals of the barium titanate type.
The pressure in the borehole fluid varies with the earth's motion as the
borehole walls dilate and contract with the passage of elastic waves.
Thus pressure-sensitive crystals are quite suitable for detecting seismic
waves below the surface of the earth.
Damping. All types of geophones have provision for quenching, or
damping, the oscillatory movements set up in the instrument by the
impulsive motion of the earth. In earlier models damping was from the
viscous drag on a metal plate immersed in oil. Modern dynamic geo-
phones use eddy-current damping. The degree of damping is governed
by the value of a resistor connected across the terminals.
44 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

Characteristic Curves. The performance of seismic detectors is most

conveniently expressed in the form of characteristic curves showing
response to impressed motion as a function of frequency. These curves
are usually obtained in the laboratory with a shaking table on which the
detectors are set into oscillation at any desired frequency and amplitude
over the range in which they operate. If an undamped instrument is set
into vibration with a constant amplitude at various frequencies, its volt-
age output has a pronounced maximum at one frequency. This is the

!0.0

8.0

4.0 \ —/? = (BobL ->ir> dan ip'ng)

\r-—/7=
—/?= 0.355
0.5
2.0
r-h- 0.707 *•

<rh =
1.0
I 1.0

0.5
////
I
1/7/
0.25 /l

0.125
0,1
/
0.25
III/

Q50 1.0 2.0 40 8.0 16.0 32.0

Frequency of signal
Natural frequency

Fig. 4-6. Normalized frequency response curves for electromagnetic geophone with various values of
damping (h is fraction of critical damping).

" natural frequency," corresponding to the natural period of earthquake-

recording seismographs described in Chap. 2. Its value T depends on
the mass m
and stiffness coefficient k of the system according to the
relation

= 2

Figure 4-6 shows a family of response curves for an electromagnetic geo-

^
phone, each curve corresponding to a different amount of damping.
The ordinate is the voltage output normalized with respect to the output
for an impressed very high frequency having the same
oscillation at a
maximum The uppermost curve is for an undamped system.
velocity.
As damping is introduced, the height and sharpness of the peak dimin-
ish. The maximum amount of damping that can be applied without
destroying the oscillatory character of the response is known as critical
damping. If the damping is half its critical value (h = 0.5), a maximum
SEISMIC INSTRUMENTS AND SEISMIC SURVEYS 45

will stillbe observed but it will be at a somewhat higher frequency than

the natural one. This is considered by many to be the most acceptable
degree of damping for reflection recording. At a damping 0.707 times
the critical value, the peak disappears and the output increases smoothly
with increasing frequency, approaching its maximum value asymptoti-
cally. The curve for critical damping (h = 1.0) follows a similar pat-
tern. If there is any substantial component of earth motion in the neigh-
borhood of the detector's natural frequency, one must introduce sufficient

Fig. A-7a. Standard turret-top geophone with handling rope and cable connectors. [Century Geo-
physical Corp.)

damping to Otherwise the effect of that component

remove the hump.
will be exaggerated in the output. If a geophone of natural frequency
6 cps were used in reflection work, where the dominant frequencies are
in the neighborhood of 30 cps, the damping would not have to be adjusted
so carefully as in refraction, where frequencies as low as 5 cps are encoun-
tered, as the response in the neighborhood of 30 cps would be about the
same regardless of the damping used.
Housings. Geophone cases are designed for convenience of handling as
well as for ruggedness. Cases for most older models have turret tops
and flat bottoms as illustrated in Fig. 4-7a. These are usually about 4 in.
in diameter. About 1950 a lighter and more compact type of geophone
was developed for use in the field and this is now widely employed in
seismic exploration everywhere. Figure 4-76 illustrates a unit of this
type. about 13^ in. in diameter and 3 in. high, weighing only about
It is
1 lb. This kind of detector is especially suitable where many phones
must be used per trace. All phones feeding a single record trace can be
connected together by jumper cables before the field operation begins so
as to facilitate laying out on the ground. Housings of this type are con-
46 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

structed so that spikes can be screwed to their bottoms for more secure
planting. Such a spike is shown in the figure.
Amplifiers and Filters. employ
All commercial seismograph systems
electronic amplifiers between the geophones and the recording units. The
circuits of these vary greatly in their design. Some are resistance-
coupled, others impedance- and transformer-coupled.
The requirements of seismic amplifiers are more stringent than of audio-
frequency amplifiers designed for most other purposes. Because of the
variations in level of ground motion, voltages must be handled which

Fig. 4-7b. Miniature geophone with corkscrew-type spike for planting into ground. {Hall-Sears, Inc )

may cover a range of 20,000:1 in amplitude although recording oscillo-

graphs can only resolve differences of the order of 10 1. Thus a variable:

gain must be built into the system.

Virtually all circuits include a series of filters for controlling the fre-
quency characteristics of the recording system. It is generally desirable
to exclude low frequencies in order to prevent ground roll and noise of
other types from interfering with reflections. Also, high frequencies are
attenuated in order to remove wind noise, "hole noise," and other extra-
neous effects. The high- and low-frequency cutoffs which yield the best
reflection quality vary greatly from place to place, depending on the
frequency characteristics of the reflection signals and the noise at each
location. Thus a wide selection of high-pass and low-pass filter combina-
tions is available. Figure 4-8 shows representative response curves for
the different filter settings available on a typical seismic amplifier. The
curve indicating a uniform low-frequency response down to 5 cps is for
a low-pass filter combination such as would be used in refraction work.
Filter sections with attenuation rates ranging from 6 to 18 decibels per
octave are available with seismic amplifiers. Sharper cutoffs can be
SEISMIC INSTRUMENTS AND SEISMIC SURVEYS 47

obtained by combining sections, i.e., feeding the output of one section

into the input of an identical unit so as to square the attenuation at any
frequency. Double-section with 18 db/octave cutoff for each sec-
filters

tion give attenuations of 36 db/octave. In many areas, ground-roll

amplitude is so great that a high-pass filter with a 36 db/octave cutoff
rate is necessary to eliminate this low-frequency disturbance and brinp
out the intrinsically lower amplitude, higher frequency reflection events

1,000

Cycles per second

High pass Low pass
Fig. 4-8. Characteristic response curves for typical seismograph amplifier with various filter settings.

The number before the dash represents the frequency at which each filter begins to cut off. The digit
after the dash indicates the number of filter stages. The ordinate is relative response to constant
input voltage. [Century Geophysical Corp.)

Figure 4-8 compares the effect of single- and double-section filters where
the individual sections cut off at 12 db/octave.
In recent years, some new types of seismic filtering have been introduced
on an experimental basis which operate on principles quite different
from the RC and LC filters used with conventional seismic equipment.
Among these are delay-line filtering, 3 digital filtering, and cross-corre-
lation filtering, 4 all of which require auxiliary recording, as on magnetic
tape, for efficient application. In the first type, the input signal is

applied to the recording head of a magnetic drum and the output is

obtained by sampling the input data at a number of points, representing
different time delays around the drum, with a series of pickup heads, each
head having a different attenuation. The outputs of the heads, each
with a predetermined positive or negative polarity, are added and the
filtered output is the sum of the weighted signals. The characteristics
48 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

of this type of filter depend on the respective attenuations and polarities

of the heads. Digital filtering is based on the same principle, but the

input signals are in digital form, as is the output. Cross-correlation

techniques involve the multiplication of the input signal with a standard
signal similar in waveform to a reflection pulse, there being a variable
time lag between the two, and integration of the product over a record.
The resulting " cross correlegram" should show a maximum wherever an
event comparable to the standard signal is found in the seismogram, even
when it is hidden in noise of a different frequency.
All these techniques have much greater flexibility than conventional
electrical filtering although they are allmore expensive, more time-con-
suming, and more cumbersome to set up. Since they would be applied
to tape-recorded data in the office or laboratory rather than in the field,
the time factor is not so serious a handicap, particularly when a single
setup, once determined, might be used for filtering a large number of
records. At present, such approaches are experimental and are not, so
far as is known, used for actual exploration operations on a routine basis.
For an informative, nonmathematical discussion of the various tech-
is referred to a review by
niques of filtering seismic signals, the reader
Smith. 5
All amplifier circuits used in reflection work and second-event refrac-
tion shooting include an expander, which steps up the amplification as
time on the record increases. This is necessary because the later events
represent waves that have traveled greater distances through the earth
and are thus much more attenuated than the waves which arrive at the
surface after reflection from shallow horizons. Another vital accessory
is an automatic volume control that evens out the amplitudes of the

various reflection signals picked up by the geophones so that an ampli-

fication that will make weaker signals readable on the final record will
not cause the stronger signals to show such a large amplitude that it is
hard to follow them from trace to trace. The rate at which the a.v.c.
action is applied to a signal and relaxed after the signal has passed can
be varied on some amplifiers. On most systems, the performances of the
a.v.c. and expander are automatically suppressed until shortly after the
first arrivals have been recorded so that these events will be sharply

defined for precise reading.

Oscillographic Elements and Cameras. The earlier oscillographs used
in seismic prospecting were of the string-galvanometer type, but coil
galvanometers have replaced this type entirely. Since modern record-
ing cameras often photograph 48 traces or more on an 8-in. strip of paper
and since one galvanometer element is required for each trace, compact-
ness is of utmost importance in galvanometer design.
In the coil galvanometer, a small current-carrying loop is suspended
SEISMIC INSTRUMENTS AND SEISMIC SURVEYS 49

between the poles of a magnet in such a way that changes in the current
cause rotation of the loop. A
tiny mirror attached to the loop reflects
a beam of light to the recording paper, the motion of the mirror being
registered photographically on the moving paper. Figure 4-9 shows a
set of 25 coil-galvanometer elements in close enough proximity to give a

Fig. 4-9. Twenty-five coil-galvanometer units as assembled in a recording camera. Total length of the
row of coils is about 8 in. (Ceniury Geophysical Corp.)

25-trace record on an 8-in. strip of paper. The mirrors are shown at the
bottom of the exposed portion of each element.
The camera itself contains a spring-driven motor which drives the
recording paper past the focused light beams at a relatively constant rate
of about 1 ft/sec. An optical system focuses on the paper an image of the
narrow slit through which the reflected beams are passed. Figure 4-10
shows a typical oscillograph and camera used in the field.
Timing Lines. Precise measurement of times of events on seismic
records is made possible by the photographic superposition of vertical
timing lines upon the information traces. These lines are projected at
50 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

intervals of 0.01 or 0.005 sec and usually run the entire width of the
record. An accurately rated tuning fork controls an oscillator which
regulates the speed of a motor-driven rotating disk with slots or spokes
so located that the light beam be permitted to get through to the
will
camera at the proper intervals. In some cameras the slots interrupt
the light beam every 0.01 sec; every tenth slot is somewhat wider than the

Fig. 4-10. A 24-trace seismic camera unit. About half of the galvanometer elements can be seen
through the door on the right. The camera spools and paper-drive mechanism are at the left.
(Century Geophysical Corp.)

others so that there will be a heavier line every 0.1 sec to facilitate count-
ing of time on the records. Sometimes the 0.01-sec lines alternate
with lighter lines midway between. This makes it easy to read events,
by interpolation, to the nearest thousandth of a second.
In playing back magnetic tapes, the timing lines on the final paper
record are generally actuated by the timing impulses on the tape in such
a way that the shot moment is represented by a heavy tenth-second line.
This facilitates reading of times on the record.
Shot-moment Indicator. One of the traces on the record is used to
indicate the exact instant at which the shot is fired. For this purpose,
the recorder is connected with the shot point by wire for reflection work
and by radio* for refraction.In most cases, the galvanometer responds
* Frequency modulation is often used to eliminate spurious breaks caused by static.
SEISMIC INSTRUMENTS AND SEISMIC SURVEYS 51

to an inductive kick associated with the breaking of a circuit simultane-

ously with the detonation. The sharpness of the shot moment can be
increased if the signal is made proportional to the rate of change of cur-
rent in the circuit opened by the shot.
Magnetic Recording Equipment. About 1951, a new technique for
recording seismic data in the field was introduced on an experimental
basis. It involved the addition of a new step to the conventional record-
ing process, namely, the storage of the seismic signals in reproducible
form on multichannel magnetically coated plastic tape, a medium devel-
oped after the Second World War for sound recording and other pur-
poses. The principal advantage of this method lay in the fact that data
covering the entire range of seismic frequencies could be stored on the
tape at the time of initial recording and the paper records used for actual
interpretation could be obtained by playing the tape back through any
desired filters afterwards.
In conventional field recording on paper, it isnot possible to compare
the effects of different filter settings at a shot point without separate
shots for each setting. Often shot holes collapse after a single explosion
and a second shot involves the time and cost of drilling another hole.
Even where the hole is not actually lost after a shot, it is not usually
possible to put a second charge in a hole at the same depth as the first;
and a change in shot depth may result in an entirely different reflection
character even at the same filter setting. Thus it is difficult to isolate
the effect of filtering alone by conventional recording techniques.
During the years that followed its introduction, magnetic recording
became adopted more and more widely for seismic exploration operations.
By 1956, more than half as many magnetic recording units had been built
as there were seismic crews in operation. As of 1959, at least three-
quarters of all crews use magnetic equipment.
Although there are several types of magnetic systems used in seismic
prospecting, the only really significant differences are between those
which employ frequency modulation and those which use amplitude
modulation. In the former type, the output signal from the seismic
amplifier goes into a modulator in which a constant-amplitude carrier
signal having a frequency in the neighborhood of 3,000 cps is modulated
in frequency over the seismic range (5 to 300 cps) by the impressed signal.
The signal is extracted from the tape upon playback by use of a demodu-
lator. An early system of this type is described by Loper and Pittman. 6
In amplitude-modulated systems the signal is impressed directly on the
tape just as in sound recording, the magnetization of the tape being pro-
portional to the strength of the signal. Both have a dynamic range of
10 to 45 db.
A variation upon frequency-modulation recording is pulse-width
52 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

modulation. Here the sinusoidal carrier signal is amplified and clipped

at the top until it becomes effectively a train of square waves. The
separation in time between consecutive zero crossings depends on the
impressed seismic signal. Demodulation is based on detection of the zero

Fig. 4-11. A bank of magnetic recording heads for a tape system of the type shown in Fig. 4-13
Twenty-eight heads are visible. These make contact with the tape on the recording drum. (South-
western Industrial Electronics, Inc.)

crossings. Distortions from extraneous higher harmonics of the carrier

signal do not affect the demodulated signal as they might with conven-
tional frequency modulation.
The tape itself is stretched around a drum which makes one revolution
during the recording interval. It is rectangular in shape, being several
inches wide and several feet long. In the actual recording, the tape
slides over a bank of magnetic heads, one for each of the 24 traces plus a
SEISMIC INSTRUMENTS AND SEISMIC SURVEYS 53

few others for special purposes such as timing, which are aligned side by
side (see Fig. 4-11). Recording speed ranges from about 6 in. to 1 ft/sec.
A widely used medium for magnetic recording is the Magnedisc, a
circular platter of magnetically coated plastic material which rotates on
a turntable in the same way as a phonograph record. The magnetic

Mg. 4-12. A Magnedisc magnelic recording unit. The magnetic channels are on a coated 15-in. cir-
cular platter which rotates past the fixed heads shown in banks along the side. (Houston Technical
laboratories Division, Texas Instruments, Inc.)

channels, each in contact with a fixed head aligned along a radius from
the center, are on concentric circular bands extending inward from the
outer edge of the disk. Figure 4-12 illustrates the recording unit of the
Magnedisc system.
Most magnetic recording units in present-day use employ the same
magnetic heads and transport system for playback as are used for record-
ing. Both operations are performed in the field recording truck. With
some magnetic systems, a sheet of paper having about the same dimen-
sions as the tape is wrapped around the recording drum alongside the
54 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

tape and, after the initial recording, the signals on the tape can be played
back sequentially and recorded on the paper one trace at a time by an
ink-writing pen or a Teledeltos-type stylus. Figure 4-13 shows a system
of this kind along with the associated control panels. This unit is ordi-
narily installed in the recording truck.
Many companies have set up separate playback systems in central
offices which serve a number of field crews and process their data on a

A field magnetic recording and playback unit for use in seismic field operations. The entire
Fig. 4-13.

rack mounted in a truck. Magnetic tape and paper strip for playback are wrapped side by side
is

around the drum on the left. Registration on the paper is by a single pen recorder. Knobs on
control panels give choice of filters and gain. (Southwestern Industrial Electronics, Inc.)

routine basis. The advantages of office playback are so substantial

that units of this kind should become more and more common as time
goes on. Central playback units generally have movable heads so that
time corrections can be made for elevation and weathering variations.
In addition, there is generally a mechanism which corrects for the " nor-
mal moveout" time, Avhich is the difference between the slant-path time
and vertical reflection time, by continuous shifting of the heads with
respect to one another as the time on the record increases. They also
make it possible to composite signals on different traces or even on differ-
ent records as a means for eliminating noise. Drums for intermediate
SEISMIC INSTRUMENTS AND SEISMIC SURVEYS 51

storage of data must be used in systems which turn out composited

records (Fig. 4-14).
The end product of such devices is usually a corrected record section
somewhat similar in appearance to a geological cross section. Sections
of this kind will be discussed further in Chap. 6.

Fig. 4-14. A magnetic playback unit for a central office. This type has multiple drums and turns out
corrected record sections on a wide paper strip. Special knobs on control panels are used to enter
trace corrections and normal moveout data. (Southwestern Industrial Electronics, Inc.)

4-2. Seismic Operations on Land

The organization and operation of seismic reflection and refraction

surveys are so similar that the field procedures for both can be con-
sidered together.
Organization of Seismic Crews. The average reflection crew engaged
in domestic land operations consists of from 15 to 20 men. Refraction
crews are sometimes twice as large.
The party chief supervises the personnel of the crew and on most par-
ties is in charge of interpretation. Many crews have a party manager in
addition to the party chief. His function is to handle the operational
phases of the work, particularly those involving logistics and access in
difficult or remote areas, giving the party chief more time for interpreta-
tion of the data. On some crews the party chief and computers stay in
a central office at some distance from the field operations and the party
manager supervises the field crew directly. A few companies using
magnetic equipment on a number of crews station all their party chiefs
at a central playback center at which the magnetically recorded data are
processed for all the crews on the same playback equipment. On some
parties the interpretation is supervised by a geophysicist, who shares the

top level of the organization chart with the party manager.

56 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

The computer, with one or two assistants, carries on the routine work of
transforming the "wiggly lines" on the reflection records into the form in
which they are finally used. Where corrected record sections are pre-
pared he must compute the corrections and must assemble the other
information to be fed into the playback so that it will turn out properly
corrected records. In addition to handling corrections, the computer

Fig. 4-15. Shot-hole drilling rig set up for operation. [Seismic Service Supply, Ltd.)

must mark the records, read and plot times, and otherwise maintain the
flow of data.
The observer, or operator, is in charge of the recording crew, including
the shooters and the linemen. He must maintain the electronic equip-
ment and decide on the best shooting and detector arrangement as well
as the best instrumental settings for getting records of optimum quality.
He operates the recording equipment in the field, often with the help of an
assistant. In conventional recording, or in tape recording when photo-
graphic monitors are run, the observer or his assistant develops the record
in the recording truck immediately after it is shot.
The surveyor and his helper lay out the shooting profiles in accordance
with instructions from the party chief. They must locate and mark all
shot-hole positions and detector stations. On most parties the surveyor
SEISMIC INSTRUMENTS AND SEISMIC SURVEYS 57

must obtain permission from the landowner for the party to shoot on his
taken care of by a permit man.
property; on a few parties this is

Each party has one or more crews for drilling shot holes. Generally
the drilling crew and equipment are contracted by the seismic party,
although some are permanently attached. Each crew consists of a
driller and his helpers. The holes are drilled by a special portable rig
mounted on a truck (see Fig. 4-15), and the drillers must maintain the
equipment. Several crews are usually necessary to drill the number of
holes shot by a recording crew in the course of a day.
The linemen, also known as "jug hustlers," lay the detectors on the
ground and return them to a truck-mounted bin after each shot. They
also string and connect the wires from the truck to the geophones. Some-
times they must dig handholes for burying the geophones.
The shooter, with his helper, places the dynamite in the shot hole with
loading poles and detonates the charge with a blaster when instructed to
do so over the telephone by the observer. In handling the explosives, he
is responsible for the proper observance of all safety rules.
Field Routine. The surveyors precede the drillers to the area of opera-
tions, usuallyby a few days, and select the exact shot-hole locations,
bearing in mind such factors as accessibility to heavy trucks and distance
from high-tension wires.* Distances and elevations must be measured
with high accuracy by transit or alidade for subsequent use in data
reduction. Accuracy in surveying is particularly vital in refraction
operations. The drillers set and during the actual boring
up the drill

keep a log of all formations encountered. Shot holes are usually from
25 to 250 ft deep, depending on the depth to consolidated rock and other
local conditions.
When the shooting and recording crews reach the scene, the recording
truck commonly takes its position near the middle of the geophone
spread. The linemen then pull cable from a reel on the truck to the
detector positions, subsequently clipping or plugging the geophones, or
geophone strings, to the cable. The shooters meanwhile have parked
their truck a short distance from the shot hole, loaded the hole with
dynamite sticks, and connected the blaster in the truck to a detonating
cap buried in one of the sticks. The observer tests his geophone circuit,
sets the tape in his magnetic recording unit (where this is used) and the
paper in his oscillograph camera into motion, and then signals the shooter
to fire the charge. In nearly all types of magnetic recorders the firing
impulse is set off automatically from a switch at the tape drum so that

* There have been all too many fatal accidents during seismic operations when the

wire that carries the detonating impulse from the blaster to the charge at the bottom
of the hole has been blown out of the hole into contact with overhanging high-tension
lines, electrocuting shooters and even recording-truck personnel.
58 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

the shot moment will occur at the beginning of the tape. When the
traces have quieted down, the camera is stopped and the record, after
being developed, is examined by the observer. Where necessary, the
instrument settings and the charge size are adjusted for a repeat shot
with the same detector setup. Even with magnetic recording it is often
desirable to record shots from several depths in the same shot hole.

4-3. Seismic Operations in Water-covered Areas

After the intensive fan-shooting campaign to locate salt domes along

the Gulf Coast of the United States had been under way for several years,
the Geophysical Research Corp., working for the Louisiana Land and
Exploration Co., adapted its equipment for underwater work and
extended its seismic operations to the lakes and shallow bays of coastal
Louisiana and the Mississippi delta. The results were spectacularly
successful, 11 salt domes being discovered in 9 months during late 1927
and early 1928 by only two boat-equipped crews. The techniques
developed during the course of this work 7 were later improved and put
to use in extensive reflection surveys over the same water-covered areas,
houseboat crews having been responsible for a number of important
Louisiana discoveries in the 1930's. The most recent phase of submarine
seismic exploration began at the end of the Second World War when
both reflection and refraction surveys were inaugurated on a large scale
in the offshore waters of the Gulf of Mexico and in the open Pacific off the
California coast. This latest campaign is an integral part of the postwar
exploration for oil reserves, previously considered inaccessible, which are
believed to lie in the sedimentary formations beneath these and other
shallow bodies of water. A comprehensive review of geophysical work
offshore may be found in a paper by Cortes and Gsell. 8
Shallow-water Reflection. The earliest underwater reflection opera-
tions were carried out in the shallow, protected bays, lakes, and bayous
of the Gulf Coast area. Seismic exploration is still going on in such bodies
of water. Often surveying crews operate from tripods mounted in the
water. In some cases (Fig. 4-16a) the surveyors work while immersed
to the waist. Shot holes are jetted under water from special rigs mounted
on boats as shown in Fig. 4-166. Charges are loaded into the holes and
detonated from a shooting boat of the type illustrated in Fig. 4-1 6c. The
instrument boat (Fig. 4-1 6d) corresponds to the recording truck on land
operations and contains in general the same kind of equipment. Com-
munication is always by radio.
Offshore Operations on the Continental Shelves. The earliest seismic
investigation of offshore areas was carried on for purposes of academic
research rather than commercial exploration. In 1935 Ewing and Lis
SEISMIC INSTRUMENTS AND SEISMIC SURVEYS 5?

9
associates shot their first series of refraction profiles over the Atlantic
shelf. The gave substantial information on the constitution and
results
configuration of the subsurface layers below the shelf and encouraged the
oil industry to begin the search for petroleum in shelf areas a decade later.

The extension of commercial seismic prospecting to the relatively

shallow offshore waters of the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific shelf off
California introduced new problems which led to many new operating

(c) (d)

Fig. 4-16. Underwater seismic operations in shallow, protected waters, (a) Surveying in shallow water,
(b) Jetting explosives into soft water bottom, (c) Shooting boat paying out firing line to shot, (d)

Instrument boat; detectors being laid on water bottom. [Humble Oil and Refining Co.)

techniques. For surveys too far from shore to be within sight of identifi-
able landmarks, new electronic surveying techniques developed for war-
time use had to be adapted for position location. Special apparatus and
shooting techniques were developed which could cope with the storms
and heavy seas often encountered in offshore areas.
One of the earliest difficulties to arise in deep-water shooting was the
persistent appearance on the record of spurious traveling events which
occurred as repetitions of first refracted arrivals and reflections, following
at constant intervals, usually of the order of several tenths of a second.
These interfered with the reading of actual reflected events and were
quite troublesome. Similar phenomena had been observed in wartime
studies of underwater explosions. By analysis of the relations between
the size of charge and the interval between repeated waves of the same
type, Lay 10 deduced that the repetitions were attributable to oscillations
of the gas bubble liberated in the water by the explosion. In shallow
60 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

water the bubble would penetrate the surface and break, but in deep
water it would pulsate several times with a period proportional to the
cube root of the charge, setting up an identical seismic effect with each
oscillation. If the charge were placed only a short distance below the

surface, the bubble would be released on its first expansion. Lay found
that the maximum depth d at which the bubble will break instead of
oscillating is related to the charge weight w (in pounds) by the formula

d = S.8w* (4-1)

More complete observations were made on bubble-pulse behavior by

Worzel and Ewing 11 during 1943-1944 in the course of their wartime
research.
Because of the considerable difference in water depth, distance of
operations from shore, bottom composition, and legal restrictions, the
technique employed off the Gulf Coast diverges .in some respects from
that used over the Pacific coastal shelf. Wyckoff 12 has discussed the
methods used in the Gulf Coast, and Wharton 13 has given a brief account
of those employed in California. Cortes and Gsell 8 have reviewed
offshore operations over the world.
Gulf Coast Operations. The over-all operation of an offshore prospect-
ing survey in the Gulf Coast is illustrated in Fig. 4-17. Actually, there
is wide divergence in the exact procedures of different companies working
in this area.
Detectors used in deep-water work are the same in internal construc-
tion as those used on land, but their housing is modified. Usually they
are mounted on gimbals to ensure their being level and in proper position
during shooting. The entire assemblage is fitted into a streamlined
housing, which attached to an electrical cable connecting to the shoot-
is

ing boat (Fig. 4-18a). With one arrangement, the recording boat drags
the entire string of geophones through themud at the water bottom from
one shooting location to another. With another system, cork floats are
used to keep the geophones suspended about 6 ft below the cable, which
is held near the surface by a planing board stabilized by a fin. This
system is particularly advantageous where coral at the water bottom
makes it inadvisable to drag the geophone strings. The distances
between detectors during shots is of course fixed when the cable is taut.
The explosive charges are floated just below the surface from balloons
(Fig. 4-186), which are dropped off the shooting boat at positions pre-
viously determined by one of the radio location methods. The locations
are indicated by balloon buoys, held in place by sash weights (Fig. 4-18c),
dropped into the water by the survey party. When the recording boat
dragging the detectors reaches the buoy marking its station, it reverses
engines to ensure slack on the detector cable while the shooting boat
61
 NTRODUCTiON TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

Fig. 4-18.Views of deep-water seismic operations in Gulf of Mexico, (a) Letting out detector cable.
Each detector is in waterproof housing (shown on roller) and is mounted on gimbals, (b) Dropping
charge into water from shooting boat. Dynamite sticks are floated from balloon, (c) Preparing
balloons for marking survey locations, (d) Geyser from charge detonated just below water surface.
Shooting boat at right. (Socony Mob/7 Oi7 Co., Inc.)

throws off its away to a safe distance.

charge at the shot buoy and moves
The shot is fired (Fig. 4-18J) delay as possible to minimize
with as little
drift of the geophones. Shot-detector distances are determined with
sufficient accuracy by timing the direct explosion wave through the water.
Operations off California. The marginal waters of the Pacific Coast off
California have been systematically explored in a series of offshore seismic
surveys sponsored by many oil companies operating together. Position
SEISMIC INSTRUMENTS AND SEISMIC SURVEYS 63

location here is much simpler than in the Gulf, since the 600-ft depth con-

tour isusually reached less than 5 miles from shore and the mountains and
cliffs along shore give numerous landmarks for visual surveying by sex-
tant and three-arm protractor. Frequent fogs, however, make Shoran or
some other radio location system desirable. Because of the greater water
depth and the hard bottom, it is impractical to drag the detectors along
the ocean floor; instead they are attached to platforms suspended about
15 ft below the surface of the water and weighted so as to float hori-
zontally. The platforms hang from a 2^-in. steel cable to which the
wires from the instruments are attached.
Three boats have been used in the California operations. The instru-
ment boat pulls the line of detectors which is attached at the other end to
the tail or anchor boat. The latter keeps the steel line taut and within
a few feet of the surface. The third vessel is the shooting boat, which
detonates the charges suspended from balloons in the same way as in the
Gulf Coast. The detector lines are normally from 500 to 1,000 ft long
with 50- to 100-ft detector spacing. Where dips are steep, profiles are
shot at right angles also.
Because of local conservation regulations, all charges in water less
than 100 ft deep must be buried in the sea bottom before being fired.
The shot holes are jetted from the boat. Water flowing under pressure
through small-diameter pipe makes an opening in the bottom. The
charge is released in the opening before the pipe is pulled up.
In spite of these operational complexities, offshore seismic work off

both the Gulf Coast and California has turned out to be faster than land
work and gives seismic records which are generally better than those
shot on adjacent land areas. This is because of favorable bottom con-
ditions, the elimination of shot-hole drilling, and the easy mobility of
the shooting and recording units. In the California surveys, 75 shots
were fired on an average day, the record through 1949 being 332 shots.

4-4. High-resolution Techniques

In mineral exploration and engineering studies, conventional reflec-

tion techniques are generally not adequate because reflections cannot be
recorded from the very shallow depths which are of interest in this type
of work. Also regular seismic frequencies are too low for reflections to
be expected from the thin layers which may be targets in mining explora-
tion. About 1953, the Geophysics Branch of the U.S. Geological Sur-
vey 14 contracted for the development of a special recording system that
would be able to yield readable reflections from layers less than 10 ft
thick at depths as little as 100 ft.
Several modifications of conventional seismic equipment were neces-
64 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

sary to attain this objective. It is seldom if ever that filter bands

including frequencies above 100 cps are used in oil exploration, but fre-
quencies much higher than this may be needed to map reflections from
closely spaced interfaces at shallow depths. In high-resolution equipment
a range from 75 to 300 cps is used. Also, in conventional recording it is
generally impossible to pick reflections in the 0.1-sec interval after the
first arrivals of energy refracted along the surface layer. This zone of
disturbance would normally obscure any reflections coming from the
first400 to 500 ft of section. The interval can be cut down substantially
by a special expander system that reduces the gain of the amplifiers at
the beginning of the record and gradually increases it with time. More-
over, the automatic gain control has a smaller time constant than stand-
ard amplifiers. The paper speed is increased to more than double its
normal value so that the high-frequency events will be more readily dis-
tinguishable on the records.
The HTL High Resolution system uses amplifiers having a harmonic
distortion (1 to 2 per cent) that is substantially less than is allowed in
conventional recording equipment (usually about 5 per cent). This
restriction is considered essential in order to prevent second and higher
harmonics of reflection events at normal seismic frequencies to be recorded
as high-frequency reflections, giving the illusion of a resolving power that
does not really exist. Amplifiers with such small harmonic distortion
are quite expensive to construct and are not necessary in standard seismic
recording since the filters will generally cut off any higher harmonics that
might be generated as a result of distortion in the amplifiers.
Although the earliest high-resolution systems were developed for min-
eral exploration and engineering surveys, it was soon discovered that they
have useful applications in oil and gas prospecting as well. In many
petroliferous areas, such as theArdmore Basin of Oklahoma, highly dis-
turbed productive structures are located at shallow depths under uncon-
formities that prevent detection by surface geology; mapping would not
be possible by standard seismic procedures because significant reflections
would arrive too early to be read. For work in such areas shot-point
spacing should be short, preferably no more than half the quarter-mile
distance which is conventional in regular operations.

High-frequency reflections can be received from surprisingly great

depths where the earth's transmission characteristics are favorable. In
south Texas 90-cps reflections have been mapped as deep as 8.000 ft. 15

4-5. Surface Sources of Seismic Energy

In recent years, a number of seismic techniques have been introduced

by which energy can be sent downward into the earth without the neces-
SEISMIC INSTRUMENTS AND SEISMIC SURVEYS 65

sity of drilling shot holes. In areas where drilling is difficult or unduly

expensive, these techniques may be highly advantageous. For a number
of reasons, however, it is not likely that they will come into general
use.
Weight Dropping. As early as 1924, F. Hubert in Germany claimed
that he could obtain reflections from depths as great as 15,000 ft from the
impact of 200-lb weights striking the ground after being dropped from
heights up
to 30 ft. In spite of these results, very little use was made of
dropped weights as a source of seismic energy until nearly 30 years later,
when magnetic recording made it possible to improve the signal-to-noise
ratio of a single drop by compositing impulses from a large number of
drops in close proximity. A commercial system based on this principle,
designated as the Geograph, was invented by McCollum 16 and first
offered for oil exploration in 1953.
The principal obstacle encountered in trying to obtain usable reflec-
tions from single impacts of falling weights is the large amount of energy
from surface waves and other horizontally traveling noise generated at
the source. These waves have been studied systematically in experi-
ments carried out by Mason 17 and Neitzel. 18 McCollum's technique
makes it possible to cancel this noise by superposition of many signals
out of phase with respect to horizontally traveling noise but in phase
with respect to vertically traveling reflections.
The weight, which is a 3-ton slab of iron, is attached by chains to a
crane on a special truck (Fig. 4-19) and when dropped is released to fall
several feet between vertical guides. up immediately after
It is hoisted
the impact so that can be dropped again within a few seconds at another
it

spot the order of 10 away. Waves from each impact are picked up by
ft

a conventional detector spread and recorded on magnetic tape.

Tapes from closely spaced individual drops over an area having a
diameter up to several hundred feet which are recorded by the same
detector spread are composited onto a single tape after synchronization
of the respective instants of impact. Signals so synthesized are cor-
rected for moveout, weathering, and elevation by time shifting before
being composited as traces on paper records.
If the number and spacing of drops are proper for the terrain and an
appropriate geophone pattern is employed, the final record should be
entirely comparable to one made at the same location with a pattern of
conventional shots. However, the frequency of reflection events will
tend to be somewhat loAver because of damping of higher frequency com-
ponents of the source impulse through unconsolidated near-surface
material and because of low-pass filtering inherent in the compositing
process.
In some experiments on recording refractions from shallow layers (up
66 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

to iOO ft deep) for civil engineering applications, Gough 19 has shown that
a sledge-hammer blow on the ground is adequate as a source of energy.
Air Shooting. Another seismic technique which dispenses with the
need for drilling shot holes is the Poulter 20 method of air shooting, by
which dynamite is exploded in arrays of simultaneous blasts with charges
several feet above the ground. Poulter had used air shots successfully

m
1

3f i '^tKtl^^ BhmMHMH| PlCBita

Fig. 4-19. Weight being dropped from back of Geograph truck. (McCo//um Exploration Co.)

in the Antarctic on the 1934 Byrd expedition to measure the thickness of

the Ross Shelf Ice. In 1948, a commercial technique using multiple
shots in areal patterns was introduced and was put to use in a number of
areas over the following few years.
According to Poulter, the spacing of the individual charges governs
the effective frequency of the waves that enter the earth, so that it is
possible to "tune" the source impulse to the frequency which the earth
transmits most efficiently at each location. He claims that this charac-
the method has made it possible to get reflections in areas where
teristic of
conventional-pattern shooting techniques have been unsuccessful.
The principal difficulties encountered with the method, it appears,
involve the hazard of working with aboveground explosions and tne dam-
SEISMIC INSTRUMENTS AND SEISMIC SURVEYS 67

ages to property or to peace of mind that are often claimed by nearby

inhabitants.
Vibratory Sources. For many years, experiments have been carried
out with continuous-wave generators on the surface of the earth. These
have one theoretical advantage over the conventional impulsive sources
of seismicwaves, namely, that the frequency, which can be varied at will,
should be adjustable to fit the transmitting or reflecting characteristics
of the earth as they vary from place to place. Studies on this type of
source have been reported in the literatureby Howell, Kean, and Thomp-
and Simon, 22 and Evison. 23
son, 21 Clewell
In the first of these studies there was some evidence of wave-guide
propagation which allowed 400-cycle energy to travel with less attenu-
ation than 100-cycle waves. Evison has done most of his work in mines
with a source below the surface and has obtained useful results at short
ranges. More recently, frequency modulation has been employed in
experiments with sources having slowly varying frequencies. Time lags
between the generation of a particular frequency and its reception at a
nearby detector are interpreted as travel times for reflected events.
Cross correlation between source signal and received signal is used to
give maximum precision in measuring this interval. Some promising
experiments with this technique have been reported by the research
laboratories of the Continental Oil Co. in Ponca City, Okla.
The principal obstacle to using vibratory sources in actual exploration
work lies in the low energy, compared to that from explosions, which is

put into the earth. Penetration is so limited that techniques of this type
do not look promising except for shallow exploration targets. Moreover,
the difficulties of recognizing individual cycles in the continuous waves so
as to identify reflections introduce many technical problems not faced in
working with impulsive sources.

REFERENCES

1. Gardner, D. H.: Measurement of Relative Ground Motion in Reflection Record-

ing, Geophysics, Vol. 3, pp. 40-45, 1938.
2. Richards, T. C.: The Evolution of the Geophone, Geophysics, Vol. 23, p. 401, 1958
(abstract).
3. Jones, H. J., J. A. Morrison, G. O. Sarafnan, and L. J. Spieker: Magnetic Delay

Line Filtering, Geophysics, Vol. 20, pp. 745-765, 1955.

4. Jones, H. J., and J. A. Morrison: Cross-correlation Filtering, Geophysics, Vol. 19,
pp. 660-683, 1954.
5. Smith, Mark K: A Review of Methods of Filtering Seismic Data, Geophysics,
Vol. 23, pp. 44-57, 1958.
6. Loper, G. B., and R. R. Pittman: Seismic Recording on Magnetic Tape, Geo-
physics, Vol. 19, pp. 104-115, 1954.
7. Rosaire, E. E., and O. C. Lester, Jr.: Seismological Discovery and Partial Detail
68 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
of Vermilion Bay Salt Dome, Louisiana, Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, Vol. 16,
pp. 1221-1229, 1932.
8. Cortes, H. C, and R. N. Gsell: Geophysical Prospecting over Continental Shelves,
Proc. Fourth World Petrol. Congr., Sec. I, pp. 575-603, 1955.
9. Ewing, Maurice, J. L. Worzel, X. C. Steenland, and Frank Press: Geophysical
Investigations in the Emerged and Submerged Atlantic Coastal Plain, Part V:
Woods Hole, New York and Cape May Sections, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 61,
pp. 877-892, 1950. Contains references to previous papers of this series.
10. Lay, Roy L.: Repeated P-waves in Seismic Exploration of Water Covered Areas,
Geophysics, Vol. 10, pp. 467-471, 1945.
11. Worzel, J. L., and Maurice Ewing: Explosion Sounds in Shallow Water, "Propaga-
tion of Sound in the Ocean," Geological Society of America Memoir 27, 1948.
12. WyckofT, R. D.: Geophysical Exploration, Petrol. Engr., Reference Annual, pp.
B54-56, 1949.
13. Wharton, Mel: Shooting for Oil, Explosives Engr., Vol. 26, pp. 143-145, 1948.
14. Pakiser, L. C, D. R. Mabey, and R. E. Warrick: Mapping Shallow Horizons with
Reflection Seismograph, Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, Vol. 38, pp. 2382-2394,
1954.
15. Dobrin, Milton B., and R. G. Van Nostrand: Review of Current Developments in
Exploration Geophysics, Geophysics, Vol. 21, pp. 142-155, 1956.
16. McCollum, Burton: Seismic Exploration Apparatus, U.S. Patent Xo. 2,767,389,
1956.
17. Mason, R. G.: A Small-scale Field Investigation of Motion near the Source,
Geophysical Prospecting, Vol. 5, pp. 121-134, 1957.
18. Xeitzel, E. B.: Seismic Reflection Records Obtained by Dropping a Weight,
Geophysics, Vol. 23, pp. 58-80, 1958.
19. Gough, D. I.: A New Instrument for Seismic Exploration at Very Short Ranges,
Geophysics, Vol. 17, pp. 311-333, 1952.
20. Poulter, T. C: The Poulter Seismic Method of Geophysical Exploration, Geo-
physics, Vol. 15, pp. 181-207, 1950.
21. Howell, L. G., C. H. Kean, and R. R. Thompson: Propagation of Elastic Waves in
the Earth, Geophysics, Vol. 5,pp. 1-14, 1940.
22. Clewell, D. H., and R. F. Simon: Seismic Wave Propagation, Geophysics, Vol. 15,
pp. 50-60, 1950.
23. Evison, F. F. An Electromechanical Source of Elastic Waves in the Ground, Proc.
:

Phijs. Soc.(London) B, Vol. 64, pp. 311-312, 1951; A Xew Approach to the Study
of Elastic Propagation in Rocks, Monthly Notices, Roy. Astron. Soc, Geophys.
Suppl, Vol. 6, pp. 209-221, 1951.
 CHAPTER 5

THE SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD

The principles of the seismic refraction method were worked out for
earthquake seismology long before the days of seismic prospecting.
Using these principles, seismologists were able to determine the internal
structure of the earth from the times required for earthquake waves to
travel from their sources to recording stations at distant points. Such
waves would penetrate into the earth as shown in Fig. 3-1, taking paths
which depend on the distribution of velocity with depth. In refraction
prospecting, subsurface layering is detailed on a much smaller scale,
using travel times of waves from near-surface explosions. Originally,
only first-arrival times were employed for this purpose but more recently
later events have been used as well.
The refraction method was the earliest to be used in seismic prospect-
ing, being responsible along with the torsion balance for most of the oil
discovered by geophysics before 1930. There is now much less activity
in refraction prospecting than there is in reflection. Yet refraction
surveying has a number of important advantages over reflection work.
Where no information is available on the subsurface geology, reflection
surveys, which give only the geometry of the subsurface formations, can
cast no light on the composition of the underlying rocks. Refraction
surveys, on the other hand, yield data on seismic velocities of the various
formations as well as on their geometry and often make it possible to
identify formations which are mapped.
The refraction method is particularly valuable for reconnaissance in
areas where structures have a large relief and where there is at least one
high-speed-marker bed overlain by lower speed formations. It has been
widely used, for example, in the Alberta foothills where the formations
are highly disturbed. Here the marker is the high-speed Rundle lime-
stone (the productive formation in this area), which underlies Cretaceous
sands and shales having a substantially lower velocity. On a much
smaller scale, the method has been successfully employed in engineering
surveys to determine the depth to bedrock for structures such as dams
and bridge abutments.
Operationally, refraction surveys are more complex than reflection
69
70 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

surveys because the work must be spread out over a much greater dis-
tance. In reflection shooting, the shot and detectors are never any-
farther apart than the depth of the formations being mapped and usually
much closer together. In refraction, the separation is much greater than
the depth of the refracting formation, ranging, in petroleum exploration,
from about 4 to 12 miles.

5-1. Wave Paths and Time-Distance Relations for Horizontal Layers

Mechanism for Transmission of Refracted Let us consider a Waves.

hypothetical case where the subsurface consists of two media, each with
uniform elastic properties, the upper separated from the lower by a

Fig. 5-]. Mechanism for transmission of refracted waves in two-layered earth. (After Dix, Geophysics,
1939.)

horizontal interface at depth z (Fig. 5-1). The velocity of seismic waves

(longitudinal) in the upper layer isand in the lower V h with Vi > V
V .

If a seismic wave is generated at point S on the surface, the energy travels

out from it in hemispherical wavefronts. If a detecting instrument is

at point D, a distance x from S, the wave SD traveling horizontally

through the upper medium will reach D before any other wave if x is
small. For large values of x, the wave traveling along the top of the
lower medium, which has a higher speed, will overtake the direct wave.
The physical mechanism by which energy is transmitted from S to D
along this indirect path has been analyzed mathematically by Muskat. 1
Dix 2 has outlined Muskat's reasoning in a nonmathematical manner.
His treatment will be summarized in the following discussion.
When S strike the interface where the
the spherical wavefronts from
velocity changes, the energy will be refracted into the lower medium
according to Snell's law. At some point A on wavefront 7 the tangent
to the sphere in the lower medium becomes perpendicular to the bound-
ary. The ray corresponding
to this wavefront now begins to travel along
the boundary with the speed of the lower medium. Thus, by definition,
the ray SA strikes the interface at the critical angle. To the right
of A the wavefronts below the boundary travel faster than those above.
THE SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD 71

The material at the interface is subjected to oscillating stress from below,

and this generates continuous new disturbances along the boundary
which spread out in the upper medium with a speed of Vq. The spherical
wave spreading outward from point B in the lower medium will travel a
distance BC during the time in w hich the sphere spreading out in the
T

upper medium will attain a radius of BE. The resultant wavefront

Second
arrival--
Slope =
time y

Fig. 5-2. Ray paths of least time and time-distance curve for two layers separated by horizontal
interface.

above the interface will follow the line CE, which makes an angle ic with
the boundary. From the diagram, it is seen that
RE Vo
sin ic
BC V 1t

The angle which the wavefront makes with the horizontal is the same
which the ray makes with the vertical so that the wave will return
as that
-1 For
to the surface at the critical angle (sin Fo/Fi) with the vertical.
values of x greater than a critical distance (x e in Fig. 5-2), it can be shown
that the wave that travels fastest from S to D will approach the interface
at the critical angle, will be propagated horizontally along the boundary
with a speed of V h and will return to the surface at the critical angle
through the upper layer. This trajectory is illustrated in the lower part
of Fig. 5-2.
The most convenient way to represent refraction data is to plot the
first-arrival time T vs. the shot-detector distance x. In the case of a
subsurface consisting of discrete homogeneous layers, this type of plot is

quite simple to interpret, since it consists of linear segments.

72 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

Two-layer Case. Let us determine the time-distance relations for the

two media with respective speeds of V and
case, illustrated in Fig. 5-2, of
V h separated by a horizontal discontinuity at depth z.
Intercept Time. The direct wave travels from shot to detector near
the earth's surface at a speed of V , so that T = x/V . This is repre-
sented on the plot of T vs. xasa straight line which passes through the
origin and has a slope of 1/F The wave refracted along the interface
.

at depth z, reaching and leaving it at the critical angle i c takes a path

it ,

consisting of three legs, AB, BC, and CD. We make use of the following
three relations:
. Vo
sin
.

lc = y~
!

cos i.<
- ( --
W)
, sin i
and tan it
cos ic yJV? - TV
The total time along the refraction path A BCD is

T = T AB + TBc + T CD (5-1)

One can write Eq. (5-1) in the form

~
T = v
X o
Z

cos ic
.
+ x 2 * tent,
v
^_^
Vq cos ^c
(5 _ 2)
i

2z 2z sin ic x
+
.

IT (5-3)
^o cos ic Vi cos zc l'i

This can be readily transformed into

T = r (1 - sin 2 f.) + 4- (5-4)

V
Tr cos ic Vi
v
'

_ _£_ 2« cos i c
Vi '
Vo

F t
+ F„
so that finally

T x 2z VVj* - Vo 1 ., .,

On a plot of T vs. x, this is the equation of a straight line which has a

slope of 1/Fi and which intercepts the T axis (x = 0) at a time

r< = 2z (5" 7)
7,7.
Ti is known as the intercept time.
THE SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD 73

Critical Distance. At a distance x c (see Fig. 5-2), the two linear seg-
ments At distances less than this, the direct wave traveling along
cross.
the top of the V layer reaches the detector first. At greater distances,
the wave refracted by the interface arrives before the direct wave.
For this reason, x c is called the critical distance.
Depth Calculation. The depth z to the interface can be calculated from
the intercept time by use of Eq. (5-7) or from the critical distance. In
terms of Ti and the velocities V and V h Eq. (5-7) can be solved for z
to obtain

z = T { V,V (

(5-8)
2 vX 2
- Vo 2

Ti can be determined graphically as shown in Fig. 5-2 or numerically

from the relation Ti = T — x/Vi.
The depth can be solved for in terms of x c the ,
critical distance, making
= x 2z y /V - * V<?
= ^+- x
,

use of the fact that the times To and r,

y iVo
are equal at x c . Then

Xc x c2z VTV - Vo<

v +
,

(5-9)
To 1 vv 1

= V V lXl Q
and z " vj (5-10)
2 Vtv - Vo \Vo 2

This simplifies to

I /Zi Vo
(5-11)
"
2\7x + 7 (

Three-layer Case. For three layers with velocities V V h and V 2 ,

(V 2 > V\ > Vo), is similar but somewhat more com-

the treatment
plicated. Figure 5-3 shows the wave paths. The ray having the least
-1
travel time between A and F makes an angle i\ = sin V /V 2 with the
-1
vertical in the uppermost layer and an angle i 2 = sin Vi/V 2 with the

F
I

Vo

V2 i

V,
iz-sm

Fig. 5-3. Ray paths of least time for three layers separated by horizontal interfaces.
74 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

i 2 being the critical angle for the lower interface.

vertical in the second,
The time along each of the two slant paths AB and EF through the
uppermost layer is

AB So 20
= T EF
Tab — *tF" (5-12)
V V cos ti V Vl - (Vo/V 2 )'

while that through each of the legs BC and DE crossing the middle layer
is

BC Z! 2i
=
*c —
Tbc " !T DE (5-13)
" '

Ti " 7i cos ti 7 Vl - (TV V2)

X
2

The time along the interface between the Vi and V 2 layers is CD/V 2.

Fig. 5-4. Wave paths, schematic record, and time-distance curve for three-layered subsurface.

The expression for the total travel time from A to F is

T = Tab + Tde + T^f

+ Tbc + Tqd (5-14)

"
2z

Vo Vi - (tvf
+
^ Vi
22!
- (v /v y 2)
2
1 2
f ^
v*
(5-15)

where CD = x — 2z tan i\ — 2zi tan i2

x — 2zt - 22
V VI -
2 (F /F 2 ) 2 v Vi - (v /v y
2 1 2

Rearranging terms, one obtains

X_
"*"
22Q VV 2
2

r
~ Vo 2 22! VV 2
> - 7^
(5-16)
"
V 2 F 2T o F 2 Fi

for the over-all travel time of the wave refracted along the top of the 72
zone. The portion of the time-distance curve corresponding to the first
THE SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD 75

arrival of this wave is a straight line with slope l/V 2 and intercept time

i "~ I
v 2
" vv 2 Q
+ ~rw\~ (5 °
Solving for zh one obtains

VT 2
2
- 7o 2 F.Vi
2l J(t.- 22,
F 2^0
Fc
2
/ VF 2
2
- Fl 2
(5-18)

The depth to the lower interface is the sum of z and z where z is com- x ,

puted by the two-layer formula (Eq. 5-8) using the slopes of the first

,^«-'# X / /
Sin' S^ s i^^- i/ ,
X / 15

S^N^ £ \&&n-%/ / ^2

\ ^\ yy^n-'^., / fc*

\ *.,

/L i^-'f ^
Fig. 5-5. Ray paths, time-distance curve, and critical distances for multilayered earth.

two segments of the time-distance curve and the intercept of the second
segment.
Figure 5-4 shows time-distance-depth relations for a refraction profile
over two subsurface discontinuities (three layers) The arrival times for .

the first five detector positions are measured on the record shown at the
right side of the block. The wave arrival on each trace is evident as a
sharp upward displacement from the base line. The three segments of
the time-distance curve represent paths along the tops of the respective
layers. The two breaks in the slope of the time-distance curve occur at
the critical distances x c i and x c2 for the respective interfaces.
Multilayer Case. The time-depth relations just derived for the two-
and three-layer cases can be readily extrapolated to apply to a larger
76
INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
speed in each layer is higher than in the
number of layers as long as the
one just above it. This is illustrated by which shows ray paths
Fig. 5-5,

and time-distance plots for six layers, the lowermost designated, for
generality, as the nth. Each segment on the plot represents first arrivals

from the top of one of these subsurface layers, the ray path corresponding
to each segment being designated by the letters
a to /. The deeper the
the shot-detector distance at which first arrivals from
layer, the greater is

Distance, -x

Shot Detector

Vo>V,<Vz<V3 V5

Fig. 5-6. Ray paths of least time and time-distance curve where low-speed layer (Vi) lies below higher-
speed layer (Vo).

it begin to be observed. In other words, the critical distance for a layer

increases with its depth. The slope of each segment is simply the recipro-
cal of the speed in the layer along which the wave has traveled horizon-
tally. The intercept time of each segment depends on the depth of the
interface at the bottom of the corresponding wave path as well as on the
depths of all those interfaces that lie above it in the section.
Low-speed Layer. The analysis thus far is valid only in cases where
successively deeper layers have successively higher speeds. If any bed

in the sequence has a lower speed than the one above it, it cannot be
detected by refraction shooting at all. This is because the rays entering
the bed from above are always deflected downward, as shown in Fig. 5-6,

and thus can never travel horizontally through the layer. Consequently
there will be no segment of inverse slope V\ on the time-distance curve.
The presence of such a layer will lead to an error in the computation of
depths to all deeper interfaces because its thickness will not be taken into
account in the calculations.
THE SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD 77

5-2. Continuous Change of Speed with Depth

In many areas, such as the Gulf Coast, the formations do not consist
of discrete layers; instead, the velocity increases continuously with depth.
To visualize the paths of refracted waves through this type of section,
consider the diagram of Fig. 5-5 for the multilayer case and imagine the
individual layers whose velocities increase with depth becoming thinner
and more numerous. Ultimately we should approach a continuous
change with depth. The ray path would then have the form
of velocity
of a smooth curve which is convex downward, while the time-distance
curve would become smooth and convex upward. In many cases, as
Ewing and Leet 3 have pointed out, it is a matter of choice whether a set
of observed time-distance points should be connected by linear segments,
representing discrete layers, or by a smooth curve representing a con-
tinuous increase of speed with depth.
The paths of the rays as well as the form of the time-distance curve
depend on how the velocity varies with depth. If the variation can
be expressed as a simple function of depth, the dependence can often
be worked out analytically. If it is irregular or complicated, the veloc-
ity-depth relationship must be determined by graphical measurements
and involved analytical techniques of the type used by earthquake
seismologists.
Linear Variation of Speed. A number of functions for variation of
speed with depth have been proposed. Although relations of the form
v = v e
kz
(5-19)
and v = v y/\ + kz (5-20)

have been suggested (see Slotnick 4 and Houston 5 ), the one most widely
used in practice is

v = v + kz (5-21)

where in each formula v is the speed at depth z, v the speed at zero depth,
and k a constant. This function not only gives a close approximation
to the actual velocity variation observed in many areas, particularly in
the Gulf Coast, but also gives wave paths which are exceptionally simple
for computation.
Ewing and Leet 6 have derived the expression for the travel time as
well as the ray paths for this case. The paths turn out to be circles
with centers at distance v /k above the surface, as shown in Fig. 5-7.
The depth of greatest penetration for the circular ray emerging at a
distance x is

2max = ^ 1 + (£)']"-') (5-22)

^
78 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

The radius of the circle is zt + Vo/k, and the travel time at this dis-
tance is*

rp 2
T = T ' U-ll kX-
sinh (5-23)
7r
2v
k

The time-distance curve (T vs. x) for this relation is plotted in the upper
part of Fig. 5-7. The inverse slope of the time-distance curve at any

Distance, X
t v t
\ <7 3_ ' ?4_
Line of centers

I
/ Surface f **
J
'
z max / of earth-' 1

Fig. 5-7. Ray paths and time-distance curves for linear increase of speed with depth.

point is equal to the velocity at the depth of maximum penetration for

the ray reaching the surface at that point.
In most areas where there isa linear relation between speed and depth,
k is of the order of 1 ft/sec/ft. In the Gulf Coast it is usually around 0.6.
If ^o is 6,000 ft/sec and k is 0.6, Table 5-1 shows travel times and depths
of maximum penetration as a function of shot-detector distance x.

This table indicates that there is no significant penetration if the detec-

tor is less than several miles from the shot. When the shot-detector dis-
tance is 10,000 ft, the first-arrival time is about 3.5 per cent earlier for a
wave along the curved path than for one taking the direct path along the
earth's surface. At 40,000 ft the gain is 27.5 per cent. These theoreti-
cal penetrations appear to be greater than those actually obtained in the
Gulf Coast. This is because the velocities tend to approach a limiting
value at greater depths and also because deep high-speed layers "mask"
the normal section below.

The symbol sinh -1 u means the angle whose hyperbolic sine is u.

* Hyperbolic
functions are tabulated in the same way as trigonometric functions.
THE SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD 79

TABLE 5-1. Curved Path Time-Depth Data

k = 0.6 ft/sec/ft vo = 6,000 ft/sec

Depth of maximum
Shot-detector distance x, ft Arrival time 7", sec
penetration, ft

1,000 0.167 12
2,000 0.333 50
5,000 0.827 310
10,000 1.602 1,180
20,000 2.935 4,140
30,000 3.983 8,028
40,000 4.82 12,360

Section with Linear Variation Underlain by High-speed Marker. A

geologic section in which the velocity increases continuously with depth
for an indefinite distance below the surface would probably not be a
promising one for refraction studies. In oil exploration, refraction sur-
veys are useful only where there is some definite discontinuity in velocity
that can be detected or mapped.
Often a horizontal high-speed marker bed lies at the base of a section
in which there is a linear increase of speed with depth, having constants
Vo and k, as shown in Fig. 5-8. In such cases there is generally a velocity
discontinuity at the top of the marker. The path of least time to the
marker is the arc of a circle, with center v /k above the surface, whose
tangent at the velocity discontinuity makes the angle i c = sin -1 v H /Vm
with the vertical. Here v H is v +
kH, and Vm is the marker speed. The
path through the marker follows the horizontal interface, and the return
path to the surface follows an arc which is identical to that for the
downward trajectory. Gardner 7 has derived an expression for the total
travel time:

T = cosh -1 cosh"
i\ Vo vH V'-(0W'-ft)
(5-24)

The time-distance curve (T vs. x) obtained from this equation is shown

in the upper part of Fig. 5-8. The intercept time is the right-hand side
of the equation with x/Vm subtracted.
To put this relationship into useful form it is necessary to express the
intercept time T { in terms of the depth If the velocity v H is written H .

in the form v + kH, we have

Ti - ^[cosh-
k |_
1 ^-
v
cosh-
vo + kH V \Vm )
80 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

Id

Vm (>vH)

Fig. 5-8. Time-distance curve and ray paths for high-speed marker below overburden with linear
speed-depth relation.

This shows the functional relationship between 7\ and H, which cannot

be solved explicitly for H. For practical use, one should plot Eq. (5-25)
using the marker depth H
as the independent variable and assuming
appropriate values for v Vm and k. The depth can be determined
, ,

from this curve when the intercept time is known.

5-3. Refraction Shooting across a Fault

If a high-speed bed (velocity Vi), situated under a low-speed overbur-

den (velocity V ), is faulted vertically as shown in Fig. 5-9, a refraction
profile perpendicular to the strike of the fault often
makes it possible to
detect the faulting and measure the throw. Barton 8 has calculated the
time-distance curve for the case where the shot is on the upthrown side
and the detector on the downthrown. The curve (Fig. 5-9) consists of
two parallel but displaced linear segments having an inverse slope equal
to the speed in the faulted formation. The segments correspond to
arrivals refracted respectively from the upthrown and downthrown sides
THE SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD 81

v,v
zt= friz-Tit)j^IJJ?
I

Fig. 5-9. Wave paths and time-distance curve for refraction across fault. (Shot is on upthrown side.)

of the fault. The throw Z T can be determined from the difference

between the intercept times of the two linear segments.
The curve for the case where the shot is below the fault is derived in
a similar way.

5-4. Dipping Beds

When the top surface of a refracting marker bed is not horizontal, the
angle of dip may
be determined from the time-distance data. Consider
(Fig. 5-10) a boundary between two beds, having respective speeds of
V and Vi, which dips at an angle a. We define z d as the perpendicular
distance from the shot to the interface at the updip end of the line.
As with the horizontal interface, the ray path for the first refracted
arrival consists of three linear segments. One of these is along the slop-
ing interface at speed Vhand the other two, in the upper medium, make
an angle of ic with the normal to this boundary.
82 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

Shooting downdip, the total time from shot to detector is

Zd x cos a — Zd tan ic — (zd + x sin a) tan ic

T, = +
Vo cos ic V x

X Sln a
+ " K+ cos ic
(5-26)

Making the same transformation used in deriving the two-layer formula

Time
j Slope = sin C a - ic)/v

Intercept*
"Intercept
2zd cos ic
Zzu cosic

Distance, x
* — x ^

»r— —.^ -_^

«
//
'/ -»^ i

"*"---
—^/
i

// i

Vc 1-
a,
1

U' Sin-'S
1)/ / /
i

/ /
i

Fig. 5-10. Refraction along an interface dipping at an angle a. Respective shots are at updip and
downdip ends of profile.

for the horizontal interface, one obtains

„
Td = -—jf-
2z d cos
K
ic
+
x
tT"
V
.

sin 0c
. .

+. .

a)
v
(5-27)

Similarly, the updip time is

2z u cos ic x
7\
—YV o
hy
h sin
.
f .
0,. - a)
,
(5-28)

where z u is the distance to the interface from the shot at the downdip end
of the line.
Both relations are shown on the time-distance For plot (Fig. 5-10).
each direction of shooting, the slopes of the linear segments are used to
determine the true speeds, Vo and V\, of the respective layers and the dip
a of the sloping interface.
To obtain V± and a, one makes use of the fact that the slope ra<* of the
downdip segment is sin (i c + a)/7o while the slope m u of the updip seg-
THE SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD 83

ment is sin (i c — a)/Vo, so that

V md = sin (i c + a) (5-29)
V mu = sin (i c - a) (5-30)
-1
ic + a = sin F md (5-31)
ic — a = sin
-1
F ra„ (5-32)

Solving for i C) one adds and obtains

-1
ic = M( sm_1 Vomj + sin F ra M ) (5-33)

To get a, one subtracts, obtaining

-1 — -1
a = 3^ (sin F ra d sin F mM ) (5-34)

With ic determined, Vi is readily obtained from the relation

Fi = -i- (5-35)
sin zc

The perpendicular distance z u to the interface comes from the intercept

time
2 **™ Bi <
T iu = (5-36)
V o

tM
and is zu = n
°
. (5-37)
2 cos zc

A similar expression is obtained for z d in terms of T id . The depth 1) „ is

2 w /cos a while Z) d is 2 d/cos a, as is evident from Fig. 5-10.

5-5, Delay Times

Most refraction results are intrinsically ambiguous because the depths

computed from intercept times represent the sums of the respective depths
below the shot and below the detector. If the refracting interface is
horizontal the actual depths are equal at each end and a formula such as
Eq. (5-8) or (5-18) applies. If the interface is an inclined plane, relations
of the type that were developed in the preceding section can be used.
Generally, however, the refractor is neither horizontal nor smoothly
inclined so that separating the depths at the two ends of the trajectory
requires special shooting and interpretation techniques.
The concept of delay time introduced by Gardner 9 is convenient for
carrying out this separation. The intercept time, T — x/V h may be
considered to be made up of two parts, D h associated with the shot end
of the trajectory, and D 2 associated with the detector end.
, Z>i and D 2
are the delay times. The principle underlying the separation of the
intercept time into its component delay times is illustrated in Fig. 5-11.
84 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

Assume a two-layer earth with the interface at a depth of z\ below the

shot and z2 Immediately below the shot and geo-
below the geophone.
phone the interface is considered to be flat; in between, the interface
slopes so gently that the horizontal distance does not deviate from the
actual slant distance by more than a very few per cent.
The intercept time is essentially the difference between the actual
travel time of the wave and the time that would be required if the wave
traveled in a straight line between shot and detector at the highest speed
encountered along the refraction path. The portion of the path along

Fig. 5-11. Separation of intercept times into delay times.

the refractor will not enter into the calculation as long as its dip is so
small that AC can be considered equal to BC. Virtually all the intercept
time is associated with the slant paths qi and q2 .

In the case shown, the delay time Di for the shot end is simply -^- — yt
V o V i

S2_
while D 2 for the detector end is ~- Expressed in terms of depths
V o Vi
and *
velocities

Z>i = *i
vw - iv and D, = 22
yiv - iv
VV 1 Q V 1 Vo

Thus the depths at each end can be determined if the intercept time can
be separated into its component delay times. If the interface is hori-
zontal, each of the two delay times is half the intercept time.
Since delay times are never measurable directly, it is necessary to
separate the observed intercept time into its component delay times by
indirect means. Some techniques employed for accomplishing this
separation will be discussed in Sec. 5-8.

5-6. Refraction Operations in the Field

There is little difference between the organization of refraction and

reflection parties. Most crews can shift with ease from one type of

* The delay times can also be expressed in the form zx cos ic /V and z 2 cos ic /V ,

respectively.
THE SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD 85

operation to the other by making some minor changes in their equip-

ment. Normally, a refraction crew needs more surveyors than a reflec-
tion crew and it may be most efficient for two shooting units to operate at
the same time. Radio communication
is essential in refraction although

not often used in reflection shooting.

it is

Ordinarily, geophones employed in refraction work have a lower

natural frequency (less than 10 cps) than those used in reflection shoot-
ing. Until the end of the Second World War, refraction geophones were

2 3 4
Distance in miles
Fig. 5-12. Typical time-distance curves obtained on refraction profile in west Texas. Numbers on
time-distance segments are inverse slopes or apparent speeds. Average speed of zone just below
uppermost low-speed layer is 8,200 ft /sec; of next layer, 15,200 ft/sec; and of deepest layer, 19,000
ft/sec. Thickness of each zone can be determined from intercept times. {After Harris and Peabody,
Geophysics, 1 946.)

so large and heavy as to require special handling. Today, many refrac-

tion phones are identical in size and weight to the widely used minature
reflection geophones. For surveys with exceptionally long shot-detector
distances where very low frequencies are recorded, much larger and longer
period phones may be used.
Before the field mark the locations of
recording begins, the surveyors
all shot and geophone stationsby stakes and flags. The long distances
between shot and detector must be known with high precision.
At the beginning of a survey in a new area, profiles are usually shot in
reverse directions with progressively increasing shot-detector distance in
order to obtain a complete set of time-distance curves. These curves
provide data for calculating depths from refraction times. They also
establish the range of shot-detector distances to be used in subsequent
shooting when a particular to be mapped.
marker horizon Figure 5-12
is

illustrates the from the preliminary "speed

type of information obtained
profiles." The two shot locations are fixed and the geophone spreads are
moved progressively to give complete coverage over the line between the
shots. Each zone of discrete speed in the earth is represented by a pair
of linear segments on the time-distance plot. Suppose, for example,
86 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

that the top of the second zone, with an average speed of 15,200 ft/sec,
is to be mapped. We see from the time-distance plot that the shot-
detector distances should be confined to the range between 1 and 3 miles.

5-7. Refraction Records; First and Second Events

Figure 5-13 shows two sample refraction records shot from opposite
directions, each made with a spread of 22 detectors spaced 300 ft apart
15 16 17 18 19 20 2J 2223 24

Fig. 5-13. Two in opposite directions, from foothills of Canadian Rockies.

typical refraction records, shot
on the respective records are from marker with speed of about 1 4,000 ft/sec. Second
Earliest events
events are from higher-speed and deeper refractor, in this case the Rundle limestone. {After Blur.dun,

Geophysics, 1956.)

along a profile in line with the shots. One sees from the timing marks
on each record that the shot moments, not shown, occurred about 1.75
sec before the first waves from the shots arrived at the nearest detectors
of the respective refraction spreads. The first arrival at each detector is
indicated on the corresponding trace by a pronounced rise in amplitude
above the background level, after which the trace remains much more dis-
turbed than before. On the records shown, each arrival is characterized
by an "upkick," followed by a peak and a subsequent trough. The
troughs, which are blacked in, are easiest to correlate from trace to trace
across the records. From the moveouts of about 0.440 sec across the
6,300-ft spreads, it is apparent that this first arrival has an apparent
speed of 14,200 ft/sec.
At 0.2 to 0.3 sec later on the upper record and at 0.4 to 0.5 sec later
THE SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD 87

on the lower record there another line-up of events, again indicated

is

by blacked-in troughs. The apparent velocity of this arrival averages

about 21,000 ft/sec, when moveout times in the opposite directions are
considered.
In the decade or so of refraction shooting, it was not usually possi-
first

ble to identify any arrival later than the first on the records, so that
operational procedures and interpretation techniques were based entirely

Slope -
y

Distance range
for second-event
mapping of
interface

Distance corresponding Critical Distance

to closest approach of distance
criticol angle

Critical angle-
%
sin~ Vo/Vy

Fig. 5-14. Range of shot-detector distances for second-event mapping of interface at base of Vo layer.

on use of first-arrival times. Subsequent instrumental improvements

have made detection and resolution of later arrivals feasible. The earli-
est published description of second-event refraction work is in a paper
by Gamburtsev, 10 which discusses techniques used in the U.S.S.R.
around 1940. The earliest account of refraction work using second
arrivals inNorth America is in a paper by Gillin and Alcock. 11
Since the end of the Second World War, second-event refraction shoot-
ing has become more widely employed in many areas than the first-event
technique. For this type of shooting, the range of shot-detector distances
iskept inside the critical distance for the refractor to be mapped, as
shown in Fig. 5-14. Because this distance range is shorter than would
be necessary for first-event mapping, the field operations can be carried
out more efficiently and the interpretation of the data is generally not so
88 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

ambiguous. Less dynamite is necessary for the shorter receiving dis-

tances and radio communication is less subject to interference. Logistics
may also With the shorter shot-detector distances, the
be simplified.
refracting points at the shct and geophone ends of the trajectory are so
close together that the depths will not in general be greatly different.
Thus the problem of converting intercept times into delay times becomes
simpler. Also, in areas where the structure is complex, the shorter
paths along the refractor make it less likely that the trajectories will be
distorted by structural irregularities that cannot be resolved.

5-8. Shot and Detector Arrangements in Common Use

Both and second-event work, the arrangement of shots and

in first-
detectors is determined by a number of factors such as the geologic
problem involved, the terrain, and the facilities available. Most of the
standard arrangements are designed to facilitate the separation of inter-
cept times into delay times. In some types of shooting, such as fan
shooting,it is not necessary to compute delay times.

Fan Shooting. This was the technique used to locate salt domes in the
Gulf Coast during the early days of geophysical prospecting. The shoot-
B6 B7

Time
iead

All points lie on curve

except those indicated
Normal curve

Shof - defecfor dist

Fig. 5-15. Locating salt dome by fan shooting from two shot points A and B. Time leads with respect to
"normal" curve are plotted on map (top portion) to indicate location of dome.
THE SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD 89

ing arrangement is shown in Fig. 5-15. Detectors were set up at intervals

along a sector of a curve having a 5- to 10-mile radius, the center of the
sector being the shot point A. A "normal" time-distance curve was
obtained along a profile in some nearby area where it was known that
there are no salt domes. The actual arrival times at the detectors in
the "fan" were plotted against shot-detector distance along with the
normal curve (shown in the lower part of Fig. 5-15). Any points fall-

ing below the curve inferred the presence ofsome high-speed material,
such as salt, somewhere between the shot and detector. The thickness
of high-speed material along the wave path should be proportional to
the time difference, or "lead," as it is called.
Wherever time leads were observed with any consistency, a second fan
was shot with radii approximately at right angles to those of the first one.
If time leads were also obtained in the second fan, one could block in the
outline of the postulated dome as shown in the diagram. This simple
procedure led, in whole or in part, to the discovery of several dozen
major oil fields along the Gulf Coast in the 1920's. The method was
used to find shallow piercement-type domes and it succeeded in locating
virtually all the domes of this type that are now known to exist in the
Texas and Louisiana coastal areas.
Profile Shooting. In profile shooting, the most common of all field
techniques for refraction work, the shots and detectors are laid out on
long lines. Successive shots are taken at uniform or almost uniform
intervals along each line, and successive detector spreads are shifted
about the same distance as the corresponding shot points so as to keep
the range of shot-detector distances approximately the same for all shots.
Generally, shots are received from opposite directions on each detector
spread. Figure 5-16 illustrates a typical arrangement.

A C fA I2A IC /Z C
B' c
•# X X-o-..- •- - • - e o Y
A v
A A
IB 128
Fig. 5-16. Typical refraction profile. Shots A and A', fired successively, are picked up by detectors 1 A
to 1 2A, etc.

The distance range is chosen so that the first, or where desired the
second, arrivals will be refracted from a particular formation such as the
basement or a high-speed limestone marker. The proper distance is
usually determined from time-distance plots based on experimental shoot-
ing at the onset of the program (see, for example, Fig. 5-12).
The principal problem in profile interpretation is separating the inter-
cept times into delay times corresponding to the respective depths under
shot and receiver. If the distance between the two is not much greater
than the distance corresponding to the critical angle for the refraction
90 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

being followed, or if dips are small along the marker, the two delay times
should both be about half the intercept time. Even where the separation
is substantially greater than twice the critical distance, the depth based
on the half-intercept time is often
Offset
plotted at the mid-point position
S position
(between shot and detector) as a
1

1
reasonable approximation. This is
the basis of the Harris and Peabody 12
1

,L C =Sin-' y
,A' 1
method. Several techniques for
determining the individual delay
/ \ Vo
times from the intercept time have
V— 7— v,

a. Two- layer case been reported in the literature and

these will be briefly reviewed here.
-
Offset Barthelmes' s Procedure. The
s position
method described by Barthelmes 13
W losing
4

Y
Vo requires thatdepth to the
the
mapped horizon be known at one
\

\^lr s/n-^ z, v, point on the profile. Such infor-

mation would be available if the
]V \

<
&-SOT-d2->Vto
£
___,]
X * zz
1
Vz profile were tied to a well. Dif-
ferences between intercept times
? tt
at different positions along the
b. Four-layer case detector spread give information
Fig. 5-17. Offsetting of depth data from arrival
on the dip of the marker horizon.
time at receiver S toward opposite end of shoot-
ing trajectory. With the dip information and the
known depth point it is possible
to map depths at other points along the profile.
The between the difference in depths Az and the differential
relation
intercept time A7\ at two detectors a distance x apart is evident from
the relation (for the two-layer case)

V.V:
Tt (5-38)
2VV : vs
= V 1 V:
Az AT, (5-39)
2 VF: TV
In applying this method, one must bear in mind that the point at which
the depth applies is not directly under the shot or detector but is offset

toward the shot, or the detector, by a distance

q = z tan ic (5-40)
in the two-layer case or

q = 2o tan io -}- zx tan i x -f- z 2 tan i2 (5-4 a;

 :

THE SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD 91

in the four-layer case, as shown in Fig. 5-17. The angles are determined
from the speeds of the successive layers using Snell's law.
The relative dip curve is actually made up from intercept times com-
puted at all detector positions along the profile. The intercept-time
curves for adjacent surface spreads where different shot points have been
used will not plot up as continuous segments, but the dips, averaged for
opposite directions of shooting after the shifts for offset have been made,

400 400

-1600

800

1000
400

600

800

1000
200
300
400

Distance, thousands of feet

20 25 30 35 40 45

[2000
Depth profile
.> «*- -*-** — *£ ^^ ^s S
5
4000
Fig. 5-18. Steps in conversion of delay-time profiles shot from opposite directions to final depth profile
using Wyrobek method. [After Wyrobek, Geophysical Prospecting, 1 956.)

can be followed to make up a continuous line which is a kind of " phan-

tom" dip horizon. It is this line that is tied to the well or other point
where the depth is known.
Wyrobek Method. The technique developed by Wyrobek 14 is similar
to Barthelmes's method in many ways but it has the advantage that
absolute depths can be calculated without the need for a known tie point
along the profile. The method is most effective where the dips on the
marker surface are relatively gentle, i.e., no more than 10°, and where
there are no large changes in dip along the marker within a horizontal
distance equivalent to the combined offset distances for shot and detector.
Figure 5-18 illustrates the steps employed, starting with a plot of arrival
time T vs. detector position for all receiving stations along the profile.
These steps are
92 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

1. From the slopes, averaged in both directions, of the segments on

the time-distance plot corresponding to the horizon to be mapped, a
marker velocity V is determined for intercept-time calculations.
The values for the intercept time, T — x/V, are computed for all
2.

arrivals and these are plotted at the respective detector positions along
the profile. Values for opposite directions of shooting are plotted under
one another.
3. It is important to guard against the possibility that arrivals received

from the opposite directions have been refracted from different marker
horizons. A reciprocity test is therefore applied at this stage. The
intercept times between any shot and receiver should be the same when
the shot point and receiver positions are interchanged. For example,
the intercept time at shot pointK from a shot at shot point H should be
the same as the intercept time at shot point H from a shot at shot point
K. If it is not, the events picked on the respective records do not corre-
spond to equivalent wave paths in the earth and a new pick must be made
on one of the records.
4. On the intercept-time plots, continuous lines are drawn which

incorporate the slopes of the successive intercept-time segments along

the profile. The vertical positions of these curves are chosen arbitrarily.
5. Intercept times are now determined at the shot points for the oppo-
site directions of shooting. The respective values at each shot point are
averaged and the averages are divided by two and plotted at the shot-
point positions. The points thus plotted are connected by the a half-
intercept-time curve."
6. The two continuous intercept-time dip curves are transferred to
separate pieces of transparent paper or acetate which can be super-
imposed on the original plot. The
then shifted from their
lines are
original horizontal positions in the directions of the respective shot points
for each curve. This shifting takes care of the horizontal offset between
refracting point and surface receiver. The proper amount of shift is

considered to be that for which the curves come closest to coinciding in

shape. If there is a systematic divergence between the curves, they are
tilted in opposite directions until the best coincidence is observed. Such
be necessary if the velocity chosen for the intercept-time deter-
tilting will
mination is not equal to the actual velocity over the profile.
7. After the two relative curves are offset and tilted where necessary,

an average relative curve is drawn to represent the true dip along the
profile. The average curve is fitted to the half-intercept-time curve by
vertical shifting and by further tilting when required. The relative
curve is thus superimposed on the half-intercept points in a way that
gives the best fit. This represents the final half-intercept-time curve
for the profile.
THE SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD 93

8. Each value, 1/2, of the completed half-intercept-time profile is

multiplied by an appropriate factor F for conversion to depth, which is

equal to V 2 Arcs with a radius equal to F(I/2) are drawn from

tan ic .

each detector position on a vertical cross section with a 1 1 distance scale. :

A smooth-line tangent to these arcs gives the depth profile.

The procedure outlined above is applicable only to relatively shallow
horizons where there no appreciable change in dip over a horizontal
is

distance equal to the offset distance. For deep refractors, a more com-
plex technique is necessary, and this is outlined in Wyrobek's paper.

1700 m/sec
2100 m/sec

D
Fig. 5-19. Construction for applying Slotnick method to two-layer problem. {After Slotnick, Geophysics,
1950.)

A variation on Wyrobek's method used by Gardner is to determine

delay times directly from the relative curve and the observed intercept
time at any shot or detector position by using the following relation
between the delay time Di under the shot and the delay time D 2 under
the receiver:

n n ad I
a l° n & the composite relative curve between the
| respective ends of the wave trajectory.
Dt + D = Ti 2

Since AD and Ti are known, D\ and D 2 can be readily determined.

Slotnick Method. A graphical technique for determining the structures
of the various interfaces in a multilayered earth has been developed by
Slotnick. 15 The method effectively involves the optical tracing of rays
from the surface downward. This is done by applying the laws of refrac-
tion to the velocities as measured from the time-distance curves obtained
for opposite directions of shooting along the profile.
In this method the slopes of the various segments of the time-distance
curves are used to determine the angle of approach at the surface for
the waves refracted from successively deeper interfaces. Once these
angles are established for each direction of shooting, the dips of the inter-
faces can be determined from Snell's law, using the average velocities
for each interface. Depths are computed from the travel times and
velocities.
The method can be illustrated by a simple example, taken from
Slotnick's paper, which is for a two-layer earth with a dipping interface
between the layers (Fig. 5-19).
94 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

From other work in the area it has been established that the true
velocities of the two layers represented here are 1,700 m/sec and 2,100
m/sec, respectively. The critical angle is thus sin -1 1,700/2,100 = 54°.
At point C the emergence angle is sin -1 1,700/2,130 = 53°, where 2,130
m/sec is the apparent speed at C. At point A,
p = 26 - a = 108° - 53° = 55°

We then draw CD so that a = 54° and so that = 55°. The AD

point E is then located so that DE will equal DC. AE is scaled off and
found to be 85 m. The travel time for this segment

r = 85/1,700 - 0.050 sec

The remaining time t to C = 1.588 - 0.050 = 1.538 sec. This must

be separated into two portions, that corresponding to slant-path travel
through the upper layer at 1,700 m/sec and that corresponding to travel
along the interface at 2,100 m/sec. The distance CE is scaled off and
found to be 2,930 m.
The slant distance a, which is equal to CG or EF, is determined from
the observed time t, the velocities, and the distance CE (here designated
as d) from the formula:
_ V — d 2t , .

a (5 " 42)
~ 2(TV^i - VJV*)
where Vi and V 2 are the respective velocities for the upper and lower
media.
Applying this relation to our example,

2,100 X 1.538 - 2,930

a
2(2,100/1,700-1,700/2,100)
The points G and F are scaled off on CD and AD, respectively, so that
CG = EF = a = 350 m.
The line FG is the required refracting surface.
A similar calculation at B and H for the ray path on the right-hand
side of the profile gives the line JK as the refracting surface in the
neighborhood of shot point B. These lines may be joined as shown.
The same general procedure can be applied to map deeper interfaces.
The geometry of the uppermost interface, determined as shown above,
is used to obtain the configuration of the second interface, the first two

are used to obtain the third, etc., until the deepest interface of interest
isdetailed. In his paper, Slotnick illustrates how his method may be
used to map four interfaces separating five layers with different velocities.
Tarrant Method. Another graphical technique for interpreting
been developed by Tarrant. 16 This method
refraction-profile data has
was designed for use where the subsurface refractor is so irregular that
THE SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD 95

it is difficult or impossible to select segments from the time-distance

curves for the opposite directions of shooting that correspond to the

same part of the refractor. Since the sources of the refraction events
are uncertain, loci are plotted of all permissible refracting points for
each arrival at a geophone position.
Going back to the definition of delay time as given on page 84, we
seefrom Fig. 5-11 that

D _ qx 81 _ qi gi cos cj>

where <j> is the angle made by OA with the vertical. Since V0/V1 = sin i e ,

V0D1 KAA .

Ql = 1 —
= =
1
,
(5-44)
1 sin ic cos 4>

This is the equation of an ellipse with one focus at the origin, having a
semiminor axis of VJ)i tan i c and a semimajor axis of V Di/cos 2 i c The .

center of the ellipse is displaced horizontally from the focus by a distance

V1D1 tan 2 ic .

In applying this method, V and V\ are determined from the time-

distance relations over the area or from well velocity information.
Intercept times are separated into delay times by one of the standard
techniques such as that of Wyrobek. An ellipse is then constructed for
each detector station using the constants given above. The envelope
of the family of ellipses thus obtained is the desired refracting surface.
When the dips are not large, it is often permissible to approximate the
ellipses by circular arcs, which are much simpler to draw. The radius
R of the circle having the same curvature as the ellipse just below its
center is

R = Fi-Di (tan ic + tan 3 ic) (5-45)

Hales' s Method. This is a graphical technique for interpreting refrac-

tion profiles which is similar in several ways to the Tarrant method and
which, like it, is particularly applicable to high-relief structures having
significant dips. The procedures are somewhat complex and it would
not be feasible to describe the method in any detail here. The reader
is referred to HalesV 7 paper for a discussion of the steps involved and

the theory upon which they are based.

The method makes use of the principle that the sum of the offset
distances from any point on a refractor for the respective rays coming
from shots depends on the perpendicular distance
in opposite directions
to the refracting surface at that point. This relation is the same regard-
less ofthe dip or curvature of the refractor. A graphical construction
has been devised for determining the distance between the two points
where the respective rays refracted upward in opposite directions from
96 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

a given position on the marker emerge at the surface. The computation

is made directly from the time-distance curves, using the arrival times
from shots in the two directions. For each such pair of receiving points,
an arc is drawn which is tangent to the refracting surface. The envelope
of the arcs gives the structure of the marker itself.
Broadside Shooting. In some areas it is not feasible to use profile-
shooting techniques to determine the structure across strike. As an

North line
of shots

Line of
midpoint
control

Line of
midpoint
control

South line
of shots

Fig. 5-20. Shot and geophone pattern for broadside shooting. Adjacent spreads overlap 50 per cent
so that subsurface mid-point control is continuous on both sides of the receiving line.

alternative, broadside shooting may

provide a convenient and often
economical method of getting this type of information. The broadside
lines are ordinarily laid out in conjunction with standard-type profiles
that run along strike.
The field setup is and a typical group of corre-
illustrated in Fig. 5-20,
lated records is shown The shot points and detector spreads
in Fig. 5-21.
are laid out along parallel lines which are generally across strike. The
distance between each line of shots and the receiving line is chosen so
that it will always be greater than the double offset distance for the
 fHE SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD
97

refractor being followed. Generally the distance should be only slightly

greater so that the primary refracted event will be received
as a second
arrival. When this spacing is used, the refracting point associated with
the shot will be very close to that associated with the detector
and each
delay time will be approximately half the intercept time.
A single
depth point (based on half the intercept time) is then plotted midway
between shot and receiver. All depth points are thus placed along
the

Fig. 5-21. Four refraction records made in the foothills of Alberta from a single shot point with adjacent
geophone spreads along a broadside. Second and later events are marked. (After Blundun,
Geophysics, 1956.)

"control lines" which are located halfway between the shooting line and
the receiving line.
Whenever possible, the broadsides are tied to an inline where delay
times and depths have been determined at the subsurface tie point by
one of the profiling methods. In second-event work, it is particularly
desirable to have such a tie, since it is sometimes difficult to identify
the correct peak or trough to follow among several possible " picks" on
the broadside records. Where the broadside is tied to an inline, the
respective records at the tie point can be correlated and the apparent
98 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

speed on the inline record can be used to identify the proper pick on the
broadside. If the same cycle is not followed on all broadsides and

iniines, the final map may show structural features that are not there.
Actually, it is more important to follow a consistent event over the
various profiles than it is to identify the onset of second-event energy
correctly on each record.
Blundun 18 has described broadside refraction operations in the foot-
hills of the Canadian Rockies, where this technique is particularly advan-

tageous because the principal information desired is the structure across

strike. This is difficult to determine from iniines laid out perpendicular
to strike on account of the large relief in the refracting horizon itself.
Broadside shooting is the fastest and most economical method for obtain-
ing structural information on a reconnaissance basis in the foothills. As
Blundun points out, this method makes it possible to observe faults in
the Mississippian directly on the records and thus to define them imme-
diately upon shooting without having to wait for completion of the
interpretation over a large area.
The method has two disadvantages. Except at ties with iniines,
the marker velocity and overburden velocity events cannot be measured
but must be assumed. Also, dif-
ferences in depth between refract-
ing points at the shot and receiver
ends cannot be determined with
reliability.

S.P2 Triangle Shooting. In order to

^Detector J Defector 2- facilitate the separation of inter-
Intercept time at det.2 from shot at S.r?//s Tg cept times into constituent delay
time for def. 2 or shot 2 Js Dz
i/Je/ay
times, Gardner 9 has shown how
Fig. 5-22. Layout of profiles in triangle shooting.
three profiles can be laid out as
sides of a triangle (Fig. 5-22). If intercept times (T 12 etc.) are obtained
at each of the vertices of the triangle from shots at the other two verti-
ces,one can solve for the delay times Dh D 2 and D 3 at the three corners,
,

using the equations

T 12 = D l +D 2

T 2Z = D 2 +D z (5-46)
and Tu = D 1 -\-D 2

Delay times along the sides of the triangle can be determined by

taking differentials in the intercept times with respect to the delay times
established at the vertices.
Arc Shooting. With this technique, spreads of detectors are laid out
along circular arcs perpendicular to a long refraction profile of con-
ventional type. A shot point is at the center of each arc. Additional
spreads may be laid along line segments approximately perpendicular
 —

THE SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD 99

to these arcs and pointing toward the respective shots. The arrange-
ment is illustrated in Fig. 5-23.
By this method, as with broadside shooting, the control on depths can
be extended on either side of the strike profile without the need for
additional profiles perpendicular to the initial one. It is not always
possible to obtain refracted first arrivals from a particular bed along a
profile perpendicular to its strike. This is because the bed may outcrop
or become too deep to follow before one reaches the distance necessary
to get first, or even second, arrivals from it. If delay times have been

S.P S.R
-*
A B
*

x Shot point
— — Detector position on ore
or spur trom ore

Fig. 5-23. Arc shooting layout. Shots at A and B.

established everywhere along the profile containing the shots, the corre-
sponding delay times at each detector station along the off-profile arcs
or radial segments can be determined simply by subtracting the delay
time at the shot from the observed intercept time corresponding to the
detector position.
An interesting variation on this arrangement, proposed by Gardner, 19
is to place the shot locations on a smaller concentric circle having such
a radius that the offset position will be at the center of the smaller circle.

Here the delay time under the shot, while not separable, will always be
the same, and relative delay times at the various detector stations around
the ring can be obtained by the differences between the respective
intercept times. Since the relative structural picture is usually more
significant than the absolute depths, this technique can give valuable
information. Two interlocking rings so laid out that the center of each
liesalong the arc of the other make it possible to determine absolute
delay times at both centers.

5-9. Corrections Used in Refraction Interpretation

Refraction times must be corrected for elevation and changes in the

thickness of the weathered layer. The former correction removes differ-
100 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

ences in travel times due only to variations in the surface elevation of

the shots and detector stations. The weathering correction removes
differences in travel times through the near-surface zone of unconsoli-
dated, low-speed sediments, which may vary in thickness from place to
place.
Elevation Correction. A common procedure is to put both the shot and
the detector on the same imaginary datum plane by subtracting the
times that would be required for the wave to travel from the datum to
the actual shot or detector locations if the latter are higher than the
datum, or by adding the times that would be required if they are lower.

Datum plane
time
Subtract*^? //Q e/ev.d above s.l.

time 4?
Assumed path
after correction)

Fig. 5-24. Elevation correction for two-layer case, e is shot elevation, E detector elevation above
sea level.

Figure 5-24 demonstrates how this is done. Assume that both the shot
and the detector are above the datum plane. Effectively, we wish to
put the shot point at P
on the datum plane directly below the shot hole
and the detector at point Q. The hypothetical path is shown by the
dotted line. The difference between the time from A to D along the
actual path and that from P to D along the hypothetical path is

which is, by definition, the delay time associated with the layer between
the bottom of the shot at elevation (e — h) and the datum plane at

elevation d. This material constitutes a horizontal slab of thickness

(e — h — d). From our earlier discussion of delay time, it follows that
{e — h — d) cos %e
D s

(a —
(e- h
h —
- J\
d) Wi* -_
+/V.2 T/-2
Vo 2
(5-48)
V.Vo

Similarly, at the detector end, where the elevation is E, the delay time
associated with the path from the surface to the datum is

V iV o
THE SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD 101

The sum time should be subtracted from the

of these corrections in delay
observed intercept time in order to place both shot and detector effec-
tively on the datum plane. The elevation of the shot is actually the
surface elevation at the top of the shot hole, e, minus the depth of the
charge in the hole, h, so that the final elevation correction to be applied
to the intercept time is

+ E -2d) - V?
m = (e-h ^~- VFx
2
. ...
f
Elevation corr. fK
(5-50)
V iV o

Weathering Corrections. If the velocity of seismic waves in the

sediments just above a deep marker bed is, say, four times as great as
their velocity in a low-speed layer along the surface, any variation in
the thickness of the low-speed layer would be indistinguishable, in its
effect on the travel time, from a variation approximately four times as
great in the depth of the marker horizon. Unless some correction is
made, variations in the thickness of the weathered zone near the surface
could easily lead to fictitious " structures" on the refraction horizon being
mapped.
There are several methods of correcting for the effect of the weathered
layer. In refraction work it is usually simplest to " remove" the weath-
ered layer by determining its speed and thickness and then subtracting
the delay time associated with it from the observed intercept time.

\ / * Dafum-af
n. / e/e v. d above s. I.

Fig. 5-25. Correction of refraction times for weathering and elevation.

Figure 5-25 illustrates the procedure. A special series of refraction

shots, with small charges and close shot-detector spacing, is set off along
the profile. The thicknesslow-speed material above the first
t of the
velocity discontinuity is calculated from the intercept times using the
two-layer depth-intercept-time formula. The delay time associated
with this low-speed layer can now be removed from the intercept time
for the regular refraction shot recorded at the same position. Elevation
corrections are then made from the base of the weathered layer at the
detector end of the trajectory and from the bottom of the shot hole
(which usually penetrates the weathered layer). Thus the total correc-
tion (weathering plus elevation), to be subtracted from the intercept
time, is the delay time associated with the weathered zone plus the
delay time for the layer between weathered zone and datum plane, plus
102 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

the delay time from the bottom of the shot hole to the datum. Adding
these times together, we have
Total corr. = [(e - h - d) + {E - t - d)}

7x7,
+ V V
2
(5 ' 5 }

The term in brackets can of course be simplified to (e +E— h — —

t 2d) .

5-10. Detailing Salt Domes by Refraction

Although the fan-shooting technique was highly successful during the

1920's in discovering shallow salt domes, it was not suitable for locating
domes with tops many thousands of feet deep because of limited pene-
tration in the Gulf Coast sedimentary section. McCollum and LaRue 20
proposed a variation on the technique in which the fans would center
around a detector located in a deep well, radiating outward to a group of
near-surface shot points placed at intervals around a ring. Any time
leads noted from such a three-dimensional fan would suggest the presence
of a deep salt dome which might not be detectable using a conventional
surface fan. They suggested that the time differences at various detector
depths in the well could be used to define the shape of such a dome as
well as to determine the presence and extent of overhang.
Gardner 21 has described a similar technique for detailing the boundaries
of a salt dome by using a detector in a deep well which penetrates or
flanks the dome. Shots are fired from points near the surface so chosen
that the vertical planes determined by the well and the respective shot
points will cut the salt dome at well-distributed angles. Locating shot
points along several arcs at increasing distances from the well should
give information on the shape of the dome at a number of depths because
of the greater penetration of waves from the more distant shots. The
velocity of sediments in the normal section is determined by shooting
a refraction profile near but not over the dome, and the velocity of the
salt is assumed to have a constant value of 15,000 ft/sec. A family
of equal-time lines based on the refraction velocities is drawn for the
sedimentary section so that the "normal" time* to any subsurface point
can be ascertained. Since part of the total time from shot to well
detector is through the sediments and part through the higher speed
salt, the problem is to determine how much of the trajectory lies in each

medium. The locus of the salt boundary must satisfy the condition
that the sum of the two times must equal the observed time. For each
shot, an aplanatic surface is drawn describing this locus. Figure 5-26
* This is the time that would be expected if no salt is along the trajectory.
THE SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD 103

illustrates a set of aplanatic surfaceswhose envelope constitutes part

of the boundary dome. This technique has been
of a hypothetical
successfully applied to detail a number of salt domes in the Gulf Coast
and has been particularly useful for mapping the structure of domes
offshore. 22

We//
Shot points

dp/anatic
surfaces^'

Fig. 5-26. Detailing salt dome by construction of trial aplanatic surfaces for ray paths of waves from
shots on surface received in well along flank of dome. {After Gardner, Geophysics, 1949.)

REFERENCES

1. Muskat, Morris: The Theory of Refraction Shooting, Physics, Vol. 4, pp. 14-38,
1933.
2. Dix, C. H.: Refraction and Reflection of Seismic Waves, II: Discussion of the
Physics of Refraction Prospecting, Geophysics, Vol. 4, pp. 238-241, 1939.
3. Ewing, Maurice, and L. D. Leet: Comparison of Two Methods for Interpretation
of Seismic Time-distance Graphs Which Are Smooth Curves, "Geophysical
Prospecting, 1932," Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs., pp. 263-270, 1932.
4. Slotnick, M. M.: On Seismic Computations, with Applications, I, Geophysics,
Vol. 1, pp. 9-22, 1936; II, Geophysics, Vol. 1, pp. 299-305, 1936.
5. Houston, C. E.: Seismic Paths, Assuming a Parabolic Increase of Velocity with
Depth, Geophysics, Vol. 4, pp. 242-246, 1939.
6. Ewing, Maurice, and L. D. Leet: Seismic Propagation Paths, "Geophysical
Prospecting, 1932," Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs., pp. 245-262, 1932.
7. Gardner, L. W.: Seismograph Prospecting, U.S. Patent 2,153,920, Apr. 11, 1939.
8. Barton, D. C: The Seismic Method of Mapping Geologic Structure, "Geophysical
Prospecting, 1929," Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs., Vol. 81, pp. 572-624,
1929.
9. Gardner, L. W.: An Areal Plan of Mapping Subsurface Structure by Refraction
Shooting, Geophysics, Vol. 4, pp. 247-259, 1939.
10. Gamburtsev, G. A.: Correlation Refraction Shooting (condensed by L. W.
Gardner), Geophysics, Vol. 11, pp. 59-65, 1946.
11. Gillin, J. A., and E. D. Alcock: The Correlation Refraction Method of Seismic
Surveying, Geophysics, Vol. 11, pp. 43-51, 1946.
12. Harris, Sidon, and Gwendolyn Peabody: Refraction Exploration in West Texas,
Geophysics, Vol. 11, pp. 52-58, 1946.
13. Barthelmes, A. J.: Application of Continuous Profiling to Refraction Shooting,
Geophysics, Vol. 11, pp. 24-42, 1946.
14. Wyrobek, S. M.: Application of Delay and Intercept Times in the Interpretation
of Multilayer Time-distance Curves, Geophysical Prospecting, Vol. 4, pp. 112-130,
1956.
104 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
15. M. M.: A Graphical Method for the Interpretation of Refraction Profile
Slotnick,
Data, Geophysics, Vol. 15, pp. 163-180, 1950.
16. Tarrant, L. H.: A Rapid Method of Determining the Form of a Seismic Refractor
from Line Profile Results, Geophysical Prospecting, Vol. 4, pp. 131-139, 1956.
17. Hales, F. W.: An Accurate Graphical Method for Interpreting Seismic Refraction
Lines, Geophysical Prospecting, Vol. 6, pp. 285-294, 1958.
18. Blundun, G. J.: The Refraction Seismograph in the Alberta Foothills, Geophysics,
Vol. 21, pp. 828-838, 1956.
19. Gardner, L. W.: U.S. Patent No. 2,153,920, Apr. 11, 1939.
20. McCollum, Burton, and W. W. LaRue: Utilization of Existing Wells in Seismo-
graph Work, Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, Vol. 15, pp. 1409-1417, 1931.
21. Gardner, L. W. Seismograph Determination of Salt-dome Boundary Using Well
:

Detector Deep on Dome Flank, Geophysics, Vol. 14, pp. 29-38, 1949.
22. Musgrave, A. W., W. C. Woolley, and Helen Gray: Outlining Salt Masses by
Refraction Methods, presented at annual convention of Society of Exploration
Geophysicists, San Antonio, Tex., Oct. 14, 1958.
 CHAPTER 6

THE SEISMIC REFLECTION METHOD

The most extensively used of all geophysi-

seismic reflection method, the
cal prospecting techniques, gives amore direct and detailed picture of
subsurface geological structure than any other geophysical method.
From the data it map depths to subsurface interfaces
provides one can
with an accuracy that is exceeded only by measurements in wells. The
depths are determined by observing the travel times of elastic waves
generated near the surface and reflected back to the surface from the
formations below. The method is comparable in many ways to that
used in sounding for water depths with a fathometer, although the earth
has less predictable transmission characteristics than does water and the
ultimate precision is not so great.
A unique advantage of the reflection method is that it permits mapping
of many horizons from each shot. The precision of the mapping is
approximately the same for the deeper horizons as for the shallower ones.
In all other geophysical methods the reliability decreases with increasing
depth of penetration.
In many instances, reflection surveys are preceded by less expensive
reconnaissance with the gravity, magnetic, or seismic refraction tech-
niques so that the reflection coverage can be confined to areas of par-
ticular interest.
Reflection methods are used almost entirely for petroleum prospecting,
since they are not applicable at the shallow depths where minerals are
ordinarily sought. They
most successful in areas where the oil is in
are
structural traps but are sometimes useful for locating and detailing cer-
tain types of stratigraphic features. Although reflection shooting has
been responsible for discoveries in most of the world's oil provinces,
there are some areas in which it is very difficult and expensive to obtain
usable reflections, generally because of noise interference.

6-1. Geometry of Reflection Paths for Horizontal Interfaces

In Chap. 2 we observed that at any surface where there is a discon-

tinuity in seismic speeds (more correctly, a discontinuity in the products
105
106 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

of the density and velocity) on the respective sides of the interface, the
energy of an incident elastic wave will be at least partly reflected, the
angle of reflection always being equal to the angle of incidence when
the waves are both longitudinal or both transverse. In the case of the
explosion wave from a dynamite blast just below the surface of the
earth, each interface will reflect some of the energy back to the surface.
A detector at the surface responds to the arrival of each reflected wave,
and the time taken for the wave to make its complete trip from shot to
detector can be used to calculate the depth to the reflecting horizon when
the speed along the path is known. If there is a continuous change of
speed with depth, the trajectories of the various reflected waves picked
up at a single detector station will
be curved, as shown in Fig. 6-1. If
the speed throughout the section
has the constant value V, the wave
reflected from a horizontal bed at

Shot Defector

'Reflecting
,/nterfaces Re flee fin g
J^ friferfcrce
Fig. 6-1. Waves reflected from a number of Fig. 6-2. Wave reflected from single interface.
interfaces in area where average speed Speed constant at V down to reflecting surface.
increases continually with depth.

depth z to a detector at a distance x from the shot will travel along the
straight lines shown in Fig. 6-2. The length L of the inclined wave path
from shot to detector via the reflecting surface is

(6-1)

where T is the total travel time. Solving for T, one obtains

nFW (6-2)

The depth to the reflecting horizon is related to the travel time, hori-
zontal distance, and average speed by

z = y V(vry-
2
- x- (6-3)

Methods of determining V will be considered later in this chapter.

From Eq. (6-2) we see that the curve of reflection time vs. distance
THE SEISMIC REFLECTION METHOD 107

when the velocity above the reflector is constant will be a hyperbola

with its axis of symmetry along the line x= (Fig. 6-3). In the case
of two media with respective speeds of V and Vi which are separated by
a horizontal interface at depth z, the reflection time-distance curve is
related to the corresponding refraction curve as shown in Fig. 6-3. The
reflection hyperbola is tangent to the second linear segment (projected
inward) of the refraction time-distance curve and asymptotic to the

Fig. 6-3. Time-distance curves for reflected and refracted waves observed with single velocity
discontinuity.

first (projected outward). The reflection curve cuts the T axis (x = 0)

at T = This time corresponds of course to vertical reflection.
2z/Vo.
The point of tangency is at the distance (x ) where the wave reflected t

from the interface arrives at the critical angle.* Beyond the critical
angle the reflection hyperbola approaches the refraction segment A
asymptotically since the path of the reflected wave becomes practically
horizontal at large distances.

6-2. Reflection from Dipping Interfaces

When the reflecting boundary is not horizontal, the calculation of

depths from reflection times becomes more complicated. If reflections
are received from a plane dipping interface at two or more points along
the surface, the angle of dip can be determined from the difference in
time between reflections.
Figure 6-4 shows the ray paths from a shot point to two reception
points, A and B, after reflection from a dipping surface. To simplify

* x t is also the smallest value of x at which a refracted wave will be recorded from
the interface.
108 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

the geometry the shot point P can be placed at its " mirror image"
position P' '. The reflection time at A is T A and that at B is TVThe
shot-detector distance for A is x A while that for
, B is xB . The average
velocity down to the reflecting interface is V . The perpendicular dis-
tance from shot point to interface is D, while the dip of the reflector is a.

f
Fig. 6-4. Reflections from a dipping interface. Shot is at P, geophones at A and B.

Consider triangle PP'B. From the law of cosines,

(2D) 2 + xA 2 - ADxa cos (90° + a) = (V TA )

2
(6-4a)
and (2D) 2
+ xb 2
- 4:Dx B cos (90° + a) = (V T B )
2
(6-46)

Remembering that cos (90° + a) = sin a and subtracting the first

equation from the second,

(xb 2 - x A >) + AD(x B - xA ) sin a = V 2

(T B 2 - TV) (6-5)

or
(xB + x A + sin )
a = Vo'iTi TV)
(6-6)
4D 4D(x B - xA )
2
(T B * - Ta 2
XB + xA
so that sin a = Vo )
(6-7)
4:D(x b — xA )
42)

Now if the average time (T A + T B )/2 is designated as T&v , the " step-out
time" T B — TA as and the perpendicular distance D as F TV2,
AT 7
,

where To is the reflection time of a shot received by a detector at the

shot point (x = 0), we can write Eq. (6-7)

sin a
VoT&vAT Xb + Xa
(6-8)
Tq(x b — xA ) 2VoT
If xA = 0,

VoT^AT XB
sin a (6-9)
T Xb 2VoT
xB '
If AT = (6-10)
2V Q *T,
THE SEISMIC REFLECTION METHOD 109

the step-out time is normal and there is no dip. If the step-out is

greater, there is dip in the direction of increasing x. If it is less, there

is dip in the opposite direction.
If the shot is midway between the two receiving points, so that
xA = —x B , then T^ = T and Eq. (6-7) gives us

For actual calculation of dip angles, graphical procedures based on

these equations are generally used. Some of these will be considered
later in this chapter.

6-3. Reflection Records

When dynamite exploded in a shot hole, the waves recorded by

is

nearby detecting instruments take a great variety of paths, each requiring

a different time to travel from shot to detector. For several seconds
after the first arrival of energy at the detector, the surface of the ground
will be in continual motion under the impact of waves that have traveled
along the various paths. Some of the waves are refracted and others
are scattered; some waves will travel along the earth's surface, and others
are reflected upward from various interfaces. The principal problem is
to distinguish the reflections from the other events. There is no way
of doing this with a single detector. When several closely spaced geo-
phones are laid out along a line with the shot, the time relations between
corresponding events on the traces from the respective geophones are
used to identify the reflections.
In practice, the ground movement at each instrument on the line is

recorded on a separate trace of the same record. Actually, a trace

almost always records the output of a group of geophones connected in
series or in parallel. The reasons for using multiple phones will be
discussed later. The waves corresponding to a reflection will all line up
across the record in such a way that the crests or troughs on adjacent
traces will appear more or less to fit into one another. The lining up
may occur for a single wave cycle or for a train of several cycles depending
on the nature of the reflecting surfaces within the earth and the character-
istics of the recording instruments. The differential between the times
of a peak or trough for the same reflection at successive detector positions
(the step-out time) gives information on the dip of the reflecting bed
while the absolute time indicates its depth below the surface. Refracted
waves, such as those shown in Fig. 5-13 (page 86), and surface waves give
line-ups across a record that are similar in many ways to those from
reflections. Since reflected waves normally approach the detectors at
 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

Fig. 6-5. A typical reflection record from a technically disturbed area in western Canada. Upper
set of 24 traces is unmixed; lower set is mixed, i.e., output from each geophone group is combined

a small angle with the vertical, the step-out times are expected to be
much less for reflections than for refracted events or surface waves.
Sample Record. Figure 6-5 shows a typical 24-trace reflection record.
It is a filtered playback record from a magnetic tape. It was made in
the Alberta foothills over an area where subsurface dips are steep. The
upper half of the record shows the outputs of the 24 geophone groups
(12 on each side of the shot) as actually recorded. The lower half shows
the outputs after signals from adjacent groups are mixed with one another
for the purpose of improving reflection quality. The mixing process
will be discussed further on pages 114-115.
Each trace of the record registers the ground motion of a group of
three geophones spaced 55 ft apart along the profile. The uppermost
trace corresponds to the group at the northeastern end of the geophone
spread and the lowermost to the group farthest to the southwest, as
shown in Fig. 6-6. The spread on each side of the shot point is one-
quarter mile long so that the total surface coverage is one-half mile.
Centers of adjacent geophone groups are 110 ft apart.
Times from the shot moment (or instant of the explosion) in tenths
of a second are marked along the center of the record. Over the range
from about 0.010 to about 0.120 sec, the initially quiescent traces show
progressive sharp down kicks as on a refraction record, the times for the
traces stepping out regularly with the distance of the corresponding
geophone group from the shot. The waves causing these events have
been refracted along the base of the shallow low-velocity, or " weathered,"
zone discussed in the previous chapter. Their arrival times are used to
compute weathering thickness by simple refraction methods.
Later on the record, successive series of waves are seen to line up with
one another from the top trace to the twenty-fourth on each bank.
These are the reflections. Up to about 1.5 sec, the waves arrive at the
THE SEISMIC REFLECTION METHOD in

with50 per cent of output of adjacent group before galvanometer input. Note divergence of dips
between early and later portions of record.

southwestern end of the spread first and at the northeastern end about
0. 1sec later. This indicates that the shallower beds dip to the northeast.
In the later portion of the record the reflected waves arrive at the north-
eastern end of the spread first and at the southwestern end later. This
means that the deeper layers dip in the opposite direction (southwest) to
the shallower formations. The geometry is illustrated schematically in
Fig. 6-6. Clear-cut reflections are observed to about 2.7 sec. This
represents a depth of about 20,000 ft.

Correlation. It is often possible to follow the same reflection over a

horizontal distance much greater than that corresponding to a single
record. In such cases, one places records from adjacent spreads edge to
edge and correlates the reflection from the last trace of one record to
the first of the next in the same way as one follows a reflection from one
trace to the next on the same record. Such correlation can be con-
tinued indefinitely on successive records if the reflections persist, as is

shown later in Fig. 6-11 (page 117) and Fig. 6-21 (page 130). When the
surface spreads are so laid out that the reflections recorded on the last
trace of one record come from the same subsurface positions as those
on the first trace of the next record, the shooting arrangement is referred
to as continuous profiling. Often a particular reflection will have a
unique " character" or appearance which persists over a long distance
and which can be correlated across gaps in the surface coverage. Even
where the character of the reflections is not particularly distinctive, one
can often correlate across a gap if the time intervals between individual
reflection eventsremain substantially the same for records on both sides.
Correlation of reflections is not always as simple as it may appear.
Often a reflection characterized by a single trough evolves into two
troughs as one moves from one trace to the next; there then may be
considerable doubt as to which of the two " split-off " features should
112 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
1320ft 1320 ft
SW
Trace No. 24

Shallow
reflecting
interface

Deep
reflecting
interface

Fig. 6-6. Schematic diagram of spread and ray geometry for record of Fig. 6-5. Rays shown only
for nearest and farthest geophone groups on each side of shot point.

now be followed. A wrong correlation might lead to a spurious structure.

Factors causing such changes in character will be discussed in the next
chapter.

6-4. Choice of Shooting Procedures

The disposition of shots and detectors in reflection shooting depends

on a number of factors. Among these are time, expense per mile of
coverage, accessibility, subsurface geology, and the character and quality
of the reflections normally obtained.
THE SEISMIC REFLECTION METHOD 113

Correlation Shooting and Dip Shooting. It is often possible to record

reflections from identified or unidentified geological markers which per-
sist over a wide area. One can correlate such reflections along all shoot-
ing profiles in the area and map the depths to the markers in the same
way that one w ould contour subsurface structure from well data. Occa-
T

sionally, the reflection from a particular formation will have a distinctive

character which enables one to recognize it over a fairly extensive area.
Continuity of control is not so important in mapping such reflections
because one can correlate by character across any gaps in the profile.
More usually, however, it is necessary to plan the recording in such a
way that there are no gaps in subsurface coverage.
In reconnaissance work, particularly where reflections do not persist
wellfrom record to record, individual reflections may be represented as
dip segments rather than as continuous horizons. Continuous control
is not necessary, since correlation need only be across one or two records

at a time. The results are sometimes indicated on the map as scattered

dip vectors which can themselves be contoured. In areas of consistent
regional dip, any reversal of regional would be sufficient to earmark a
location for more detailed study.
Correlation shooting gives the maximum accuracy and maximum
detail but at the highest cost. It is the only practical method for locating
structures of small relief or of small areal extent. Dip shooting is faster
and cheaper; it is most useful where regional geology is well known and
where structures are fairly large.
Grouping of Detectors. In many areas, reflections are obscured by
spurious ground motion from the explosion which has an intrinsically
greater amplitude. This motion, which is most usually attributable to
surface waves or scattered and diffracted energy, can be referred to gen-
erally as noise. Often the noise has a different frequency from the reflec-
tions, being generally lower for surface waves and higher for wind effects.
Whatever the nature of their wave motion, noise events have one char-
acteristic in common w hich differentiates them from reflections: they
r

travel horizontally (or have substantial horizontal components of trajec-

tory) while reflections travel in a predominantly vertical direction. Any
recording procedure which discriminates against horizontally traveling
waves in favor of those traveling vertically should raise the signal-to-
noise ratioand improve reflection quality.
The most effective way to cancel horizontally traveling waves is to
spread out a number of geophones over a horizontal distance correspond-
ing to a wavelength of the noise waves. When these geophones are con-
nected in series or in parallel so that their combined output goes into one
amplifier and is recorded on a single trace, the signal-to-noise ratio is

This procedure was first described in the literature by Born.

l
improved.
114 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

The number of detectors used for each trace varies, depending on the
characteristics of the noise, but may normally range from three to several
dozen, and in some areas may go above 100.
Figure 6-7 shows how geophone grouping cancels waves moving in the
horizontal direction and allows vertically traveling reflected waves to

pass. Here we have four phones per trace so spaced along the surface
that each group covers a distance equal to the wavelength of a typical
surface wave. With this arrangement the horizontal wave will, at any
given time, cause upward motion in two detectors of each group and
downward motion in the other two. If all four are connected in series,

To amplifier To amplifier
and galvanometer and galvanom eter
for trace A for trace B

~>- Surface wave

Up
Down * * * Vertical component
of surface wave
1U Direction ofmotion
at peak or trough of
reflected wave
Fig. 6-7. Eliminating effects of ground roll by use of multiple geophones in series.

the net signal from this source will be very nearly zero. Reflected
waves, on the other hand, are very nearly vertical and will cause all

four detectors of each group to move in the same direction at the same
time. The outputs will thus be additive. Proper grouping of geophones
should thus reinforce reflected events and cancel horizontally traveling
noise. Figure 6-8a shows a simple grouping arrangement for a 12-trace
spread.
Sometimes the outputs of individual phones are combined so that they
feed more than one amplifier. Figure 6-86 shows an arrangement by
which the last four detectors of each group of eight are combined with the
first four of the next group so as to give 50 per cent overlapping of ground

coverage on adjacent traces.

In many areas, the noise is very complex and elaborate geophone
patterns must be laid out in order to cancel it adequately. The design
of such patterns will be discussed later in this chapter.
Mixing. Often a single group of detectors is not sufficient for cancel-
ing noiseand it is necessary to combine or "mix" outputs of one or more
adjacent groups at the input of each galvanometer element. There are
several arrangements by which this can be done. Frequently, the out-
puts of two adjacent groups are combined directly, so that trace 1
records the inputs to channels 1 and 2, trace 2 records inputs 2 and 3,
THE SEISMIC REFLECTION METHOD 115

etc. Another common procedure mixing

is to attenuate one channel
in
relative to another; for example, trace 2 would record half the input to
channel 1, all the input to channel 2, and half the input to channel 3;
trace 3 would record half of 2, all of 3, and half of 4, etc. The attenu-
ation is usually accomplished by a network of resistors, although some-
times special mixing tubes are used. Excessive mixing, as pointed out
by Klipsch, 2
sometimes
will badly and give
distort reflection events
apparent reflections which are not really there. To safeguard against such
effects, it is often possible to put unmixed and mixed signals on the same
record, as separate groups of traces. For example, on the 48-trace
To
trace No. I 2 3 4 5 6 7 3 9 10 // 12

Defectors rmnTinTirmfTrifTnnVi rrn rrn rrn rrn rrn

(a)

To
trace No. / 3 5 7 9 //

To
trace No. 2
HT
A
\

6
I

8
I

10
(b)

Fig. 6-8. Two arrangements for compounding outputs of individual geophones to eliminate effect of
horizontally traveling waves, (a) Straight series connection, (b) Mixing of adjacent groups.

record of Fig. 6-5 the top 24 traces show the original unmixed signals
while the bottom 24 have the same signals mixed. Spurious events on
the mixed traces can then be detected by comparison with the correspond-
ing signals before mixing.
Shot-geophone Arrangements. In planning the layout of shots and
geophones along a reflection profile, one must bear in mind the fact that
the subsurface depth computed from a reflection recorded by a particular
geophone applies (for low dips) at a point midway between the shot and
the phone. If continuous depth control is desired along a profile, the
detectors are uniformly spaced between adjacent shot points and each
detector will record reflections from successive shots on opposite sides
of the spread. The shot from each side of the group gives depth control
beneath the half of the spread nearest it, as shown in Fig. 6-9. When
the bed is inclined, the depth point will of course be displaced from mid-
position, but it is customary to correct for the error at a later stage of
the interpretation.
With the " split spread" (Fig. 6-10), by far the most common arrange-
ment for continuous coverage, there is an equal number of geophone
groups on each side of the shot hole. All 20 groups between shot hole A
and shot hole C record the shot from B simultaneously.
I I 6
INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

As the shooting moves along the only half the detector spread is
line,

shifted between shots at successive shot holes. For example, after the
shot in B has been fired, the detector groups
between B and C are left
Defector groups for 13-frace records
2 3 4 5 6 7 8- 9 10 II 12 13

Reflecting
Depth controffrom\ Depth confrof from \
surface
K
shot A ^ shofB
n
p ig. 6-9. Obtaining continuous depth control along profile by recording shots from opposite directions
with same geophone spread.

REFLECTING HORIZON

Fig. 6-10. Split-spread arrangement for continuous correlation. Shot point at B. [Geophysical
Service, Inc.)

in place for the shot out of C while the group from A to B is moved east-
ward to cover the interval from C to D. The progress along the line
continually follows a " leap-frog" pattern. Split spreads are less expen-
sive because fewer shots are necessary to cover a given distance along
the profile. Figure 6-11 shows a sample set of records made from
spreads of this type.
 '

THE SEISMIC REFLECTION METHOD 117

For rapid reconnaissance in areas where reflection quality is very good,

it is often feasible to set up isolated split spreads a greater distance apart
than the length of the geophone coverage on the surface. In some
instances, shot points are located on a 1-mile grid. This technique is

sometimes referred to as "jump correlation/

1 11 llilili

- ' 1

••^

I Tin 3

Fig. 6-11. Correlated group of records shot with split-spread arrangement. (Magno//a Petroleum Co.)

For shooting with steep dips, it is often desirable to have

in areas
detector spreads extending from the shot points at right angles to one
another so that the true dip in space can be calculated from mutually
perpendicular components. A common arrangement is to shoot two
successive split spreads from the same shot point, the respective spreads
being aligned at right angles to one another.

6-5. Determination of Average Velocity

In order to determine depths from reflection times by use of standard

formulas,it is necessary to know the average velocity of the section down

to the reflecting bed. The interval velocity, and hence the average
velocity, will ordinarily increase with
depth and it is useful to know both
as a function of the depth to the reflecting horizon. There are three
common methods for determining this information: (1) well shooting,
118 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

(2) continuous velocity logging, and (3) analysis of reflection records

themselves.
Well Shooting. The most accurate procedure for velocity measure-
ment is to explode charges of dynamite in a shallow drill hole alongside

a deep exploratory borehole and to record the arrival times of waves

received by an in-hole detector at a number of depths which are well
distributed from top to bottom. Figure 6-12 illustrates the setup and
shows interval and average velocity curves of the type that are obtained
from this kind of shooting. The interval velocity is simply the distance

Recording
truck

/nterva/ ve/oc/ty
I
I
% 16,000
>I4,000
A verage overatt
velocity^ V
8000
6000
4-000
Defector
,

2000h

1000
u
2000 3000 4000 5000
\t
positions

6000 7000
Depth, ft.
Well
Fig. 6-12. Well-shooting arrangement, with typical interval-velocity and average-velocity curves
thus obtained.

between successive detector positions in the well, divided by the differ-

ence in arrival times at the two depths after a simple correction has
been made for the fact that the actual wave path is slanting rather than
vertical. The average velocity is simply the total vertical distance
divided by the total time. The latter velocity is most widely used in
actual depth computations, although calculations based on curved-
path theory make use of the interval velocities.
Data from velocity surveys of the type illustrated in Fig. 6-13 must
sometimes be used at distances of 50 miles or more from the well actually
surveyed. Often the logs from a number of widely separated wells are
averaged to obtain the curve which is used over the area in between.
More frequently, the average velocities to the horizons which are mapped
are interpolated between wells by contouring. Considerable variation
is sometimes found between curves obtained from neighboring wells.
Figure 6-13 shows an example of this as demonstrated by Stulken. 3 In
Chap. 7 we shall consider a number of techniques that have been intro-
duced to refine the precision of the time-depth conversion where velocities
change laterally.
THE SEISMIC REFLECTION METHOD 119

Continuous Velocity Logs. The majority of well velocity surveys car-

ried out since 1955 have included continuous velocity logs along with
the conventional recordings of near-surface shots by in-well detectors at
various depths. These logs show the velocities of the formations pene-
trated by the wells over intervals ranging from 1 to 10 ft, and changes in
the velocities with depth are recorded as continuous lines.
Continuous velocity logs have many applications, such as geological
correlation, identification of formations, and synthesis of reflections, but

d 9000
l*>-
8500
^^
ytfd
<t
<$e(L 'L^
Is 8000
_o
<u ^jJelLL-
* 7500
_•-
L
> 7000
&
< 6500
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 IQ00O
Depth, ft

We// We// We// We//

I 2 3 4-

/3. 3 mr.
'.
4*- 42m/A*- 4.2mA
Fig. 6-13. Variation in velocity curves obtained at four wells along a line 22 miles long in California.
{After Stulken, Geophysics, 1941.)

in this chapter we our discussion to their use in converting

shall confine
reflection times to depths. The
logs themselves record, as a function
of depth, the travel times of seismic waves through the formation between
a sound source at one end of the tool and a receiver at the other or
between two receivers which may range from one to 10 ft apart. Inte-
grating the logs with respect to depth adds the time intervals thus
recorded and yields the total travel time between any two points for a
seismic wave passing vertically through the section. Because the log
cannot be taken through surface casing, it is necessary to record a near-
surface shot by conventional means with a detector (ordinarily attached
to the logging tool) at the bottom of the casing. Integrated times from
the log, which begins at this point, are added to the travel time thus
measured. Shots of the same type are recorded at other depths in the
borehole both to check the integrated times from the logs and also to
correct the times for delays in the drilling mud (for the one-receiver tool)
or for irregularities in borehole diameter (which can cause distortion with
both types of tool). In practice, almost as many shot-hole explosions
12 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

are fired as with conventional velocity surveys, in which no continuous

log is run at all.

Logging tools, such as the Shell Vogellogger, with two receiving ele-
4

ments do not require as many check shots as one-receiver models such

as the original Magnolia continuous velocity logger, which has only one
5

receiver. The former type of tool is much less sensitive to mud velocity
since the delays in the mud cancel except where the hole diameter varies
between one receiving element and the other.
Analytical Methods. Where no velocity information is available from
wells, one can determine an approximate velocity function from seismic
measurements on the surface. An area must be chosen where there are
good reflecting horizons at a number of depths. Detectors are laid out
over a fairly wide range of distances from the shot, and reflections are
recorded in the usual way. From the step-out times at various depths
and distances, one can calculate the velocity from elementary formulas.
Frequently, the detectors are kept at fixed positions while shots on both
sides of the fixed detector spread are fired at progressively greater dis-
tances. Often, both shots and detectors are moved
in such a way that
the subsurface reflection coverage unchanged.
is

A simple method of velocity computation proposed by Green 6 makes

use of the difference between the arrival times of a reflection (from
depth z) at two substantially different shot-detector distances, X\ and x 2 .

The respective times are T and T 2 x If V is the average velocity to

.

the reflector,

so that
m V = 2
- (t
xi-
£1
-
£_
TV - T
+

(6 _ 13)

Extending this approach to a larger number of recording distances,

one can determine velocities with increased precision by plotting T 2 vs. x 2
over a wide range of closely spaced detector positions, as shown in Fig.
6-14. Since

T = 4-
2

T/2
z
2
+ -4-
t/2
x 2
(6-14)J
K

a plot of T 2
x 2 should yield a straight line with slope l/V 2
vs. With the .

slope, and thus the value of V, determined from the plot, z can be com-
puted from the observed intercept, which is 4z 2 /F 2 In practice, all .

reflections on the record are used for this computation and separate
average velocities V h V 2 V h etc., are determined for respective reflec-
,
THE SEISMIC REFLECTION METHOD 121

tions from depths z h z2, zz, as illustrated in Fig. 6-15. Shots are always
recorded in opposite directions, and apparent velocities are averaged so
that the effect of any dip in the reflecting formation will be minimized.
The average velocities thus obtained can be plotted against the depths
of the reflecting horizons, the resultant curves being similar to the aver-
age velocity-depth curves from well velocity surveys.
Because the errors in reading the step-out time may constitute a sub-
stantial fraction of the total time differences involved, certain precautions
must be taken to assure adequate precision in the velocities. Green
has specified the conditions that must be met if the results are to be

Intercept

~4
Intercept = 2 z£?

Jntercept=— Z zj
V,

Fig. 6-14. Determination of average velocities to three horizons by analysis of reflections on velocity
spreads.

reliable to within 3 per cent. The reflections must be continuous,

weathering must be very nearly uniform under all detectors, and topo-
graphic relief must be very small. Shot holes should all be in the same
material and have the same depth. Finally, such surveys should be
carried out only in areas where the formations are substantially hori-
zontal. Where there is a small amount of dip it is important that the
angle does not vary appreciably under the shooting line. Gardner 7 has
proposed a special arrangement of shot points and detectors that is
designed to increase the accuracy of the method.
A commonly used analytical technique is the "TAT" method. With
this, step-out times are read on reflections across records obtained in
routine shooting. The relatively short spreads ordinarily employed
allow little precision in the determination of the time intervals from any

one record, but this is compensated for statistically by the large number
of records employed.
Records are picked from shots distributed over such a wide area that
the net dip can be reasonably assumed to be zero. For a spread having
the geometry shown in Fig. 6-4 (page 108), the condition for a zero dip
12 2 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

angle of the reflecting formation is

VT&VAT xB + xA
(6-15)
xB - xA 2V
(x b + x a )(xb - xA )
or V = 2T avAT
(6-16)

These relations follow from Eq. (6-8) when sin a = 0. Designating

(x B + x A )/2 as z av the
, mean shot-detector distance, and (x B — x A ) as L,
the spread length, we have
V = (^)* (6-17)

The value of V obtained by averaging individual values corresponding

to a particular reflection as calculated from Eq. (6-17) is the average
velocity to the reflecting horizon. Steele 8 has compared velocity-depth

^-Subsurface
Setups
Y coverage

15
1

2D
W 25
2
35 30
3 X
4£ 45
4 X
Fig. 6-15. Successive shot-geophone spread setups for Dix method of velocity determination. Shot
positions are indicated by crosses, spreads by horizontal bars.

curves computed in this way with curves obtained at the same locations
by well shooting. He found that the TAT method gave velocities
running consistently lower than the well-shooting velocities by 300 to
800 ft/sec at all depths.
The analytical techniques thus far described yield information on
average velocities to various reflectors. A useful variation of the con-
ventional method for obtaining the average velocities has been worked
out by Dix. 9 This technique makes it possible to determine interval
velocities also. Shot points and detector spreads are moved in such
a way that the coverage of subsurface reflecting points remains the
same as the shot-detector distances are increased.
Figure 6-15 shows the successive shot and geophone-spread arrange-
ments. A conventional split spread is shot first, the subsurface coverage
being centered about the shot. The shot is then moved to the position
originally occupied by an end detector of the receiving spread and the
detectors are moved so that the center of the spread is at the same position
THE SEISMIC REFLECTION METHOD 123

as the opposite end of the initial spread. For the third setup, the shot
point is placed on the opposite side of the detector spread at a position
coincident with the end of the second spread. The geophone spread is
now moved a distance necessary to keep the subsurface reflection points
at the same positions as before. The distance is progressively increased
until it more or less equals the greatest depth to which velocity informa-
tion is desired.
Reflections on the records from the successive shots are correlated
and T 2 is plotted against X
on a trace-by-trace basis. The segments
2

on this plot will generally be linear so that slopes and intercepts can be
noted for each reflection. From the values thus tabulated, the interval
velocities between successive reflections can be computed as well as the
average velocities. A formula for this calculation is given in Dix's
paper.
Dix's method is also useful for identifying multiple reflections. Inter-
val velocities normally increase progressively with depth. An anoma-
lously low interval velocity for a deeper reflection may be an indication
that the event is actually a multiple reflection.

6-6. Corrections Used in Reduction of Reflection Records

As with refraction shooting, it is necessary to correct the data on

reflection records for differences in surface elevation and for the travel
time in the weathered layer. The corrections are similar in principle
to those employed in refraction work, but there are some differences in
the way they
are computed.
Elevation Correction. Since the paths of the reflected waves make
but a small angle with the vertical, particularly near the surface, no
substantial error will be introduced in the corrections if the trajectories
both at the shot and detector ends are assumed to be vertical. With this
assumption, the correction for elevation difference may be made simply
by subtracting (or adding) the time required for the wave to travel the
vertical distance involved. Two procedures are commonly used. One
method is to adjust the reflection times to what they would be if the shot
and detectors were at the same elevation as the top of the shot hole.
Then depths to reflecting horizons observed at each shot are computed
with respect to the ground elevation at the shot location. The other
method is to put both shot and detectors on a datum plane as was demon-
strated for refraction (page 100). The times required for the wave to
travel down to the datum plane and up from the datum
at the shot end
plane at the detector end are then removed. The excess times in the
case of reflection shooting are computed simply by dividing the elevation
difference by the average near-surface velocity. Depths below datum
124 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

are then calculated from corrected reflection times. Figure 6-16 illus-
trates both methods of making elevation corrections and gives the
formulas applied in each case.

e= elev. at top ofshotha'e

h

(a) (b)

Fig. 6-16. Elevation corrections (a) by putting all geophones at elevation of top of shot hole, and (b)

by putting both shot and geophones on datum plane. Weathered layer removed.

Weathering Corrections. As pointed out in the chapter on refraction

shooting, the object of the weathering correction is to eliminate the
effect on travel times of variations in the thickness of the low-speed zone.
Many techniques are available for making this correction. With some
methods one " removes" the weathered layer altogether, putting all
detectors (effectively) at its base; with others one " replaces" the layer
with high-speed material of the kind that is found below the base of the
weathered zone. In one approach, the first-arrival times for each trace
on the reflection record are used, weathering thickness being determined
by simple refraction theory; in another, uphole times recorded on a
surface detector next to the shot hole are subtracted in order to put the
detector, effectively, at the elevation of the shot.
Weathering Corrections Using First Arrivals. The first-arrival times
on reflection records are from waves refracted along the top of the high-
speed zone just below the weathered layer. Using time-distance curves
of the first arrivals with shots from opposite directions, one can calculate
the thickness of the weathered layer by conventional refraction methods.
If the weathered zone, with a seismic wave velocity of Vo, is replaced
by material of velocity Vi (the speed at the base of the zone), the differ-
ence in travel times can be calculated by multiplying the intercept time,
as determined from the refraction profile, by a numerical constant less
than unity.
1. Shot Below Weathered Zone. When the shot is below the base of the
weathering, only the detector end of the trajectory contributes to the
intercept time. The intercept time and delay time for the detector will
then be equivalent. The thickness of the weathered zone, Z, is related
to the delay time D by the formula
VlVo
7 = D .
(6-18)
\/7 l
* - Vo 2
THE SEISMIC REFLECTION METHOD 125

The excess time that must be removed to replace the material of speed
Vo with one having a speed V\ is

(6-19)

- P Wo (
l l
\ (6-20)
VVS - Fo \Vo 2 V 1
)
(6-21)
WVS - Vo 2 \/TY - 7oV
- Fo (6-22)
V\Av- TV/ \Fx + Vt

The constant under the radical must always be less than one, in most

Depfh Time in sec.

Driller's log
in.ft .010 .0?0 .030 .040

Z5.

White day V = 1860'/sec.

with
\\
\ ^
boulders

50

Blue
shale

100
\vr7600/sec.
Hardrock
\
Blue
\
shale

Hard rock \
"\
Blue shale
150
\
*

Hard rock

1
200
Fig. 6-17. Vertical velocity distribution near the surface determined by "shooting up the hole."
(Geophysical Service, Inc.)

cases averaging about 0.7. Vi is the reciprocal slope of the curve of first-

arrival time vs. shot-detector distance. The velocity Vo in the weathered

zone is usually established in a new area by " shooting up the hole," a
detector being placed at the top of the shot hole and charges being fired
at various depths from the bottom of the hole to the surface. Uphole
times are plotted against depth as shown in Fig. 6-17. Note that the
126 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

break in apparent speed here does not coincide with any of the lithologic
boundaries recorded by the drillers.* This discrepancy has often been
observed and leads to the conclusion that there is no necessary identity
between the " weathered layer" as defined here and the unconsolidated
layer designated as the " weathered zone" by the geologist.

Distance in ft. from shot 8

1100 1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100
Q16
V. ^s'

0.14 \ r/sec

0.12

§0.10 1

% N^
N
'I
E
p
0-08

0.06
N ^s<?
0.04
PS.
infe rcept time
A\, '. A v.
ntercept time ^
it

lii ^
0.02
<- m
--»» As hot is QO/2 sec. from 3 shot is 0.0/2 sec.

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
A Distance in ft. from shot A —*- B

Shot A I 2 3 4 5 6 S/?o/B

Fig. 6-18.
4

Plot of arrival times

\ /A A t \

from two adjacent reflection shots received by same geophones.

-**—Bose

Average intercept time at each geophone used to calculate weathering correction. (Geophysical
Service, Inc.)

Figure 6-18 shows a sample set of time-distance curves from which

intercept times can be determined for making the weathering correction.
In the case of detector 5, for example, the delay time D of the shot from A
is 0.015 sec, and of that from B is 0.018 sec. Both times were obtained
by adding or subtracting the intervals between the points on the curve
and the respective average lines. V is known to be 2,000 ft/sec. With
the average delay time D av equal to 0.016 sec, the excess time t is

150 - 2,000
\Fi+ Fo" "\8, 150 + aT
2,000
X 0.016

= 0.78 X 0.016 = 0.012 sec

This is subtracted from the observed arrival times of the reflections

received at this location.

* There is a possibility that the break comes at the water table, which would not
show up on the drillers' log.
THE SEISMIC REFLECTION METHOD 127

2. Shot Above Base of Weathering. Where the shot has not penetrated
the weathered layer, the refraction method is difficult to apply because
there is no way of separating the portions of the intercept time corre-
sponding to the paths through the low-speed zone at the respective ends
of the trajectory. For an individual shot, this complication would not
be serious, since the total weathering delay would be corrected for
whether it is at one end of the trajectory or both. On the other hand,
it is not possible to average intercept times correctly for shots from

opposite directions (as shown in

Fig. 6-18) unless the contributions
*V\ Weathered
at each end can be separated. / \

For this reason, a method which \\ [_\ \j_

Vd

does not use intercept times at all SR p Q MT vi

is often preferred when weathered where shot holes do

Fia - °- 19 - Refraction paths
. , xi~ t u i n ot penetrate below weathered zone.
material appears to he below the
shot. Figure 6-19 shows the ray-path trajectory for this case. The
times of refracted waves received at D from shots A and B are

Tad = T A s + TS p + T PD (6-23)
and Tbd = T BT + T TQ + T QD (6-24)

respectively. At detector E, the refracted wave from A has a travel

time
Tab = T AS + T SM + T me (6-25)
where T ME = T BT + T uhB
and Tsm = T sp + T pq + Ttq ~~ Tmt
T uh B being the "uphole" time for shot B, so that

Tpd + Tqd = Tad + Tbd — T ae + T ukb ~ Tpq + Tmt (6-26)

When, as is usually the case, the slant paths through the low-speed zone
two terms on the right-hand side of Eq.
are nearly vertical, the last
(6-26) become negligible. In addition, times T PD and T QD are very
nearly equal and each can be designated as T w which can be expressed ,

in the form
TV ££ 2 (Tad + Tbd - TAE + T uhB )
V (6-27)
or, alternatively,

Tw ^ A(Tad +
x
Tbd - T BC + T uhA ) (6-28)

Tw is to a close approximation the time required for a reflected wave to

pass through the weathered layer on its way to detector D. This can
be subtracted from the times of all reflections received at D, the detector
thus being put effectively at the base of the weathering.
The times TA d, Tbd, T A e, and T B c are first-arrival times which are
read directly from the appropriate traces on the records. The uphole
12 g INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

times are read from a special trace for the uphole detector. Table 6-1
gives a sample calculation for this type of weathering correction, the
bottom line representing the weathering thickness Zw obtained by
multiplying T w by V , here taken as 2,000 ft/sec.

TABLE 6-1. Sample Weathering Calculation for Case Where Shots Do Not Penetrate
Weathered Layer*
(Times in seconds)

Distance from A, ft

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

900

Tad 0.012 0.038 0.065 0.089 0.101 0.128 0.138 0.159 0.175 0.188
(
= TuhA) ( = Tae)
Tbd 0.174 0.159 0.148 0.129 0.114 0.097 0.078 0.078 0.048 0.010
( = Tbc) ( = TuhB)
Q = Tad + Tbd 0.197 0.213 0.218 0.215 0.225 0.216 0.237 0.223
R = Tab - T uhB 0.178 0.178 0.178 0.178 0.178 0.178 0.178 0.178
2Tw = Q - R 0.019 0.035 0.040 0.037 0.047 0.038 0.059 0.045
Tw 0.010 0.018 0.020 0.019 0.023 0.019 0.030 0.023
Zw,i\ 20 36 40 38 46 38 60 46

* See Fig. 6-20 for definitions o* times.

Corrections from Uphole Times. Where the weathering correction

does not require high precision at each detector position, considerable
time can be saved if the correction is made directly from uphole times
rather than from the first arrivals on the individual reflection traces.
The time necessary for the wave to travel vertically from the shot to
an uphole detector on the surface is the same as would be required for
a reflection to travel vertically upward from the level of the shot to the
same detector. Where the shot is below the weathered layer, subtraction
of this " uphole time" from the reflection time effectively puts the
detector in consolidated material at the level of the shot. By subtracting
twice the time corresponding to vertical travel (at the speed of the sub-
weathering material) between the shot position and the datum, both
shot and detector can be effectively placed on the datum plane, as shown
in Fig. 6-20. Since most of the detectors in a spread are not located
directly over shot holes but between them, it would be necessary to
distribute the correction uniformly over the detectors lying between
adjacent shots approximate corrections were desired for the individual
if

traces. Conventionally,
however, only the reflection times at the
detectors nearest the shot are mapped so that uphole corrections can be
applied to these times with all necessary precision.
 '

THE SEISMIC REFLECTION METHOD 129

By way comparison between the refraction and uphole weathering

of
techniques, should be pointed out that the refraction method is actually
it

less precise than the uphole method. The speed in the weathered
material is quite variable and difficult to measure accurately; yet the
reliability of the refraction determination depends on whether this is
known precisely. The uphole method automatically takes care of the
time spent in the weathered zone regardless of its speed as long as the
shot is beneath the weathering. If, however, there is low-speed material

below the shot, this method cannot yield an adequate correction.

S.P.I S.R2
e
" '""V
A B
iy / / / / f ////// r
i
/ > S '
/ / s / />•; 77 / /St /*"F ?/?////?
i
Weathered
I fl2

4 \ layer —_Jo_ 37l

JL
yt
d_ — Datum p/ane

Fig. 6-20. Use of uphole times for weathering corrections.

Tuhi is time up hole at S.P. 1.

Tuhz is time up hole at S.P. 2.

e is surface elevation above sea level (assumed the same for shot and detector).
hi is depth of shot.

d is datum elevation above sea level.

Ca is correction to datum in time of reflection from S.P. 1 received at A.
Cb is correction to datum in time of reflection from S.P. 1 received at 8.

CA = Tuhi 2(e — fci — cO/Vl

+
Cb = T uh2 + [(e - h, - d) + (e - h2 - d)}/V 1 .

Corrections at points between A and 8 are interpolated.

6-7. Plotting and Mapping of Reflection Data

After reflections are picked on the records and their times are cor-
rected for elevation and weathering, the corrected data are transferred
and maps.
to cross sections
The question of whether reflection data should be presented for ulti-
mate use in time or in depth is controversial; the matter is discussed
further in the next chapter.
Time Cross Sections. Two approaches are used in plotting reflection
data on time cross sections. The most common procedure is to plot
only " center-trace" times. These are the times picked on the two
traces from the respective detector groups nearest the shot and on oppo-
site sides. The average of the two times for each reflection is plotted
at the shot-point position. The points thus plotted for adjacent shot
130 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
SpU033$ Ul 9<JUIJ[

CM *0
CJ o* o c> cJ c5 o % d7 — — —'^P> — — *V —
1

CO

cO

is

a.
to

Q-
co

CM oo o o
—
— CM fO
s&
C> c$
spuooag ui suijx
THE SEISMIC REFLECTION METHOD 131

SpU003$ UJ 9LUIJ.
O ~ <M

if CO
5*
CO

«
1
CO
C
fl) t
E o
u
§>
2 i

K
CO co
S5
$
V i/5

a E

c 5
a> a>
u a>

.2. *

+- o Q.
C 4)

O 9- b
1 NO !8
i- I 5
I l§ ^1 o

I-

Spu009CJ Ui 3LJJIJL

a* ~
. c
,- O
S3 V

U E
132 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

points are connected by straight lines as shown in Fig. 6-21. All the

traces are used, of course, to establish the correlation but times between
the center traces are not actually plotted.
A less frequent procedure is " trace-by-trace plotting," where reflection
times from all traces, or sometimes alternate traces, are plotted at the
reflecting point positions (midway between shot and detector) as shown
in Fig. 6-22. When no made for normal moveout,
correction has been
the plotted times appear to lie along arcs which are convex upward and
straddle the shot positions symmetrically. The availability of corrected

S.P S.P S.P. s.p

A B c D
*t<- ->+*:-
^r<-
From shof A From shof B From shof C ^From shof O
^T— — -7T-4^-i-_ 0.400 0.504
0.2
0.4
" ^-r-—^~*
0.6
.••*•"
•
.
"" -""^".-77 TT ^~- ,_
t _

" *
-
'^
"
* • . — - "- ^^" —
-!
"^"^
-^-~ _^_—
TTi TO
0.8

1.0
I

-« 1,200'— ->
Fig. 6-22. Trace-by-trace plot of reflection times as observed directly on record. Times are plotted
at mid-point positions. Dashed lines connect up center-point times.

record sections, to be discussed in the following paragraphs, has made

this type of plotted section rather obsolete.
Record Sections. When seismic data are recorded on magnetic tape it
is possible to transform the records themselves into cross sections in

which traces are individually corrected by time shifting for elevation,

weathering, and normal moveout. These sections are available in
several forms. The most widely used t}^pe consists effectively of " wiggly
lines," as on conventional records, lined up in sequence along the profile
(Fig. 6-23). Two variations of this type of presentation are available:
(1) " clipped" traces where the peaks and troughs having an amplitude
greater than a predetermined value are cut off, leaving the stronger
cycles open at the topand bottom, and (2) " folded" traces in which the
parts of the trace that would extend beyond the limiting levels are
shifted back, more than once if necessary, into the zone between these
levels. With the folded arrangement, the higher amplitude portions of
the cycle "nest" in the lower amplitude portions. Both of these vari-
ations have the advantage that successive traces cannot cross one
another regardless of their amplitudes.
Another type of record section presents each trace in the form of a
variable-density filmstrip 10 in which the peaks on the conventional
record appear as black and the troughs as white. Various shades of
THE SEISMIC REFLECTION METHOD 133

gray represent amplitude levels in between. Sections are also available

as variable-area film recordings, in which the widths of the black and
white portions of the films are proportional to the signal intensity.
Figure 6-24 is a comparison of corrected record sections made from
the same set of magnetic tapes with a number of the newer recording
techniques.
Corrected record sections have several advantages. In the first place,
the geophysicist is able to interpret his data more easily if he can visualize
them over several miles at a time rather than being limited to a view
covering only a quarter-mile or so at a time, as he is with individual
records. In conventional interpretation it is usually not possible to
think in terms of an over-all structural picture until the reflection data
from the records are plotted. Record sections make this possible at an
earlier stage of the interpretation.
A closely related advantage of record sections is that marginal data
of a quality too poor to be considered for plotting on conventional cross
sections are preserved on the record sections and often turn out to be
significant when viewed on a broader scale. A consistent trend of dips
is important regardless of quality and must be taken into account in an

interpretation. Variable density and variable area record sections are

particularly good for detecting such trends.
Still another advantage is the fact that all the reflection information

from a project can be presented in a form that can be put into a report,
or filed, compactly. It is never feasible to plot everything on a con-
ventional section and the choice of what to plot must therefore involve
judgment and the possibility of error. Moreover, any later review is
much easier if the individual records do not have to be handled.
In applying record sections to exploration, there are certain hazards
that should be kept in mind. Where dips are steep, for example, it is
easy to lose sight of the fact that the reflection events have not been
migrated, so that the picture may be far from a true spatial representa-
tion. In areas of faulting, diffraction patterns from fault edges might
be interpreted by the unwary as reflections. Actually, such patterns
should be most valuable for detecting faults but when they are not
recognized as such, they may be more of a liability than an asset. In
the section shown in Fig. 6-25, made in the Canadian foothills, the two
diffraction patterns might easily be interpreted as flanks of an anticline.
Depth Cross Sections. The conversion from time to depth is usually
made when values from time cross sections are transferred to maps.
However, where dips are steep or structures complex it is most advisable
to construct sections where the time data are converted to depth and
migrated from their apparent positions to their true positions in space.
In technically disturbed areas, as illustrated in Fig. 6-26, the sub-
134 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

surface reflecting points are not generally below the shot points. Instead,
they are displaced to the side by an amount depending on the dip, the
depth, and the velocity. The diagram shows how reflections from
opposite limbs of a syncline can appear as two conflicting dip segments

----IIII[IJIIIJIillll lllllll 1 ll III

T
~~- "•%" '-'--''• ' '---V-i V'~'C' '^ii^pZ- ^^^z .' .'."
/^^f-x^, - J - ^^. "-?' 'C
a
^i' r~ - r-<^":-* '< "J: *.-;'"'
'^'-^^fe'
'-

&S^~

,. _ j£z* •

^/^0-:^^^
;
,
'-'•
^ ;
^^^^fe=:

V-

Fig. 6-23. A
corrected record section from the foothills of Alberta made by playback of 10 magnetic
mi
tapes recorded along profile across strike. (Canadian Magnetic Reduction, Ltd.)

when plotted vertically below a reflection spread located over the syn-
clinal axis.
Migration Methods. A number of techniques are used for migrating
reflectionson cross sections and for migrating reflection contours on
maps. The choice of technique for a particular area will depend on a
number of factors but it will be governed mainly by the extent of available
information on velocities and the nature of the velocity function itself.
1. Swinging Arm Method. When the velocity distribution is such
that one can assume a constant average velocity V throughout the
 THE SEISMIC REFLECTION METHOD

(b)

Fig. 6-24 Alternative modes of presenting corrected section shown in Fig. 6-23. (a) Variable-
dens,ty. (fa) Variable-area, (c) Clipped trace. (Coned/on Magnetic Reduction, Ltd.)
13c" INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

section, the dip angle a for a reflection event can be determined from
7
the difference AT in reflection times observed at adjacent shot points a
distance x apart by the formula

= FA7
7

sin a
2x

The geometry is shown in Fig. 6-27. The reflection times at the shot

Fig. 6-25. Portion of a variable-density record section from Alberta foothills showing apparent dif-
fraction patterns, probably from faulted edges of reflecting beds.

points are usually interpolated between times at the nearest detectors

on opposite sides.
With a determined, the reflection segment can be located in the
proper position on the cross section by drawing a line through the shot
point at an angle of a with the vertical. A perpendicular to this line
drawn at a distance VT A /2 from the shot point represents the location
of the reflection segment, as shown in Fig. 6-28.
 —
THE SEISMIC REFLECTION METHOD 137

^ Surface B

/
True locotions True locotions
of reflecting of reflecting
points points

Apparent reflecting point

positions when plotted vertically
below reflection spreads

Fig. 6-26. Distortion of true structure when reflections are not migrated, as illustrated by spread
straddling axis of syncline.

In practice a swinging straightedge with a protractor at one end (Fig.

6-29) is often employed for migration of this type. The device is pivoted
through the center of the protractor
at the shot-point position on the
cross For each reflection
section.
with dip a and time T A it is swung ,

an angle a from the vertical and the

segment is drawn in along the top
of the triangle at time T A on the
scale. A more versatile device for
Fig. 6-27. Measurement of dip angle by taking
doing this has been patented by
difference of reflection times at adjacent shot
11
McGuckin. points.

2. Wavefront Charts. When the

velocity can be expressed as a linear function of depth or of time,
reflections can be migrated more accurately by use of charts which
represent the true position in space of the wavefronts which are involved.

F H
WOO' i
/

Phanhm
wook ^J -
horizop
J-

Fig. 6-28. Offset diagram showing positions of reflecting interfaces and phantom horizon in plane of
profile.
138 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

Figure 6-30 illustrates such a chart for a velocity which is a linear func-
tion of depth. As shown in Chap. 5, the ray paths for this function at
successive time intervals are nonconcentric circles, the centers and radius
depending on the constants vo and k of the velocity function, v = ^o + kz
(see p. 78). In addition to the set of ray paths, there is an orthogonal set
of circles representing wavefronts which have their centers vertically
below the shot point.

Segment drawn along

top of triongie

Fig. 6-29. Swinging arm and protractor for migrating reflections where constant average velocity is

assumed.

In plotting reflections with the chart one uses the reflection time at
the shot point and the moveout time AT over a standard distance such
as 1,000 ft. The semitransparent graph paper on which the migrated
segments are plotted is so superimposed on the chart that the vertex of
the ray paths is at the shot-point position for the record being migrated.
The time of the reflection (at the center of the record) is located along
the wavefront circles and the position along the circle is determined from
the ray path corresponding to the moveout time. A straightedge is
aligned on a tangent to the wavefronts at the point so specified and the
reflection segment is drawn along this line. Musgrave 12 gives a compre-
hensive discussion of wavefront charts in general and describes a mechan-
ical device he has designed for drawing wavefront and ray-path curves
for a velocity function that is linear with time on the record.
3. Resolved-time Method. For areas where the velocity cannot be
expressed as a linear function of depth or time or where the velocity
THE SEISMIC REFLECTION METHOD 139

function not known, a migration technique devised by Rice 13 is con-

is

venient. Designated as the resolved-time method, this technique involves

the plotting of reflections in time and the representation of horizontal
distances along the section in equivalent time units (obtained by dividing

r—
REFLECTION WAVE FRONT CHART
for
P
V=VQ +kz

Fig. 6-30. Typical wavefront chart for linear increase of velocity with depth. Both wavefronts and
ray paths are circular. [After Musgrave, Quart. Colo. School Mines, 1952.)

the true horizontal distance by the " sub weathering" velocity as deter-
mined from Once this transformation of the coordi-
first-arrival times) .

nate system is made, the migration is accomplished by swinging arcs of

reflection times from successive shot points and drawing lines which are
tangent to the respective arcs for the same events from adjacent shot
points. For the final mapping of migrated horizons in depth, the times
are recorded directly beneath the shot points. These times are con-
verted to depths by using the best available velocity information.
4. Migration of Contours. It is often expedient to plot unmigrated
reflection times on a map, to migrate the contours of these times, and
140 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

then to convert the time contours to depth contours. Hagedoorn 14 has

proposed a technique for doing this by use of special charts which he has
constructed for velocities which are linear functions of depth or time.
The technique is rather complex and the reader is referred to Hagedoorn's

paper for information on actual procedures.

In the method generally employed, the contours based on unmigrated
values are transferred to cross sections along a number of lines arbi-
trarily drawn across the map and the horizon thus drawn is migrated on
each section by a convenient technique.
The horizons thus migrated are put on
another map and new contours are drawn.
Detection of Faulting on Cross Sections.
It is sometimes possible to detect faulting
from individual records, particularly when
a good reflection shows a sudden shift in
alignment between traces that cannot be
explained by surface irregularities. It is

usually easier, however, to map faults from

a plotted cross section or a record section.
Faults can be recognized on sections in sev-
eral ways. Breaks in the continuity of var-
ious reflections which fall along an inclined
Fig. 6-31. Profile showing distor- line across the section are often diagnostic.
tions in seismic reflection segments
Faults are shown sometimes by discontinui-
attributed to Gulf Coast faulting.
[United Geophysical Co.) ties in dip which line up diagonally across the
section as shown in Fig. 6-31. These dis-
continuities may
be particularly pronounced for thrust faulting in
technically disturbed areas, mainly because of drag effects. In areas
of normal faulting, such as the Gulf Coast 15 or Venezuela, 16 the breaks
in dip can sometimes be attributed to distortions of seismic velocity in
the neighbourhood of the faulting itself.
Diffraction. Often faulting can be recognized and mapped from dif-
fraction patterns which originate from fault edges (see Fig. 6-25). As
pointed out in Chap. 2 (page 27), any such edge may act as a point
source which will return seismic waves to the surface. The diffracted
waves can be distinguished from reflections by the constantly increasing
moveout with increasing distance from the point on the surface directly
above the source.
Frequently diffraction events are observed where a reflection that
has been followed continuously for some distance terminates. The line
representing the reflection on a time-distance curve, after having been
relatively straight over a number of records, turns downward and ends
after describing part of an arc that is concave downward.
THE SEISMIC REFLECTION METHOD 141

When diffractions are recognized on records, the fault edge can be

plotted directly below the point on the surface where the shortest time
is recorded and at the depth corresponding to the travel time at this
point.

AT -0.017 sec,
T -1.057 sec.
Tv - 1.042 sec.
Y - 958 ft
1-5410H:
Dip -219 ft./1000 ft
Fig. 6-32. Use of chart to determine true dip from two dip components making arbitrary angle with

one another. (Geophysical Service, Inc.)

Mapping of Reflection Data. Where reflections on a time or depth

cross section are not continuous over an area, it is often desirable to con-
struct a " phantom" horizonwhich is kept parallel to the nearest dip
segments everywhere along the profile (see Fig. 6-28). This horizon
may be mapped in the same way as an actual reflection. A phantom
142 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

horizon should close around a loop just as a real reflection event. If

there is a misclosure, faulting is suspected.

Ordinarily depths or times are entered on maps only at shot points.
Where dips are steep, however, the true reflection points may not be in
the vertical plane of the profile but offset to one side. This is because
the reflection path is always perpendicular to the inclined reflecting sur-

face at the point of reflection. Unless the profile is perpendicular to

be a component of dip normal to the plane of the profile.
strike, there will
In disturbed areas where strike direction is not yet established, it is
desirable to shoot in two directions, usually at right angles, from as many
shot points as possible. The magnitude and direction of the dip and
the adjustment of slant depths to vertical values at the true reflecting
position can be calculated by simple trigonometry or by a polar dip
chart such as that illustrated in Fig. 6-32. Step-out times along lines
A and B are plotted from the center on the radial scale. Perpendiculars
are drawn from the end of each line. The step-out time in the direction
of net dip is located where the perpendiculars intersect. The magnitude
of the dip is calculated from this step-out time, and the depth point is
offset, in the direction of the intersection, a distance indicated by the

chart. In the example shown in Fig. 6-32, the offset distance is 958 ft
and the correction for converting slant time to vertical time is 0.015 sec.
The final reflection map should ideally be comparable to any sub-
surface contour map. Because of various uncertainties, this ideal is
never actually attained. The horizon mapped will be based on a single
seismic reflection only where long-distance correlation is possible ; other-
wise it will be a phantom horizon.
In some cases only dip values, repre-
sented by arrows emanating from the scattered shot points, are presented
on the map. A number of typical seismic maps will be reproduced with
the case histories in Chap. 19.

6-8. Multiple Reflections and "Ghosts"

Often reflections are observed so late on records that they appear to

come from some distance below the top of the basement. Although
there no reason to believe that seismic waves cannot be reflected by
is

interfaces within the basement itself, it is often possible to show from

moveouts and apparent velocities that these late events have been multi-
ply reflected within the sedimentary section, as indicated in Fig. 6-33.
The paths for such reflections are longer than for simple reflections from
the same interface, since the energy is reversed in direction at least two
more times. Normally, only surfaces with unusually high reflection
coefficients can give rise to discernible multiple events in this way. The
base of the weathered zone generally has a much higher reflection coef-
 — '

THE SEISMIC REFLECTION METHOD 143

ficient than any deeper interfaces; for this reason, most multiple reflec-
tions have taken the path shown on the left side of Fig. 6-33 with the
downward reflection from the weathering base rather than the earth's
surface. In either case, the first multiple of a reflection would be
observed on the record at approximately twice the time of the original
reflection from the same interface. Also, any dip in the original reflection
would usually appear to be doubled if the upper reflector is flat.
Multiple reflections are significant because of the spurious information
they may yield when their true nature is not recognized. Their false
dips can distort structural pictures in tectonically disturbed areas; more-
over, the character
events can be distorted by super-
of primary
&* Def '
W Pet Shof Pet.
imposed multiples. For these \ A A A / \ A I lA A Af
reasons it is desirable to have some 1 / WWW 1 l\ , T n l\ fi

criteria for identifying multiple

1/1/1/ if \A/ lA/ 1/ \l \

reflections. Dix 9
has shown how U U U U

these events can be recognized by ^—V^ —

VV VV
— —V^V V >

use of the special expanding spreads

^Subsurface reflectors '-

P i •, i i x- i -i_ i Fig* 6-33. Three types of multiple reflections.

for velocity determination described E//sW/) G Jophy ,IC5/ 948
{After , .)

earlier in this chapter (page 122).

Interval velocities computed for multiples will be conspicuously out of
line with those for reflections in the same time region on the records.
The January, 1948, issue of Geophysics contains 11 papers presented
at a symposium on multiple reflections sponsored by the Society of
Exploration Geophysicists in 1946. The first paper of this symposium,
by Ellsworth, 17 describes a study of multiple reflections in the Sacra-
mento Valley of California where a high-speed basalt layer 2,000 ft
below the surface was apparently responsible for repeated multiple
reflections from interfaces at greater depths.
A special type of multiple reflection which is probably of more general
concern is the " ghost" reflection. This is the reflection which takes
place when the energy traveling upward from the shot is reflected down-
ward by the base of the weathered zone or by the earth's surface. The
reflected pulse follows the primary downgoing pulse by a time interval
determined by the depth of the shot below the weathering (or the free
surface) and the velocity of the material above the shot (Fig. 6-34). For
normal shooting depths this interval will range from 0.010 to 0.020 sec.
The amplitude of the " ghost" event is lower than that of the primary
signal by an amount determined by the reflection coefficient, which at
the base of the weathered zone is generally greater than 50 per cent.
Also, the reflected pulse will be opposite in phase to the primary pulse.
The source impulse reflected at depth may thus consist of a positive
pressure pulse followed after an interval of tens of milliseconds by a
144 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

somewhat weaker but similar negative event. The character of the

reflected signal willbe influenced greatly by the time interval between
the two parts of the source signal, which is in turn dependent on shot
depth. If the shot depth is changed, the character of the reflection may

change because of the difference in the waveform of the source signal

when the primary reflection and its " ghost"become farther apart or
closer together. Because of this change in character, it is often difficult

Shot
point

Weathered zone

Time lag r between

direct impulse and
"ghost" is
2[L-t)
Ghost
reflection V\

Composite wove
form
Fig. 6-34. "Ghost" reflection from base of weathering.

to correlate reflections between adjacent shot points when the depth of

the shot below the weathered zone varies from one shot hole to the next.
Some techniques for eliminating ghost effects using primacord or
columnar charges are discussed by Van Melle and Weatherburn 18 and
by Musgrave, Ehlert, and Nash. 19

6-9. Shot and Detector Patterns

Earlier in this chapter, it was shown how multiple detectors properly

spaced would discriminate against horizontally traveling noise waves
and reinforce vertically traveling reflections. For a long time after
multiple phones were introduced, little effort was made by most com-
panies to adjust the number and spacing of the phones to the actual
characteristics of the noise in any particular area. Generally, a standard
configuration was used for all shooting; this might work in most locations
 1

THE SEISMIC REFLECTION METHOD 45

but when it did not yield good reflections the area was considered to be
intrinsically "NR" (no reflection).
Over the past decade, the problem of designing noise-reducing patterns
has been approached more scientifically by many companies. The
mathematical theory of continuous-wave directivity, long used by engi-
neers designing radio antennas, has been applied to seismic prospecting

l.U

il

II
0.8
1

i
/
I /
I
/
l
/
/
*„06 1
J^
o
0)
i 1 f
I
/
<u

CD
>
i

i
/ /
/

i
1
1 0.4 i
t/
i
i
7
0.3
I
1
ii
i 1

0.2
i

i
( /
'' 7
K
\
§1
~7
1

w
,

1
\ /
1

0.1 iv r \ /
A N 1 / \
\
Y \ /

/
/ \ i l
\
/ \ \
/ \ / \ \ /
h W ) \ f > /
1.5 2 3 6 4 7 8 5 9 10 15 20
Ratio of wave length to spacing X/£> ,

Fig. 6-35. Noise cancellation curves for five

and eight geophones in group. Relative response
referred to wave having wavelength X
would be recorded from a single geophone. To illus-
as it

trate use of curve, suppose eight phones of group were spaced 20 ft apart. For wavelength of
100 ft, X/D = 5; chart shows that only 20 per cent of original wave amplitude is recorded by the
system. [After Parr and Mayne, Geophysics, 1955.)

with a success that has often been striking. One of the first to suggest
this application in the literature was Johnson. 20 More recent discus-
sions may be found in papers by Lombardi 21 and by Parr and Mayne. 22
These principles are employed to design geophone patterns and also
patterns for multiple shots, the theory being identical for each. They
hold not only for unidirectional noise along a line directly from the shot
but also for noise coming from the side of this line. They are applied
whenever the noise is coherent, i.e., where individual wave cycles retain
their identity over substantial distances and can be followed as such.
When the noise is incoherent, or random, the theory is not applicable and
a different approach is necessary.
146 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

Figure 6-35 shows some typical cancellation curves for geophone

groups consisting of five and eight phones per group. The abscissa is
the ratio of noise wavelength to phone spacing (distance between
phones). The ordinate is the cancellation expressed as the ratio
between the total output of the group at the indicated spacing to the
output if all the phones were huddled together. With directivity
curves of this type and with information on the wavelengths of the
interfering noise, it is possible to determine the number of phones per
trace and the separation between phones that should give adequate
noise cancellation.
In applying such curves, thefirst step is to measure the actual range

of wavelengths in the noise over the area being studied. This is done
most simply by making a record from a detector spread several hundred
feet from the shot with the phones (one per trace) 5 or 10 ft apart. Noise
waves will generally show up on such a record as events with such large
moveouts (low velocities) that they could not be reflections. The wave-
length of such events is computed by multiplying their observed velocities

by their periods as measured on the record.

The procedure for computing areal (two-dimensional) patterns to
cancel noise waves which travel at oblique angles with a line from the
shot is similar in principle to that for noise which radiates directly from
the shot point. The preliminary noise recording with closely spaced
phones should use two detector spreads, one in line with, the other per-
pendicular to, the radius from the shot.
The techniques for designing areal shot and detector patterns are
beyond the scope of this chapter. "Reynolds 23 describes a " spoke and
wheel" technique of pattern design which has worked out successfully
in many areas. McKay 24 has published a large collection of sample
records showing the improvement in reflection quality that is possible
with elaborate two-dimensional shooting and receiving patterns.
Where the noise is incoherent and traveling events cannot be followed
between geophones only a few feet apart, cancellation techniques of the
type described will not be effective. Statistically, purely random noise
can be reduced by a factor proportional to y/n, where n is the number
of detectors in the group irrespective of spacing. Where m shots are
used along with the n phones per trace, the improvement in signal-to-
noise ratio is proportional to \/mn.
This means that 100 phones per
trace will only reduce noise about three times as much as 10 phones per
trace. Yet in some areas, such as the Sahara Desert or in west Texas,
where there is a high level of incoherent noise, the only way that reflec-
tions can be recorded is to use very many shot holes and very many
phones per trace. Patterns of 48 shots and 36 phones in a star pattern
for each trace are not unusual in west Texas and much larger patterns
have been used for recent work in the Sahara region. 25
THE SEISMIC REFLECTION METHOD 147

REFERENCES

1. Born, W. T.: Notes on the Use of Multiple Shot Holes and Multiple Geophones,
presented at Dallas convention of Society of Petroleum Geophysicists, Nov. 29,
1935.
2. Klipsch, Paul W.: Some Aspects of Multiple Recording in Seismic Prospecting,
Geophysics, Vol. pp. 365-377, 1936.
1,

3. Stulken, E. J.: Seismic Velocities in the Southeastern San Joaquin Valley of

California, Geophijsics, Vol. 6, pp. 327-355, 1941.
4. Vogel, C. B.: A Seismic Velocity Logging Method, Geophysics, Vol. 17, pp. 586-
597, 1953.
5. Summers, G. C., and R. A. Broding: Continuous Velocity Logging, Geophysics,
Vol. 17, pp. 598-614, 1953.
6. Green, Cecil H.: Velocity Determination by Means of Reflection Profiles, Geo-
physics, Vol. 3, pp. 295-305, 1938.
7. Gardner, L. W. : Vertical Velocities from Reflection Shooting, Geophysics, Vol. 12,
pp. 221-228, 1947.
8. Steele, W. E., Jr.: Comparison of Well Survey and Reflection " Time-Delta
Time" Velocities, Geophysics, Vol. 6, pp. 370-377, 1941.
9. Dix, C. H.: Seismic Velocities from Surface Measurements, Geophysics, Vol. 20,
pp. 68-86, 1955.
10. Palmer, E. M.: The Gulf Seismic Profile Printer, Geophysics, Vol. 22, pp. 286-308,
1957.
11. McGuckin, G. M.: U.S. Patent No. 2,535,220.
12. Musgrave, A. W. Wavefront Charts and Raypath
: Plotters, Quart. Colo. School
Mines, Vol. 47, No. 4, 60 pp., 1952.
13. Rice, R. B.: New Seismic Computing Method Fast and Efficient, World Oil,
Vol. 137, No. 2, pp. 93-98, 104, 1953; Additional Notes on the Resolved Time
Computing Method, Geophysics, Vol. 20, pp. 104-122, 1955.
14. Hagedoorn, J. G.: A Process of Seismic Reflection Interpretation, Geophysical
Prospecting, Vol. 21, pp. 85-127, 1954.
15. Quarles, Miller, Jr.: Fault Interpretation in Southwest Texas, Geophysics, Vol. 15,
pp. 462-476, 1950.
16. Laubscher, H. P.: Structural and Seismic Deformations along Normal Faults in
the Eastern Venezuelan Basin, Geophysics, Vol. 21, pp. 368-387, 1956.
17. Ellsworth, T. P.: Multiple Reflections, Geophysics, Vol. 13, pp. 1-18, 1948.
18. Van Melle, F. A., and K. A. Weatherburn Ghost Reflections Caused by Energy
:

Initially Reflected Below the Level of the Shot, Geophysics, Vol. 18, pp. 793-804,
1953.
19. Musgrave, A. W., G. W. Ehlert, and D. M. Nash Jr.: Directivity Effect of Elon-
gated Charges, Geophysics, Vol. 28, pp. 81-96, 1958.
20. Johnson, C. H.: Steady State Polar Sensitivity Curves, Geophysics, Vol. 4, pp.
33-52, 1939.
21. Lombardi, L. V.: Notes on the Use of Multiple Geophones, Geophysics, Vol. 20,
pp. 215-226, 1955.
22. Parr, J. O., Jr., and W. H. Mayne: A New Method of Pattern Shooting, Geo-
physics, Vol. 20, pp. 539-564, 1955.
23. Reynolds, F. F. : Design Factors for Multiple Arrays of Geophones and Shot
Holes, Oil Gas J., Apr. 19, 1954, pp. 145-146, 195.
24. McKay, A. E.: Review of Pattern Shooting, Geophysics, Vol. 19, pp. 420-437,
1954.
25. Pieuchot, M., and H. Richard: Some Technical Aspects of Reflection Seismic
Prospecting in the Sahara, Geophysics, Vol. 23, pp. 557-573, 1958.
 CHAPTER 7

INTERPRETATION AND GEOLOGIC COORDINATION

OF REFLECTION DATA

In preceding chapters we have seen how reflection records are obtained

in the field and how one transforms the information on them into cross
sections or contour maps. Often these operations require considerable
skill and ingenuity, but in the last analysis they are largely routine. In
this chapter, we shall consider the next step, the application of geological
information to the geophysical data in order to arrive at a final picture
that integrates all available evidence to best advantage.

7-1. The Meaning of Interpretation

The interpretation of reflection data, properly speaking, involves its

expression in geologic terms. When competently carried out, it requires
the fitting together of all pertinent geological and geophysical informa-
tion into an integrated picture that is more complete and more reliable
than either source is likely to give alone. Ideally, this integration would
be accomplished most efficiently if it were done by a single person highly
competent both in geophysics and in geology. In actual practice,
individuals with adequate training and experience in both fields are very
few and it is usually necessary for a geophysicist and a geologist to col-
laborate at this stage of the interpretation.
The mechanics may vary considerably from one
of this collaboration
organization to another. At one extreme, the geophysicist would turn
out, as his final product, maps or sections (usually in time) which have
been prepared without the benefit of geological information as the
"objective" representation of physical measurements. The geologist
would take over the material in this form and apply all pertinent geo-
logical data to draw up a final geological picture that incorporates all
sources of information.For this to work out well, the geologist must
have an intimate knowledge of geophysics, so that he will understand
allthe implications of the geophysical data. At the other extreme, the
geophysicist constructs the final integrated picture using information
148
INTERPRETATION AND GEOLOGIC COORDINATION OF REFLECTION DATA 149

and often ideas furnished by the geologist. If this arrangement is to

yield good results, the geophysicist must have an exceptionally good
working knowledge of geology, since he must be able to apply the infor-
mation and evaluate the ideas he has obtained from the geologist during
the course of his integration. In still another approach, the geologist
and geophysicist work closely together as a team to produce a picture
which represents the product of their combined efforts.
It is seldom, in actual exploration work, that the collaboration takes
any of the simple forms that have just been outlined. In most com-
panies, the procedures used in practice follow a pattern that lies some-
where in between the arrangements we have noted. Regardless of the
administrative organization, the coordination should take full advantage
of all the potentialities of geophysics. It is most difficult to do this if
the geophysicist does not have access to all geological information during
the course of his work or if he cannot play an active part in the piecing
together of the final coordinated picture. Any plan which requires that
the geophysicist's final product be " objective" time maps or sections
untied to geological controls such as well tops or outcrops will severely
and unnecessarily limit the benefits which should be derivable from geo-
physical maps.
Coordination of geological information with reflection data is a two-
way process. Using geological data, the geophysicist can generally
decrease the number of unknowns with which he must work and thus
should have a better chance of arriving at a unique solution of those that
remain. Also, the geologist benefits from a final picture that is tied
at the onset to known geological controls and fills in the gaps to the full
extent that the art of seismic prospecting allows.

7-2. The Origin of Reflections

To attain the best possible integration of the two types of information,

the interpreter, whether a geologist or geophysicist, should understand
the basic principles behind the reflection process as it takes place in
the earth. Specifically, he must know how and where the reflections
originate.
In our study (page 24-26) of physical principles basic to the reflection
process,we confined our consideration to the simple case of an interface
separating two indefinitely thick layers having different velocities and
densities. This pictureis ideal for illustrating the basic optics of reflec-

tion, but it isa rather inadequate model for the reflection of seismic
waves as it actually takes place in the earth. Sedimentary formations
way that the lithology may change significantly
are stratified in such a
every few feet or even every few inches. Accompanying the lithologic
150 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

changes are changes in elastic properties. Since a reflection will originate

at each interface across which the elastic constants change, it is evident

that the reflection process in the earth is a complicated phenomenon

indeed.
Velocity Stratification in Sediments. The continuous velocity log,
developed during the early 1950's, makes it easy to visualize how interval
velocity varies with depth within the
Velocity,
sedimentary section. Figure 7-1 shows
thousond ft/sec
8 1012 16 20 a typical velocity log from Randall
County, Tex. Minor variations in
velocity are observed every few feet
Depth, ft while major breaks (of several thousand
6400 — feet per second) occur at intervals
ranging from than 10 ft to about
less
140 ft. The average wavelength of a
6500
seismic reflection as observed on a
record would be about 300 ft through
6600 Length of this portion of the section. Since each
typical
interface across which the velocity
seismic
wove in changes is the source of a reflection
6700 eorth
(with a strength depending on the
amount of velocity contrast) it is evi-

6800 dent that many reflections will take

place within a depth interval corre-
sponding to a wavelength. When re-
6900 corded at the surface these events will
be superimposed on one another, with

7000 — individual time delays corresponding to

the depth of the particular reflecting
Fig. 7-1. Typical continuous velocity log
from Randall County, Tex. (After Summers
surface involved. Also, reflections from
and Broding, Geophysics, 1952.) interfaces where the velocity increases
will be reversed in phase with respect to
those from interfaces across which it decreases. In some cases the separa-
tions of the interfaces will be such that the component events will reinforce
one another and yield a strong reflection. In others, the individual reflec-
tions of equal strength will be so spaced that they will interfere with
each other and no reflection will be observed on the record at all. Thus
a seismic reflection should be looked upon as an interference pattern
made up of impulses from many sources spread over hundreds of feet
rather than as a simple event originating from a single lithological inter-
face. When the separations (in time) or relative strengths of the indi-
vidual reflections change, we should expect the character of the resultant
reflection event on the record to change also. Model experiment* illus-
INTERPRETATION AND GEOLOGIC COORDINATION OF REFLECTION DATA 151

trating this process in a simple but convincing way have been performed
by Woods. 1
His paper is recommended to all who work with seismic
reflection data.
Seismogram Synthesis. The dependence of the reflection pattern upon
the layering in the earth can be graphically demonstrated by seismogram
synthesis. This process produces an artificial reflection record from a
continuous velocity log or an electric log. The earliest synthetic seismo-
grams were produced by an optical device developed by United Geo-
physical Corp. and described by Peterson et al. 2 With this system the
log is converted from a depth scale to a time scale and is run through a
scanning device that transforms the fluctuations on the log into electrical
impulses which vary with time so as to simulate reflections. These
impulses are passed through appropriate filters and are then recorded
on an oscillograph in the same way as signals from a geophone. Corre-
spondence between the synthesized record and the actual seismic record
made over the well is quite good in many cases even though some of the
conditions which occur in nature (noise and multiple reflections, for
example) are not simulated in the synthesis. The technique is particu-
larly useful for showing the effect of small changes in velocity or layer
thickness upon the waveform of a reflection.
More recent procedures, such as those developed by Berryman et al.
3

and Wuenschel, take multiple reflections into account as well as changes

4

in waveform of the downgoing pulse as energy is removed by successive

upward reflections.

7-3. Geologic Aspects of the Reflection Process in the Earth

Resolution. The improved insight which the continuous velocity log

gives us into the origin of reflections points up the limitations of the
reflection method in yielding geological information. In the first place
there are intrinsic limits to the resolving power of the method. Discrete
reflections cannot be expected from interfaces less than a wavelength
apart, although a characteristic interference pattern made up of reflec-
tions closer together than this may
be identifiable on the seismic record.
Reflections from interfaces above and below a formation that is pinching
out lose their identity as individual events and merge with one another
well before the actual pinchout is reached. This effect is well demon-
strated in one of Woods's model experiments.
Reflections between Formation Tops. The concept of a seismic reflec-
tion as an interference pattern rather than as an event associated with
a single lithologic interface should clarify the common misconception
that reflections always come from formation tops. A comparison of
continuous velocity logs with electrical logs shows that within many
152 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

formations there are numerous lithological changes causing velocity

contrasts as great as those which may occur at boundaries separating
formations from one another. This is a frequent situation in a section
and shales although not so common in
consisting of a sequence of sands
carbonates, which tend to have more uniform velocities.
Lateral changes in velocity may explain why many reflections do not
persist for large distances. Continuity of reflections requires continuity
in physical properties. As elastic propertieschange or as various mem-
bers become thicker or thinner, a reflection should show changes in its
characteristic waveform, sometimes to the extent of disappearing. This

l y i
.Yi
'

mii.ro
i'.o i

1 1 1 1
r V
>\^<^)rro/t\\<)vo:^:":^^ .
r .i' j i
'

j
'

Fig. 7-2. Reflection of seismic waves at an erosional surface. Vertical bars represent vertical dis-
tances covered by a seismic wave at reflecting positions for each channel of a 12-trace record.
Erosional relief is generally not this great in nature.

can occur when a layering pattern yielding constructive interference of

individual reflections changes to such a degree that the interference
becomes destructive.
Erosional Surfaces. Some formation tops are surfaces of unconform-
ity; theformations themselves have been eroded by wind or water during
a period of exposure and then covered with more recent deposits. If
the erosional surface should cut the stratigraphic layering at an angle
of several degrees, as occasionally occurs, it is
not likely that such a
surface will yield a reflection at Figure 7-2 shows why. Here a all.

limestone and calcareous shale sequence has been eroded and shales and
sandstones have been subsequently deposited over the erosional surface.
The horizontal distance represents the subsurface coverage corresponding
to one seismic record; each vertical bar represents the thickness of section
corresponding to a single reflection cycle on the record. The reflection
actually observed is the interference pattern representing the summation
of all reflections from individual interfaces within this depth interval.
The erosional surface contributes one, but only one, of the individual
reflections making up the event observed on the record. Since this
reflection will move out differently from the individual events corre-
sponding to the stratigraphic interfaces, it would have to be very strong
INTERPRETATION AND GEOLOGIC COORDINATION OF REFLECTION DATA 153

indeed to be discernible over the characteristic pattern associated with

these other events.
Because the erosional surface cuts across the stratigraphic layering,
the pattern of vertical velocity variation, which governs the waveform
of any from the neighborhood of the unconformity, would be
reflections
expected to change in the horizontal direction. For this reason, a reflec-
tion which has been followed updip to the erosional surface would be
expected to end as the layers giving the reflections are truncated. In
some instances, the erosional surface may be identifiable on a record
section as the zone along which reflections consistently terminate.

Fig. 7-3. Reflection of seismic waves from zone of pinchout against unconformity. Poor resolution
of reflections expected because of lateral variation of interference patterns.

The same line of why reflection shooting

reasoning should explain
cannot be expected to detail erosional pinchouts precisely. Figure 7-3
shows an unconformity separating a sequence of dipping beds from a
sequence of horizontal ones. The angle of unconformity is exaggerated
over what would normally be expected in nature. Any event observed
on the record which is made up of individual reflections from opposite
sides of the unconformity will change in character from trace to trace
and will not be recognized as a correctable reflection. Only the waves
that originate entirely within the layers below the unconformity will
yield reflection events that can be followed across a record. Once these
waves pass far enough updip to cut into the overlying beds, the coherence
begins to disappear. Since the wavelength of a seismic event on the
record is of the order of 200 or 300 ft, the pinchout of individual reflecting
beds on opposite sides of the unconformity cannot be followed when the
beds are much closer together than this. For a 2° dip we would expect
a horizontal uncertainty of more than a mile in the location of the
pinchout.
This is why stratigraphic features of this type cannot generally be
mapped by the reflection technique to the precision that the petroleum
754 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

geologist requires. Recording higher frequencies would improve resolu-

tion but these frequencies tend to have more limited penetration and are
not usable in many areas.

7-4. Use of Velocity Information in Coordinating

Reflection Data with Geology

Reflection records can only be read in terms of times, i.e., the times
taken for seismic waves to travel from shot to reflecting formation and
back up to a detector at the surface. Yet the geologic structure we
deduce from such times has only an abstract significance until they are
converted to distances or depths. The conversion would be a simple
matter indeed if the velocity of seismic waves were constant both ver-
tically and horizontally. However, the velocity varies both with lateral
position and with depth, and much skill and experience are necessary to
construct the best possible subsurface picture from time data on records.
Seismic interpretation has been described as the process of solving for a
velocity distribution from data measured in terms of time, which must
be presented in geologic terms.
Some geophysicists prefer to present their final seismic cross sections
and maps in terms of time rather than depth on the grounds that the
time data are more objective and are not subject to change as new velocity
information becomes available. This point of view is based on a rather
narrow conception of the place of interpretation in geophysics.While
there are some circumstances under which time structure maps may be
justified (such as in areas where there is no velocity information what-
soever), it is in most cases better to construct an admittedly tentative
picture of geologic structure with sparse velocity data than to avoid the
conversion altogether because of incomplete control. The problem is
somewhat similar to that faced by the geologist doing surface mapping
in an area where outcrops are scarce. Except where observations are
extremely few, he would feel no compunction about interpolating his
information between actual data points and projecting it downward on
sections. He would not turn out a map consisting only of dip and strike
symbols where his measurements had actually been made. After all,
someone must transform the seismic data into depths before they can be
put to their ultimate use and it is better that the geophysicist do it than
someone else who may not have as good access to all the available velocity
information.
acknowledged that there are certain problems, notably
It is readily
which final representation of data in time is preferable.
reef location, for
Whenever the features being sought are associated with velocity changes
rather than depth changes, time anomalies will have more physical
INTERPRETATION AND GEOLOGIC COORDINATION OF REFLECTION DATA 155

significance than anomalies in depth. Generally, time intervals between

reflections, or isochrons, are more diagnostic of such features than abso-
lute times although fictitious structures beneath reefs due to velocity
pull-up may be significant.
Problems in Determining Velocities. Vertical variations in velocity
can be specified precisely at wells where velocity surveys have been
made, particularly where continuous velocity logs have been run along
with the conventional type. They can be also determined, with some-
what less precision, from seismic records obtained by special shooting
and recording techniques at the surface as described in the previous
chapter. Lateral velocity changes cannot be measured directly but they
can be readily inferred by comparing vertical velocities observed at
respective wells. In order to convert reflection time to depth at a loca-
tion between velocity surveys, one must interpolate between the various
well velocities. In most areas where there is no severe tectonic dis-
turbance, the velocity change will be fairly smooth, so that the interpo-
lation should be quite reliable. It is important that the lateral changes
be mapped as accurately as possible because the correct computation of
dips from differences in reflection time depends almost as much upon
the velocity gradient as it does on average velocity.
Even if only one velocity survey is available in an area, it is often
possible to make some provision for lateral velocity changes. Where the
shooting program is so laid out that reflections can be followed between
the well with the velocity survey and nearby wells which have electric
logs, velocities can often be contoured quite accurately over the entire
area. The feature on each electric log corresponding to the effective
source depth for a reflection at the surveyed well should show the source
of the same reflection when tied to the other wells. The depth of this
log feature divided by the time of the corresponding reflection on the
record shot over each well gives the average velocity to the feature at
that well.
A usable velocity-depth curve can be synthesized in a well where no
survey was run by geologic correlation with a nearby well from which
a survey is available. Electric log features corresponding to successive
geophone positions in the surveyed borehole are noted and correlated
with corresponding features on the logs from the other borehole. Except
where local lithologic changes are evident, interval velocities between
the correlative depths may be assumed to be the same in all the wells.
If the thicknesses of any of the formations change between wells, the

time-depth curves should change correspondingly. Figure 7-4 illustrates

the method.
Synthetic velocity curves of this type may not be reliable if there is
a substantial difference in the depths of corresponding formations in the
156
INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

respective wells. Interval velocities depend not only upon lithology but
also upon depth of burial and the same formation at a greater depth will
usually have a greater velocity. This effect has been studied sta-
tistically by Faust 5 for shales Using data from 500 well
and sandstones.
varies with depth and
surveys, he found empirically that the velocity
geologic age according to the formula V
= 125.3(ZT)* where V is
velocity in feet per second, Z is depth in feet, and T is the geologic age

Well No.1 Well No. 2

(with velocity (no velocity
survey) survey)

Time
vs.
depth
[observed)

Well Geophone positions

Fig. 7-4. Construction of synthetic time-depth curves by correlation of electric logs between wells.

estimated for the various geologic periods from radioactivity

in years as
data. From
this approximate relation the effect of small changes in
depth on interval velocity may be estimated where local data are not
mailable.
When velocity information, however derived, is available from a num-
ber of locations in the same area, the interpolation of velocities between
data points can be done in several ways. The simplest method is to
note the average velocities to the reflecting horizons at the various wells
or other control points and to contour the values. The contours then
make it possible to convert times to depths at all shot points over the
area. With this approach a separate velocity map should be constructed
for each reflection.
Gardner 6 has suggested an interpolation method which is particularly
suitable for areas over which there is a substantial change in the depth
of the stratigraphic section and where the interval velocities show sub-
stantial discontinuities between formations. Figure 7-5 illustrates the
INTERPRETATION AND GEOLOGIC COORDINATION OF REFLECTION DATA 157

Time read
on record at
S. P. "A" for
Time "C"reflection

Depth to
"C"horizon
otS.P. "A"

o Curve based on well survey

Curve for particular stratigraphic horizon
Interpolated curve for particular reflection
originating between identifiable horizons

Fig. 7-5. Schematic time-depth chart based on velocity surveys at several neighboring wells in area
of substantial regional dip.

procedure. Time-depth points from three wells are plotted on a single

set of axes.Smoothed lines (dashed in the figure) are drawn connecting
points on the respective curves representing the same stratigraphic
horizon. In converting times to depths the geophysicist must identify
the reflection he is following with the corresponding event at one of the
surveyed wells. He then works along the dashed line corresponding to
that reflection horizon, picking the appropriate depth from it for the
158 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

observed time. If the reflection being converted to depth does not

continue to the wells, a special line can be drawn for it which is parallel
to those already plotted on the chart and separated from them in time
by the observed interval between the corresponding reflections.
In order to get the greatest possible benefit from velocity data, it is

important to take all pertinent geological information into account when

interpolating between control points. If velocity surveys in an area

are available only from widely separated wells, velocity maps based on
these data should be contoured with consideration for regional geologic
trends and for known geologic features that might affect the velocity.

7-5. Correlation of Seismic Data with Surface and Subsurface Geology

An important advantage of mapping seismic data in depth rather than

time isthat it facilitates coordination with well information. For exam-
ple, tops from wells can be used as additional data points on seismic
maps depth which have been tied to other wells but it is hardly possible
in
to use them directly on time maps at all. For each seismic horizon that
is identified and adjusted to an appropriate geological marker at wells

to which the seismic lines are tied, the tops for that marker at other
wells may be contoured along with the seismic depth values. As new
wells are drilled in the area covered by the survey, the maps are reviewed
and the contours are revised.
Where logs in two wells show evidence of faulting between them, seismic
lines make it possible to determine the fault geom-
connecting the wells
etry in more than can be done from the widely separated well
detail
points. Pinchouts and unconformities can often be followed seismically
between wells in the same manner.
A handy way of fitting geological information to reflection data is to
superimpose electric logs on seismic cross sections (plotted in depth)
where the seismic lines cross wells. To facilitate comparison, the logs
are reduced photographically to the scale of the cross section. Correl-
ative features on the logs such as formation tops are then connected by
lines which are drawn so as to be conformable with the segments on the
seismic sections. Faults and unconformities can often be traced across
the seismic sections from control points on the logs.
Figure 7-6 shows how electric logs superimposed on a seismic section
can aid in the interpretation of the seismic data. In the section shown,
the wells were drilled after the seismic work was done, most of them to
develop a reef field discovered as a result of the shooting. The reef was
detectable seismically because of draping in the overlying beds. The
surface of the reef itself does not give any observable reflections at all.
The divergence between the seismic segments and the lines connecting
INTERPRETATION AND GEOLOGIC COORDINATION OF REFLECTION DATA 159

correlatable electric log features at the Spraberry and Dean sand levels
may possibly be explained by small velocity variations not taken into
account in the original seismic interpretation.
Surface geology can often be used to advantage in seismic interpre-
tation. In technically disturbed areas, dips and strikes measured on
the surface can often be projected downward to depths from which

•3500 —

-4500'

5500

West -East Cross -Section

Horiz. scale, ft
Good Field
1000 2000
Subsurface
Seismic

Fig. 7-6. Superposition of electric logs on seismic cross section over reef-type field. (After McCarver,
Geophysics, 1955.)

seismic reflections are received. Geologic contacts observed by the sur-

face geologist can often be followed to considerable depths in the earth
by the same procedure.
In many steep-dip areas where reflection work has been done, well
information combined with surface measurements can greatly facilitate
the interpretation of the seismic data. Figure 7-7, from a paper by
Link, 7 illustrates this approach. Here the structure of an anticline
observed at the surface has been hypothetically projected 10,000 ft
downward using a combination of surface observations, borehole data,
and reflection dips. In areas of such complicated geology, the seismic
data themselves are likely to be incomplete and irregular, and much
judgment is necessary to decide which of the reflection segments to
follow and which to ignore. For example, the almost horizontal seg-
160 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

merits just below the shallower well are violated in the interpretation
because the evidence for steep dip at this point appears more self-con-
sistent. The final geologic cross section as drawn is still highly specu-
lative but better founded than the best that might have been constructed
without any seismic data at all. The reflection evidence often sets

Imperial Coalspur 1

4000-

Sea
level

-5000-

-10,000-

Legend
B-E = Beorpow and Edmonton
BR = Belly River (Brozeou)
COALSPUR STRUCTURE
UA = Upper Alberta
C - Cardium S. S. Horiz ond vert, scale, miles
LA - Lower Alberta
i
1

K - Kootenay - Bio irmore BY H. KUNST AND R. WALTERS

T-J - Triassic - Jurassic
^"**
PL = Paleozoic Ls. Seismic reflections
Fig. 7-7. Construction of geologic section in foothillsarea of Alberta by combining surface geology,
well information, and seismic reflection data. (After Link, from "Western Canada Sedimentary Basin,"
published by AAPG, 1954.)

limits within which the geologic interpretation must conform. Without

such working on surface and well data alone may
limits, the geologist
have such a wide range of choices that it is very difficult for him to con-
struct a final picture in which he can have real confidence. Even with
the seismic information theremay be ample leeway for differences of
opinion. For example, Fig. 7-8 shows an alternative interpretation of
the same geological and geophysical evidence that was used in con-
structing the section of Fig. 7-7. This picture, incidentally, follows the
INTERPRETATION AND GEOLOGIC COORDINATION OF REFLECTION DATA 161

seismic data more closely than does that of Fig. 7-7, since the shallow
reflectionsegments showing low dip are given more weight. The appar-
ent conflict between these almost flat segments and the steep dips at
the surface just above them is resolved by the assumption of pronounced
near-surface underthrusting. The first interpretation (Fig. 7-7) also

4000-1-

•10,000-

Legend
B-E = Bearpow and Edmonton Alternative interpretation
BR = Belly River [Brozeou) C0ALSPUR STRUCTURE
UA = Upper Alberta
Horiz. and vert, scale, miles
C = Card!urn S.S. 1

LA - Lower Alberta
K = Kootenoy- Blairmore THEO. A. LINK, 1947
T-J - Triassic -Jurassic
PL - Paleozoic Ls. Seismic reflections
Fig. 7-8. An alternative interpretation of the geological and seismic data used to obtain cross section
of Fig. 7-7 . {After Link, from "Western Canada Sedimentary Basin/' published by AAPG, 7954.)

requires some underthrusting, but the picture in Fig. 7-8, showing a

greater amount of such deformation, is less orthodox because all but
superficial southeastward dipping faults are exceptional in this portion
of the Alberta foothills.
Another example of geological-geophysical coordination is shown in
Figs. 7-9and 7-10, taken from a paper by McCarver. 8 The migrated
dip segments of Fig. 7-9 indicate a very complex subsurface structure
which might be difficult to resolve without geological information.
Several imaginative interpretations would be possible and these might
diverge greatly from one another. When geologic information from
162 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
i i i i i I i i i
_!_ _!_. ' ' ' ' —
!
i i i i i i

J
Surface

:•••-•-»"=
"^ =
^^= = — --"" '••*' ,•••:•> ;, ;: :-;:!:" -:::^ 0.159

0.357

0.547

0.729

0.900

1.064

-1.219

-1.381

1.543

Fig. 7-9. Reflection dip section from highly faulted and folded
area before addition of geological
information. Labels on horizontal lines represent times in sec. (After McCarver, Oil Gas J., 1956.)

I I I I I I I I I I I 1(11 I I I I I I I

Surface

8000
Fig. 7-10. Section of Fig. 7-9 after information from two wells at opposite ends is used for geological
interpretation. Labels on horizontal lines represent depths. (After McCarver, Oil Gas J., 1956.)

two boreholes is added to the cross section, as in Fig. 7-10, the picture
becomes less speculative. The cross section is now a synthesis of the
geological and geophysical information. The geophysical information
had made it possible to fill in the geologic structure between boreholes
in a way that would not have been possible otherwise.
INTERPRETATION AND GEOLOGIC COORDINATION OF REFLECTION DATA 163

7-6. Seismic Mapping of Stratigraphic Features

The most successful use of seismic prospecting has been in the mapping
of structural traps. Stratigraphic features generally elude the seismo-
graph. Several of the world's greatest stratigraphic-type oil fields, such
as Pembina in Alberta, where the oil is trapped by a porosity pinchout
in the Cardium sand, were discovered by wildcat drilling after reflection
shooting had indicated no features of interest at the level of the pro-
ductive horizon. It is hoped that current research in oil-company
laboratories and elsewhere will ultimately make it possible to detect
and map stratigraphic oil traps seismically with more success than has
been realized thus far.
In spite of this discouraging picture, there are two features of the
stratigraphic type which the seismograph has been capable of locating.
These are reefs and unconformities. Both are found by rather indirect
methods: the reefs may reveal themselves by the apparent seismic " struc-
tures" they show in underlying formations and by draping in overlying
formations, and the unconformities show up in divergences between
reflection segments from formations above and below. Seismic indi-
cations from both types of features often require geological information
before they can be properly interpreted.
Reefs. Although the role of limestone as a reservoir rock had been
recognized ever since the early oil discoveries in Iran and Mexico, it was
the productive Devonian reef found at Leduc, Alberta, in 1947 that led
to an intensive campaign of reef exploration. This campaign resulted in
the discovery of many new reef-type oil fields in west Texas, Alberta,
and Illinois. The reflection seismograph has played an important part
in its success.
Two characteristics of reefs make it possible to locate them success-
fully by the seismic method. The most important is the velocity in reef
limestone, which is ordinarily higher than that in the shale which sur-
rounds it at the same stratigraphic level. The other is the draping which
frequently occurs in the overlying sediments. Structures caused by
draping effects can of course be mapped in the same way as other struc-
tures. Figure 7-6 shows how the draping over the productive reef in
the Good Field is revealed by seismic dip segments.
The use of the velocity differential between reef limestone and off-reef
shale for detecting reefs is illustrated by an example from Alberta.
Figure 7-11, from a paper by Skeels, 9 shows the respective electric logs
and interval velocities in a well (B) penetrating a thick Devonian reef
as well as in another well (A) off the reef, about 3 miles away. The
seismic velocity through the reef averages about 18,500 ft/sec, while the
normal velocity through the shale and limestone in the same stratigraphic
164 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

interval averages about 13,000 ft/sec. This large a velocity contrast

would lead us to expect a substantial shortening of the time interval

between a, reflection from below the reef zone and one from above it as
the maximum reef build-up is approached from the area outside of the
reef .

In the example shown, good reflections are observed from a Lower

Cretaceous formation above the reef and from the Elk Point formation

Well B

14,360

18,560

7,920

Top of Beaver hill Lake fm. 12,600

'

{Argillaceous limestone)

Fig. 7-11. Electric logs and seismic interval velocities in corresponding portions of nearby ofF-reef
(A) and reef (B) wells in Alberta. (After Skeels, Proc. Fourth World Petrol. Congr., 1956.)

below it. Figure 7-12 shows how the shape of the reef is defined by a
contour map of the time interval between these reflections. Over the
center of the reef the interval is about 0.310 sec. Off the reef it is
0.370 sec. This reef, incidentally, was not productive but it is many
hundreds of feet thick and shows an unusually large velocity contrast
with respect to the corresponding off-reef formations. Thus the decrease
over the reef in the time interval between the indicated reflections is
quite large. Occasionally, the reef limestone and the stratigraphically
equivalent off-reef facies have little or no velocity contrast. Where
the effect is marginal, careful seismic work may be necessary to show up
the reef at all. Spacing of shot points must be close and the quality
INTERPRETATION AND GEOLOGIC COORDINATION OF REFLECTION DATA 165

of the reflections must be very good, often requiring the use of many shot
holes at each shot point and many geophones per trace. With no
velocity contrast the records may show draping structures over the
reef without a corresponding thinning of the isochrons bracketing the
reef zone. In addition to these effects, reefs sometimes are revealed on
seismic records (or, to better advantage, on corrected seismic record
sections) by subtle changes in reflec-
tion quality including the interrup-
tion of reflections, and possibly by
diffraction effects (Fig. 7-13).
Unconformities. Although, as
pointed out earlier in this chapter,
it is generally not possible to detail

erosional surfaces directly with the

seismograph, the detailing can often
be done indirectly by the proper co-
ordination of reflection data and geo-
logical information. Divergences in
dip on opposite sides of an erosional
unconformity can sometimes be ob-
served on seismic cross sections, even
when the unconformity itself cannot

be mapped. If the seismic shooting

is tied to one or more wells in which

the depth of the unconformity is

known from electric log data, it
Fig. 7-12. Isochrons between reflections above
should be possible to trace this sur- reef zone (Lower Cretaceous) and below reef
face across the seismic cross section zone (Elk Point) showing effect of reef on time

by following the vertices of diver- interval. Logs of wells A and 8 shown in Fig.
7-11. [After Skeels, Proc. Fourfh World
gence between the respective dip Petrol. Congr., 1956.)

segments above and below. Figure

7-10 shows how an unconformity is traced across a number of faults on
a reflection cross section lying between two wells.
Many unconformities have so little change in dip across them that
there is no observable convergence on a seismic cross section between
reflections from above and below. It may be possible to trace features
of this type on record sections by lining up the places where reflections
from different levels tend to deteriorate in quality. This approach
carries the most conviction when the zones of deterioration can be tied
by electric logs or other geologic
at wells to unconformities established
indications. Under favorable circumstances it may be possible to
obtain a reflection directly from the surface of the unconformity itself.
166 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

,1 1 *» » m
ft I » » I *••••' >> n i >» u u. ».

/ n *»>»•, :,;•*» .»
*n»»»j^» •"*»'
»*»»»»»Ml»' »*'»» •»»*»_>• [ 1
1

Fig. 7-13. Variable-area record section over a lobe of a limestone reef in central Alberta. Note
arching of formations over reef and break in continuity of good reflection just below Beaverhill Lake
as the zone beneath the reef is approached.

7-7, Administrative Aspects of Geological-Geophysical Coordination

From the various examples presented in this chapter, it is easy to see

that one can obtain a more reliable subsurface picture from all pertinent
INTERPRETATION AND GEOLOGIC COORDINATION OF REFLECTION DATA 167

geological and geophysical evidence taken together than from either type
alone. However, since geology and geophysics are both highly specialized
fields, the geophysicist will often make an interpretation based pri-

marily on the geophysical data and the geologist will make another inter-
pretation of the same prospect solely on the basis of geological informa-
tion. As pointed out by Ion, 10 this procedure is quite reasonable as a
first step in the coordination process. In many organizations, it may
be the final step as well. Too often, seismic maps or sections drawn
without the benefit of geological consultation are turned over to explora-
tion management when decisions (such as whether or where to drill) must
be made. Where this procedure is followed, the respective kinds of data
must be weighed and synthesized at the decision-making stage.
In recent years, the trend has been toward coordination of the two
kinds of information at an earlier stage of the process. As noted at the
beginning of this chapter, several approaches may be used. A few
pioneering companies assign a geologist and a geophysicist to work
together on a prospect and to turn out a final map or set of sections
which incorporates both kinds of data so well that it is not looked upon
as a geological picture or a geophysical picture but simply as the best
subsurface picture that can be constructed from all available data.
A more usual procedure is for the geologists to take the geophysical
picture and to use it, along with available geological information, in
drawing up their final recommendations. At the same time, the geol-
ogists will supply the geophysicist all the necessary objective data that
he needs for his own interpretation, such as well information, surface
maps, stratigraphic sections, etc. Many companies have a geological-
geophysical coordinator to channel information both ways and often to
integrate the two kinds of data with the object of obtaining a final sub-
surface picture.
In the earlier years of exploration geophysics, it was the policy in some
companies to withhold geological information from the geophysicist to
ensure that his interpretation of the geophysical data would be an "inde-
pendent" one, not influenced by other kinds of data. This attitude
was based at least partly on a mistrust of geophysics, which as a new
tool had not really proved itself in the eyes of management. With time,
however, geophysics has reached the stage of maturity where its capa-
bilities, as well as its limitations, are widely enough recognized that

forced segregation of the geologist and geophysicist is becoming as much

out of date as the torsion balance.
Many of the new devices for plotting corrected record sections turn
out final pictures which look quite similar to geological cross sections.
The variable-density and variable-area sections give a particularly con-
vincing illusion that they are actual pictures of geologic formations
168 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

below the surface. Manufacturers of these devices have often suggested

that such sections could be turned over to the geologist or to manage-
ment as a final presentation of the geophysical data in geological terms.
Such a practice would represent an abdication of the geophysicist's
responsibilities. Even the most expertly corrected record sections must
be looked upon as uninterpreted semiraw data. Such sections are still
time sections and have the abstractness of all seismic data in time.
Velocity data must be worked in and wells must be tied. In steep-dip
areas, migration is still necessary to restore true spatial relationships
and diffractions must be identified, both to locate faults and to ensure
against their being mistaken for reflections. Unless the record sections
are carefully interpreted by the geophysicist before being turned over
to the geologist, their introduction may have to be looked upon as a
backward step in the exploration process.
The matter of coordination between geology and geophysics applies
of course to branches of geophysics. We are discussing its general
all

aspects in the chapter on reflection interpretation not only because

of the predominance of reflection work in volume of geophysical activity
but also because of the fact that reflection data offer the greatest oppor-
tunities for close coordination and furnish the most successful examples
of how such coordination can be carried out.

REFERENCES

1. Woods, J. P.: The Composition of Reflections, Geophysics, Vol. 21, pp. 261-276,
1956.
2. Peterson, R. A., W. R. Fillippone, and F. B. Coker: The Synthesis of Seismograms
from Well Log Data, Geophysics, Vol. 20, pp. 503-516, 1955.
3. Berryman, L. H., P. L. Goupilland, and K. H. Waters: Reflection from Multiple
Transition Layers, Parts I and II, Geophysics, Vol. 23, pp. 223-252, 1958.

4. Wuenschel, Paul C: Seismogram Synthesis with Multiples and Transmission

Coefficients, presented at annual convention of Society of Exploration Geo-
physicists, San Antonio, Tex., Oct. 16, 1958.
5. Faust, L. Y.: Seismic Velocity as a Function of Depth and Geologic Time, Geo-
physics, Vol. 16, pp. 192-206, 1951.
6. Gardner, L. W.: The Treatment of Lateral Velocity Variation in Seismic Inter-
pretation, Geophysics, Vol. 20, pp. 378-379, 1955 (abstract).
7. Link, Theodore A.: Interpretations of Foothills Structures, Alberta, Canada, in
Leslie M. Clark (ed.), "Western Canada Sedimentary Basin," American Associa-
tion of Petroleum Geologists, 1954.
8. McCarver, Holland D.: Geophysics Is Here to Stay, Oil Gas J., Vol. 54, pp. 110-
112, 1956.
9. Skeels, D. C: Correlation of Geological and Geophysical Data, Proc. Fourth World
Petrol. Congr., 1955, Sec. I, Geology and Geophysics, E. J. Brill, N. V. Leiden,
Netherlands, 1956.
10. Ion, D. C: Interdependence in World-wide Oil Exploration, Geophysics, Vol. 23,
pp. 318-324, 1958.
 CHAPTER 8

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF
GRAVITY PROSPECTING

In this chapter, we elementary physical principles

shall consider the
upon which the gravity method of prospecting is based. These prin-
ciples are relatively simple although the interpretation of gravity data
in geologic terms may be quite complex, often more so than with seismic
data.
Basically, the gravity method detects and measures lateral variations
in the earth's gravitational pull that are associated with near-surface
changes in density. Many geologic structures of interest in oil explora-
tion give rise to disturbances in the normal density distribution within
the earth which cause diagnostic anomalies in the earth's gravitational
field.Such anomalies will be very small compared to the earth's over-all
some cases being less than one ten-millionth as great.
attraction, in
Extremely sensitive instruments are required to resolve such small
differences in gravitational force.
We our study of gravity by investigating the laws which
shall begin
govern the gravitational effects of buried bodies and shall operate on the
assumption that the attraction of the rest of the earth is entirely uniform.
In Chap. 9 we shall examine the earth's field and in Chap. 11 we shall
show how variations depending on latitude, topography, and deep-seated
crustal irregularities are separated from those caused by the shallow
structures sought in prospecting.

8-1. Newton's Law of Gravitational Attraction

The theory behind gravitational prospecting depends directly upon

Newton's law expressing the force of mutual attraction between two
particles in terms of their masses and separation. This law states that
two particles of mass mi and ra 2 respectively, each with dimensions very
small compared to the separation r of their centers of mass, will be
attracted to one another with a force

. +-,*$: (8-1)

169
170 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

where 7, known as the universal gravitational constant, depends on the

system of dimensions employed. In the cgs (centimeter-gram-second)
system, the value of 7 is 6.670 X 10~ 8 This is the force in dynes that
.

will be exerted between two masses of 1 g each with centers 1 cm apart.

The Gravitational Constant. Although the law of gravitational
attraction was deduced by Newton from astronomical observations, the
constant 7 cannot be determined astronomically but must be measured
in the laboratory. The earliest measurement of it was by Cavendish in
1791. His apparatus consisted of a horizontal beam with an equal weight
at each end suspended at the center by a sensitive torsion fiber. Large
external weights were placed alongside the ends of the beam in such a
way that their attraction would cause it to rotate. The restoring torque
of the fiber, increasing linearly with the rotation, balanced the turning
moment of the weights. From the weights and distances, the torsional
constant of the fiber, and the measured equilibrium angles, the value of y
could be readily computed. Cavendish's original value of 6.754 X 10~ 8
is not much different from the best present value, 6.670 X 10~ 8 The .

latter was measured in 1930 by Heyl with a more refined version of

Cavendish's original apparatus.
To appreciate the magnitude of gravitational forces, consider the
attraction between two billiard balls touching one another so that their
centers are about 3 in. (7.5 cm) apart. If we assume each ball to weigh
225 g (about J^ lb), we get a force of attraction

F„ ,. , ,
=
6.67 X 10- 8 X (225)
2

= _
^ in 5,
(in dynes) ,
y 5)2
6 X 10~

This force is less than 3 X 10 -10 of the weight of one of the balls.
The Gravitational Acceleration. The acceleration a of a mass ra 2 due
to the attraction of a mass rai can be obtained simply by dividing the
attracting force F by the mass ra 2 (since force is mass times acceleration)
whereupon

a = — = 7—
ra 2
-z
r2
(8-2)

The measure
acceleration, being the force acting on a unit mass, gives us a
of the gravitational field acting atany point. The force is obtained
simply by multiplying the acceleration by the mass on which the field
reacts. The acceleration is of course the same for any mass located
at the same point in the field. In the cgs system, the dimension of
acceleration is centimeters per second per second (cm/sec 2 ). Among
geophysicists this unit is referred to as the gal (in honor of Galileo, whose
experiments on gravity were among the earliest) . Since the gravitational
acceleration at the earth's surface is about 980 cm/sec 2 or 980 gals,
 .

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF GRAVITY PROSPECTING 171

and since anomalies a ten-millionth this large often have economic or

scientific importance, the practical unit of gravitational acceleration as
used in geophysics has come to be the milligal, or thousandth of a gal.
Potential. When the intensity of a gravitational, magnetic, or elec-
trical field depends only on position, computations can often be facilitated
by using the concept of potential. The potential at a point in a gravi-
tational field is defined as the energy required for gravity to move a unit
mass from an arbitrary reference point (usually at an infinite distance)
to the point in question. If the unit mass is brought from infinity, it

can be shown that the energy necessary to move it to a final position

a distance r from an attracting source of mass m x is ymi/r. This is the
potential associated with mass m and distance r. Later in the chapter,
we shall make use of this concept in discussing gradient, curvature, and
equipotential lines.

8-2. Application of Newton's Law to Masses with Large Dimensions

The theory considered thus far is applicable only to the case of an

attracting source having infinitesimally small dimensions compared to
the distance at which the attraction is measured. When the dimensions
are large, it is necessary to extend the theory. The procedure is to
divide the mass into many small
elements, each of infinitesimal di-
mensions, and to add the effects of
each of the elements. Since the
distance to each element from the
point where attraction is computed
will vary, it is necessary in effect
to make a separate calculation for
each constituent element of mass.
General Method. Suppose one
wishes to calculate the gravitational
™ c . , . . ,. . , . Fig. 8-1. Determining attraction at A of irregular
effect of the irregular thin plate flat mass M
by dividing it into 21 slabS/ each
Shown in Fig. 8-1 at A, a point in with dimensions small compared to its distance

the plane of the plate. from A > and com P utin 9 attraction of each slab.
First the
i , ill t ii • i i •
,
Distance and bearings are shown for only two
plate would be divided into small f the 21 blocks,
sections; 21 are shown in the dia-
gram. Since we cannot add forces or accelerations arithmetically, but
only their components in some given direction, we must determine the
components of force in the east-west direction (designated as W-E in the
figure)
At A, section 1 will give rise to an acceleration along the line r\ of
YWi/ri 2 . This will have an E-W component which is ynii/ri 2 cos 0i.
172 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

Adding the E-W components of acceleration thus obtained from all 21

elements, we obtain for the net E-W acceleration a E w at A
(mi
CiEW " y
w COS 81 -\ 5
r22
cos 2 + + ^cos0
7*21
2 i)
/
(8-3)

This summation can be performed numerically or graphically. In cases

where the body has a shape that can be expressed analytically, the attrac-
tion can usually be computed by integration.

Fig. 8-2. Variation of gravity with horizontal distance along surface profile over buried sphere.

Gravity meters generally respond only to the vertical component of

gravitational force. The most means of representing the
effective
gravity effect of a buried mass as would be observed in the field is to
it

plot the vertical component of attraction, g z along a line on the surface

,

which passes over the center of the body. To do this one must express
g z as a function of x, the horizontal distance along the profile at the sur-
face. Formulas for g z in terms of x, as well as the depth of burial and
the geometry of the subsurface mass, have been derived for a number of
simple geometrical forms such as spheres, cylinders, slabs, etc., as will
be illustrated in the examples that follow.
The Sphere. It can be shown from potential theory that the attraction,
at an external point, of a homogeneous spherical shell and also of a solid
sphere in which the density depends only on the radius is the same as
though the entire mass were concentrated at the center of the sphere.
The mass M
of a sphere having a radius R and a density a is the volume
times density or %tR*<t. If the center is at a depth z below the surface,
as shown in Fig. 8-2, the total gravitational attraction of the equivalent
 ,

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF GRAVITY PROSPECTING 173

mass at the center upon a unit mass on the surface a horizontal distance x
from the center will be
M ==
kwR z <jy
9 " T
T 2
3(z 2 + x2)
since r = y/z 2 + x2 (8-4)

The vertical component gz , which is simply g cos 0, or gfc/r, will be

g. = t ^I = -| -Kv 7
(224! x2)%
(8-5)

Nettleton 1 has rearranged this equation in the form

g z (in milligals) = '

J (8 " G)
[i + (sVa 2 )]**

when R, x, and 2 are now to be measured in kilofeet, and a in grams per

cubic centimeter. a convenient form for calculation, since g z
This is

can be found at any distance x by multiplying the peak value (at x = 0)

8.53aR 3 /z 2 by a factor dependent only on the ratio x/z. For the case
,

of any mass buried in the earth, the effective density a is the difference
between the density of the buried object itself and that of the surrounding
material. This quantity is designated as the density contrast. If the
contrast is negative, the corresponding gravity anomaly will be negative
also. Salt domes, for example, almost always give rise to negative
anomalies (frequently complicated by positive cap-rock effects at the
center) since the density of rock salt is ordinarily less than the average
density of the sedimentary formations surrounding the salt.
The magnitude of the gravity anomaly that might be expected over a
roughly spherical salt dome can be estimated from Eq. (8-6). If the
dome can be represented by a sphere 2,000 ft in radius, with a density
contrast of —0.25 g/cm 3 and with its center 4,000 ft below the surface,
the anomaly should have a maximum of —1.07 milligals. The gravity
effect is only about a millionth the total gravitational acceleration of
the earth itself.

Buried Horizontal Cylinder. Consider an infinitely long cylinder of

radius R with a horizontal axis which is buried a distance z below the
earth's surface. By dividing the cylinder into elementary blocks and
adding the attractions of the parts, it can be shown that the total attrac-
tion of the cylinder at a distance r from the axis is 2wR 2 ya/r. Along a
surface profile perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder the vertical com-
ponent of gravity is

_
—^~ = 2wR
2irR 2 y(TZ 2
yaz
9-
= /0
(8 " 7)
"^T^
174 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

where x is the horizontal distance from the cylinder's axis. If all dis-
tances are expressed in kilofeet and the density contrast is in grams per
cubic centimeter, this can be written in the form

12.77<rR'
g z (in milligals)
= (8-8)
[1 + (x*/z>)]

The relationship is plotted in Fig. 8-3. The anomaly is not so sharp

as from a sphere at the same depth, since the horizonal distance x is
taken to a lower power in the denominator. It is seen by comparing

r z oA
1 o -

* 06 \
/

4! 0.4

4? 0.2

«.
5 -4 -3 -2 -1
-.-'-1c. , ' I
\
Ground surface'

Fig. 8-3. Variation of gravity with horizontal distance along surface profile over buried, infinitely
long horizontal cylinder (axis perpendicular to paper).

the respective equations that a horizontal cylinder will have a maximum

gravitational effect about \.bz/R times as great as a sphere of the same
radius, depth,and density. This should be expected in view of the
much greater mass contained in the cylinder.
Many buried ridges or elongated anticlines give gravity anomalies
which are similar to those computed by this formula. In such cases the
depth of the buried feature can be calculated from the characteristics of
the observed gravity profile.
Buried Vertical Cylinder. A somewhat more complex but geologically
significant case is This form is often
that of a buried vertical cylinder.
convenient for computing gravity anomalies from salt domes and vol-
canic plugs. Consider the cylinder illustrated in Fig. 8-4, having a radius
r and height L, with its top surface buried a distance d. The distance
from the point where the axis intersects the earth's surface to the top
edge of the cylinder is S 2 and that to the bottom edge is S h as shown
,

in the diagram. The formula for the vertical gravitational effect of the
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF GRAVITY PROSPECTING 175

cylinder at a point on the axis a distance 'd above its top surface can be
shown to be

gz = 2irya(L - Bi + S2 ) (8-9)

g z (in milligals) = 12.77a(L — Si + S2 )

where a is the density contrast in grams per cubic centimeter and all dis-
tances are in kilofeet. If the cylinder is infinitely long, *S»i becomes

L + d and the gravity effect along

the axis becomes

gz = 12.77a(S 2 - d) (8-10)

Bowie 2 has prepared some con-

venient tables for computing the
gravity effects of vertical cylinders
at the center of their upper surface.

9
«, x+r

Fig.

lating
8-4. Definition of quantities used
gravity effects from buried
in calcu-
vertical
mm
Fig. 8-5. Calculation

axis of vertical cylinder C.

+--x-r —

of gravity for point

*-

w O off

cylinder.

If the top is buried, the effect can be calculated by subtracting the

effect of an imaginary cylinder whose height is equal to the depth of

the actual cylinder's top surface.
Buried Slab of Infinite Extent. If our vertical cylinder is so extended
horizontally that its radius becomes very large compared with its height,
S 2 approaches Si and Eq. (8-9) becomes

gz = \2.77<jL (8-11)

for L in kilofeet and a in grams per cubic centimeter. This is of course

equivalent to the case of an infinite horizontal slab of thickness L. It
should be noted that the gravity effect depends only on the thickness of
the slab and not on its depth of burial.
Gravitational Attraction of Buried Vertical Cylinder at a Point off
Its Axis. Returning to the buried vertical cylinder, let us consider the
176 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

gravitational field on the surface at a point off the cylinder's axis. This
is a considerably more complex case than that where the field is com-
puted on the axis, but Bowie 2 has developed a simple approximation
method for handling the calculation. This is illustrated in Fig. 8-5.
The small cylinder of radius r at the right buried so that its top is flush
is

with the surface of the ground. We wish to determine the vertical

gravitational acceleration attributable to this cylinder at point 0, a
distance x from the axis of the cylinder. set up two auxiliary We
cylinders as shown, one with radius x + r, the other with radius x — r.

10.60-t

*z

530t

5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 f 4
* X H ,
4
tan 'j ,-'
z

zttT<>'
_^ Fauff face perpendicu/ar
fo paper
Fig. 8-6. Gravity profile over faulted slab, downthrown side assumed infinitely deep.

From Eq. (8-9) we determine the vertical attraction of each of the con-
centric cylinders at the point 0, where its axis penetrates the top surface.
The gravitational effect of the inner cylinder is then subtracted from
that of the outer one. The difference represents the acceleration attribut-
able to the hollow cylindrical ring between the cylinders. It would
appear plausible that the attraction of the small cylinder with radius r
and that of the large cylindrical shell in which it lies should be roughly
in direct proportion to their respective areas, provided r is small com-
pared to x. Expressed quantitatively, the vertical gravity effect of
the small cylinder is

gz ^ (A - A) %
(x + r) 2
— (x — r) 2
(8-12)

where A is the vertical acceleration from the outer cylinder and A that {

from the inner cylinder, the fraction being the ratio of the small cylinder's
area to that of the cylindrical shell.
Faulted Slab. A horizontal slab of uniform thickness terminated in a
vertical plane along one side should give a gravity effect along a profile
perpendicular to the vertical edge similar to that of a faulted horizontal
bed having an anomalous density. Away from the fault face on the
 H

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF GRAVITY PROSPECTING 177

I. Sphere
:
<r/?
a - 8.52 -

H)']
Vorgz IV 1
-
fi Jfl x 10
5 _hV!_ 2z*
5 2 \ 5
z
('-$ 2.

2. Horizontal cylinder
(Same diagram as for
sphere but center of
c/rc/e now represents
axis of/nfiniteiy /ong
g^ 12,77 o-R'
['©T
cy/inder perpendicular 5 JL4-
to paper)
6.28x I0
I +
3. Vertical fault {third dimension infinite)
approximated by horiz. sheet

-=4-1- $ - /2.77<rt |^+^-^ "' f.]

"<"&
^ It x
2x/tf
T / -r-

4. Vertical sheet (third dimension infinite)

H----X-—
N
1/ <?a <?
z £ v
-t-

V= 2x10 s It
5. Vertical circular cylinder

r*£<**3kM - 2.03erfw
^r
V * IxlO 5 (w,-w^)

o~ = Density gz = Verticat component ofgravity in mill'/go'Is

I = Intensity ofmagnetization (assumed verficat)
in cgs units
V = Vertical component ofmagneh'c intensity in gammas
w, w,,w2 = Solid angtes as shown in 5
Linear dimensions arbitrary for magnetic formulas, in kiiofeef for
gravitational formulas

Fig. 8-7. Summary of formulas for vertical components of gravitational and magnetic fields from
buried bodies having simple geometric forms. The magnetic formulas will be discussed in Chap. 13.

(Adapted from Nettleton, Geophys/cs, 1942.)

upthrown side, the attraction of the slab approaches the value 12.77aL
as derived on the previous page. On the opposite ordown thrown side
the value approaches zero at large distances. Over the fault face itself
the magnitude of the anomaly will be halfway between these limits
(Fig. 8-6). In such a case the gravity effect along a profile perpendicular
to the fault face will decrease systematically (when the faulted bed is
denser than the formations surrounding it) from a value on the upthrown
17 8 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

side givenby Eq. (8-11) (corresponding to an infinitely long slab of the

same thickness as the bed) to zero a large distance away on the down-
thrown side. Over the fault face the magnitude of the anomaly will be
halfway between these limits. Where the thickness of the slab is small
compared with its other dimensions and its depth, one can use the
approximation formula of Nettleton 1 to determine the fall off of vertical
gravity with horizontal distance x:

= 27^-tan- 1
(8-13)
gz
^
For t in kilofeet and a in grams per cubic centimeter, this reduces to

g, (in milligals) = 4.05^ ( | - tan" -

1
(8-14)
j

where the distances involved are defined in Fig. 8-6. Over the fault
face, x is zero and the anomaly is half the gravity effect for an equivalent
slab of infinite length; when x approaches infinity, the effect of the slab
becomes zero.
Miscellaneous Geometrical Shapes. The shapes thus far considered
are the most simple of the geometrical forms that have proved useful
in gravity interpretation. Figure 8-7 summarizes some formulas devel-
oped by Nettleton for gravity and magnetic effects from several types of
bodies having such simplified forms. The magnetic profiles will be con-
sidered in later chapters. Heiland 3 gives equations for a large number
of more complex "two-dimensional"* cases such as rectangles, triangular
prisms, and "anticlines" and "synclines" with triangular cross sections.
Many of these cases are of interest in commercial gravity interpretation,
but since they lie somewhat outside the scope of this book, the equations
for them will not be presented here.

8-3. Gradients and Curvatures

For a proper understanding of results which have been obtained with

the once widely used but now obsolete torsion balance, it is desirable
that we consider the two quantities, gradient and curvature, which this
instrument measures. Both of these depend on the rate of change of
gravity with distance, and they are more complex than any of the other
quantities thus far discussed in this chapter.
Gradient. This is a general term for the rate at which any quantity
dependent only on position varies with respect to distance. We are all

* "Two-dimensional" bodies have

uniform finite cross sections in all planes per-
pendicular to their axes, assumed to be infinitely long. The horizontal cylinder
previously considered is such a body.
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF GRAVITY PROSPECTING 179

familiar with topographic gradients as illustrated, say, by a railroad

grade of 2 per cent displacement for each 100 ft of hori-
(2 ft vertical
zontal displacement). At any point along a sloping surface the gradient
is the magnitude of the slope in the direction of maximum slope. The
direction of the gradient always perpendicular to the contours of equal
is

elevation. The same concept can be applied not only to elevation but
to other quantities, such as gravitational fields, magnetic fields, or tem-
perature, which vary with position. In the case of a function of two
space variables (such as the x and y directions on a horizontal plane)

S/ope of arrow /s measure

of opographic gradient
'

1
Elevafion
h m ff ^ or(-x,y) ^^^^~P*

Fig.
/
8-8. Three-dimensional plot of elevation vs. position on
maximum slope of warped
Y -*. -x -*y/

x in ft
xy plane,
surface along which contour lines are drawn.
Gradient at any point is

the gradient can be most readily visualized as the slope along a three-
dimensional surface. Figure 8-8 shows a three-dimensional representa-
tion of topographic elevation over a portion of the xy (x is east, y is
north) The warped three-dimensional surface represents the
plane.
topography. The gradient of elevation at any point on the surface is
simply the maximum possible slope which any tangent to the surface
could have at that point.
The gradient of the earth's gravity is similarly the rate of change with
horizontal distance of the vertical component of gravity. In a given
vertical plane the gradient simply the slope of the gravity profile along
is

the trace of that plane on the surface. On a two-dimensional gravity

map the gradient can be determined from contours of vertical gravity in
just the same way that the topographic gradient is obtained from a
topographic contour map. The gradient, ordinarily indicated on maps
by arrows as in Fig. 8-9, will be in the direction of the most rapid change
of vertical gravity. The common unit of gravitational gradient, known
as the Eotvcs unit, is 10~ 6 milligal per centimeter of horizontal displace-
ment. From the plotted gradients one can derive the corresponding
vertical gravity picture as shown in Fig. 8-9.
 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

ur interval
Reference
arbitrary

C'ig. 8-9. Relation of gradients, indicated by arrows, to gravity contours, Length of each arrow is

proportional to value of gradient at its center.

Differential Curvature. To explain the significance of differential

curvature, it is necessary to introduce the concept of the equipotential
surface. One important property of such a surface is that no force or
component of force can act along it, the stress exerted at any point
always being perpendicular to the plane that is tangent at that point.
Hence a surface of equal gravitational potential is perpendicular to the
local gravitational attraction at every point. That the surface of the
ocean, to take one example, must always be an equipotential surface
perpendicular to the local pull of gravity follows from the fact that any
gravitational component along the surface would cause water to flow
until an equilibrium configuration is reached.
A surface of equal gravitational potential will not generally have equal
gravitational force at all points. All ocean surfaces, for example, are
at the same gravitational potential, but the earth's gravity at sea level is

about 5,000 milligals greater at the poles than along the equator.
Any departures from uniform density below the earth's surface causing
gravity anomalies on the surface will warp the equipotential surfaces
above. Consider the top of a smooth pond overlying a homogeneous
bottom this is an equipotential surface which appears entirely flat to the
;

eye, although it actually has the same curvature as the earth itself.
Figure 8- 10a shows how the horizontal surface of the water is everywhere
perpendicular to the arrows representing the direction of plumb lines,
pointing in this case toward the center of the earth. Now suppose a
dense meteorite lies embedded in the earth a short distance below the
bottom of the pond. Its gravitational pull will cause a slight deviation
of the plumb lines toward it, as shown with great exaggeration in Fig.
8-106. The surface of the pond, always perpendicular to the plumb
lines, will be correspondingly distorted as indicated (in an exaggerated
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF GRAVITY PROSPECTING 181

way) by the diagram. This distortion will be shared by other, invisible

equipotential surfaces directly above it.

The curvature of any line at a point along it is defined as the reciprocal

of the radius of the circular arc thatcan be best fitted to the portion of
the line in the point's immediate vicinity. A straight line, for example,
has a radius of infinity and hence a curvature of zero. Through any
point on a warped surface, such as
(a) Normal situation
that shown in Fig. 8-8, one can pass
Arro ws sho w c//rec ffon a vertical plane in the direction of
of plum_b_bob_ _ ^EquiponHa!
maximum curvature so that the
trace of the surface on this plane
will have a greater curvature than
on any other vertical
will the trace
plane passing through the point.
It can be shown (see Slotnick 4 )
(b) With mass below water bottom that the plane perpendicular to
the plane of maximum curvature

n>~H :/iix through the same point will cut the

surface in such a way that the

Warped Differenr/a/
surface curvafure =

Buried dense
spherical mass
Fig. 8-10. Effect of dense buried mass in dis- Fig. 8-11. Curvatures in two mutually perpen-
torting surface of overlying pond, (a) Surface dicular planes intersecting along A8 and cutting
wiihout mass below water bottom, (b) Surface warped surface at P. p> is the radius of maxi-
wiih massbelow water bottom. Distortion mum curvature; p\, the radius of minimum
highly exaggerated. curvature.

trace will have the least of all the curvatures possible on any vertical
plane through the point. Figure 8-11 illustrates this. The difference
between the maximum curvature 1/pi and the minimum curvature
l/p 2 , multiplied by g (taken as a constant), is known as the differential
curvature. This is the other quantity which the torsion balance
measures.
In the case of the buried spherical meteorite under the pond, the
be zero over the axis of the sphere, since sym-
differential curvature will
metry requires that the curvatures of the equipotential surface be iden-
tical in all directions at this point. Off the center, however, the trace
of the equipotential surface on a vertical plane passing through the axis
of the sphere will be more curved than will the trace of the plane per-
182
INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

pendicular to it. The difference increases with distance from the center
until a maximum is reached approximately above
the outer edge of the

sphere. Farther from the axis, the distortion of the pond's surface

caused by the meteorite will tend to vanish, and the equipotential

sur-

faces will have a differential curvature approaching

that of the earth itself.

The standard symbol for curvature on a map is a line oriented in the

X I
Salt cforne
Diff.
curvature

Gradient

X
X
X
;
Equipotent/al
Direction of i
i surface
plumb bob-M

Elevation
Fig. 8-12. Gradient and differential curvature over salt dome. is zero over
Differential curvature
the center of the dome (since p\ = p 2) and a maximum just off its flank, approaching zero again at
large distances.

direction of minimum curvature (algebraically) and having a length

proportional to the differential curvature.
Examples. Let us consider the gradients and curvatures to be expected
over a few simple structures. Figure 8-12 shows the vertical gravity
gradient and differential curvature effects over a salt dome. The curva-
ture pattern is quite similar to that for the meteorite except that the
salt gives rise to a gravity minimum while the meteorite gives a gravity
maximum. Signs of the gradients and curvatures are thus reversed.
For a two-dimensional body, i.e., one that has a uniform cross section
perpendicular to an infinitely long horizontal axis, calculation of differen-
tial curvature is simplified by the fact that the curvature in the direction
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF GRAVITY PROSPECTING 183

of the long axis is zero. In such a case the differential curvature at any
point numerically equal to the curvature of the trace of the equi-
is

potential surface in a plane perpendicular to the axis. For a buried

horizontal cylinder of infinite length the differential curvature will be
maximum over the axis. This is illustrated by the curvature profile of

H~ Differen fial
curvature
- Gradienf

^Edge of cylinder

Center of max. Plan

curvature of
equ ipotent iai \ Verticai comp. of gravity
z Gradient
^^^^ Differeniiaf
~~~ ~~— — curvature

Earth's^ =^ Equip oten iiai sur face

T-;: :

hormai
surface Direction
of pfumb
bob

Etevation
Fig. 8-13. Gradient and curvature over buried horizontal cylinder.

Fig. 8-13. Note the change in sign corresponding to the inflection in

the equipotential surface a short distance off the axis.
Other standard geometric shapes give similar patterns. Buried
geologic structures often resemble simple geometric forms so closely
that their gradient and curvature patterns enable an experienced geo-
physicist to deduce their approximate shapes.

REFERENCES

1. Nettleton, L. L. : Gravity and Magnetic Calculations, Geophysics, Vol. 7, pp. 293-

310, 1942.
2. Bowie, William: "Isostasy," p. 69, E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc., New York, 1927.
3. Heiland, C: "Geophysical Exploration," pp. 151-153, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Engle-
wood Cliffs, N.J., 1940.
4. Slotnick, M. M.: Curvature of Equipotential Surfaces, "Early Geophysical
Papers," pp. 410-419, Society of Exploration Geophysicists, 1947.
 CHAPTER 9

THE EARTH'S GRAVITY AND THE

CONCEPT OF ISOSTASY

Thus far we have considered the gravitational effects of buried masses

without taking into account the very much larger attractive force,
invariably superimposed, of the earth itself. If the normal attraction

of the earth were everywhere constant, it would not be necessary for us

to concern ourselves with it, since in prospecting one maps only variations
in gravity. The earth's normal gravitational field, however, does differ
substantially from one place to another. The variations, fortunately,
can be predicted to a high degree of precision and can usually be corrected
for in the reduction of gravity data obtained in prospecting.
The value of gravity at any point on the earth's surface depends on
latitude, elevation, tidal effects, topography of the surrounding terrain,
and the density distribution beneath the earth's surface. To isolate
the effect of near-surface density inequalities, our main objective in
prospecting surveys, it is necessary to correct for the other factors which
might cause gravity to vary.
Long before gravity surveys were undertaken for prospecting pur-
poses, it was realized that measurements of the earth's gravity could give

valuable information on the shape of the earth and the nature, thickness,
and mechanical properties of its crust. Variations in gravity, inferred
at first from surveying discrepancies and later established by pendulum
observations, led to the principle of isostasy, one of the most far-reaching-
concepts in the earth sciences. This principle has been cited by numerous
geologists to account for epeirogenic and orogenic movements within the
earth's crust.
In this chapter, we shall touch briefly upon the geodetic applications
of gravity, the gravity field of the earth,and the development of the idea
of isostasy. For further information on these topics the reader is referred
to the treatise on the earth's gravity by Heiskanen and Vening Meinesz. 1

9-1. The Figure of the Earth

The regular variation of the earth's gravity with latitude is caused by

two factors: the rotation of the earth and the fact that it is not perfectly
184
THE EARTH'S GRAVITY AND THE CONCEPT OF ISOSTASY 185

spherical. The rotational effects can be predicted quite readily on the

basis of the simple rules governing rotational acceleration. The shape
of the earth enters in because on a nonspherical earth the gravitational
attraction at points farther from the center (where the mass can be con-
sidered to be concentrated) will be less than at those nearer to the center.
On an earth flattened at the poles the gravitational pull should be greater
in the polar regions than at the equator. In addition the component of
centrifugal force opposing gravity should be greater near the equator
than near the poles. Both effects together should give rise to a gravi-
tational pull at the equator about 10,000 milligals smaller than at lati-
tude 90°. About half this difference, as Hammer 2
points out, is counter-
acted by a decrease from the equator to the pole caused by
of attraction
the fact that there will be a greater amount of attracting mass between
the center and a bulging equator than between the center and flattened
polar areas. The actual difference in gravity between the pole and
equator is about 5,300 milligals.
Early Investigations.The exact shape of the earth has concerned
geodesists formore than 200 years. Wherever accurate mapping is done
from astronomic observations, the distance along a meridian between
adjacent degrees of latitude must
be known precisely at any location
Vertical \ p,6 / yerHca ,
(p/umblme^zzz^ (plumb line)
where astronomic surveys are made.
In the period from 1735 to 1743, the
Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris
sent out expeditions to measure
Vertical
the length of a degree of latitude
both in Peru (now Ecuador) near
the equator and in Lapland at lati- S pole
tude 66°. The fact that the degree Fig. 9-1. Greatly exaggerated representation
at the equator turned out to be of flattened earth, showing that length p x 6 of
the arc subtended by a given latitude angle 6
shorter than at Paris and the degree
is greater at poles of earth than at equator,
in Lapland longer than at Paris where length of the arc is p<$.
established the fact that the earth
is flattened at the poles. On first thought, it might appear that the arc

at the equator should be longer if the poles were flattened, but Fig. 9-1
demonstrates why the reverse is true.
From these measurements and from later more accurate ones covering
other ranges of latitude, the conclusion was reached that the earth's
shape approximately ellipsoidal. All data were referred to a theoretical
is

which could be expressed by appropriate numerical constants.

ellipsoid
The accumulation of new and more precise geodetic data has led to
periodic revision of these constants.
Although the most accurate reference surface appears to be a spheroid
186 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

rather than an ellipsoid of revolution, the latter is more convenient to

use for many purposes, since fewer constants are involved. It is interest-

ing tocompare the constants of the earliest published ellipsoid with those
from a much more recent formula (Table 9-1). That so little revision of

TABLE 9-1. Comparison of Constants Determined in 1800 and 1924 Defining the Figure of the Earth

Flattening

Ellipsoid
Equatorial Polar radius a - b
radius a, m b, m
a

1
Delambre, 1 800 6,375,653 6,356,564
334
1

6,378,388 6,356,912
297

the constants has been necessary over a century and a quarter testifies
to the precision of the early surveys.
The Geoid. In using any reference spheroid or ellipsoid for geodetic
work, one must relate the mathematical surface to some physical surface
on the earth. Over the oceans this surface is the average sea level.
On land, we can still relate the mathematical surface to sea level, which
here is considered as the imaginary surface having the same gravitational
potential as the mean surface of the oceans. This surface is called the
geoid, and it is defined by Bowie 3 as follows: "Under land areas the geoid
surface is that which would coincide with the water surfaces in narrow
sea-level canals if they were extended inland through the continents."
The geoid is not necessarily describable by any generalized geometrical
relationship. It is by definition everywhere horizontal.
In general the geoid will not coincide with the reference spheroid,
even though the constants of the spheroid are adjusted to give the best
possible fit to it. This is because there are undulations in the geoid
attributable to unbalanced horizontal attractions associated with surface
irregularities (which may be very large-scale features, such as continents,
mountain systems, and ocean basins, or smaller ones such as isolated
hills or buried ridges). In geodetic surveying with chain and spirit
level, elevations are determined with respect to the geoid and separations
between two points are measured directly. In astronomic surveying
(celestial determination of latitude and longitude), separations are
calculated by computing distances corresponding to measured angular
displacements along the reference spheroid. If the spheroid and geoid
coincide, both types of measurement should yield identical maps. If
the two surfaces diverge, there will be discrepancies between the respec-
tive results. Such discrepancies in themselves can give valuable informa-
THE EARTH'S GRAVITY AND THE CONCEPT OF ISOSTASY 187

tion on the subsurface structure of the earth, as will be shown later by

some examples.
Specification by Gravity Data. Since the introduction more than
half a century ago of pendulums suitable for measuring the acceleration
of gravity in the field, the figure of the earth has been described by a
formula relating observed gravity to latitude and longitude. The general
form of the gravity variation to be expected on a triaxial spheroid* is
expressed by the following formula:

g = g Q [\ + Ci sin 2 <f>
- C 2 sin 2 2<f> + C 3 cos 2 cf> cos 2(X +C 4 )] (9-1)

where g the value of gravity at any point on the surface of the reference
is

spheroid, go its value at the equator and at longitude (180° — C 4 ), the <f>

latitude, and X the longitude (positive when east of Greenwich). C\ t

C 2 C 3 and C 4 are constants which give a measure of the earth's true

, ,

shape. From them one can determine the earth's eccentricity and the
distortion of the equator. The values of the C's are adjusted to give the
best fit to gravity observations all over the earth. As the amount of
gravity data increases, successive revisions of the constants lead to suc-
cessively closer approaches to the spheroid giving the best over-all fit

to the geoid. A few representative sets of values for the constants are
reproduced in Table 9-2.

TABLE 9-2. Constants for Various Reference Spheroids

Spheroid C, c 3

Helmert, 1884 978.00 0.005310

Helmert, 1901 978.030 0.005302 0.000007
Helmert, 1915 978.052 0.005285 0.000007 0.000018 17°

Heiskanen, 1924.. 978.052 0.005285 0.000007 0.000027 18°

International, 1930 978.049 0.0052884 0.0000059

Heiskanen, 1938.. 978.0524 0.005297 0.0000059 0.0000276 25°

To determine the actual shape of the earth from gravity formulas of

this kind involves laborious calculations which will not be discussed
here.
New Approaches. One of the objectives of the 1957-1958 Interna-
tional Geophysical Year program was to determine the shape of the earth
much more precisely than ever before. Two new techniques have been
introduced which are expected to increase the precision over the greatest
that was previously obtainable. One involves simultaneous photography
* Triaxial spheroid is a frequently used
designation for an ellipsoid of revolution
modified by such second-order effects as depressions along the two 45°-latitude lines
and also by a flattening and bulging of the equator.
188 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

of the moon from a number of separated ground stations. The other

involves tracking of earth satellites with an array of Schmidt cameras.

9-2. Reduction of Gravity to the Geoid

The formula for gravity on the reference spheroid gives the value that
would be expected at any point if the earth were a perfectly uniform
spheroid fitted as closely as possible to sea level. All land would be

Attraction of this mass

added in topographic
correction p

Station elevation
Attraction of mass that Add 0.094 h mg-free -air corr.
h
would f/ff /his space added Subtract 0.0 14 h mg-Bouguer corr.
in topographic correction
[*" Sea /eve/
Corrections reduce gravity to this point
Fig. 9-2. Reduction of gravity values to the geoid. Inset shows typical zone chart used to obtain
topographic corrections superimposed over contour map of area. Station is at elevation of 1,050 ft.

Average elevation of zone 1 2-D, for example, is 1,020 ft. Hence topographic correction for this
zone is 30 times the constant for the zone.

removed down to sea level, and the ocean basins would be filled with
land to the same elevation. Moreover, the vertical distribution of
density with depth would be everywhere the same. Actually most
gravity observations are made above sea level on a surface that is far
from smooth. It is thus necessary to apply suitable corrections to
observed gravity on the basis of the known topography so as to reduce
gravity to what it would be under the artificial conditions just specified.

Three corrections are necessary: The free-air, the Bouguer, and the
topographic. Each corresponds a correction used in commercial
to
gravity reductions. Figure 9-2 illustrates the three corrections for the
case of a gravity station at an elevation h above the sea level.
Free-air Correction. The station shown, being at an elevation h above
sea level, will be a distance h farther from the center of the earth than a
station at sea level. Since the earth's mass can be considered con-
centrated at its center, the inverse-square law tells us that the attraction
THE EARTH'S GRAVITY AND THE CONCEPT OF ISOSTASY 189

of the earth at a height h will be [R 2 /(R + h)

2
] go, where go is the value at
sea leveland R is the radius of the earth. The gravity difference between
sea level and a point at elevation h is

2 hR + 9° h2 ~ 2goh
R - ^
2 R2 1 -
9o -
(jR + h)i
|\
9o-goyi -
{R + ^j {R + h)2
- R (Q^K**)

since h <£ R. Substituting 980 for g and 4,000 miles for R and con-
verting units, weget a correction of 0.094 milligal/ft. This is called the
free-air correction because it does not take into account the attraction of
any earth material above sea level. It is added to observed gravity.
Bouguer Correction. The Bouguer correction* accounts for the
attraction of the rock material between sea level and the station at
elevation h. It is based on the assumption that the surface of the earth
is everywhere horizontal (parallel to the geoid) and at this elevation above

sea level. Hills projecting above the top of the imaginary horizontal
slab so introduced and valleys extending below it of course violate this
assumption, but their gravitational effect is removed by a subsequent
topographic correction. In Chap. 8, it was shown that the attraction
in milligals of an infinite slab h ft thick is 2wy ah. If a is taken as 2.67

g/cm 3 (the generally although not always properly assumed average

density for crustal rocks), the Bouguer correction should be 0.034
milligal/ft. This is subtracted because we are effectively removing the
material between sea level and the station level.
Since the free-air and Bouguer corrections are both proportional to
elevation above sea level, it is usual to combine the two into a simple
elevation correction of (0.094 — 0.034) h or O.O6O/1 milligal, where h is in
feet.
Topographic Correction. This correction accounts for the attraction
of all material higher than the gravity station and also removes the effect
of material which was needed to fill in any hollows below the station so
as to build up the infinite slab hypothesized in making the Bouguer
correction. Because the attraction of the material higher than the
station is upward and opposes gravity, one removes its effect by adding
it to the observed gravity value. Similarly, the attraction of the material
in the valley below the station elevation (Fig. 9-2) has been subtracted
in the Bouguer correction. Since this material is actually missing we
must add its attraction to restore what was subtracted in the Bouguer
correction. Thus the topographic correction is always added whether
the feature is a hill or valley.
It would be very
difficult to calculate the attraction of such topo-
graphic features analytically, but special templates of the type first
* This is named after Pierre Bouguer, who, beginning in 1735, led the French Royal

Academy's expedition to measure the length of a degree of latitude in Peru.

190 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

devised by Hayford and Bowie make it possible to divide up the entire

4

area of the earth into zones and compartments, each with a known
contribution per foot of average elevation. The greater the distance
from the station, the larger is the zone of equal topographic effect. The
total correction is obtained by adding the contributions of each com-
partment out to a distance where the effect becomes negligible. The
standard procedure is to superimpose a transparent zone chart on a
contour map of the area surrounding the station. The average elevation
inside each compartment of the chart is determined by inspection and
the elevation of the station is subtracted. The difference is multiplied
by a factor which depends on the scale of the chart. The chart used for
this purpose is quite similar to Hammer's terrain correction template,
which is illustrated in Chap. 11 (page 231).
Anomalies. The departure of a corrected gravity value from the
theoretical value of gravity on the spheroid at the latitude and longitude
of the station is designated as the gravity anomaly associated with this
location. The type of anomaly depends on the corrections that have
been applied to the observed value. If only the free-air correction has
been applied, we define the free-air anomaly as

Observed grav. + free-air corr. — theoretical grav.

If the topography above sea level were hollow (so that the Bouguer and
topographic corrections are zero) and if the earth were homogeneous
below sea level, the free-air anomaly would be zero everywhere.
If the free-air, Bouguer, and topographic corrections have been applied,
the Bouguer anomaly is simply

Observed grav. -f- free-air corr. — Bouguer corr. + topographic corr.

— theoretical grav.

This anomaly should be zero if the density of the rocks below sea level
varies with depth in the same way everywhere. A Bouguer anomaly
from zero may indicate a local excess or deficit of density below
different
it may show that the actual density above sea level differs
sea level, or
from that assumed in choosing the constant for the Bouguer correction.

9-3. The Concept of Isostasy

When Bouguer anomalies are computed for areas where the earth's
surface is flatbut elevated well above sea level, they are almost always
negative. Over the deep ocean, where the Bouguer correction is made
by replacing the sea water with earth material of average crustal density,
the anomalies are generally positive. Over land very near sea level, the
average Bouguer anomaly is close to zero. Since a Bouguer anomaly of
THE EARTH'S GRAVITY AND THE CONCEPT OF ISOSTASY 191

zero implies that the material of the earthis everywhere homogeneous

at any given depth below the spheroid, the observations suggest that
beneath the elevated areas the density of the rocks below the geoid is
less than normal while beneath the ocean bottoms it is greater.
On first thought it is natural for one to consider the areas above sea
level, such as the continental blocks, to be built up on top of a uniform
spheroidal earth just as he might press a layer of modeling clay on a
billiard ball. Similarly, one might consider the ocean basins to be
scooped out of the solid earth just as he might carve out a depression
in the ball's original surface. If this were the case, the difference in

^ - Telescope
^P/umb bob e'lf^^Ss/Himalava
375m?.
^Ptumb
bob
M fs.

Kalianpur Ka/fanct
Fig. 9-3. Pratt's explanation for discrepancy between astronomically and geodetically determined
distances measured in Everest's survey of India. Apparent angle of star with plumb line differs
between two stations by amount a, the angle by which the Himalayas deflect plumb line at Kaliana
(deflection at Kalianpur assumed zero). This leads to error in astronomic latitude for Kaliana.

weight between mountain systems and ocean basins would result in a

differential pressure that would have to be supported by the rocks within
the earth's interior. It is easy to show that the material of which the
earth is composed is much too weak to stand such a stress. Consider-
ations such as this, along with inferences from gravity data, have led to
the hypothesis of isostasy. This proposes that the major topographic
features of the earth are associated with internal inequalities of density,
so that the high portions maintain their position by " floating" on an
effectively liquid subcrustal medium. In other words, an excess of mass
above sea mountain system) is compensated by a deficit
level (as in a
below sea level so that at a certain depth, known as the " depth of com-
pensation, " the total weight per unit area is equal all around the world.
Origins of the Concept. Isostasy can be best introduced by giving a
brief resume of its history. In the middle of the nineteenth century, a
highly precise triangulation survey of India brought to light a discrepancy
of about 5" (500 ft) between the separation of two stations, Kalianpur
and Kaliana (about 375 miles apart on a north-south line), as measured
geodetically and their separation as computed from astronomic observa-
tions. Although 500 ft appears to be a negligible enough error out of
375 miles, the precision and internal consistency of the triangulation
192 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

had been too great for even this small a difference to be accounted for
as an error in the geodetic work.
Figure 9-3 indicates the positions of the two stations with respect to
the Himalaya Mountains. Kaliana is in the foothills of the mountains,
while Kalianpur is surrounded by hundreds of miles of flat lands. Seek-
two stations,
ing to explain the discrepancy in the distance between the
J. H. Pratt conceived that the mass of the Himalayas would tend to

deflect the plumb line northward at each station, but more at Kaliana

— -:==* — a o

Mercury 13.6

Numbers represent densities

Mountain
System
Sea
level

Crust

root" Substratum
Isopiestic level"

Density 3.1

Fig. 9-4. Airy's theory

of compensation. Mountains overlie regions of greater crustal thickness
ocean basins overlie sections where crust is thin ("antiroots"). Mechanism illustrated
(roots), while

by copper blocks of various heights and specific gravity 8.9 floating on mercury with a specific
gravity of 13.6. "Isopiestic level" is shallowest depth at which pressure is everywhere equal.

than at Kalianpur. Such deflection would lead to errors in the astro-

nomic survey, since the plumb line would not actually point to the
center of the earth, as assumed in the astronomic computations. Calcu-
lating the discrepancy that would be expected because of the horizontal
attraction of the Himalayas, Pratt was surprised to find that the differ-
ence in separations should have been about 15" of latitude instead of
5" as actually found. He presented a paper 5 on his calculations to the
Royal Society of London in 1855, making no attempt to explain his
results at that time.
Airy's Hypothesis. Less than two months after Pratt's paper was
delivered, G. B. Airy 6 submitted a solution to the puzzle Pratt had
brought up. The earth's crust, he said, is a rigid shell floating on a
liquid substratum of greater density. Under mountains the base of the
crust would have penetrated farther into the substratum than under
land at sea level. Figure 9-4 illustrates this. Airy wrote,
THE EARTH'S GRAVITY AND THE CONCEPT OF ISOSTASY 193

The state of the earth's crust lying upon the lava may be compared with perfect
correctness to the state of a raft of timber floating upon the water; in which, if
we remark one log whose upper surface floats much higher than the upper sur-
faces of the others, we are certain that its lower surface lies deeper in the water
than the lower surfaces of the others.

Similarly, the crust under ocean deeps would be thinner than under
land surfaces at or near sea level.
Applying concept to the Himalayas, it would follow that mountain
this
roots of crustal material penetrating into a heavier substratum would
account for a deficiency of mass below the mountains. The roots of the
Himalayas, lighter than the surrounding substratum, would oppose the
northward attraction of the plumb line by the mountains themselves.
If the compensation w ere complete, the tw o effects would nearly cancel.
r r

Actually the compensation seems to have reduced the residual effect to

one-third of what it would have been otherwise.
Pratt's Hypothesis. Four years later, Pratt 7 proposed a somewhat
different although equally plausible explanation for his own observations.
He acknowledged that the excess mass of the mountains above sea level
had to be compensated by a deficit below sea level, but he supposed the
crust to have a uniform thickness (below sea level) w ith its base every- r

where supporting a uniform weight per unit area. Under the mountains
these conditions would call for a deficiency in density of the crustal rocks.
The subcrustal density, although variable, should always be such that the
total weight of the mountains and crustal material below them is equal
to the weight of the crustal rocks alone in an area where the earth's surface
is flat and at sea level. Under the oceans, the density of the rocks must be
greater than average to compensate for the less than normal weight of the
ocean water. Figure 9-5 illustrates Pratt's hypothesis. As a geological
justification for this heproposed that mountains result from upward
expansion of crustal material w hich has been locally heated. After the
T

heating, the material occupies more space but has a lower density than
before.
Subsequent Development. For almost a century the Pratt and Airy
hypotheses of compensation have been the subject of controversy. Each
has had many adherents. Some seismological evidence seems to sub-
stantiate the Airy theory of roots under mountains and a thinner than
average crust under the ocean basins; other kinds of seismological data
suggest that the crustal thickness is the same under some mountains as
it is under the coastal Thus
it appears that the most powerful
plains.
tools available to geophysics have not as yet succeeded in giving a clear-
cut answer to the question of who, if either, w as right. r

In 1889, Dutton 8 introduced the term isostasy to describe the con-

dition of the earth w^hen all readjustments have been made to bring about
194 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

Numbers represent densities

Mts. Ocean basin
Mrs.
\4-mi. S.L

2.10 2.62 2.15 2.65 2.13 2.10

(normal
density) 200 mi.
i 1

'////. /////////Jf/s/t S////////////////J ^///////////////////s

Pressure on sub- / Liquid substratum

stratum every- '
Dens. =3./
where equal at
this level
Fig. 9-5. Pratt's theory of compensation. Elevated blocks such as mountains are underlain by crustal
material of less than normal density. Ocean deeps are underlain by greater than normal density.
Densities are such that weight per unit area is same at base of each column. Inset illustrates analogy
to metals having different densities floating on mercury.

gravitational equilibrium. At the basesuch equilibrium

of the crust
implies uniform hydrostatic pressure on the liquid substratum. As will
be shown, the earth is not everywhere in true isostatic equilibrium, but
gravity data give substantial evidence that statistically, at any rate,
isostatic compensation does occur.

9-4. Gravitational Evidence for Isostasy

If the earth were in perfect isostatic equilibrium the total weight at

any depth below sea level greater than the maximum depth of the crust
would be a constant. On such an earth, the force of gravity at any point
would be the same after correction for the free-air effect as it is on the
reference spheroid at the same latitude, except for the vertical component
of attraction from any adjacent columns which might have a different
density configuration. This is another way of saying that the free-air
anomaly would be zero except for this factor.
on the other hand, there were no isostatic compensation for surface
If,

features, a laterally homogeneous crust would support all topographic

features above sea level. Once the free-air and Bouguer corrections are
made, the effect of material above sea level is effectively removed, and
gravity should be the same as that predicted for the reference spheroid.
THE EARTH'S GRAVITY AND THE CONCEPT OF ISOSTASY 195

This is way of saying that the Bouguer anomaly would be zero.

another
Thus a anomaly near zero indicates that perfect compensation is
free-air
approached a Bouguer anomaly near zero for an elevated area signifies a
;

lack of compensation below sea level. The less than normal density in
the crustal material underlying compensated mountains should lead to a
negative Bouguer anomaly, while the greater than normal density under
ocean deeps should result in a positive Bouguer anomaly.
Isostatic Anomalies. The degree of isostatic compensation in any area
can be determined quantitatively from gravity data if one makes an
additional correction for the gravitational effect of the density variations
below sea level which, isostatic theory predicts, compensate for surface
topography. The form of such a correction will depend on the type of
isostatic compensation assumed. If it is the Pratt type, it is necessary

to compute the excess or deficit of mass down to the base of the crust (on
the assumption that this occurs at a constant specified depth) for each
element of land or submarine surface not at sea level. If it is the Airy
type, on the other hand, one computes the depth of the crust beneath
each topographic feature. In this calculation it is necessary to assume a
normal depth for the crust below sea level. In either case one assumes
a subsurface density distribution which gives rise to an equal load every-
where below the base of compensation. To compute the gravity effect
of these subsurface density anomalies at any point, one generally employs
a zone chart very similar to that used in calculating the topographic
correction. One commonly used procedure is described in detail by
Bullard. 9
When the isostatic correction is added to the free-air, Bouguer, and
topographic corrections of observed gravity, one finally has the value
of gravity at sea level below the observation point when all material
above sea level is removed, the ocean basins are filled up to sea level with
rock of average crustal density, and all predicted lateral inhomogeneities
below this surface are removed by the isostatic correction. This type of
earth, when in rotation, should have the same gravity distribution as the
theoretical reference spheroid on which the formula in Eq. (9-1) is based.
If we define the isostatic anomaly as

Observed grav. + free-air corr. — Bouguer corr. -+- topographic corr.

+ isostatic corr. — theoretical grav.

this anomaly should be zero where topographic features are perfectly

compensated. A positive isostatic anomaly indicates absence of com-
pensation or undercompensation; this might be expected on a volcanic
island so small that it could be supported by the rigidity of the crust
without the necessity for compensation to keep it " afloat." A negative
anomaly suggests overcompensation, such as would be expected if a com-
196 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

pensated mountain system were to wear down by erosion faster than the
corresponding density deficit disappears in the crust below it.
In general, the isostatic anomaly will depend on the assumptions used
in its calculation. Often the assumptions themselves can be tested by
trial-and-error calculation of anomalies, those giving rise to the smallest
isostaticanomalies (averaged over many stations) being most tenable.
Trial of many values for the " depth of compensation" in computing
isostasy on Pratt's assumption indicated to Hayford, for example, that
the depth 113.7 km anomaly for all United
gives the smallest residual
States gravity stations. Heiskanen, 10 using the Airy hypothesis, has
shown that a crust 30 to 40 km deep below land surfaces at or near sea
level gives isostatic anomalies least dependent on height of the measuring
point. The latter range of values is much more compatible with present-
day seismological evidence than is Hayford's figure.
Conclusions Based on Gravity Measurements. Let us examine briefly
some of the evidence that gravity measurements have provided on the
earth's crustal structure. A comprehensive summary of the available
data has been compiled by Daly. 11 Gravity measurements have been
made on all the continents of the earth and over most oceanic areas.
The measurements at sea have been with the ingenious Vening Meinesz
three-pendulum apparatus, which operates in a submerged submarine
and more recently with especially adapted gravimeters. The greatest
isostatic anomalies ever recorded are along the long arcuate ocean deeps
of the East and West Indies. These anomalies, negative in sign, are
as great as —200 milligals and are believed by some to be caused by
linear wedges of crustal material penetrating deeply into the heavier
substratum.
The greatest positive isostatic anomalies have been observed on islands.
That on Cyprus, for example, is somewhat more than 100 milligals,
while Oahu exhibits a positive anomaly of 50 to 75 milligals. Such
islands are apparently uncompensated, but their excess weight appears
to be adequately supported by the earth's crust, since there is no geologic
evidence that they are sinking. In the case of Oahu there is some evi-
dence that the compensation may be spread out over a much greater
area than that actually occupied by the island.
In general the continents approach isostatic equilibrium quite closely.
The United States as a whole is within a very few milligals of being com-
pletely compensated, although along the Pacific Coast the isostatic
anomaly averages about -20 milligals. This is a considerable deficit
for so large an area, and Daly suggests that it might be explained by
erosion of material from a coastal area originally in equilibrium. Tur-
kestan has an unexplained negative anomaly of more than 50 milligals.
The open oceans are quite close to isostatic equilibrium except for the
 :

THE EARTH'S GRAVITY AND THE CONCEPT OF ISOSTASY 197

Indian Ocean, which has an isostatic anomaly of about —20 milligals

when computed with respect to the " international formula." The exis-
tence of this anomaly has been cited as evidence for triaxiality of the
reference spheroid, for when isostasy is computed with respect to a
triaxial spheroid, theanomaly almost disappears.
Isostatic anomalies usually cover areas hundreds of miles or more in
extent and thus are much larger in horizontal extent than any structures
sought in gravity prospecting. The effect of the compensation is usually
removable as part of the regional background, and for this reason no iso-
static correction is necessary in the reduction of commercial gravity data.

9-5. Earth Tides

Gravity-measuring instruments for geophysical prospecting are so

sensitive that they respond to the gravitational attraction of the sun and
moon and register the periodic variations in the attraction caused by
movements of the earth with respect to these bodies. The waters of the
earth, having no rigidity, are periodically raised and lowered by such
forces, the changes being familiar to all as tides. The earth itself is
acted upon by these same tidal forces, and since it is not infinitely rigid,
its solid surface is deformed by them in the same manner as the free
water surface, although not of course to the same extent. The actual
rise and fall of a point on the surface is much smaller than the correspond-
ing fluctuations in water level, being only a matter of a few inches. This
movement, however, in itself causes small but measurable changes in
gravity as the distance from the center of the earth is altered. The
magnitude of the changes varies with latitude, time of month, and time
of year, but the complete tidal cycle is accompanied by a gravity change
of only 0.2 to 0.3 milligal.
Heiland 12 has derived the formula for the vertical component of the
tidal force, Ag, caused by the sun (mass s M
distance from the earth D s )
,

and the moon (mass M

m distance from the earth D m ) at any point on a
,

perfectly rigid earth of radius r when the respective celestial bodies make
geocentric angles of a s and a m with the observation station

= 3yrM m / cos Q2am +

l\ ZyrM ( s l\ /n .,
Ag
-wj- V 3)
" ^dT V cos 2as + V (9-3)

Here y is the gravitational constant. Evaluation of the respective

coefficients of the terms
parentheses indicates that the moon's attrac-
in
tion is more than twice that of the sun. Wolf 13 has observed that the
distortion of the earthdue to the same tidal forces increases the effective
gravitational pull of the sun and moon 20 per cent. Adler 14 has con-
structed a set of curves based on this formula from which the solar and
198 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

lunar tidal correction can be obtained if the position of each heavenly

body at the time of observation and the latitude and longitude are known.
Wyckoff 15 and Wolf 13 have published a number of representative
curves of tidal gravity variation. One such curve is reproduced in
Fig. 9-6. The divergence between the theoretical gravity variation and

La+ 38.2°N
Long. 9(7.0" W
0.4

X.
S' s t
J_
^
0.3
/ / i

0.2 >f ^'

\ /
;C \ /

I o
SJ y\M L
\ y
/\ JHv
f /
f
-0.1
_x/ \ \ ^/

I8H 22 2 6 10 14 18 22 2 6 10H
Dec 10, 1939 Dec.!! Dec.I2

Fig. 9-6. Comparison of theoretical and observed curves of tidal gravity variation. (A) Gravity
meter readings. (8) Drift curve. (C) Observed variation of gravity from drift curve. (D) Cal-
culated gravity variation. (After Wolf, Geophysics, 1940.)

the observed one gives an indication of the actual deformation of the

earth under tidal influences and makes it possible to determine the
earth's true rigidity.

REFERENCES

1. Heiskanen,W. A., and F. A. Vening Meinesz: "The Earth and its Gravity Field,"
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1958.
2. Hammer, Sigmund: Note on the Variation from the Equator to the Pole of the
Earth's Gravity, Geophysics, Vol. 8, pp. 57-60, 1943.
3. Bowie, William: Isostasy, "The Figure of the Earth," p. 113, Physics of the
Earth series 2, National Research Council Bulletin 78, 1931.
4. Hayford, J. F., and William Bowie: The Effect of Topography and Isostatic
Compensation upon the Intensity of Gravity, U.S. Geol. Survey Spec. Pub. 10,
1912.
5. Pratt, J. H.On the Attraction of the Himalaya Mountains and of the Elevated
:

Regions beyond upon the Plumb-line in India; On the Computations of the Effect
of the Attraction of the Mountain Masses as Disturbing the Apparent Astronomi-
cal Latitude of Stations in Geodetic Surveys, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, Vol.
145, pp. 53-55, 1855.
6. Airy, G. B.-.Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, Vol. 145, pp. 101-104, 1855.
7. Pratt, J. H.:Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, Vol. 149, pp. 747-763, 1859.
8. Dutton, C. E.: On Some of the Greater Problems of Physical Geology, Bull. Phil.
Soc. Washington, Vol. 11, p. 51, 1889.
THE EARTH'S GRAVITY AND THE CONCEPT OF ISOSTASY 199

9. Bullard, E. C:Gravity Measurements in East Africa, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.

London, Vol. 235A, pp. 445-531, 1936.
10. Heiskanen, W.: Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, Vol. 34, p. 11, 1953.
11. Daly, R. A.: "The Strength and Structure of the Earth," Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1940.
12. Heiland, C. A.: "Geophysical Exploration," p. 163, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Engle-
wood Cliffs, N.J., 1940.
13. Wolf, Alfred: Tidal Force Observations, Geophysics, Vol. 5, pp. 317-320, 1940.
14. Adler, Joseph L.: Simplification of Tidal Corrections for Gravity Meter Surveys,
Geophysics, Vol. 7, pp. 35-44, 1942.
15. Wyckoff, R. D.: Study of Earth Tides by Gravitational Measurements, Trans.
Am. Geophys. Union, 17th annual meeting, pp. 46-52, 1936.
 CHAPTER 10

INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING GRAVITY

Three types of instruments have been used in gravity prospecting: the

torsion balance, the pendulum, and the gravimeter, or gravity meter.
The first of these, originally developed for geodetic purposes around the
beginning of this century, was widely employed until the middle 1930's.
The pendulum was used to a limited extent for oil exploration during
the early 1930's; and the gravimeter, which superseded both, has been
used almost exclusively ever since.
For a long time, development and improvement of gravity-measuring
instruments went on at a spectacular rate. This progress continued
until the late 1940's when a precision had been attained that was suffi-
cient to satisfy all normal requirements in exploration work. Also, there
seemed to be little room for improvement from the standpoint of ease
of handling and rapidity of operation. If ways are found of putting
greater precision to practical use, it is entirely possible that further
improvements will follow.
Anomalies sought in prospecting, such as those from salt domes or
buried ridges, have peak values which are seldom greater than 1 or
2 milligals. They are superimposed on a normal gravitational acceler-
ation of nearly a million milligals. Since we are interested in gravity
differences rather than in the absolute values of gravity, there is no
necessity for an instrument that measures gravity directly. Actually
the finest gravity pendulums give results that are barely reliable to the
nearest milligal, so that pendulum measurements could not yield the
differences of 0.1 milligal or less that are often required in gravity pros-
pecting. The gravimeter cannot be usedto determine absolute values
of gravity but does measure small differences in gravity with a pre-
it

cision of the order of 0.01 milligal. Pendulum data are necessary to

calibrate gravimeter readings, which basically record the stretch of a
spring under gravitational force.
Although instruments for the direct measurement of gravity differ-
ences are now employed almost universally, the torsion balance, which
measures gradients and curvatures rather than gravitational acceler-
ations, was operated very extensively as a prospecting tool for nearly
200
 INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING GRAVITY 201

Jtwo decades. In addition, pendulum apparatus was operated inten-

sively by one company for a period of several years. Although both
instruments are now obsolete, data obtained by them may still be
^reviewed long after the original surveys were made. It is therefore
desirable that we consider the principles of the torsion balance and
!
pendulum briefly in this chapter. For more comprehensive and quan-
titative treatments of these instruments, the reader is referred to Nettle-
ton's, Jakosky's, or Heiland's texts or to the first five references given
•at the end of this chapter. To maintain proper historical sequence, the
two obsolete instruments will be discussed before we take up the more
modern types.

10-1. The Ebtvbs Torsion Balance

In Chap. 8, the concepts of gradient and curvature of the gravitational

potential were introduced, and it was shown that these quantities, when

(/) (2) (3)

Fig. 10-1. Schematic diagrams for four types of torsion balance. (1 ) Cavendish balance. (2) Standard
Eotvos torsion balance. (3) Variation of standard type. (4) Tilt-beam balance.

measured on the earth's surface, exhibit characteristic patterns in the

presence of subsurface density anomalies such as those associated with
salt domes and other The Eotvos torsion balance is
geologic features.
used to measure gradients and curvatures. The precision workmanship
involved in its design and construction has been exceeded in few if any
field instruments.
Principles of Design. Basically the Eotvos balance consists of two
equal weights at different heights connected by a rigid frame, the system
being suspended by a torsion wire in such a way that it is free to rotate
in a horizontal plane about the wire. Usually the frame is a light hori-
zontal beam, with one of the weights attached directly to one end and
the other weight suspended from the opposite end. In principle, the
instrument is similar to the Cavendish balance, first used to establish
the value of the gravitational constant y, as described in Chap. 8; how-
ever, in the Eotvos balance both weights are not in the same horizontal
plane as is the case with the Cavendish instrument. Figure 10-1 shows
202 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

the basic construction of the Cavendish and various versions of the

Eotvos balance.
Actually, the Cavendish balance could be used to measure curvature,
so that Baron von Eotvos' principal contribution was to displace the
weights vertically making it possible to mea'sure gradient also. With
either instrument, the balance bar will rotate only when a differential
horizontal force acts on the weights. This will occur when the earth's
gravitational field in the neighborhood of the balance is distorted so
that the horizontal component at one end is different from that at the
other. A field describable by equipotential surfaces which are all parallel
iTorsion wire

Buned
mass
fig. 10-2. Effect of buried mass upon torsion balance displaced to one side of its axis. Full lines are
equipotentials. Dotted lines are lines of total gravitational force. These indicate "direction of
vertical." Difference in components of gravitational force along beam at its two ends is "horizon-
tal" force, giving rise to rotational torque around torsion wire.

planes will cause no rotation of the beam, since the horizontal force
would be the same on both sides. A warping of the equipotentials, such
as would be caused by the attraction of a buried mass, tends to rotate
the arm. The amount of rotation depends upon the amount of unbal-
anced horizontal force and the stiffness of the torsion fiber, which exerts an
opposing torque proportional to the angle of rotation from its unstrained
position. As shown in Fig. 10-2, the weights tend to "fall," even though
their motion remains parallel to the earth's surface, from a higher gravi-
tational potential to a lower gravitational potential, rotating in the
process.
If the equipotential surfaces have a differential curvature at a point
(radii of curvature not equal in all possible vertical planes through the
point), a Cavendish balance pivoted there will tend to rotate, as illus-
trated in Fig. 10-3, until it lines up with the axis of maximum curvature.
In the initial position A, the weights are on equipotential surface 3. If

left free to move, they will "fall" to the lowest possible potential in the

plane of the bar, in this case somewhat below 2. This will put the bar
in position B. It is evident from the diagram that circular traces on
the horizontal plane of spherical equipotential surfaces would not cause
a bar pivoted at the center of the circles to rotate. Only a curvature
 INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING GRAVITY 203

which is different in the two horizontal directions will have such a rota-
tional force. The greater the difference in curvature, the more equi-
I potential surfaces are cut by the weights in a given rotation (i.e., the
-farther the fall). The gravitational force causing rotation is opposed
jby the torsion of the wire, and the total angular movement of the beam
Ibefore equilibrium is reached is a measure of the differential curvature.

one of the weights is lowered a distance of the same order as the length
If

^of the bar, the curvature it encounters will not have changed appreciably

and the rotational force on the balance as a w hole will not be affected.
T

Axis of ma*
Curvature,

Fig. 10-3. How differential curvature causes a Fig. 10-4. How gravity gradient, indicated bY
Cavendish balance to rotate from initial posi- spreading apart of equipotential surfaces (num-
tion A to position of minimum potential 8. bered), tends to cause rotation of Ebtvds torsion
Small downward displacements of one of the balance from initial position A to final position 8.
weights, as in Ebtvds torsion balance, would not Weights tend to "fall" from higher to lower
affect the rotation. potential.

Thus either a Cavendish or Eotvos balance will measure differential

curvature.
If the force of gravity is changing in the horizontal direction, the
equipotential surfaces are spreading farther apart in the direction of
decreasing acceleration of gravity. The rate of spreading with horizontal
distance is indicated by the gradient, and this can be measured, as shown
in Fig. 10-4, by a balance of the Eotvos type with weights vertically
displaced. In this diagram, the plane of the bar is designated by equi-
potential surface 5. Both weights are constrained to rotate in planes
parallel to this, but neither of these planes is Hence the
horizontal.
weights "fall" until the lowest possible potential (between 7 and 8 for
the upper weight, between and
1 for the lower) is reached along their

circular trajectories, or until the opposing torque of the torsional wires

brings them to rest. The greater the gradient, the more will be the
torque causing rotation.
The equations by which gradient and curvature can be calculated
from the constants of the torsion balance and the readings of equilibrium
position will not be derived or presented here. They are treated, how-
204 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

ever, in the more comprehensive texts referred to earlier, in manufac-

turers' instructions books,and in an article by Barton. 2
1

Construction and Operation. The torsion balance as used in the

field has two parallel beams about 40 cm long with hanging weights at
opposite ends. The upper weights are attached to the beams, each
weight having a mass of about 25 g. The lower weights are suspended
about 60 to 70 cm below the beams. The small rotations of the beams
are magnified by an optical lever. In the course of a field measurement
the operator orients the pair of beams in three directions, each making
an angle of 120° with the other two; at least one reading is taken for each
beam at each orientation. In some models the position of the light
beam, reflected from a mirror moving with the balance arm, is read on
a scale through a telescope; in others it is registered photographically.
The three positions for the pair of balance arms, always oriented 120°
apart, make necessary a total of six readings at each location. From
these data one solves equations for six unknown quantities that must
be ascertained in determining gradient and curvature.
Present Status. Although the precision of a torsion balance in favor-
able terrain is as great as that of the most modern gravity meters, the
—
instrument has been completely superseded in the Western Hemisphere,
—
at any rate by the gravimeter. There are two reasons. The first is
the much greater speed of operation of the gravimeter. The very long
time required for setting up the torsion balance, leveling it, and waiting
for the beam to come to equilibrium limited operations to only a few
stations per day as contrasted with the 50 or more a day made quite
regularly in gravimeter operations. The second reason is the great
sensitivity of the torsion balance to the gravitational effect of topographic
irregularities. It is so difficult to correct exactly for the effect of nearby
hills and valleys that the attainable precision of the instrument can be
taken advantage of only over very flat terrain.

10-2. The Pendulum

The physical pendulum, a rigid rod free to swing about a point of

suspension near one end, has long been the standard device for measuring
the absolute value of gravity. The Kater reversible pendulum was the
prototype of several instruments which have been specially designed to
measure gravity with a precision of about 1 part in 1 million. Apparatus
of this type requires such carefully controlled conditions that it can hardly
be used in the field.

Principles. The period of a physical pendulum vibrating with small

by the formula

^
amplitude is given

= 2 (10 - 1}
INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING GRAVITY 205

where / is the moment of inertia of the pendulum about its support, m

its total mass, and h the distance from the point of support to the center

of mass. If the constants of the pendulum are known and the period T

is measured, the acceleration of gravity g is immediately obtainable

from the relation

St <"«>

In order to measure g with a precision of 1 part in 1 million, one would

have to know m, I, and h to the same degree of precision. It would be
virtually impossible to measure the last two quantities this accurately.
If, on the other hand, the same pendulum is swung at two different
locations, it is easy to measure the difference Ag in gravity between the
7
two stations by observing the difference AT in the periods at the two
stations.
Calling the period 7\ at the first station, where the gravity is gi, and
T2 at the second station (gravity g 2 ), it can be easily demonstrated that

T 2 - 7\ = AT ^ - £ -^L (10-3)
g Vg
z

where k = 2ir -\/l/mh.

Operation. The precision with which the two periods can be measured
increases with the total number of pendulum swings that are counted and
timed. In commercial work, a single run may consist of 4,000 swings.
Periods are measured simply by counting the number of swings within
a known time interval, on the generally valid assumption that the time
required for each individual swing remains constant.
The timing pendulum swings is facilitated if the oscillations are
of
photographically recorded on a moving tape. Time signals, either from
radio impulses or from a chronometer, are superimposed on the trace
representing the pendulum motion. The motion can be recorded con-
veniently with a beam of light reflected from a mirror on the side of the
pendulum as it swings. The timing marks can be superimposed by
interrupting the light beam momentarily with a shutter on a shaft for
which the rate of rotation is controlled by a chronometer. The sample
pendulum record shown in Fig. 10-5 illustrates the time signals obtained
by use of a multiple-spoked interrupting wheel.
Geodetic Pendulums. The pendulum has been employed for geodetic
gravity determinations since the introduction in 1880 of Von Sterneck's
fieldapparatus. The USC & GS has employed the similarly constructed
Mendenhall pendulum since 1890. The design and operation of these
early pendulums are discussed by Swick. 3 The most ingenious of all
gravity pendulums is the three-pendulum type designed by Vening
206 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

Fig. 10-5. Sample record made in submerged subma-

with Vening Meinesz three-pendulum apparatus
rine under way. Pattern of timing interruptions (observable as wavy
bands across vertical lines
light

representing swinging motion) makes possible accurate measurement of pendulum period.

Meinesz 4 for his historic measurements of gravity at sea in submerged

submarines and used more recently by other investigators. All such
instruments have been employed for geodetic purposes rather than for
gravity prospecting.
Gulf Pendulum. The only pendulum that has ever been used to any
extent for gravity prospecting in North America was that developed by

Fig. 10-6. Gulf gravity pendulum apparatus with top case removed. Extra pair of matched quartz
pendulums and Pyrex knife-edge flais illustrate design of the minimum pendulums which are barely
visible in the apparatus itself. {Gulf Research and Development Co.)

the Gulf Research andDevelopment Co. and described by Gay. 5 During

the period from 1932 to 1936, 8,500 stations were occupied with this
system in the Gulf Coast. The apparatus is shown in Fig. 10-6. The
pendulum itself is of the minimum type; i.e., the point of suspension is
so located with respect to the center of mass that the period is least
altered by any changes in length resulting from thermal expansion or
INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING GRAVITY 207

wear on the knife-edge. The arm consists of a fused-quartz knife-edge

resting on a glass flat. In the field the two pendulum arms are swung in
opposite phase so as to eliminate sway in the support. The pendulums
are in an evacuated chamber kept at constant temperature. A mecha-
nism for lowering the knife-edges to their flats and raising them after a
run is operated through vacuum-tight openings in the chamber by knobs
on the outside. The pendulum motion is recorded photographically
with beams of light reflected by mirrors on the sides of the swinging arms.
For a gravity determination, two sets of apparatus are run simul-
taneously, one in the field and one at a fixed base station. The two
records are coordinated by radio time signals. The difference in period
is computed from the difference in the total number of swings at each

station between two fiducial time signals about Yi hr apart. Gravity

differences between the two stations are determined from the differences
in period by use of a formula similar to the one just derived for two
readings of the same pendulum, but somewhat more complex, since the
two pendulums would have separate constants, k\ and k 2 A network of .

differences could thus be established, and this could be extended indefi-

nitely by shifting the base station to points previously occupied by field
stations. A precision of 0.25 milligal may be obtained under ordinary
conditions.
The Gulf pendulum was superseded in 1936 by the Gulf gravimeter,
which gave superior performance in both speed of operation and precision.
Holweck-Lejay Pendulum. The Holweck-Lejay inverted pendulum,
which has been used both for geodetic determinations of gravity and for
petroleum prospecting, consists of a ver- r -,

tical bar supported from below by a stiff /</' recf,on of ; \

Z7/

spring. When the top of the bar is pulled !

\jy of spring
sideways (as shown in Fig. 10-7), the re- position^ \lj\6rov,ry
storing force of the spring opposes the J
7/
gravitational force on the bar, the latter /
P rin9
ji j- j- 7777777777777777777777777-
being in the direction oi£ displacement.
i . i
1

The greater the displacement, the greater F '9- 10 - 7 - Holweck-Lejay inverted pen-
dulum (schematic) -

is the component of gravity opposing the

restoring force. The result is to increase the period so that it is con-
siderably greater than it would be if the same bar were employed as
a physical pendulum. The increased period, it can be shown, makes
possible a greater sensitivity to small changes in gravity than would be
obtained with the corresponding physical pendulum.

10-3. The Gravimeter

The gravimeter, or gravity meter, measures small variations in the

vertical component of gravity directly. Although there is a wide
208 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

variation in the design of different kinds of gravimeters, there are only

two fundamental types, the stable and the unstable.
The stable gravimeter contains a responsive element (such as a spring)
with a displacement from equilibrium position proportional or approxi-
mately proportional to the change in gravity from its equilibrium value.
Since such displacements are always extremely small, they must be
greatly magnified by optical, mechanical, or electrical means. Unstable
gravimeters are so designed that any change in gravity from its equilib-
rium value brings other forces into play which increase the displacement
From t/'ght source
Micrometer (

screw 4-fh Eyepiece

^j (J

Graduated screen

Adjusting
spring v
Hinge

Weight
Fig. 10-8. Hartley gravimeter (schematic).

caused by the gravity change alone. How this is accomplished in prac-

tice willbe illustrated later by some specific examples.
Stable Type. All stable gravimeters have a single element to balance
the force of gravity with another force measurable by a displacement,
which can be magnified and read
either linear, angular, or electrical,
directly. Any change accompanied by a corresponding
in gravity is
change in this displacement. For the case of a simple spring this change
would be in its length. The usual formula for the restoring force of a
weighted spring is

F = -k(x - .To) = mg (10-4)

where x is the length of the spring, x the original length before the weight
was hung from it, and k the spring constant. Since the mass m is con-
stant, any change in g would cause a proportionate change in elongation.
The Hartley Gravimeter. 6 This is probably the simplest example of
the stable type. The vertical motion of the weight suspended from a
spring magnified about 50,000 times by an ingenious system of levers,
is

both mechanical and optical. Figure 10-8 illustrates the principle of the
instrument's operation. When the mainspring is lengthened or short-
ened by variations in gravity, it can be returned to a fixed reference
position by the tightening or loosening of the auxiliary weighting spring.
INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING GRAVITY 209

The amount by which the micrometer screws must be turned is readable

on a dial which gives a measure of the departure of gravity from its

value at the reference position. Since the mirror is located at the end of
the beam, its displacement is greater than that of the mainspring. The

(o)

Fig. 10-9. Gulf gravimeter. (a) Helical spring and mirror, (b) Assembly inside insulating case.
{Gulf Research and Development Co., published in Geophysics, 1941.)

long optical path of the light beam magnifies the motion still further
and makes possible measurements having an accuracy of about 1 milligal.
Although this gravimeter was never used extensively and is far too
insensitive for modern exploration requirements, it has been discussed
in some detail here because it illustrates clearly many of the principles
210 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

that are applied in the design of more modern stable instruments. It

is also important historically in that it was the first gravity instrument
to use the principle of the null
spring.
The Gulf Gravimeter. When a
Scale flat spring is wound in the form
A ux il/'ary^ ^ -"> of a helix with the flat surface
weight always parallel to the axis and a
weight is suspended at the lower
end, any change in the gravita-
tional pull on the weight will cause
the spring to rotate as well as to
Pivot elongate. In fact, the rotary mo-
tion of the bottom end of the spring
is greater and hence is easier to
measure than the vertical displace-
mg ment. If a mirror is attached rig-
idly to the bottom of the helix,
(a) beam horizontal at g- can be detected and
this rotation
measured by means of a beam of
Scale light reflected from the mirror.
The Gulf, or Hoyt, gravimeter 7
Force operates on this principle, utiliz-
reinforcing ing a system of which
mirrors
gravity greatly increases the optical path
change
of the light beam to magnify the
motion. The accuracy of the in-
strument is better than 0.02 mil-
ligal. For the first few years after
its introduction, the Gulf instru-

ment had a substantially greater

sensitivity than any other gravim-
eter used in the field. In 1943 a
beam tilted at s miniature model of this gravimeter
(b)
g g +Ag
Fig. 10-10. Thyssen gravimeter (schematic).
was developed having a weight of 25
lb, as opposed to 94 lb in the stand-
ard-size instrument, and a volume only one-fourth as great as that of the
standard model. Figure 10-9a is a photograph of the helical spring ele-
ment and attached mirror used standard Gulf gravimeter, while
in the
Fig. 10-96 illustrates the
complete assemblage with the exception of the
outer case and thermostatic equipment.
Unstable Type. In unstable gravimeters, sometimes referred to as
"labilized" or "astatized," the force of gravity is kept in an unstable
NSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING GRAVITY 211

equilibrium with the restoring force. The instability is provided by a

third force which intensifies the effect of any change in gravity from its
equilibrium value. For small changes of gravity the force called into
play by a departure from equilibrium is proportional to the magnitude of
change and acts, of course, in the same direction. Several examples are
considered below.
The Thyssen Gravimeter. 8 This instrument (Fig. 10-10) illustrates the
principle most clearly. When the beam is horizontal, in balance between
the force of gravity mg and the equal pull of the mainspring, the auxiliary
weight, being vertically above the pivot, exerts no turning moment on

/Adjusting screw d, >e2

! instrument
to null Counterclockwise
by changing support moment ot spring less
of main spring when g increases and
causes greater clock-
wise moment
Light beam

Weight at g=g ~Ag

t
\. -^-Weight at g=gQ
Mirror

Fig. 10-11. LaCoste-Romberg gravimeter (schematic).

the beam. A small change in g, however, will tilt the beam slightly,
and the auxiliary weight is now where it exerts a
shifted into a position
moment reinforcing that of the increased gravitational force and causing
additional elongation of the spring. As long as the gravitational change
is small, the stretch or contraction of the spring will be proportional to it,

as will the deflection of the light beam on the scale. In practice, two
parallel beams are employed with weights at opposite ends. The pre-
cision of a single observation is about 0.25 milligal.
Gravimeters Operating on the Principle of the LaCoste Seismograph. It
has long been realized that most types of long-period seismograph can,
with but minor modification, be converted into sensitive gravity meters.
In 1934, L. J. B. LaCoste, Jr., 9 published an account of a new long-period
vertical seismograph on the basis of which a number of gravimeters have
been developed that differ among themselves only in details of design.
Among these are the LaCoste-Romberg, Frost, Magnolia, and North
American meters.
Figure 10-11 illustrates the operation of the LaCoste-Romberg gravim-
eter. The weight at the end of the beam is balanced by the mainspring.
Any small motion of the weight due to variation in gravity will move the
beam slightly. The angle between the spring and the beam will change
212 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

in way that the moment the spring exerts upon the beam will vary
such a
in the same sense that the moment due to gravity varies. This provides
the necessary instability to magnify the small gravity variation. In
practice the motion is nulled by an adjustable screw which varies the
point at which the mainspring is supported. The amount which this
must be turned to restore the light beam to null position is a measure
of the change in gravity.
An important innovation in the LaCoste-Romberg instrument was
the " zero-length" spring. With this the displacement of the spring
from equilibrium caused by the weight of the beam when in zero position
is effectively counteracted by an opposing tension put into the spring

Light beam
Nu/f adjustment^ i\^

Spring exerts >£i

ciockwise momentM S *— 'Weight in g= go
position
when g >gQi §jL^
~

counter -clock-
^ [

moment
wise
wheng< 9o
a
^J/t-
H/nge ^ gQ +Ag
'" 9I-
it position
Index p/ate
Fig. 10-12. Operation of Humble gravimeter (schematic).

when it is wound.
It is only with this arrangement that the elongation
of the spring caused by any given increment in gravity will be actually
proportional to the increment itself. In addition, the deflection will be
symmetrical about the equilibrium position; i.e., the positive reading
for an increase in gravity over its equilibrium value will be equal
to the negative reading for a gravity decrease of the same magnitude.
The Humble Gravimeter. 10
This instrument (Fig. 10-12), designed by
Truman, also consists of a weight at the end of a horizontal beam sup-
ported by a spring system, but here the mainspring is vertical and an
auxiliary spring (on the left) provides the unstable element. The latter
spring exerts its when the main-
tension through the beam's hinged pivot
spring and weight are in equilibrium, thus having no moment around the
pivot. If a change in gravity causes the beam to tilt in either direction,
however, the axis of the auxiliary spring is shifted, so that it now exerts
a moment upon the beam. This moment reinforces the initial one caused
by the gravity variation and is approximately proportional to that
variation.
The Mott-Smith Gravimeter. 11 This instrument operates in much the
same way as the Humble gravimeter, with two quartz fibers taking the
place of the springs. Figure 10-13 shows the principle of its operation.
INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING GRAVITY 213

At equilibrium the weight is balanced by the torsional resistance of the

torsion fiber. The indicator is vertical and the tensional, or "labilizing,"
fiber pulls through the axis of the torsion fiber and exerts no rotational
effect upon it. Any change in gravity from that at the equilibrium
position will cause the weight to fall or rise slightly, and the labilizing
fiber will now exert a moment which acts in the same direction as the
gravitational change and is proportional to it in magnitude.

Axis of torsion /Magnifier

Magnifier^ ^^X\ fiber (into page)^ A
Labifizing fiber \ J\ .Indicator at
=
exerts no moment \'*M" 9 9o +A 9
on torsion fiber at ^l^ss,
'
0='-
9 = 9o ' j~ i£f<- Weight at g=g
^Quartz Labitizing'fiber '
rN
Weight torsion exerts ciockwise Weight at
fiber moment when 9 = 9o +A 9

(a) (b)

Fig. 10-13. Operation of Mott-Smith gravimeter (schematic), (a) Arrangement of weight and fibers,

(b) Vertical section through labilizing fiber.

Temperature Effects in Gravimeters; the Worden and Atlas Gravim-

eters. All the gravity meters considered thus far are extremely sensitive
to changes in temperature. Without compensation, very small tem-
perature variations will cause thermal expansion or contraction of the
springs and other members of a gravity instrument that might result
in spurious gravity readings. With the temperature coefficients for
most materials used in gravimeter construction, a variation of only
0.002°C would cause a deflection equivalent to 0.02 milligal, a greater
instrumental error than can be tolerated in most present-day gravity
surveys. The normal variations in ambient temperature are so great
that it would be impractical to correct gravity readings to a standard
temperature. The procedure instead has been to regulate the tempera-
ture of the instrument by a thermostat system that maintains it
within narrowly prescribed limits. Clewell 12 discusses the problems
involved in such regulation. The gravimeter is enclosed in an insulated
case and is maintained at its constant temperature by a small electric
oven operated from a storage battery.
The insulated housing and the battery are necessarily so heavy that
they interfere greatly with the portability of the gravity equipment and
make it difficult to transport into areas where there are no roads. For
this reason, considerable interest was aroused by the appearance in 1948
of the Worden and Atlas gravimeters, which are self-compensating and,
having no heating system, require neither a storage battery nor a heavy
case. The Worden instrument is about a foot high (Fig. 10-14). Its
214 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

weight is less than 6 lb, and the tripod and carrying case add only 8 lb

more to the total that must be carried.

The essential elements of the Worden meter are all of quartz and are
very light in weight, the basic mass weighing only 5 mg. The design,
illustrated schematically by Fig. 10-15, is somewhat similar to that of

Fig. 10-14. Exterior view of Worden gravimeter. (Houston Technical Laboratories.)

the Lacoste-Romberg instrument. The system is held in unstable

equilibrium about the axis HH. Any increase in the gravitational pull
or the mass at the end of the weight arm causes a slight counterclockwise
rotation which lessens the angle between the pre-tension spring and the
inclined arm attached to its base. The decreased angle lessens the
opposing clockwise moment of the spring and provides the necessary
instability. The instrument can be read to 0.01 milligal and the model
used in exploration w ork has a dial range of about 60 milligals. A special
T

model has been designed for geodetic work 13 which has a range of 5,500
milligals.
INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING GRAVITY 215

Temperature compensation is achieved through the arrangement

shown in Fig. 10-16. The two long arms are made of materials having
different thermal expansion coefficients and are connected by a spacing
bar at one end. When the temperature changes, the relative lengths

, A cfjus fmen +s, < Microscope

Y//////////A I Y////////////A fef V/////////A v" (////////////////

Fig. 10-15. Schematic diagram illustrating operation of Worden gravimeter. [Houston Technical
Laboratories. J

-Non -linear spring

Spacing
arm
Differentia/ expansion
Torsion arms \
fibre
~^>

Support Spring

f\
Fig. 10-16. Temperature compensation system for Worden gravimeter. [Adapted from Heiskanen and
Vening Meinesz, "The Earth and Its Gravity Field," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1958.)

of the arms change so that there is an upward or downward movement

at the end of the spring which compensates for any temperature effects
in the spring. The curved portion of the upper arm represents a short
nonlinear spring element which extends the temperature range of the
compensation movement.
Calibration of Gravimeters. Since all readings of gravimeters are
in arbitrary scale divisions, calibration is necessary to express them in
milligals. Although some instruments are calibrated geometrically or
by tilting, the most usual method is to take readings on the same gravim-
316 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

eter at two points where either the absolute or relative values of gravity
are known precisely. A
pair of locations at which absolute gravity has
been established by pendulum observations is often convenient for this
purpose. If the absolute gravities have a difference that is an appreciable
fraction of the total range of the instrument, it is usually safe to assume
linear response and to calibrate the whole scale on the basis of the two
readings alone. Greater precision will of course be obtained from a
larger number of reference stations. Hammer 14 describes some attempts
to calibrate a gravimeter by taking readings at the top and bottom of a

0.20

010
June 11, 1950

.-t:-CJ

* -o.io j

i.
April 5,I950\ -^
<P -0.20
-13
-
1

0.10
Jan 17, 1950
1

_
i 1 .

- -0.10
— |

8 ' (0 II 12 2 3 4
A M. Time of day P M.
Fig. 10-17. Typical drift curves for a Magnolia gravity meter taken on three different days. [Magnolia
Petroleum Co.)

tallbuilding and making use of the theoretical difference in gravity

between two points of different elevation after correcting for the attrac-
tion of the buildingitself. He concludes that this method is impractical
because of variations in vertical gradient and limited precision in the
building corrections. A much greater difference in gravity can be
obtained between two points at a substantially different latitude. Both
these effects were discussed in the last chapter.
Drift of Gravimeters. If a gravimeter is left undisturbed for an hour
or so after a reading and a second observationis taken, the gravity value
will apparently have changed during the interval by an amount as great
as several hundredths of a milligal. If additional readings are taken
over a period of hours and the observed gravity is plotted against time,
it will be found that the points tend to fall on a smooth curve. This
continual variation of the gravity readings with time is known as drift
and is caused by the fact that the gravimeter springs or torsion fibers

are not perfectly elastic but are subject to a slow creep over long periods.
A sample set of drift curves is reproduced in Fig. 10-17. The drift
INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING GRAVITY 217

during the course of a day may be greater than the maximum gravity
variation actually observed during the same period. Drift curves are
obtained by repeated occupation of a single field station at intervals
during the day. Adjustment of readings at other stations is made by
taking differences from the drift curves, using techniques to be described
in the next chapter.

REFERENCES

1. "The Eotvos Torsion Balance," L. Oertling, Ltd., London.

2. Barton, Donald C. Gravity Measurements with the Torsion Balance, "The
Figure of the Earth," pp. 167-190, Physics of the Earth series 2, National Research
Council Bulletin 78, 1931.
3. Swick, C. H.: Determination of "g" by Means of the Free Swinging Pendulum,
"The Figure of the Earth," pp. 151-166, Physics of the Earth series 2, National
Research Council Bulletin 78, 1931.
4. Vening Meinesz, F. A.. "Theory and Practice of Pendulum Observations at Sea,"
Technische Boekhandel en Drukkerij, J. Waltman, Jr., Delft, 1929.
5. Gay, Malcolm W.: Relative Gravity Measurements Using Precision Pendulum
Equipment, Geophysics, Vol. 5, pp. 176-191, 1940.
6. Hartley, Kenneth: A New Instrument for Measuring Very Small Differences in
Gravity, Physics, Vol. 2, pp. 123-130, 1932.
7. Wyckoff, R. D.: The Gulf Gravimeter, Geophysics, Vol. 6, pp. 13-33, 1941.
8. Thyssen-Bornemisza, Stephen V.: Gravitational Instrument, U.S. Patent Nos.
2,108,421, Feb. 15, 1938, and 2,132,865, Oct. 11, 1938.
9. LaCoste, L. J. B., Jr.: A New Type Long Period Vertical Seismograph, Physics,
Vol. 5, pp. 178-180, 1934; also see L. J. B. LaCoste and A. Romberg, U.S. Patent
No. 2,293,437.
10. Bryan, A. B.: Gravimeter Design and Operation, Geophysics, Vol. 2, pp. 301-308,
1937.
11. Mott-Smith, L. M.: Gravitational Surveying with the Gravity-meter, Geophysics,
Vol. 2, pp. 21-32, 1937.
12. Clewell, D. H.: Problems in Temperature Control of Gravimeters, Geophysics,
Vol. 7, pp. 155-168, 1942.
13. Woollard, G. P.: The Gravity Meter as a Geodetic Instrument, Geophysics, Vol. 15,
pp. 1-29, 1950.
14. Hammer, Sigmund: Investigation of the Vertical Gradient of Gravity, Trans.
Am. Geophys. Union, 19th annual meeting, pp. 72-82, 1938.
 CHAPTER 11

GRAVITY FIELD MEASUREMENTS AND REDUCTIONS

We shall now consider the techniques by which gravity data are obtained
in the fieldand transformed from raw instrument readings into usable
maps and The next chapter will take up methods of inter-
profiles.
preting the reduced gravity data and converting the information from
the maps and profiles into a useful geologic picture. Although the
minute gravity effects of structures associated with oil or minerals would
apparently call for very painstaking and laborious field manipulations
and reductions, these have become so well standardized that they are
now quite routine. Since the early 1940's, commercial gravity surveys
have been extended to offshore areas, where specially designed auxiliary
equipment has adapted gravimeters to underwater operations.
In the discussion to follow, only work with the gravimeter will be
considered, since the torsion balance and pendulum are no longer used
to any appreciable extent in gravity prospecting.

11-1. Measurement of Gravity on Land

Determining Station Locations. In planning a gravity survey, one of

the most important considerations the location and spacing of stations.
is

In a reconnaissance survey for large oil-bearing structures the distance

between stations would of course be much greater than in a survey to
locate small, near-surface ore bodies. A common procedure in gravity
prospecting for oil over sectionized country is to establish stations at
the corners of a ^-mile grid. In many areas 1-mile grids are frequently
used. In Kuwait, a Gulf crew established a spacing of 2 km after prelim-
inary tests with a closer spacing indicated a very regular gravity picture.
In mineral prospecting, the spacing of stations is governed by the expected
size of theanomalous ore masses that are being sought. Hammer, Nettle-
ton, and Hastings have described a gravity survey in Cuba for shallow
1

chromite ore bodies tens to hundreds of feet in diameter, where the regu-
lar grid called for readings at 20-m intervals. Any interesting indica-
tions at a single station resulted in a circle of additional stations with a
radius of 5 to 10 m about this location. The recent development of
218
GRAVITY FIELD MEASUREMENTS AND REDUCTIONS 219

easily portable gravimeters has freed operators from the necessity of

placing stations only along roads or other lines accessible to trucks. It
is still easiest and most economical, however, to use vehicles where
possible.
Often it is from their position on a uniform
desirable to shift locations
grid to avoid topographic features that would require much larger and
more precise corrections when they are near the station than would be
necessary a few hundred feet away. A gravity reading, for example,
on the summit of a small knoll would be affected much more by the
mass of the knoll itself than would readings a short distance to the side.
In both cases terrain corrections would have to be made, but the uncer-
tainty in the exact shape and density of the knoll would not contribute
nearly as much error in the latter instance. Hubbert 2 has prepared a
series of charts showing the size of terrain correction that would be
required at various distances from a large number of different topo-
graphic features. This is designed for field operators who wish guidance
in deciding how far to shift gravity stations from the centers of such
features.
Surveying. is the major item in the budgets of
Surveying expense
most gravity Both elevation and geographical position must
parties.
be known accurately. Spirit leveling is usually necessary, but in some
cases barometric leveling is adequate. The methods of surveying and
the cost that is involved vary greatly depending on the ease of trans-
portation and on the scale and quality of existing maps and level nets.
The degree of necessary precision is established by the sensitivity of
observed gravity to elevation and latitude. In Chap. 9, it was shown
that an error in elevation of 1 ft should give rise to a difference of 0.07
milligal in the elevation correction and that an error of 100 ft in the north-
south coordinate of position should give an error of 0.03 milligal at middle
latitudes. A precision is consequently sought in the
of 0. 1 ft in elevation
final station elevations, andbe achieved only by close spacing
this can
of transit positions and short chain lengths on slopes. The cost of such
surveying is considerably higher than that of topographic surveys made
for other kinds of geophysical work.
When speed and economy are more important than the utmost attain-
able precision, it may be desirable to determine elevations barometrically
rather than geodetically. The standard barometric equipment used by
geologists to determine approximate elevations for mapping purposes is
generally not precise enough for commercial gravity work. A special
instrument has been designed by Stripling, Broding, and Wilhelm 3 which
measures differences in barometric pressure with much higher precision,
responding to changes in atmospheric pressure equivalent to elevation
differences as small as 0.1 ft. The accuracy with which elevation differ-
220 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

ence can be determined barometrically is limited by meteorological

conditions. As the atmosphere is usually less disturbed in lower lati-
tudes, barometric leveling can give greater accuracy there. A technique
has recently been developed for increasing the precision of barometric
measurements by comparing pressure readings at field stations with
simultaneous readings at several base stations on corners of a triangle
covering the area of operation so that lateral gradients can be taken into
account.

Fig. 11-1. Marsh buggy used for gravity and seismic surveys in swampy terrain. (Humble Oil and
Refining Co.)

Surveying for offshore gravity projects, particularly when the stations

are out of sight of land, requires elaborate radio or radar systems to
determine station locations.
Transportation and Operation of the Instrument. The heavier types
of gravimeter are set up inside a truck or passenger automobile on a
tripod which is lowered to the ground through holes in the floor. The
heaters for thermostatic control required by such instruments are con-
nected by cable to the vehicle's battery and operate continuously.
There are many localities, however, where other means of transportation
are required on account of special terrain conditions. In the exploration
of Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4 in northernmost Alaska, gravimeters
were flown from station to station in light airplanes on skis or pontoons.
In the early days of exploration in the foothills of Alberta, a Gulf party 4
transported its gravimeter and battery by pack horses. For the marsh
GRAVITY FIELD MEASUREMENTS AND REDUCTIONS 221

country of southern Louisiana, where wheeled vehicles cannot travel at

all, the problem of transporting gravimeters and other geophysical

equipment has been solved for more than two decades by " marsh
buggies" such as the one shown in Fig. 11-1. In some areas, finally,
there seems to be no effective substitute for carrying gravimeters on

Fig. 1 1-2. Portable Gulf gravimeter in operation. Weight of instrument (exclusive of battery box) is

22 lb. [Gulf Research and Development Co.)

foot. The close station spacing required in the Cuban chromite survey
just described made foot transportation preferable to automotive. The
lightweight Gulf gravimeter illustrated in Fig. 11-2 was designed for
use away from roads. With the still lighter Worden gravimeter, carrying
the instrument involves no hardship.
The surveyors normally keep several days ahead of the instrument
operators, who find their station locations marked by flags which the
surveying crew has left. At each station, the instrument must be care-
222 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

fully leveled before it can be read. It is standard procedure to take

three readings in rapid succession at each station. When all stations
are alongside roads, it is often possible to cover as many as a dozen of
them in an hour.
Adjustment for Drift. The instrumental readings as made in the field
require a correction for the drift of the gravimeter. All observed gravity
values taken during the course of a given day's operations, including
reoccupations of stations, are plotted against time. A curve is drawn
to show the time variation in reading at the base station. In surveys

II 12 I 2 3 4
A.M. P.M.
Fig. 1 1-3. Typical plot for drift adjustment on day when 22 stations are occupied. Station 1, as base
station, is reoccupied three times during the day. [After Mott-Smith, Geophysics, 1937.)

where very high precision is desired, each station is reoccupied at least

once during the course of a day, and thus the instrument must be moved
along the profile in a " zigzag" trajectory. Figure 11-3 shows a drift
curve for a typical survey made on a day in which 22 stations were
occupied. The curve, a straight line, was drawn so as to pass through
the points plotted for the original occupation and three reoccupations
of station 1. The dotted line is drawn using a single reoccupation of
station 5, and it is seen that the two lines are almost parallel. If the
gravity difference between stations 1 and 18 is desired, one simply reads
the displacement of the plotted point from the drift curve along the
ordinate of station 18.
For surveys where drift is large compared to the gravity differences
expected, more complicated techniques are necessary to eliminate its
influence. In such cases an "oscillating" sequence of stations is estab-
lished. A method proposed by Roman 5 requires four readings at each
station, in between which readings are taken at other nearby stations.
GRAVITY FIELD MEASUREMENTS AND REDUCTIONS 223

If stations lie along a profile in the order a, b, c, etc., they would be

observed in the order:

ab, abc, abed, bede, edef, defg, etc.

Numerical adjustment by standard methods, such as least squares, is

then used to reduce drift error to a minimum.

Regional Gravity Surveys with Gravimeters. Ever since the 1870's,
regional gravity surveys, in which station spacings are measured in tens
or even hundreds of miles, have been conducted in many parts of the
world for studying the figure of the earth as well as large-scale geologic
features. From such studies valuable information has been obtained
on the distribution of mass within the earth's crust, isostatic adjustment,
and tectonic history. In early surveys of this type measurements were
made with cumbersome pendulum equipment and then only within a
precision of several milligals. In recent years, the gravimeter has been
used for such regional gravity surveys, giving readings that are much
more precise in a fraction of the time. The principal difference between
prospecting surveys and regional surveys is in the station spacing. In
the latter the separation of stations would be of the order of 10 miles
or more. Elevations are obtained, for economy, from established bench
marks (at which stations are located when possible) or barometrically,
rather than by special topographic surveys. In a review of the regional
gravity surveys made in North America, Woollard 6 shows how the
techniques and instrumentation developed for commercial gravity work
have made possible substantial progress in this field. Since 1948 Wool-
lard 7 and his associates at the University of Wisconsin have established
a network of gravimeter readings covering the entire free world, using
a specially developed Worden gravimeter having a total range of 5,400
milligals. Traveling by air, they have tied together most of the base
stations for the world's gravity networks. They have eliminated drift
effects by returning to their starting points after making loops up to
20,000 miles in length. Their average probable error of 0.3 milligal is

smaller than the individual uncertainties of any of the primary pendulum

stations between which ties have been obtained.

11-2. Measurement of Gravity in Water-covered Areas

The measurement of gravity in water-covered areas is beset by many

difficulties. On board a boat the roll of the vessel, even in the calmest
weather, introduces accelerations that cannot be separated from the
acceleration of gravity. The Graf shipborne gravimeter 8 first used by
Worzel has given good results for geodetic applications but its precision
of 1 milligal is much too limited for it to be used in exploration work.
224 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

Vening Meinesz, as previously pointed out, has devised a highly ingenious

pendulum system for measuring gravity from a submerged submarine,
but the precision is not more than 2 milligals and it would not be prac-
tical in any case to explore offshore areas commercially in this way.
Ever since potential petroleum reserves have been sought beneath off-
shore waters, as well as below lakes and shallow embayments, various

Fig. 11-4. Gulf underwater gravimeter being lowered from boat in offshore field operation. [Gulf
Research and Deve/opmenf Co.)

devices have been developed to make possible gravity measurements in

water-covered areas.
Tripod Measurements. The
method was to set up large porta-
earliest
ble platforms with tripods restingon the water bottom, the top surfaces
being out of the water. The gravimeter could then be mounted on the
platform and read. In open water, however, the instability of the
platform due to motion from waves, wind, and tidal currents caused
difficulty. For small shallow lakes and protected estuaries this arrange-
ment was quite satisfactory.
Remote-control Methods. In 1941, the Gulf Research and Develop-
ment Co. completed the development of apparatus for operating a stand-
ard Gulf gravimeter on the water bottom entirely by remote control.
GRAVITY FIELD MEASUREMENTS AND REDUCTIONS 225

The equipment has been described by Pepper. 9

Figure 11-4 is a photo-
graph of the device being lowered into the water. Cables transmit
impulses for the various control mechanisms which are operated from
a small ship. The instrument is leveled on the bottom by motor-driven
gimbals so designed that the level in two perpendicular directions can
be controlled independently and simultaneously. A photocell unit inside
the case indicates the departure from horizontal in each direction on a
micrometer. The operator can regulate the level within 10" of arc by

Fig. Sample Gulf underwater gravimeter record. Heavy lines marked by dot-dash identifica-
11-5.
tion Heavy line just below third fiducial is zero. Light lines are multiple
are fiducials for scaling.
images of light beam reflected from gravimeter mirror. [Gulf Reserach and Development Co.)

bringing the meter to zero through remote-control manipulation of the

leveling motor.
Readings are recorded by a camera contained within the gravimeter
assemblage itself. The film, which moves slowly through the camera
during an observation, is loaded and unloaded through a handhole
when the instrument is brought to the surface. Figure 11-5 shows a
sample record made in the course of a reading. The five heavy lines
labeled by the dot-dash symbols are fiducials for scaling. The heavy
line just below the third fiducial represents zero. The lighter lines are
multiple images, with equal separation, of the light beam reflected from
the moving gravimeter mirror. Records are read by a special microm-
eter slide comparator.
Because of the time required to transport and set up the equipment,
which weighs, with its attached cable, about 650 lb in air, Gulf under-
water parties made only six stations in the course of an average working
day although a maximum of about 20 stations has been occupied in a day.
226 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

Since the war several other remote-control instruments for under-

water gravity measurement have been introduced. The Robert H. Ray
Co. has developed a servomechanism that moves the housing of the
gravimeter in synchronism with and in opposition to the displacements
otherwise caused by surface waves acting at the bottom. The purpose
is to make operations possible at times when wave action would otherwise

Fig. 11-6. Diving bell, with operator inside, for underwater gravimeter operations. (Robert H.
Ray Co.)

cause excessive disturbance of the light beam. Such an elaborate com-

pensatory mechanism would not be necessary on a recording instrument
such as the Gulf underwater gravimeter, since oscillations on the photo-
graphic record could be averaged out. Such an accessory would do the
most good when used with underwater gravity meters whose output
signals are read visually.
Diving Bells. A means of getting gravity data at sea is
spectacular
the large diving bell devised by the Robert H. Ray Co. designed to be
lowered to the bottom with a gravimeter and its operator inside. Fro we 10
has described this device. Figure 11-6 illustrates the arrangement.
After the hatch is closed the bell is lowered with a boom from the stern
of a barge, the observer maintaining telephone communication with the
barge's personnel.
GRAVITY FIELD MEASUREMENTS AND REDUCTIONS 227

There are numerous safety features, including an emergency air

supply and an escape hatch in the lid. Although such devices were used
extensively in water as deep as 125 ft, they have long been superseded by
the remote-control type of apparatus.

11-3. Determination of Densities

The terrain and Bouguer corrections made in the reduction of gravity

data require a knowledge of the average densities of the rocks near the
surface. In many areas topographic features are sufficiently homo-
geneous that an average density value can be obtained from a few direct
determinations. In others, there are such sharp local variations in
lithology that use of an average density value introduces considerable
error. White 11 has described a gravity survey in Great Britain where
three different densities had to be used for surface corrections within a
small area.
In some surveys, it is necessary to measure density directly; repre-
sentative samples of rock from outcrops, mires, or well cuttings are sent
to a laboratory, where a pyknometer or a Schwarz or Jolly balance
determines the density by water displacement. A useful summary of
rock-density values is given in Birch's " Handbook of Physical Con-
stants." 12 A number of representative densities are tabulated in Table
12-1 (page 250).
Nettleton 13 has described an indirect means of density determination
which is often more measurements made on
satisfactory than direct
samples. A closely spaced gravity traverse is run over some topographic
feature, such as a small hill or valley, with dimensions that have been
measured accurately. When the profile of observed values is plotted,
the gravitational effect of the feature itself is calculated at each observa-
tion point along the profile and removed from the observed value for
that point. The calculation is number of times, different
repeated a
densities being assumed for each computation. The density value at
which the conspicuous on the gravity profile is considered to
hill is least

be most nearly correct. This method has the advantage of averaging

the actual densities in a way that would be impossible in working from
surface samples. Even so, only gives information on densities at
it

relatively shallow depths and can be used only when the near-surface
lithology is homogeneous. In many areas, unfortunately, the topo-
graphic features owe anomalous lithology,
their existence to outcrops with
so that the density value so computed may not be representative.
The Density Logger. Late in the 1950's a tool became available to the
oil industry for direct measurement of formation densities in boreholes. 14

This tool furnishes a log of back-scattered gamma radiation which is a

228 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

simple function of formation density. A logarithmic scale makes it

possible to read densities directly from the log.

The density
logger consists of a radiation source, usually cobalt 60,
at one end of the tool and a detector, generally a Geiger counter, about
18 in. away at the other end, as shown in Fig. 11-7. The outer wall of
the logger is lined with lead shielding which has two slits so positioned

Coble to
surface
equipment

Pre-
amplifier

Slit Geiger
counter

Zone of
Compton ->
y
£ '&
scattering Lead
shielding

Slit-

Fig. 1 1-7. Schematic diagram of density logger.

that the only radiation from the source which reaches the detector is

that deflected back from the formation by Compton scattering. The

principles of Compton scattering are reviewed by Faul and Tittle. 15 The
amplitude of the scattered radiation depends on the electron concen-
tration in the formation and this in turn is roughly proportional to the
density of the formation material. The energy is proportional to
(1 — cos 0) where is the angle between the incident and scattered ray.

This relation indicates that the maximum energy is at = 90°, correspond-

ing to emergent and returning rays which each make an angle of 45°
with the borehole wall.
The maximum penetration of the gamma radiation into the borehole
wall is 6 in., and the effective sampling for a reading is about 1 cu ft.
GRAVITY FIELD MEASUREMENTS AND REDUCTIONS 229

Close contact is maintained between the tool and the one side of the hole
by a spring on the other side. This may not be effective in zones where
shale is washed out. Actually, comparisons of density from logs and
densities measured from cores at the same level in the borehole generally
show an agreement within several hundredths of a gram per cubic centi-
meter in all formations except shales.
The density logger is such a new tool that it is not certain whether the
data it gives are applicable to gravity interpretation. Where there is

any substantial amount of shale in the section, the integrated density

would be of questionable accuracy. Also, the small volume of formation
sampled in a single reading may not be representative of the much larger
volume of rock contributing to the observed gravity. This objection
also holds for all density determinations in the laboratory from core
samples or cuttings out of wells. Only a borehole gravimeter would give
density information from a volume of rock that is statistically comparable
to that which must be taken into account in the interpretation of gravity
data.

11-4. Reductions of Gravity Data

In order to be most useful in prospecting, the observed gravity data

must be corrected for station elevation, the influence of nearby topog-
raphy, and latitude. The corrections are in principle quite similar to
those which are used for reducing absolute gravity values to the geoid (see
pages 188 to 190). In general all gravity values are reduced to a datum
plane, but this plane will usually not be at sea level. Absolute values of
gravity are never shown on commercial gravity maps; thus it is only
necessary that the values mapped be consistent with one another for the
datum finally chosen. The corrections are tabulated as follows:
Elevation Correction. Let us assume that gravity observations are
made at two stations Si and
$2, each located on terrain that is entirely
flat except for the cliff midway between them, as shown in Fig. ll-8a.

The elevation of Si above sea level is hi and that of £2 is h 2 The stations.

are so far apart that the material across the cliff from each station con-
tributes only negligibly to the value of gravity at that station. Thus
each station is effectively on a horizontal surface of infinite extent.
Because the elevation of each station is different, however, there would
be a difference in the two gravity readings which, if not corrected for,
might indicate a spurious subsurface structure. This source of error can
be removed very simply. A datum plane is introduced with an elevation
above sea level of d, all material above the datum plane being mathe-
matically " removed" so that both instruments are effectively placed
on top of the datum surface. The adjustment actually consists of two
230 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
which accounts for the fact that each
parts: (1) the free-air correction,
station a different distance from the earth's center than the datum
is

plane, and (2) the Bouguer correction, which removes the effect of a
presumed infinite slab of material between the horizontal plane of each
station and the datum.
The free-air correction for station Si, using the relation derived in
Chap. 9 for correcting absolute gravity to the geoid, is 0.094ei milligal,
where ei = hi — d and all distances are in feet. Similarly, the correction

— Si
•
* A
i
~l *2
i
A
<r 1

__v__ a' Datum plane — -4-

i

Y ^ Sea /eve/ y

(a)

Hill

Valley
Datum plane

Sea level
(b)
Fig. 1 1-8. Elevation and terrain corrections, (a) Bouguer correction (to datum plane) at S\ is liryaei
or 0.025ei if a is 2 and ei is in feet. At S 2 it is 27rycre2. Free-air correction is 0.094ei. (b) Terrain
correction removes effect of hill by adding its upward attraction at station and compensates for
valley by adding attraction it would exert at station if filled in. Result is to flatten all topography to
level of station so that Bouguer correction will reduce station to datum.

for &2 is These corrections are added as long as the e's

0.094e 2 milligal.
are positive and subtracted if they are negative. The Bouguer correc-
tion at S\, which is the attraction of an infinite slab having a thickness e\
and a density a, is 2-Kyaei. If a is taken as 2 g/cm 3 and e± is in feet, the
correction becomes 0.025ei. This is subtracted when e\ is positive and
added when it is negative. The resultant of the two corrections at S\
is simply 0.0696! milligal, and at S 2 it is 0.069e 2 milligal. For stations
above the datum plane (e's positive) these corrections are added; for
those below, they are subtracted.
Terrain Correction. In most gravity surveys, terrain in the vicinity of
a station is sufficiently flat that the elevation correction will correct for
topographic effects quite adequately. Hills rising above the level of the
station, however, give an upward component of gravitational attraction
that counteracts a part of the downward pull exerted by the rest of the
earth. Any valleys below the station correspond to holes in the slab
between station and datum level which are responsible for a smaller
GRAVITY FIELD MEASUREMENTS AND REDUCTIONS 231

downward pull at the station than the Bouguer correction takes into
account; this shortage should be compensated. When such hills or
valleys are sufficiently close (distance small compared to vertical extent)
it is necessary to introduce special corrections for their effect.

The usual procedure making such corrections is to

(Fig. 11-86) in
calculate the attraction of all the mass that would have to be added to
the valleys below, and all that would have to be removed from the hills

Fig. 1 1-9. Terrain correction zone chart designed by Hammer, used in conjunction with Table 1 1-1 for
zones through J. Scale is 1/175,000. [Gulf Research and Development Co., published in Geophysics,
1939.)

above, to give perfectly topography having the same elevation as the

flat

station. Both added to the observed gravity. Calculation

effects are
of the attraction of irregular topographic elements would be extremely
intricate if done analytically but is greatly facilitated by the use of special
templates and tables designed for the purpose. A highly precise terrain
correction chart and set of tables has been published by Hammer. 16 His
chart, printed on transparent sheeting, is superimposed on a topographic
map of the area around the gravity station. It consists of a series of
concentric circles with radial lines dividing the zones between the circles
into compartments, as shown in Fig. 11-9. The center of the circles
is placed over the gravity station on the map. The computer using the
chart estimates the average elevation of the topography within each
compartment and, taking the difference between this and the station
elevation, determines the gravity effect of the prism of land within the
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234 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

compartment from a table such as Hammer's (Table 11-1). The cor-

rection always added, regardless of the sign of the difference. The
is

outermost circle of the chart corresponds to a distance on the map of

about 14 miles, whereas the innermost circle (bounding zone E) repre-
sents a radius of 558 ft. Topography closer to the station than this
can be corrected for when necessary by using another chart constructed
on the same principle but with a different scale.
Often, the terrain in the neighborhood of a gravity station has a system-
atic slope which can be approximated by an inclined plane. Where
this is the case, the topographic correction will be more accurate if the
cylindrical blocks from which the zones in Hammer's tables are taken
are assumed to have sloping instead of horizontal tops. Sandberg 17 has
prepared a set of tables to be used with Hammer's chart which is com-
puted for all integral slope angles from 1 to 30°, inclusive.
Latitude Correction. The " international gravity formula" for the
variation of normal gravity along the geoid with the latitude is <j>

g = 978.049(1 + 0.0052884 sin 2 <j>

- 0.0000059 sin 2 20) gals (11-1)

It is seen that the acceleration of gravity at the equator (0 = 0°) is about

5,000 milligals less than at the poles (</> = 90°). The rate of change of
gravity along a north-south line is obtained by differentiating Eq. (11-1)
and is

w = 1.307 sin 20 milligals per mile (H-2)

At 45° latitude the variation is about 0.1 milligal for each 400 ft of dis-

placement in the north-south direction. The latitude effect is thus

significant enough that a correction must be made to eliminate its effect
in commercial surveys. Moreover, positions in the north-south direc-
tion must be known accurately to the nearest hundred feet if an ultimate
precision of 0.02 milligal is desired. In practice, an arbitrary reference
latitude is chosen to which all readings are corrected. If the actual
latitude is within a degree of this reference, a uniform gradient can be
assumed, and all stations can be corrected simply by multiplication of
this gradient by the north-south distance of the station from the reference
line. For surveys involving a larger range of latitudes, variation tables
such as those of Lambert and Darling 18 can be employed. These give
the values of theoretical gravity on the " international ellipsoid" for
every 10' of latitude from the equator to the pole. Interpolation for-
mulas make it possible to obtain the correction accurately enough for
commercial gravity work.
Earth-tide Correction. As pointed out in Chap. 9, the normal value of
gravity at any point will vary cyclically during the course of the day by
as much as 0.3 milligal because of the tidal attraction of the sun and the
moon. In a high-precision survey this much variation might well be a
 GRAVITY FIELD MEASUREMENTS AND REDUCTIONS 235

|
significant source of error in the relative gravity between two points at
which measurements are made at different times. There are two methods
of correcting for the tidal effect. One is to construct daily charts of the
tidal variation in gravity with time from readings on a stationary instru-
ment and to correct all readings in the field by means of such charts.
The more usual method is for the observer to return to the base station
so often that earth-tide effects will be fully incorporated into the instru-
mental drift curve.
Conclusions. Ideally, the final corrected gravity variations should
depend only on lateral departures from constancy in the densities of the
subsurface rocks below the datum plane. The principal uncertainty in
I the corrections usually lies in the choice of near-surface density to employ
in the Bouguer and terrain corrections, particularly where the lithology
I of the near-surface formations is irregular.

11-5. Some Gravity Results over Known Geologic Structures

To illustrate the gravity pictures associated with certain interesting

geologic features, we shall present some maps or sections obtained in a

$anaf,chy, \^\ Cap

5,000
gravelnear surfacel
$a/7c/,c/ay,sha/e, j Rock 10,000-
subordinate weak\ salt
15,000-
sandstones /

Miles 20,000

Basement 9
2 3 4 5
J L _i I

Fig. 11-10.
Northeast-southwest profile of anomalous relative gravity across Damon Mound salt
dome, Texas. (After Barton, Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs., 1945.)

number of gravity surveys over structures previously or subsequently

outlined by drilling. Additional gravity maps and profiles are repro-
duced in Chap. 19 to illustrate some of the case histories there.
Salt Domes. A large majority of the gravity parties that operate in the
Gulf Coast search for the characteristic gravity lows associated with
salt domes. In shallow domes the top surface of the rock salt, which
is less dense than the surrounding sediments, is covered by cap rock,

which is usually denser. The cap rock often causes a local gravity
maximum in the center of the broader minimum from the salt. Figure
11-10, taken from a paper by Barton, 19 shows the gravity profile over
236 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

the Damon Mound salt dome. The gravity values shown in the profile
were obtained by integrating torsion-balance gradients.
A local high is not invariably found over the center of a shallow salt
dome covered by cap rock. Figure ll-ll shows the gravity contours
drawn by Peters and Dugan 20 from a survey over Grand Saline salt
dome in Van Zandt County, Tex. The average depth to the salt is

Fig. 11-11. Gravity contours over Grand Saline salt dome. Free-air, Bouguer, and latitude correc-
tions have been made, but there is no adjustment for regional trend. Each gravity unit is 0.1 milligal,

so that contour interval is 1 milligal. Stippled area represents position of salt mass. [After Peters
and Dugan, "Geophysical Case Histories," Vol. 1, SEG, 1949.)

about 250 ft and the thickness of cap rock averages only 28 ft. The
absence of the usual cap-rock effect is explained by the thinness of the
cap.
Anticlines. When the geologic section consists of formations with
appreciable density contrast, any folding should be reflected in the
gravity picture. If formations having greater than average density
are brought nearer the surface at the crest of an anticline, its crest line
should be the axis of a gravity maximum. If beds of less than normal
density predominate, there should be a gravity minimum along the axis.
The Kettleman Hills-Lost Hills area of California (Fig. 11-12) shows
both types of gravity feature over two adjacent and parallel anticlines.
GRAVITY FIELD MEASUREMENTS AND REDUCTIONS 237

The Kettleman prominent gravitational high along its

Hills trend has a
entire length, while the Lost Hills structure, which is only a few miles
away, marks the axis of a pronounced gravity low. Boyd explains
21

the Kettleman Hills high as resulting from the anomalously hard shales
and sands of the 600- to 800-ft-thick Reef Ridge formation. The mini-
mum over the Lost Hills is attributed to a considerable thickness of very
light diatomaceous shale, which is found in the same formation at this

point.
Often the gravity contours over an anticline do not show the clos-
ure characteristic of the structure because of regional gravity trends.

'
_Kij2_g_sCo.
Kern Co.
Fig. 11-12. Gravity survey, Kettleman Hills-Lost Hills area, California. Contour interval, 2 milligaL
(After Boyd, "Geophysical Case Histories," Vol. 1, SEG, 1949.)

Coffin 22 shows the gravity map

obtained over the Altus Oil Field in
Oklahoma. Here the gravity contours (Fig. 11-13) exhibit a nosing
instead of closure over the highest portion of the anticline in which oil

is trapped. Means for removing regional gravity variations, which often

mask significant structures, will be considered in the next chapter.
Limestone Reefs. When oil was first discovered in ancient limestone
reefs, itbecame important to establish whether such features could be
located by gravity surveys. Whether this is possible depends primarily
on the density contrast, if any, between reef limestone and the sedi-
mentary formations that surround it. Unfortunately, the density and
porosity of reef material are so variable that generalizations are not
possible. The density of the shales in which reefs are most often found
also varies. It is therefore unlikely that significant gravity patterns are
associated with reef masses. Brown 23 has conducted an experimental
gravity survey over the productive Jameson reef in Coke County, Tex.
238 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

The gravity effects he attributed to the reef limestone were so small as to

be observable only with most stringent standards of accuracy in the
surveying and instrumental operations. His residual contours showed
a high of about 0.3 to 0.5 mg surrounded by an even smaller circular low.

Fig. 11-13. Observed gravity over Altus pool in Oklahoma. Note strong regional trend. Depth
contours (dashed) show structure on top of canyon formation at 1 00-ft intervals. [After R. Clare Coffin,
Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, Vol. 30, No. 1 2, 1 946.)

More Pohly 24 has published a paper on a gravity survey he

recently,
conducted in Ontario which resulted in the discovery of a productive
reef. Here the reefs are exceptionally shallow (less than 2,000 ft deep)
and are surrounded by salt, which has a density much lower than that
of reef limestone. The residual high over the reef was several tenths
of a milligal.
Ore Bodies. Even greater precision was required in a survey carried
on by Gulf, as a wartime service, to locate chromite ores in the Camaguey
1

district of Cuba. The high density of the mineral, averaging 3.99 g/cm 3 ,

made it a particularly favorable prospect for gravity exploration. Pre-

liminary calculations, which showed that anomalies having a relief as
small as 0.05 milligal might be commercially significant, indicated a
need for extremely stringent standards of accuracy. A station spacing
of 20 m was chosen, and particular pains were taken in both the gravity
GRAVITY FIELD MEASUREMENTS AND REDUCTIONS 239

readings and surveying to secure the necessary resolution. The probable

error of a single observation was estimated as 0.016 milligal. Figure
11-14 shows the gravity anomaly obtained during this survey over a
known chromite deposit.
Underwater Surveys. Maps obtained from underwater gravity sur-
veys are identical in all respects to maps from land surveys using the
same station spacing. Ordinarily, it is easier to set up stations on a
uniform grid in water-covered areas, and in shallow water, particularly,
corrections will be simpler and more accurate. Figure 11-15 shows the

Scale in meters
Fig. 11-14. Gravity anomaly over known chromite deposit. Contour interval 0.05 milligal. Open
circles show locations of gravity stations; solid circles, of drill holes. (After Hammer, Nettleton, and
Hastings, Geophysics, 1945.)

an early large-scale reconnaissance survey in the Gulf of Mexico.

results of
This survey covered an area about 45 miles wide extending 70 to 75
miles seaward from the western Louisiana coast; it was made by the

U.S. Geological Survey and the Office of Naval Research in 1947.

The gravity readings were all taken in a diving bell lowered to the
floor of the Gulf. The deepest station was in 125 ft of water. The error
at each station is believed to average less than 0.1 milligal. Profiles
were laid out in two large loops, and station spacing averaged about
2 miles along each profile. It is obvious that a reconnaissance survey
on this scale could easily have missed any number of salt domes, but
there is an interesting cluster of closed gravity lows in the southern part
of the area that could originate from domes. As Joesting and Frautschy,
who interpreted the map, point out, the control is not sufficiently close
to allow calculation of the depth to the salt, if present. An interesting
feature which should have important bearing on the regional geology of
the Gulf is the elongated gravity high running parallel to the coast line
about 25 miles offshore.
240 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

RECONNAISSANCE GRAVTTY WAP OF FftRT OF GULF OF MEXICO

Fig. 11-15. Reconnaissance gravity map of part of Gulf of Mexico off western Louisiana. Contour
interval, 1 milligal. (U.S. Geological Survey, 1947.)

REFERENCES
1. Hammer, Sigmund, L. L. Nettleton, and W. K. Hastings: Gravimeter Prospecting
forChromite in Cuba, Geophysics, Vol. 10, pp. 34-39, 1945.
2. Hubbert, M. King: Gravitational Terrain Effects of Two-dimensional Topo-
graphic Features, Geophysics, Vol. 13, pp. 226-254, 1948.
3. Stripling, A. A., R. A. Broding, and E. S. Wilhelm: Elevation Surveying by
Precision Barometric Means, Geophysics, Vol. 14, pp. 543-557, 1949.
4. Hastings, W. K.: Gravimeter Observations in the Foothills Belt of Alberta,
Canada, Geophysics, Vol. 10, pp. 526-534, 1945.
5. Roman, Irwin: An Observational Method to Overcome Zero Drift Error in Field
Instruments, Geophysics, Vol. 11, pp. 466-490, 1946.
GRAVITY FIELD MEASUREMENTS AND REDUCTIONS 241

6. Woollard, G. P.: Recent Regional Gravity Surveys, Trans. Am. Geophys. Union,
Vol. 29, pp. 727-738, 1948.
7. Woollard, G. P.: The Gravity Meter as a Geodetic Instrument, Geophysics, Vol. 15,
pp. 1-29, 1950; An Educational Program in Geophysics, Geophysics, Vol. 20, pp.
671-680, 1955.
8. Anonymous: First Sea Surface Gravimeter, IGY Bulletin 8 in Trans. Am. Geophys.
Union, Vol. 39, pp. 175-178, 1958.
9. Pepper, T. B.: The Gulf Underwater Gravimeter, Geophysics, Vol. 6, pp. 34-44,
1941.
10. Frowe, Eugene: A Diving Bell for Underwater Gravimeter Operation, Geophysics,
Vol. 12, pp. 1-12, 1947.
11. White, Peter H. N.: Gravity Data Obtained in Great Britain by the Anglo-
American Oil Co., Ltd., Quart. J. Geol. Soc. London, Vol. 104, pp. 339-364, 1949.
12. Birch, Francis (ed): "Handbook of Physical Constants," Geological Society of
America Special Paper 36, 1942.
13. Nettleton, L. L.: Determination of Density for Reduction of Gravimeter Observa-
tions, Geophysics, Vol. 4, pp. 176-183, 1939.
14. Baker, P. E.: Density Logging with Gamma Rays, Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs.,
Tech. Pub. 4654, in /. Petrol. Technol, Vol. 9, No. 10, October, 1957.
15. Faul, Henry, and C. W. Tittle: Logging of Drill Holes by the Neutron, Gamma
Method, and Gamma Ray Scattering, Geophysics, Vol. 16, pp. 260-276, 1951.
16. Hammer, Sigmund: Terrain Corrections for Gravimeter Stations, Geophysics,
Vol. pp. 184-194, 1939.
4,
17. Sandberg, C. H.: Terrain Corrections for an Inclined Plane in Gravity Computa-
tions, Geophysics, Vol. 23, pp. 701-711, 1958.
18. Lambert, W. D., and F. W. Darling: Tables for Theoretical Gravity According to
the International Formula, Bull, gtodisique, Vol. 32, pp. 327-340, 1931; also
included in "Geophysical Prospecting for Oil" by L. L. Nettleton, pp. 137-143,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1940.
19. Barton, Donald C: Case Histories and Quantitative Calculations in Gravimetric
Prospecting, "Geophysics, 1945," Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs., Vol. 164,
pp. 17-65, 1945.
20. Peters, J. W., and A. F. Dugan: Gravity and Magnetic Investigations at the
Grand Dome, Van Zandt County, Texas, "Geophysical Case His-
Saline Salt
tories," Vol. I, 1948, pp. 105-120, Society of Exploration Geophysicists, 1949.
21. Boyd, L. H.: Gravity-Meter Survey of the Kettleman Hills-Lost Hills Trend,
California, "Geophysical Case Histories," Vol. I, 1948, pp. 523-528, Society of
Exploration Geophysicists, 1949.
22. Coffin, R. Clare: Recent Trends in Geological-Geophysical Exploration, Bull. Am.
Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, Vol. 30, pp. 2013-2032, 1946.
23. Brown, Hart: A Precision Detail Gravity Survey, Jameson Area, Coke County,
Texas, Geophysics, Vol. 14, pp. 535-542, 1949.
24. Pohly, Richard A.: Gravity Case History: Dawn No. 156 Pool, Ontario, Geo-
ncs, Vol. 19, pp. 95-103, 1954.
 CHAPTER 12

THE INTERPRETATION OF GRAVITY DATA

When the corrected gravity values, reduced by methods such as those

outlined in the previous chapter, are plotted on a map and contoured,
the resulting picture as it much usable informa-
stands will seldom give
tion on the subsurface geology until analyzed by suitable interpre-
it is

tation techniques. If the geologist attempts to read gravity contours

as if they were structure contours his conclusions may be highly erro-
neous. In an area where there is no independent information on sub-
surface geology, itseldom possible to translate gravity data into
is

reliable indications of structure. The more the available data from

other sources, the more restricted will be the questions that the gravity
information is called upon to answer and the more definite the answers
that can be expected. It is important for all who use gravity data and —
this means geologists —
and management as well as geophysicists to realize
that interpretation is not a clear-cut process which can be relied on for
a unique answer but is instead subject to numerous limitations which
decrease as the independent control increases.

12-1. Isolation of Residual Gravity Effects

In most areas where gravity surveys are carried out there are deep-
seated structural features causing variations in gravity at the surface
which are much larger in areal extent than the structures ordinarily of
interest in prospecting. For example, the Amarillo-Wichita uplift,
a 200-mile-long basement feature crossing western Oklahoma and the
Texas Panhandle, has a regional gradient along its southwestern flank
of about 10 milligals per mile. In the Rio Grande Valley, there is an
increase in regional gravity of about 1 milligal per mile toward the Gulf
of Mexico as one moves eastward from a point 70 miles inland. Regional
gradients such as these often distort or obscure the effects of structures,
such as salt domes or buried ridges, that might result in oil traps. For
this reason we must subtract out the regional effects in order to isolate
more clearly the structural features in which we are most interested.
There are several methods of removing regional gravity so as to leave
242
THE INTERPRETATION OF GRAVITY DATA 243

these " residuals," as they are called. Some are graphical, others
analytical.
In the graphical approach, the regional effect must be estimated from
the contours of observed gravity; regional contours are interpolated more
or less arbitrarily, being superimposed over the original contour lines.
The regional field is then subtracted from the observed gravity field.

A considerable amount of judgment and in many cases some geological

preconceptions may be necessary for one to derive the regional properly
from the observed data. The process is so subjective and empirical that
one geologist has been quoted by Nettleton 1 as remarking that "the
regional is what you take out in order to make what's left look like the
structure."
With analytical methods of determining residual gravity, routine
numerical operations on the observed data make it possible to isolate
anomalies of economic interest without having to exercise any great
amount judgment. Such techniques generally require that gravity
of
values be spaced in a regular array and templates are designed so that
personnel with little training or experience can carry out the operations.
Three analytical approaches are in common use. These are (1) the
direct calculation of residuals by techniques such as the center-point
and ring method, to be described shortly, (2) the determination of second
derivatives, for which several standard computational formulas are
available, and (3) analytical continuation, which transforms the gravity
field as measured at the surface to the field that would be observed on a

horizontal plane buried at some specified depth or elevated to a higher

level.
The graphical methods have the advantage that all available geological
information from an area can be put to use in drawing the regional.
This is particularly important where the survey covers an area that is
smaller than that of the major structural features which govern the
regional trends. Such methods have certain disadvantages. Experi-
enced and highly trained personnel are required for good results. Even
when such personnel are available, subjective processes involve the risks
of erroneous geologic conceptions or of mistakes in judgment. The
analytical techniques, on the other hand, are often too mechanical and
known geological factors which might affect the interpretation may not
be taken adequately into account.
There are several sources of regional gravity variation. In addition
to large-scale geologic structures, there are density effects caused by intra-
basement lithologic changes as well as isostatic variations which may
often be indeterminate. Difficulty often arises when several density
anomalies, either of local or regional extent, occur so close together that
their individual effects cannot be readily resolved.
244 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

Regardless of the origin of the regional anomaly and regardless of the

method of calculating residuals, it is important to recognize that the
basic criterion for separating regionals and residuals is the area covered
by each type of feature.
Graphical Methods. Where the contours at a distance from a local
anomaly are quite regular, it is possible to take out the regional trend
by drawing lines which connect the undisturbed contours outside the
anomalous area, as illustrated in Fig. 12-1. Where the fictitious con-
tours cross contours of observed gravity, the differences, which have

Observed confour in milIigals

— cfregional trend
Fictitious contour
Contour ofresidual gravity
Fig. 12-1. Determination of residual gravity by subtracting fictitious contours representing regional
trend from observed contours.

discrete values at each intersection, are marked and themselves con-

toured. The resulting map In the example
gives residual gravity.
shown removing the regional converts an elongated gravity
in Fig. 12-1,
minimum into a closed low. It is unusual for actual gravity contours
to be so regular that this simple method can give accurate enough results
for exploration work. Better results can usually be obtained if the
smoothing is done on typical profiles rather than on contour maps. If a
gravity cross section is drawn through the center of the anomaly, the
regional trend can be represented by the best straight line connecting
the ends of the profiles on either side of the anomalous feature. Figure
12-2 illustrates this. The residual profile plotted below the observed
cross section was obtained simply by subtracting the estimated regional
value from the observed gravity at all points along the profile.
Often a series of profiles is drawn on the contour map as a network
THE INTERPRETATION OF GRAVITY DATA 245

of intersecting lines. The regional is estimated for each profile as

shown in Fig. 12-2, but there is additional control from the fact that
the values on each pair of intersecting profiles must be adjusted to be
the same at the points of intersection. Such additional control, although
in a sense arbitrary, is particularly helpful when residuals have low relief.

/Est i ma fed regzonaJ

/ trend

Fig. 12-2. Gravity profile showing removal of regional trend across the anomaly shown in Fig. 12-1.

Computation of Residuals. The simplest analytical approach

Direct
is from a regular grid of gravity obser-
to calculate the residual directly
vations. One technique for doing this has been described by Griffin. 2
It involves the averaging of gravity values along the periphery of a
circle or regular polyhedron with
its center at the point for which the

residualis computed. Figure 12-3,

taken from his paper, illustrates the
method when a circle is employed.
The average value around the circle
is simply the arithmetic mean of
a finite number of equally spaced
points about its circumference.
The residual value is simply the ob-
served value at the center minus this
average. The principal problem
is in the choice of a radius. This
must be largeenough that the circle Fig. 12-3. Computation of residual gravity at
point 0. Residual gravity at = go — (gi ~h
will lie entirely outside the anomaly
g2 + g3 + g4 + gs + ge + g7 + gs)/8.
but not so large as to include irregu- (After Griffin, 949.) Geophysics, 1

larities from other sources.

Second Derivative Gravity Maps. Where the spacing of the gravity
readings is close and where their precision is high, the second derivative
method is particularly suitable for resolving and sharpening anomalies
of small areal extent. On maps of observed gravity such anomalies may
be obscured or hidden altogether by regional trends as well as by the
effects of other small features in close proximity.
246 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

The principles behind the method and some computational techniques are
discussed in a paper by As the vertical rate of change of the
Elkins. 3
change of gravity with depth, the second vertical derivative magnifies the
gravity effect of smaller and shallower structures with respect to that of
the larger scale features, which are usually at greater depths. Thus the
geologic structures of greatest interest in oil and mineral exploration are
emphasized at the expense of large regional structures.
There are a number of graphical devices by which a map of observed
gravity is converted into a second derivative map. It can be shown that
the second vertical derivative of gravity at any point P is the slope at the
origin of a curve constructed by plotting the average value of observed
gravity around each of a series of circles with center at P vs. the square
of the radius of the circle. The average values can be determined from
a gravity map by reading off individual values of gravity at equal intervals
around each circle as is done in Griffin's method of direct computation.
Although the slope of the curve can be determined graphically, greater
accuracy is realized if the ''numerical coefficient method" is employed.
This involves use of a chart to be superimposed on a grid of values trans-
ferred from a gravity map. The chart is perforated by a hole at the pole
where the derivative is to be computed and by sets of holes spaced along
circles around this point having respective radii of s, s \/2, and s \/5> s
being an arbitrary distance depending on the scale of the original map and
the type of anomaly to be resolved. The values read through the holes
are averaged for each circle and the derivative D is calculated in terms of
the averages by use of the formula

D = % (WoHo + W.H, +
o
WH +
2 2 • • -)

where H is the value of gravity at the center point and Hi, 2 etc., areH ,

the averages of the gravity values around the respective circles surround-
ing the center point. W W W
,h 2 etc., are weighting factors for the
,

respective gravity values. Some of these are positive and some are nega-
tive and their sum must come to zero, s is the distance corresponding to
unit grid spacing and C is a numerical constant.
The C/s 2 factor results in the second derivative values having much
different units from those of observed or residual gravity, although the
contour maps may look quite similar in shape.
The choice of weighting factors is essentially arbitrary and several
different sets of coefficientshave been proposed in the literature. Each
involves different assumptions, some of which may be better for some
problems than for others. There is no one set that can be looked on as
superior for all applications. Because any grid system operates on
selected discrete points the derivative map at best represents an approxj -
THE INTERPRETATION OF GRAVITY DATA 247

>N "V*\ X j
CXP T >VY
r
SOUTH MOUS

Stt AZpRiA/ COU Nyr

'*'
-. ^ 'GALVESTON G Q^j

(c)
Fig. 12-4. Gravity maps of the Mykawa-Friendswood-Hastings-Manvel salt-dome area near Houston,
Tex. (a) Observed gravity, contour interval 0.5 milligal. (b) Residual gravity, contour interval
0.5 milligal. (c) Second vertical derivative of gravity, contour interval 5 X 10 -15 cgs unit. (Affer
Elkins, Geophysics, 1951.)

mation to its true mathematical value. The grid spacing, the number of
rings, and the weighting factors, all empirically chosen, have an important
bearing on the configuration of the final map. The effect of using differ-
ent grid spacings and weighting factors is comparable to using different
electrical filters which will pass some frequencies and reject others. A
248 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

grid with small ring diameters or with heavy weighting of the shortest
distances from the center points will emphasize sharp details which may
sometimes be too small to be pertinexit to the problem at hand. Larger
diameters, or heavier weighting of the outer rings, will bring out broader
features more prominently on the final maps but could introduce more of
a contribution from regional features than is desired.
The utility of second derivative methods is illustrated by the group of
maps shown in Fig. 12-4 which compares observed gravity, residual
gravity, and the second vertical derivative of gravity in the area of the
Mykawa-Friendswood-Hastings-Manvel salt-dome fields on the Texas
Gulf Coast. The maps of both observed and residual gravity show a large
minimum at the center, which is located between the fields. The second
derivative map, on the other hand, resolves the individual domes and
removes the central feature. It should be noted that several deep dry
holes were actually drilled on the basis of the misleading minimum at
the center of the gravity map. However, this is an exceptional example
in that the difference between the residual and derivative maps is much
greater than would be observed with most gravity features.
Downward Continuation of Gravity. In a classic paper published in
1949, Peters 4 showed how a potential field (in his paper, the magnetic
field) measured at the earth's surface can be analytically projected upward

or downward, i.e., mathematically transformed to what it would be if it

could be measured either above the earth's surface or along a horizontal
plane inside the earth. The latter procedure, known as downward con-
tinuation, has particular applicability to gravity interpretation. A
deeply buried source of limited size will not yield a gravity effect that
stands out prominently above background. If it is at a shallow depth,
however, its gravity relief may be considerable. The function of down-
ward continuation is to convert the observed gravity field to what it
would be if the features of major interest were much shallower. By this
procedure it is even possible to compute the field at the actual depth of
the buried feature.
The mathematical theory behind Peters' s method will not be discussed
here. The computation procedure is similar to that used in second
derivative calculations, a series of circles with appropriately spaced win-
dows being superimposed over a Appro-
grid of observed gravity values.
priate weighting coefficients are appliedand the choice of ring spacing
and coefficients is governed by the same considerations that apply for
the derivative methods. A variation upon the technique outlined by
Peters has been proposed by Trejo. 6
Discussion. The relative advantages of graphical and analytical
techniques have been argued at some length in the geophysical literature.
THE INTERPRETATION OF GRAVITY DATA 249

A convincing case for the graphical approach has been made by Vajk, 6
who claims that the regional effect by its very nature cannot be deter-
mined uniquely and hence cannot be eliminated properly by any analyti-
cal procedures. Grant, 7 on the other hand, states that Vajk's conclusion
"is a most repugnant idea to the geophysicist" because it "runs counter
to one of the fundamental purposes of geophysical science, which is to
eliminate personal judgments and prejudices as far as is practically possi-
ble through systematic application of the rules of exact logic." Most
workers in the field of gravity interpretation would probably look upon
this as a ratherextreme point of view.
During the past decade there has been a growth in the popularity of
graphical methods, the thinking on the subject having veered more and
more toward that expressed by Vajk. For a time, the use of punch
cards and high-speed electronic computers for the analytical operations
stepped up interest in the derivative and continuation techniques, but a
number of organizations adopting automation of this type have found
that the inflexibility of digital computation, particularly for data not all

on regular grids, cuts down substantially on the economy and efficiency

of This disadvantage may be surmounted with further
operation.
development computational equipment and techniques.
of
Among those concerned with analytical procedures, controversies have
developed as to the "best" coefficients for derivative and continuation
calculations. Actually, there is no best choice of coefficients, the selection
depending on the nature of the problem at hand.
Finally, it is important in choosing techniques for determining residual
gravity to take into account the precision of the original data. Errors
in the instrumental readings or, more significantly, very local sources of
anomaly could result in misleading residual and derivative maps if

appropriate ring diameters and weighting coefficients are not used.

Grant 7 has developed a statistical technique, analogous to least squares,
which smooths out local disturbances and observational errors in the
course of extracting residual gravity.
All analytical methods involving interpolation of grid values from
contour maps have one disadvantage in common, namely, that the mode
of contouring itself influences the final maps (such as the second derivative
maps) very strongly. As Romberg 8 has remarked, the second derivative
map may be more an interpretation of the contouring than of the gravity
when the separation of data points is greater than the grid spacing.
The removal of regional effects is one of the two most important prob-
lems in gravity interpretation. The other problem is the deduction from
the residual field of geological information about its source. The
remainder of this chapter will be concerned with the latter problem.
250 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

12-2. Choice of Density

In the interpretation of gravity anomalies, it is necessary to estimate

the densities of the subsurface rocks before one can postulate their struc-
ture. For this reason it is desirable to give some data on the densities of
representative rocks in regions where gravity surveys are ordinarily made.
As pointed out in Chap. 8, it is not the absolute densities but the density
contrasts that are significant. Among sedimentary rocks these contrasts
are almost always small, seldom exceeding 0.25 g/cm 3
. Moreover, the
variation in the possible densities of almost any type of rock results in

TABLE 12-1. Densities of Typical Rock Materials*

Sedimentary Rocks

Density, g/cm 5

Character and age of formation Location

Water
Dry
saturated

Arenaceous rocks:

Recent alluvium St. Charles Co., Mo. 1.53-1.55 1.96-1.97

Loess Fremont Co., Idaho 1.01 1.62
Recent silt Rosebud Co., Mont. 1.36 1.86
Kirkwood sand, Miocene Margate City, N.J. 1.56 1.97
Fort Union sand, Tertiary Rosebud Co., Mont. 1.79-1.81 2.14
Berea sandstone, Mississippian. . Ohio 2.23-2.54 2.40-2.59
Domengine sandstone, Eocene... North Belridge, Calif. ! 2.56-2.63 2.67-2.73
Dakota sandstone, Cretaceous... Lewis, Iowa 1.65-1.76 2.03-2.10
St. Peter sandstone, Ordovician. Ozark Plateau, Okla. 2.28-2.55 2.42-2.59
Argillites:

White Flint clay, Pennsylvanian. Fulton, Mo. 2.37 2.47

Middendorf clay, Cretaceous. . . Richland Co., S.C. 1.51 1.93
Hamilton shale, Devonian Hannibal, Mo. 2.32 2.43-2.44
Nonesuch shale, pre-Cambrian . . Michigan 2.80
Carlyle shale, Cretaceous Weston Co., Wyo. 2.00 2.24
Bearpaw shale, Cretaceous Rosebud Co., Mont. 1.57 1.98
Carbonates:
Greenhorn limestone, Cretaceous Crook Co., Wyo. 1.74 2.12
Chalk England 1.53-2.22 1.96-2.40
Oolitic limestone England 2.16 2.36
Dolomite England 2.54 2.63
Marble, 34 samples Twelve states 2.66-2.86 2.68-2.86
Evaporites, etc.:

Anhydrite 2.9
Gypsum 2.2
Chert England 2.29 2.40
Diatomite Ontario, Oreg. 0.45 1.18
Rock salt 2.2
THE INTERPRETATION OF GRAVITY DATA 251

TABLE 12-1. Densities of Typical Rock Materials* [Continued)

Holocrystalline Igneous Rocks

Rock Number of samples Range of densities, g/cm 3

155 2.516-2.809
11 2.668-2.785
24 2 630-2 899
. .

13 2.721-2.960
11 2.720-3.020
27 2.850-3.120
40 2 804-3 .110
.

Peridotite 3 3 . 1 52-3 276 .

1 3.289
8 3.10 -3.318
12 2.640-2.920

* Values taken from "Handbook of Physical Constants," edited by Francis Birch, Geological
Society of America Special Paper 36, 1942.

some uncertainty as to the proper value to use in actual computations.

Table 12-1 illustrates the range of density values encountered in a number
might be expected
of typical rock materials as well as the differences that
between the different types.
It is evident from this table that each type of sedimentary rock covers
a wide range of densities and that the ranges are quite similar for sand-
stones, shales, and limestones. Igneous rocks tend to have higher density
than sedimentary formations. Even here, however, there is substantial

Basic igneous
Mefamorph/c ?7Q
2.80 Doiom/Te 74
Acidic 2 70
2.70 igneous
Limes/one 2.61
^Z60 2.54
^.2J50
z*
cr>
-240 — Sandshne 1
2.32
% 2.30
1
°
CD

220
1 1
2J0
1 1
200
1 1
No samples 617 322 487 105 120 114 83
Ranqe densities 1.61"2.76 1.77-2.45 1.93-2.90 2.30-3.! I 2.36-2.90 2.40-3.10 2.09-3.17

Fig. 12-5. Average densities of surface samples and cores based on laboratory measurements.
(MagnoJ/a Petroleum Co.)
252 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

overlap between the densities of sedimentary and igneous types as well

as between those of the various kinds of igneous rocks themselves.
Despite the considerable range of variation in the densities of different
types of rocks, it is often necessary to use average values in gravity calcu-
lations for areas where the kind of rock is known but no densities have

1.80

2.00 \
s

c
x2.20
^~
*w
C
Ql

"§2.40

-4-
C
t 2.60

>
< 2.80
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Depth of overburden in feel-

Fig. 12-6. Natural density vs. depth in a Venezuelan oil well penetrating into Tertiary shales. (Afte

Hedberg, Am. J. ScL, 1936.)

2000 4000 6000 8000 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000

Depth in ft
Fig. 1 2-7. Density of Gulf Coast sediments as a function of depth. [After Nettleton, Bull. Am. Assoc.
Petrol. Geologists, Vol. 18, 1934.)

been determined. Figure 12-5 indicates average densities obtained from

a largenumber of laboratory measurements on core and surface samples
made by Magnolia Petroleum Co. The results, previously unpublished,
were worked up by J. W. Peters. The range of densities as well as the
number of samples are tabulated at the base of the diagram.
In many
areas there is a regular increase with depth in the density
of the sedimentary section on account of compaction. Hedberg 9 has
prepared a curve showing the density variation observed in a well pene-
THE INTERPRETATION OF GRAVITY DATA 253

trating more than 6,000 a shale formation in Venezuela (see Fig.

ft into

12-6). In his paper on mechanics of salt domes, Nettleton 10 has

fluid

plotted the average variation with depth of the sedimentary rocks in the
Texas Gulf Coast area. His plot (Fig. 12-7) is based on a combination
of gravity data, density measurements, and Hedberg's compaction
theory. Since the density of rock salt is 2.2 g/cm 3 the salt will be gener-
,

ally lighter than the surrounding sediments at all depths below about
2,500 ft.

12-3. Determining Subsurface Structure from Gravity Data

Ambiguity of Gravity Information. In Chap. 8 it was shown how

one could calculate the gravitational effect at any point on the surface
from a given subsurface mass distribution. In interpreting gravity maps
and profiles over areas where the subsurface structure is not known, one
attempts as far as possible to reverse the procedure. Unfortunately the
process is not entirely reversible. Whereas a given buried mass will give
a single predictable gravity effect at any chosen point on the surface,
any gravity profile could, from physical reasoning alone, be produced by
an infinite number of possible mass distributions. To consider a simple
example, any buried sphere will give the same gravity profile as would a
point source of the same mass located at its center. If the mass and
center of the sphere are fixed, the density and radius could have any com-
bination of values that would give the right mass, and there would be
no way of separating one from the other by analysis of the gravity profile
alone. If we knew the density we could then determine the radius, but
even then we could not be certain that the body is a sphere just because
the gravity profile has the same form as that for a sphere. Entirely
different geometrical distributions of the subsurface mass could yield
the same gravity field at the surface.
Examples Showing Lack of Uniqueness in Gravity Data. The limitations
of the gravity method in defining subsurface structure are demonstrable
by standard potential theory; they have been well illustrated in a much-
quoted paper by Skeels 11 entitled " Ambiguity in Gravity Interpretation."
He shows by a number of examples how widely different mass distribu-
tions below the ground can give the same gravity picture on the surface.
In Fig. 12-8 we see a number of subsurface structures which in the absence
of other geologic information could equally well account for an observed
gravity anomaly. If we assume that the anomaly results from undula-
tions in the surface of a basement which has a fixed density contrast with
the sediments above, the structure producing it could have any of the
shapes shown in the middle part of the figure. The lower part of the
diagram shows an entirely different geological situation, a schist pene-
254 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

trated by an intrusive and overlain by sedimentary rock, which could

yield the same anomaly. In his paper, Skeels gives a proof, based on
potential theory, that no computational procedure can extract a unique
solution from gravity data, despite occasional claims to the contrary in
the literature.

> jq4.0
§U*o
§=2.0
'*§ 2 1.0

Gravity profile

Configurations of Basement Surface that would Account

for Anomaly if Density contrast of 0.2is
Assumed at Interface

^ Sands anet Sha/es > Dens. = 2. 5 cf/cm*- ' V

It Limestone -Density • 2.7 q/cnr

x
i O 1

*'
\ lntrus/ve-Dens.~2.9-\ , x Scnist-^ ,\ i'l ^
l
K
Density = 2.7 \ \ \ \ \\

Another Interpretation that would

fit the same Data
Fig. 12-8. Alternative interpretations of a hypothetical gravity anomaly. [After Skeels, Geophysics,
1947.)

Need for Independent Geologic Information. It is seldom, however, that

the geophysicist must base his interpretation on gravity data alone. Any
independent control such as is obtained from drilling logs or seismic data
reduces the ambiguity in the interpretation. The range of uncertainty
is now narrowed and the number of variables can be cut down to the
 2

THE INTERPRETATION OF GRAVITY DATA 255

point where the final solution may have practical validity. If in the

example shown in Fig. 12-8 a single well penetrating the basement surface

were drilled somewhere along the profile, data would be available on the
densities of the sedimentary section and basement rocks as well as on the
depth to the interface at one point. If it can be assumed that these densi-

ties remain laterally uniform beneath the entire area, it is possible to

calculate the shape of the basement surface from the gravity data with
considerable reliability.

9z

/"

^^--_
Arrows represent dips measured on surface

Observed gravity Cat gravity for surface

for
Cat. gravity for surfaceS
Cat. gravity

basement surface/
depth of buried igneous ridge by extrapolating surface structure downward and
Fig. 12-9. Estimating

comparing calculated gravity at various assumed depths with observed profile. Surface 2 appears
to give best fit.

information obtained from surface geology to

It is often possible to use
limit the possibilities and guide the assumptions upon which a gravity
interpretation is based. Suppose, for example, that surface observations
reveal an anticline coincident with a gravity high, as in Fig. 12-9. From
regional geology the surface feature is believed to result from a buried
basement ridge. The shape of the ridge at each of several possible depths
can be estimated from the surface dips. The only unknown is the depth
of the basement, and this can be estimated from the gravity data by
placing the ridge successively at a number of depths and computing
each of the resulting gravity profiles graphically or analytically. It is
seen that one of these profiles gives a closer
fit to the observed gravity

profilethan do any of the others but does not coincide with it exactly.
The departures of the calculated curve from the observed one would
then indicate how the assumed structure should be changed in order to
256 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

secure a better fit. Although the geological control makes the final pic-
ture considerably more reliable than it would otherwise be, the. structure
so deduced is still not unique. Density inhomogeneities or structural
features not reflected in the surface geology could make the interpretation
entirely wrong.
Barton 12 warned against over confidence in any assumed structure that
happens to fit gravity data in words that may well be quoted:

Calculations in regard to the mass causing an observed anomaly are of great

value in the interpretation of gravity data, but they are no panacea for the uncer-
tainties of interpretation. The geophysicist should keep the limitations and
uncertainties constantly in mind and should see that the users of the results of
the calculations are conscious of those limitations and uncertainties.

Later in the same paper he remarks that the chief value of such calcula-
tions is that they " definitely throw out possibilities that previously had
looked plausible and bring to mind unthought of new ones that are much
more plausible."
This is why almost never begun on the basis of gravity indi-
drilling is

cations alone. Gravity surveys are excellent for reconnaissance of pre-

viously unexplored areas. Where anomalies show up, they are generally
tested with the seismograph, which can give a much more unique picture
of the subsurface situation. Only if the seismic evidence is favorable is
it likely that a drilling location will be chosen on the prospect.
Graticules. In comparing gravity effects of assumed subsurface struc-
tures with actually observed values of gravity, it is not always possible

to compute the attraction of irregular masses by analytical means. The

only procedure that is feasible in such cases is to divide up the body into
a large number of blocks so small that the mass of each block can be con-
sidered to be located, within the limits of error, at its center (see Fig. 8-1,
page 171). The attractions of the elementary blocks are added up and
the sum gives the attraction of the buried mass itself.
To go through this operation numerically would be a most tedious
proposition, but there are graphical techniques which reduce the labor
enormously. These techniques generally involve the use of transparent
templates called graticules, which are superposed over cross sections of
the structures whose gravity effect is to be computed. The template
generally consists of a fan-shaped pattern of lines forming a series of
compartments of ever-increasing area as the distance from the vertex
increases. The vertex is placed over the gravity station on the section,
and the gravity effect of any body outlined on the section can be deter-
mined by counting the compartments it covers on the template. In most
graticules, each compartment represents, for a constant density, an equal
contribution to observed gravity at the station.
THE INTERPRETATION OF GRAVITY DATA 257

Figure 12-10 shows a typical graticule for two-dimensional structures

(i.e., masses extending to infinity in the direction perpendicular to the
section) that has been used for gravity calculation by the Gulf Research
and Development Co. Each compartment represents a vertical gravity
contribution at the observing station (which is located at the vertex),
and the amount of this effect is indicated by the number of dots within
the compartment. The open circles represent one-tenth of a gravity
unit, and the full ones represent one gravity unit. The value of each
unit in milligals depends on the scale of the cross section on which the

Fig. 12-10. Dot chart used by Gulf Research and Development Co. for calculating gravity effect at

any point on surface from a two-dimensional buried body. The chart, printed on a transparent
sheet, is superimposed on a cross section, the vertex being placed over position on surface where
gravity effect is desired. See this page for details on use of chart. (Gulf Research and Develop-
ment Co.)

template is superposed and also on the density of the body whose effect
isdetermined. If the scale of the profile is \/k and the density contrast
is r/, the gravity effect at the center (in milligals) corresponding to a
single full dot is 10~ b ka.
If, for example, the section is drawn to a scale

and the density contrast of the anomalous buried mass is 0.25,

of 1/10,000
each compartment containing 12 full dots will contribute 0.3 milligal to
the gravity at the center of the fan. If the boundaries of the feature cut
the interior of a compartment, one interpolates the gravity contribution
by counting only the dots inside the boundaries of the mass in question.
Another graticule similar in principle but somewhat different in design
has been developed by Hubbert 13 and independently by Skeels. It also
is used for computing the effect of two-dimensional bodies. A sample
chart of this type is reproduced in Fig. 12-11. The compartments are all
trapezoids formed by the intersection of a system of horizontal lines, all
equally spaced, and a system of radial lines emanating from the origin so
that each line makes an equal angle with the next one. It is used in the
same manner as the Gulf chart, except that there are no dots to aid
258 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

interpolation. Figure 12-12 illustrates the use of the template for com-
puting the vertical gravitational field, at 0, of the sample irregular body
shown. Compartments inside the body are counted, and fractional parts

fach large izj unit corresponds to W~ 5ot mg. where <r= densS. t=no. crns. in originert'represented
by distance z on cross-sec/ion

Designed by D. C. SkeeJs

Fig. 12-11. Graticule for computing gravity effects from two-dimensional structures.

of those cut by its boundary are estimated and added. This graticule
cannot be used without change of scale if the buried mass comes very
close to the surface of the ground, since the trapezoids radiating from the
vertex become too small for accurate counting.
Use of Generalized Geometrical Forms. Although geologic struc-
tures sought in prospecting are vir-
tually never in the form of perfect
spheres, cylinders, slabs, or cones,
it is often helpful to compare an
observed gravity profile with one
that would result from a body hav-
ing some simple geometrical shape
which can be described analytically.
Such comparison is usually not jus-
tified unlessthe gravity data are of
high precision and have close spac-
ing of observation points (compared
Fig. 12-12. Use of graticule such as that shown
with the size of the features causing
in
Fig. O
12-11 to compute gravity effect at point
of irregular body. Decimal parts of compart- the anomalies) and unless there is
ments cut by boundary of body are indicated. independent information from other
Total effect is 25.8 times gravity value of a
sources suggesting the probable
single compartment.
shape of the feature.
We have previously referred to Nettleton's formulas (page 177) for
the gravity effects from several generalized forms, namely, the sphere,
horizontal cylinder, vertical line element, vertical sheet, and vertical
THE INTERPRETATION OF GRAVITY DATA 259

circular cylinder. Figure 8-7 tabulates these along with the correspond-
ing magnetic expressions, to be discussed further in a subsequent chapter.
The formula for the gravitational effect of the vertical circular cylinder
is expressed in terms of the solid angles subtended at the top and bottom.
Determination of these is facilitated by use of a solid-angle chart which
accompanies Nettleton's paper. 14
Frequently the shape of a buried structure can be adequately, although
not uniquely, approximated by comparing its gravity profile with a set

Vertical gravity

in mg
10

rj
i /
8 \

/l
6 \
/ 1

"~i~"*
/ 9max -
A J

^S
// 1

1
9max/Z
1
•2f

T t

0- 7

Fig. 12-13. Determining depth of horizontal cylinder from "half width" xy2 on gravity profile.

of profiles computed for the geometric form believed from geological con-
siderations to represent a reasonably close fit. Different parameters
such as depth, radius, or density can be varied systematically, the value
giving the closest agreement between the observed and computed gravity
profile being considered the most likely one for the unknown body. Here
again, the better the geological control, the more reliable the conclusions
derived from this approach.
Depth Estimation. Formulas such as those tabulated by Nettleton
can often be used to estimate the depths to the centers of the bodies they
represent. The method can be best illustrated by considering the gravity
formula for a very long horizontal cylinder, which is often useful for
approximating the shape of an anticline or buried basement ridge
1

^= 12.77cr
^ [l + (J)']" Q*V
Figure 12-13 is a plot of this formula showing the cylinder with its center
260 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

at a depth On the profile let us call the value of x where g z is one-half

z.

its maximum value the "half width" and designate it by the symbol x^.
At this value of x, the quantity [1 +
(x/z) 2 ]- 1 would be numerically equal

to Yi- Inverting this relation, we get

1 + (?)'- (12-2)

and z = x* (12-3)

which gives us the depth to the center of the cylinder in terms of the half

w-1
°-7

=-3

-5 From seismograph
-6
wmmxrr?< Cap n Upper
Cretaceous
4.000 chalk
Massive
anhydrite
6,000

Smackover
12,000
lime
Salt
16.000
lepOO I2P00 8,000 4,000 4 000
;
8,000 12,000 16,000

Feel
Fig. 12-14. Comparison of observed gravity anomaly over Minden dome, Louisiana, with that pre-
dicted from salt dome having shape and density contrasts approximated by series of cylinders as
shown. (After NeWeton, Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, Vol. 27, No. 1, 1943.)

width. With z now known, one can determine R, the radius of the cylin-
der, from the formula

= 12.77o- (12-4)
z

where g z max is the maximum value of the anomaly.

From a similar calculation the depth to the center of a buried sphere is

z = 1.305a; H (12-5)

Composite Forms. It is often convenient to fit together a number of

generalized geometric forms with different dimensions and, in some cases,
presumed structure, and to adjust the
different densities to simulate a
dimensions of the different component parts until the theoretical and
observed gravity curves fit. Nettleton 15 accounted for the anomaly
THE INTERPRETATION OF GRAVITY DATA 261

over the Minden salt dome in Louisiana by a

and cap-rock configura-
salt

tion which he reduced to a number of equivalent cylinders as shown in

Fig. 12-14. The interpretation was facilitated by previous knowledge
(from drilling) of the depth to the salt layer at the base of the dome.
Here again the same gravity picture might have been matched just as
well by an entirely different subsurface mass, but the well data made this
picture the most plausible.
Summary. The procedure actually employed to interpret the results
of a gravity survey will depend on a number of factors such as the purpose
of the survey, its precision, and the amount of geological information
available from other sources. In many cases where the survey is con-
ducted purely for reconnaissance, no detailed quantitative analysis it
necessary since the purpose of the gravity work is simply to localize
interesting areas for further exploration with the seismograph. In the
Gulf Coast, for example, the simple existence of a closed low having a
reasonable magnitude would probably earmark the area as a possible
salt-dome location, and a seismic program might be laid out without
involved calculations to determine the depth and shape of the salt dome
inferred to be causing the low.
Quantitative methods of interpretation are most fruitful where there
is already substantial control on the geology of the area. If we know from
seismic data, for example, that a structure associated with an observed
gravity high approximates a horizontal cylinder in its form and if we

have information from drilling that indicates uniform densities, we can

apply the formula for a horizontal cylinder to the observed gravity curve
and determine its approximate depth and size. If, to take another exam-
ple, the source of a negative anomaly is believed to be a salt dome in a
region where the mother salt bed is shallow, we can apply the formula for
a sphere to estimate its depth and dimensions. In still another case we
may have drilling information on the depth of the basement surface at
one point and suspect that a nearby gravity high is caused by a ridge in
the basement. Approximating the ridge as a cylinder and applying the
half-width formula, we may find that the top of the " ridge" is far below
the basement surface. This would suggest that the source of the anomaly
may really be a high-density intrusive deep within the basement.
In cases where no simple geometrical form appears to apply we can
assume a number of structures which are compatible with our independent
control, leaving one parameter, such as depth or density, to vary for each
assumed structure. We then compute the expected gravity curve for
the various structures by means of a graticule. The one that gives the
best fit with actual observation is considered the most likely prospect.
Skeels 16 gives a number of actual examples where quantitative methods
such as these have been advantageously applied. Interpretations of
262 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

this kind can be useful only if the limitations and ambiguities inherent in
the particular situation are well understood.

REFERENCES

1. Nettleton, L. L.: Regionals, Residuals, and Structures, Geophysics, Vol. 19, pp.
1-22, 1954.
2. Griffin, W. R. Residual Gravity in Theory and Practice, Geophysics, Vol. 14, pp.
:

39-56, 1949.
3. Elkins, T. A.: The Second Derivative Method of Gravity Interpretation, Geo-
physics, Vol. 16, pp. 29-50, 1951.
4. Peters, L. J.: The Direct Approach to Magnetic Interpretation and Its Practical
Application, Geophysics, Vol. 14, pp. 290-319, 1949.
5. Trejo, Cesar A.: Note on Downward Continuation of Gravity, Geophysics, Vol. 19,
pp. 71-75, 1954.
6. Vajk, Raoul: Regional Correction of Gravity Data, Geofis. pura e appl, Vol. 19,
pp. 129-143, 1951.
7. Grant, Fraser S. A : Theory for the Regional Correction of Potential Field Data,
Geophysics, Vol. 19, pp. 23-45, 1954.
8. Romberg, F. E.: Key Variables of Gravity, Geophysics, Vol. 23, pp. 684-700,
1958.
9. Hedberg, H. D.: Gravitational Compaction of Clays and Shales, Am. J. Sci.,
Vol. 31, pp. 241-287, 1936.
10. Nettleton, L. L.: Fluid Mechanics of Salt Domes, Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol-
Vol. 18, pp. 1175-1204, 1934.
ogists,
11. Skeels, D. C: Ambiguity in Gravity Interpretation, Geophysics, Vol. 12, pp.
43-56, 1947.
12. Barton, Donald C: Case Histories and Quantitative Calculations in Gravimetric
Prospecting, "Geophysics, 1945," Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs., Vol. 164,
pp. 17-65, 1945.
13. Hubbert, M. K. Line-integral Method of Computing Gravity, Geophysics, Vol.
: 13,
pp. 215-225, 1948.
14. Nettleton, L. L. Gravity : and Magnetic Calculations, Geophysics, Vol. 7, pp.
293-310, 1942.
15. Nettleton, L. L. Recent Experimental and Geophysical Evidence of Mechanics of
:

Salt-dome Formation, Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, Vol. 27, pp. 51-63, 1943.
16. Skeels, D. C: The Value of Quantitative Interpretation of Gravity Data, Geo-
physics, Vol. 7, pp. 345-353, 1942.
 CHAPTER 13

MAGNETIC PROSPECTING:
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND INSTRUMENTS

Magnetic prospecting, the oldest method of geophysical exploration, is

used in searching both for oil and for minerals. In prospecting for oil, it
is ordinarily used to determine the thickness of the sedimentary section

or to map structural features on the basement surface that might influence

the structure of overlying sediments. Sedimentary rocks exert such a
small magnetic effect compared to the igneous rocks below them that
virtually all variations in magnetic intensity measurable at the surface
are associated with topography or lithologic changes at the basement.
In mining exploration, the magnetometer is used to prospect for mag-
netic minerals directly and in some instances for nonmagnetic minerals
where structures controlling their accumulation can be mapped because
of associated magnetic materials.
Since the Second World War, a steadily increasing proportion of all
magnetic surveys has been airborne. Virtually all magnetic exploration
for oil and most magnetic prospecting for minerals are now carried out
with aeromagnetic instruments. The speed, economy, and convenience
of airborne techniques have been responsible for this trend.
The magnetic method of prospecting has a great deal in common with
the gravitational method. Both seek anomalies caused by changes in
the physical properties of subsurface rocks. Both are used mainly for
reconnaissance. Also, both require fundamentally similar interpretation
techniques. The magnetic method, however, is more complicated both
in principle and in practice. The main reason is that the property of a
rock which determines its magnetic effects, the intensity of magnetization,
has both magnitude and direction, while the corresponding property
governing its gravitational pull, the mass, has magnitude only. Also,
magnetic effects from rocks may be greatly influenced by small traces of
certain minerals, while gravitational effects originate mainly from the
rocks' principal constituents.

13-1. Basic Concepts and Definitions

Magnetic Poles. If one sprinkles iron filings at random on a sheet of

paper which rests on a simple bar magnet, they will tend to line up as
263
264 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

shown in Fig. 13-1. The lines along which the filings orient themselves
are designated as " lines of force." Each of these follows a circuitous
path from a point near one end of the magnet to a point near the other
end, both points being defined as poles. The filings in the vicinity of
the magnet line up because each of them is itself a small magnet affected

by the field of the large one. The bar magnet in turn can be oriented
^ _^ by the magnetic " lines of force " of
/
'"'^- -^ ^n the earth, which itself acts as a \

v f ^~f"~"~
I ~~~~~
&N ) / great magnet. Thus, if a bar mag-
]

y
^ ^^> <£ ^
j. .r net is pivoted ^
at its center so that
N
/ ' \ ^^___
I
_ __ —'
can rotate freely in all directions,
]
) \ it

l
O "^
"""*"
— ~"
y ^
"" ^
""*"
J
up along the earth's field.
One end of the magnet will always
) will line

Fig. 13-1. Lines of force around bar magnet; A

and 8 are poles.
the general d i rect ion of the ^^
earth's North Pole. Near this end
lies the " north-seeking" or positive pole of the magnet. Near the other
end is the " south-seeking " or negative pole.
Poles always exist in pairs, but in a very long magnet the lines of force
around the positive pole will not be perceptibly affected by the presence
of the negative one and each can be considered an isolated pole.
Magnetic Force. If two poles of strength P and P respectively are
separated by a distance r, the force F between them will be expressed by
the relation

F = -^ (13-1)

The constant known as the permeability, depends upon the magnetic

fx,

properties of the medium in w hich the poles are situated. The units ofT

pole strength are specified by the requirement that F is 1 dyne when two
unit poles 1 cm apart are situated in a nonmagnetic medium such as air
(for which \i — 1). Note the similarity between Eq. (13-1) and Eq. (8-1)
(page 169), the latter expressing the gravitational attraction between two
particles. If the poles are of like type, the force is repulsive; if they are
unlike, it is attractive.
Magnetic Field. The magnetic field strength at a point is defined as the
force per unit of pole strength which would be exerted upon a small pole
of strength P if placed at that point. Thus, the field strength due to a
pole of strength P sl distance r away is

F P
H= j5" = —. 2i
(13-2)
Po \ir

The magnetic field strength is often expressed in terms of the density of

the " lines of force" representing the field. The unit of H on this basis
MAGNETIC PROSPECTING: FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND INSTRUMENTS 265

is one line of force per square centimeter. It is also designated as 1 dyne

per unit pole or as 1 oersted.

Magnetic Moment. Since isolated poles do not exist, actual magnets

are best represented as magnetic dipoles. A dipole consists of two poles
of equal strength P and of opposite sign, separated by a short distance L.
We define the product PL of the pole strength by the separation as M , the
magnetic moment of the dipole. The direction of the moment is along the
between the poles and by convention is toward the north-seeking pole.
line
Magnetization (or Polarization). Any magnetic material
Intensity of
when placed in a magnetic field is found to have magnetic poles induced
upon its surface (Fig. 13-2). In
mag- Positive poles on top
the case of the moderately
surface a re a A
,

netic materials and weak fields

important in geophysical work, the

induced magnetization, sometimes
called polarization, is in the direc-
tion of the applied field and its

strength is proportional to the Negative poles on

bottom surface
strength of that field. The inten-
Fig. 13-2. Polarization induced in cylindrical
sity of magnetization, /, may be pillbox by field perpendicular to ends. Lines of

considered to be the induced pole length L represent separation of poles and are
used in calculating effective dipole moments for
strength per unit area along a sur-
uniform field and homogeneous material within
face normal to the inducing field. box.
This type of magnetization may be
thought of as a lining up of elementary magnets or dipoles, which originally
had random orientation, in the direction of the inducing field. The
extent of the lining up depends on the external field strength. From a
picture of this kind it is easy to show that / is the magnetic moment
per unit volume.
Susceptibility. In the case of a homogeneous external field which H
makes an angle with the normal to the surface of a magnetic material,
the induced pole strength per unit area is

/ = kH COS (13-3)

or, for a field normal to the surface,

I = kH

where k, the proportionality constant, is called the susceptibility. In the

case of a vacuum, k is zero. Magnetic materials having a positive sus-
ceptibility are known as paramagnetic. Bodies of this type tend to line
up with their long dimension in the direction of the external field. A few
substancps. such as rock salt and anhydrite, have negative susceptibilities
266 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

and are described as diamagnetic. Bodies of this type tend to line up

with their long dimension across the applied field.
Magnetic Induction. The magnetic poles induced in a material by an
external field H
will produce a field of their own, H' which is related to ',

the intensity of magnetization, 7, by the formula

H' = 4tt7 (13-4)

The total magnetic flux inside the material as measured in a narrow cavity
having an axis perpendicular to the field is called the magnetic induction
and is designated by the symbol B. This is the sum of the external and
the internal fields and is proportional to the external field strength in
moderately magnetic materials, as shown by the relation

= (1 + 4wk)H = ixH (13-5)

Permeability. The proportionality constant (1 + 4twk) of Eq. (13-5)

is called the permeability and is designated by the symbol \x. This equa-
tion can be written in the form

| = 1+ 4tt/c (13-6)

The permeability is a measure of the modification of the force of attraction

or repulsion between two magnetic poles in a medium which is itself

magnetic.
Residual Magnetism. The direct proportionality between B and H
indicated by Eq. (13-5) is actually
'
on'B\.
fa only an approximation, which
breaks down entirely in highly
magnetic materials. The behavior
of a ferromagnetic substance un-
Intensity, H dergoing cyclic magnetization and
demagnetization is illustrated by
Fig. 13-3. An unmagnetized sam-
ple of magnetic material is placed
between the poles of an electro-
magnet which produces an external
Fig. 13-3. Hysteresis loop for ferromagnetic
field H
that can be controlled by
material. R and R' are residual inductions. increasing, decreasing, or reversing
the current. Magnetization is be-
gun by increasing H from zero (step 1 ) The induction, which is measured
.

by a ballistic galvanometer connected to a coil wound around the speci-

men, increases almost linearly, following the relation B = fiH closely until
MAGNETIC PROSPECTING: FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND INSTRUMENTS 267

the sample magnetized to saturation, whereupon the curve approaches a

is

horizontal line. The external field is then reduced to zero (2), but B does
not return to zero; instead it retains the value R, which we call the residual
magnetization. If the current, and hence H, are now reversed (3), B will

decrease until it also is reversed, eventually approaching saturation in the

negative direction. A decrease in the reversing field to zero (4) will
bring B to — R' while the application of a positive magnetizing field at
this stage (5) will reverse the direction of B
again and result in a second
phase of positive saturation. This entire pattern of magnetization is
called a hysteresis loop. The curve shows how a body with magnetic
susceptibility can remain polarized after the disappearance of the original
magnetizing force.
Although rocks are generally so weakly magnetic that one would not
expect them to show residual magnetism, many rock materials in place are
magnetized in a way which cannot be explained entirely as polarization
induced by the earth's present field. The direction of magnetization is

often quite different from that of this field, and one is led to the conclusion
that it represents the resultant of the current magnetization and the
residual magnetization from a much different field existing when the rock
was initially formed. In recent years, this phenomenon, known as paleo-
magnetism, has been studied most intensively by investigators in Great
Britain and the United States. The results of their research up to 1956
have been reviewed quite thoroughly by Runcorn. In the case of 1

igneous rocks, the residual magnetization was acquired when the rocks
cooled from the Curie point. This is often many times larger than the
induced magnetization. Sedimentary rocks often show a residual mag-
netization, particularly sandstones that have been deposited in quiet
water where individual grains of magnetic minerals could line up in the
it was at the time of deposition.
direction of the earth's field as As
pointed out by Vacquier, 2 the direction of residual magnetization in
igneous rocks is important in the interpretation of data obtained in
magnetic prospecting. Specific information on paleomagnetic behavior
of rocks is available from so few places, however, that in most magnetic
surveys one can only assume that the magnetization is that of the earth's
present field at the location in question.
Units of Magnetic Intensity. In magnetic prospecting, one usually
measures variations in the intensity, or some component of the intensity,
of the earth's magnetic field. The standard unit of field intensity is, as
previously noted, the oersted, although much of the geophysical literature
uses the numerically equivalent gauss. The total magnetic field of the
earth is normally about Yi oersted. The oersted is too large a unit for
practical use in prospecting, since the variations in which we are interested
may be less than a thousandth of this amount. The gamma, defined as
268 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
10~ 5 oersted, is more convenient and has become the most commonly used
unit of field intensity for geophysical work.
Electromagnetism. Every electric current generates a magnetic field
which is in a plane perpendicular to the current, as shown by the orienta-
tion of the compass needles around the wire in Fig. 13-4. The strength
of the field is proportional to the current and in the case of a long, straight

f
/ e \
\ \
/ o M
Current in to paper- Current out of paper-
co mp asses take directions o f compass
positions shown need/es reversed
Fig. 13-4. Orientation of compass needles around straight wire (perpendicular to paper) carrying
current. This experiment shows that current creates magnetic field with circular lines of force having
their center at wire.

wire is inversely proportional to the distance from the wire. This prin-
ciple isimportant in magnetic prospecting only in so far as it forms the
basis for certain types of geomagnetic instruments.

13-2. Magnetic Susceptibility of Rocks

The most significant magnetic property of rocks is their susceptibility.

This can be measured with the rocks in place by an induction balance
developed by Mooney 3 Pulverized samples of rocks can be placed near
a field magnetometer and the deflection of the magnetometer needle
caused by the sample can be used to calculate the susceptibility. In situ
measurements are preferable wherever it is feasible to make them.
In the laboratory, primary and secondary coils are wound about the
rock sample whose susceptibility is to be measured. The deflection of a
galvanometer connected to the secondary coil is noted when a current is
sent through the primary. Barret 4 describes an apparatus based on this
principle which is designed primarily for rock-susceptibility measurements.
When an external magnetic field is used for measuring susceptibility,
it is customary to specify the strength of this field when the results are

tabulated. The polarization should properly consist of two parts, the

susceptibility polarization kH, dependent on the external field H, and
MAGNETIC PROSPECTING: FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND INSTRUMENTS 269

the remanent polarization I p , which governs the residual magnetism in

the absence of such a field.

Table 13-1 gives some representatives values of susceptibility and

and Birch) for several different kinds of rocks
polarization (after Heiland
and minerals.
TABLE 13-1. Measured Susceptibilities of Rock Materials

Material k X 10 6 cgs, At H. oersteds

Magnetite 300,000-800,000 0.6

Pyrrhotite 1 25,000 0.5
Ilmenite 1 35,000 1

Franklinite 36,000
Dolomite 14 0.5
Sandstone 16.8 1

Serpentine 14,000 30.5

Granite 28-2,700 1

Diorite 46.8 1

Gabbro 68.1-2,370 1

Porphyry 47 1

Diabase 78-1,050 1

Basalt 680 1

Olivine-diabase 2,000 0.5

Peridotite 12,500 .5-1.0

TABLE 13-2. Calculated Susceptibilities of Rock Materials

Magnetite Ilmenite

Minimum Maximum Average Average

Material

Per Per Per Per

cent
k X 10 6
cent
k X 10 6
cent
k X 10 6
cent
fcX 10 f

Quartz porphyries 0.0 1.4 4,200 0.82 2,500 0.3 410

Rhyolites 0.2 600 1.9 5,700 1.00 3,000 0.45 610
Granites 0.2 600 1.9 5,700 0.90 2,700 0.7 1,000
Trachyte-syenites 0.0 4.6 14,000 2.04 6,100 0.7 1,000
Eruptive nephelifes 0.0 4.9 15,000 1.51 4,530 1.24 1,700
Abyssal nephelites 0.0 6.6 20,000 2.71 8,100 0.85 1,100
Pyroxenites 0.9 3,000 8.4 25,000 3.51 10,500 0.40 5,400
Gabbros 0.9 3,000 3.9 1 2,000 2.40 7,200 1.76 2,400
Monzonite-latites 1.4 4,200 5.6 17,000 3.58 10,700 1.60 2,200
Leucite rocks 0.0 7.4 22,000 3.27 9,800 1.94 2,600
Dacite-quartz-diorite 1.6 4,800 8.0 24,000 3.48 10,400 1.94 2,600
Andesites 2.6 7,800 5.8 17,000 4.50 13,500 1.16 1,600
Diorites 1.2 3,600 7.4 22,000 3.45 10,400 2.44 4,200
Peridotites 1.6 4,800 7.2 22,000 4.60 13,800 1.31 1,800
Basalts 2.3 6,900 8.6 26,000 4.76 14,300 1.91 2,600
Diabases 2.3 6,900 6.3 19,000 4.35 13,100 2.70 3,600
270 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

The majority of rock-susceptibility values to be found in tables were

measured in fields greater than the earth's. It is questionable how useful
such values are for geophysical prospecting in view of the fact that the
susceptibility as measured in a strong field is lower than when determined
in a field of Y2 oersted or thereabouts. For prospecting calculations,
susceptibilities determined according to a somewhat indirect method

2800
Basic tgneous
2600
2596
2400

2200
'2000

S 1800

£[1600

f U00
1200

1000
Acid
.tgneous
800
647
600
Metamorphic M
400 549

200 Do/omffe

No. samples
Range of
8
66
0~75
Limestone Sandstone
25
66
2-280
52

230
0-1665
Sha/e
52

137
5-1478
'HhF 61
0-5824
58
3-6527
78
44-9711
susceptibilities

Fig. 13-5. Average magnetic susceptibilities of surface samples and cores as measured in laboratory.
(Magno//'a Petroleum Co.)

proposed by Slichter 6 are probably safer. Assuming that the magnetism

of most rocks is attributable to their magnetite content, he obtains the
by multiplying the volume percentage of the
susceptibility of the rock
magnetite in the rock by the susceptibility of magnetite (considered as
0.3 cgs). He finds good agreement between values calculated in this
manner and those measured directly in fields having the same strength
as the earth's. Stearn 6 has tabulated the magnetite and ilmenite content
of a large number of igneous rocks. Susceptibilities calculated by
Slichter'smethod are presented in Table 13-2 for both constituents on
the basis of Steam's data. This table shows the range of variation in
susceptibility for any given type of rock. One sees that the magnetiza-
MAGNETIC PROSPECTING: FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND INSTRUMENTS 271

tion attributable to the ilmenite is almost always small compared to that

from the magnetite.
The Magnolia Petroleum Co. has conducted laboratory measurements
of susceptibility on a large number of rock samples, igneous, metamorphic,
and sedimentary. J. W. Peters has prepared a bar graph (Fig. 13-5)
showing susceptibilities for a number of rock types. Although igneous
and metamorphic rocks generally have higher susceptibilities than sedi-
mentary rocks, the range of variation is so great that it is not possible to
identify even the type of rock from magnetic information alone. In
general, however, the magnetization of sedimentary rocks is so small that
structural features confined to the sedimentary section alone will seldom
if ever be reflected in magnetic profiles. For this reason, the chief value
of magnetic methods for petroleum exploration is in areas where the
basement rocks govern sedimentary structure. In prospecting for ores
by magnetic means it is not usually possible to detect minerals other than
magnetite, pyrrhotite, or ilmenite, although one instance has been
reported from Switzerland where jacobsite, (Mn, Fe)30 4 was found ,

responsible for an anomaly of more than 1,000 gammas.

13-3. Magnetic Effects from Buried Magnetic Bodies

Analytical Methods of Computation. The magnetic effects on the

earth's surface that should result from buried uniformly magnetized
bodies of a specified shape can be calculated from potential theory by
methods similar to those used for determining the gravitational effects
from the same bodies. The computations in the magnetic case are con-
siderably more difficult, however, since the dipoles distributed through the
body have both attraction and repulsion. The gravitational case is
simpler because all elements of mass attract. The direction of magnetiza-
tion introduces another complication. Many of the formulas for gen-
eralized geometric forms such as spheres can be derived from the cor-
responding gravitational formulas, making use of a convenient relationship
between magnetic and gravitational potentials first demonstrated by
Poisson.
Vertical Intensities from Vertically Polarized Bodies. We shall first
consider the magnetic profile that would be observed in a horizontal plane
over an isolated negative pole at depth z, as shown in Fig. 13-6. From
Eq. (13-2), remembering that V = {z/r)H (where H, equal to P/r 2 , is the
total field from the pole), we have

Pz Pz
V — =
~~ (13-7)
„33
r /«2
(x 2 +i
~,2\n
z 2
Y
272 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

An isolated positive pole buried at a depth z' would result in a vertical field

varying with distance x along the surface in a similar manner

Pz'
V = - (13-8)
(x 2 + z
f2
y

Bar Magnets. The field of a thin vertical bar magnet of length L buried
below the surface as shown in Fig. 13-7 can be calculated by assuming the

/ Field of - pole

Nef field

•T
Fig. 13-6. Vertical magnetic field of buried iso- Fig. 13-7. Vertical intensity over buried vertical
lated negative pole. dipole. This is also the approximate vertical
field of a vertically polarized buried sphere.

respective poles to be at opposite ends of the magnet and by adding the

fields for each pole as determined by Eqs. (13-7) and (13-8). In this
case
L = z' - z

Ifthe dipole has been magnetized by the earth's field in the Northern
Hemisphere the north-seeking or positive pole will be deeper than the
negative pole. Since a buried negative pole reinforces the earth's field, its

field is defined as positive. For a dipole having the dimensions shown in

Fig. 13-7, the net field will be positive for a distance of 3,000 ft to either
side of the buried magnet and negative at greater distances.
In calculating magnetic effects of extended bodies, the pole strength
must be expressed in terms of I, the intensity of magnetization, since
there is no way of measuring the strength of equivalent poles directly.
For a thick vertical homogeneous magnet of length L, cross-sectional
area A, and volume Q, we can assume that the poles are effectively dis-
tributed across the faces at the opposite ends of the magnet, the negative
poles being on the top and the positive ones on the bottom. Designating
the total strength of all the poles of a given sign as P and remembering that
/ is the magnetic moment per unit volume, we have

T = PL = PL P (13-9)
Q LA A
•o that P = I A = kVA, where V is the earth's vertical field.
MAGNETIC PROSPECTING: FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND INSTRUMENTS 273

Sphere. A
homogeneous buried sphere, vertically polarized in the
earth's field, has a distribution of dipoles which can be represented by a
single vertical magnet with its negative pole near the center of the upper
half of the sphere and its positive pole near the center of its lower half.
If these equivalent poles, each of strength P, are separated by a distance L
and the radius of the sphere is R, then

'"
M PL
(13-10)
'"
Q VsirR 1

4 / 4 p,*^
and P =
^ Ri
L
(13-11)

To the extent that the approximations we have made are valid, the field of
the sphere will be the same as that of the vertical dipole shown in Fig. 13-7.
Cylinder. In the case of a buried vertical cylinder magnetized ver-
the magnetic dipoles within the body can be represented as
tically,
uniformly distributed vertical mag-
nets parallel to the axis of the cylin-
der, with poles effectively distrib-
uted in sheets of uniform pole
density coinciding with the respec-
tive end surfaces. The vertical
magnetic field of each sheet at any
point on a horizontal plane above
will be proportional to the solid
angle subtended by the sheet at
that point. Directly above the
body the greater angle will be sub-
Fig. 13-8. Approximate vertical field on surface
tended by the top sheet, consisting from buried vertical cylinder. coi and <a% are

of negative poles, and the net ver- solid angles subtended respectively by top and
bottom surfaces. V = / X 10 5 (coi — C02).
tical effect will be positive; at a
{After Nettleton, "Geophysical Prospecting for
large horizontal distance from the Oil," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1940.)
axis the bottom sheet, consisting
of positive poles, will subtend a larger angle and the effect will be nega-
tive. Where the two contributions are equal, the net field will of course
be zero. The resultant profile will be as shown in Fig. 13-8.
Horizontal Slab. In a similar way, the vertical magnetic field on the
surface caused by a thin, extended horizontal slab of magnetic material
can be computed near its edge by determining the angles subtended at
points on the surface by the respective magnetized sheets at the top and
bottom. This representation is useful in computing the effect that would
be expected over a fault.
Generalized Forms. Nettleton 7 has tabulated the formulas for the
magnetic effect of certain buried, vertically polarized bodies having
274 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

generalized geometric forms. These are given in Fig. 8-7 (page 177),
along with expressions for the gravitational effects of the same bodies.
His curves showing the vertical field vs. horizontal distance from the
center of each body are reproduced in Fig. 13-9. The formulas make it

easy to estimate the maximum vertical magnetic field that would be

expected from typical igneous structures or ore concentrations. Several
examples be considered here:
will
1. Assume a two-dimensional vertical dike containing 12 per cent

magnetite (k = 0.5), 50 ft wide and extending in depth from 50 to

l.Fault-downthrown side infinitely deep*

2. Vertical sheet (extending to infinite depth) t
3. Vertical cylindeKextending to infinite depth)!
4. Sphere*
5. Horizontal cylinder (infinitely long)
*

* z refers to depth ofcenter

t z refers to depth oftop

2 3
I

Horizontal dist./ depth = x/z — *"

Fig. 13-9. Curves showing fall cff with horizontal distance of vertical magnetic intensity for various
geometric forms. {After Nettleton, Geophysics, 1 942.)

300 ft. What would be the maximum anomaly over the dike' Let
k = 0.5 X 12 per cent = 0.06, H = 0.6 oersted, so that

I = kH = 0.036 cgs
Then
V mAX = 2 X I0 b lt (- -
2 X 10 5 X 36 X 10- 3 X 50
\o0 300/
= 6,000 gammas
2. If a magnetic ore (30 per cent magnetite) is in the shape of a sphere
of 200 ft diameter with its center buried 200 ft below the surface, then

k = 0.5 X 0.30 = 0.15 cgs

I = kH = 0.15 X 0.6 = 0.09 cgs
RU =
and = 8.38 X 10 5 8.38 X 10 5 QV X 0.09

0.0945 X 10 5 9,450 gammas

3. If the same sphere were of serpentine, the magnetization would be

14,000/150,000 (about one-tenth) as great and the vertical field would

then be about 900 gammas. If the center of the serpentine mass were
buried 400 ft instead of 200 ft below the surface, the field would be
(200/400) 3 or one-eighth as great, i.e., about 110 gammas.
MAGNETIC PROSPECTING: FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND INSTRUMENTS 275

X
F"Fiefd due h (-) po/e

Field due to (+)po/e

Surface of ground
/777777777777777777777777777777777777Z7777777777777777777777Z77777777777777^

O/po/e

Fig. 13-10. Horizontal field intensity X above vertical dipol<

Fie/d due to ir) po/e

^"F/'e/d due to (+) pole

Surface ofground
/^///////////////^^^^

Oipole
/'
Fig. 13-11. Vertical magnetic field of inclined dipo e.

4. To consider a case more applicable to petroleum prospecting,

assume a buried basement ridge of basalt (k = 0.0005, / = 0.0003 cgs)

equivalent in shape to a horizontal cylinder 3,000 ft in radius with a center
6,000 ft deep. Then
F max = 6.28 X 10 5 (^f\ = 6.28 X 1" (»Y ,000/
X 0.0003

= 46.5 gammas
If the radius of the cylinder were 1,500 ft, the anomaly would be a fourth
as great.
We
thus see that in prospecting for minerals, anomalies as high as
thousands of gammas may be encountered, but in petroleum work they
are more likely to be of the order of tens of gammas.
Horizontal Intensities from Vertically Polarized Bodies. Our discus-
sion thus far applies only to the vertical component of the magnetic field
276 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
P
x
»
\ 77
** /-/
Yv^
r-.

i
>«
(a-^i
i \
x
\
*
i

\\\\\\\\ wwvvw
i
U \

L_J^2 m' A perpendicular

\ S \ to plane of Strike of dike makes
k \ paper angle oc with magnetic north

\
H = horiz. comp. of earth s field
Z = vert, comp. of earth's field
k = susceptibility contrast
\

Intensity over inclined dikes

striking north and dipping
[A) 90° [B)60°E, [C)45°E
and (0) 30°E

2 4 6
Units of dike width

Fig. 13-12. Formulas and typical profiles for vertical and inclined dikes. (Adapted from Cook,
Geophysics, 1950.)

Vertical components of anomaly at P:

1. General case

V = 2k sin 5 (H sin a sin 5 +Z cos 5) In

— (Ho sin a cos 5 — Zo sin 5)(<£i — <t>2

— <j>3 + <t>^)
J
 :

MAGNETIC PROSPECTING: FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND INSTRUMENTS 277

from a buried body having vertical polarization. Although the vertical

component is most generally measured in magnetic prospecting, there are
some instruments which respond only to the horizontal component, and it
is worthwhile to investigate the horizontal field for some very simple cases.

For an isolated pole buried at depth z, the horizontal component X of

the magnetic field varies with x, the horizontal distance, as follows

X = y -= (13-12)
2
{x2 + zt)H

For a vertical magnet consisting of a negative pole at depth z and a posi-

tive pole at z' (>z), the horizontal field will be

Px Px
X = ~ (13_13)
(X* + Z
2
Y* (X 2 + 2
,2
Y*

Figure 13-10 illustrates the horizontal fields of each pole as well as of the
dipole.
Inclined Polarization. It is only at the magnetic poles that the earth's
field is actually vertical. At other makes an angle with the
places, it

vertical that increases with distance from the poles until it becomes 90°

at the magnetic equator. In the United States and Canada, the inclina-
tion (angle with the horizontal) is never less than 60°, but even this small
a departure from the vertical may have to be taken into account in the
interpretation of magnetic profiles. The calculation of surface anomalies
caused by most buried masses which have inclined polarization is con-
siderably more difficult than for vertically polarized bodies. It can be
carried out analytically for only a few simple cases. The vertical
intensity above an inclined dipole is plotted in Fig. 13-11. The observed
value is the resultant of the vertical fields, as indicated, of the two con-
stituent poles.
It is often very difficult to distinguish between inclined polarization and
2. Vertical dike infinitely deep, striking north

V = 2kZ (<t>i - 3)

3. Vertical dike of finite depth, striking north

V = 2fcZ O (01 - 02 - 03 + 4)

4. Vertical dike infinitely deep, striking east

V = 2kZ [Ho/Z In (r 3 /n) + (0! - 3 )]

5. Vertical dike of finite depth, striking east

V = 2kZ \ Ho/Zo\ll
L nri
—+ (0! - 02 - 03 + 04)]
J

8. Infinite inclined dike, striking north

V = 2kZ sin 5[cos 8 In r % /r x + sin <5(0i — 3 )]

7. Infinite inclined dike, striking east

V = 2k sin 8[(H sin 8 +Z cos 5) In r 3 /ri — (H cos 5 — Zn sin 5)(0i - 0,)]

278 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

actual dip in the interpretation of asymmetric fields such as that in Fig.

13-11. An inclined dike is one example of a dipping source which could
result inan unsymmetrical magnetic profile along a line across its strike.
Figure 13-12 summarizes the formulas for the vertical intensity over dif-
ferent kinds of dikes and illustrates some typical profiles.

13-4. Instruments Used for Magnetic Measurements

Dip Needles. In the early days of magnetic prospecting for ores, the
instrument most widely used was the dip needle, a compass needle free
to move in a vertical plane with an adjustable weight attached on one side
of the pivot. The weight is moved
until the needle approximately
is

horizontal and in balance between

gravitational and magnetic torques
(Fig. 13-13a). Any change in the
vertical component of the earth's
fieldchanges the moment of the
magnetic force and hence the angle
of inclination of the needle. A
more complete discussion of the
design has been published by
Stearn. 8
Although much too in-
sensitive for oil exploration, this
instrument has seen extensive use
in the iron-mining districts of
Michigan, Wisconsin, and Canada
during the early decades of the
present century. An improved
type of dip needle is now available
that gives readings having a prob-
able error of about 150 gammas.
This will give fairly good results
over magnetite or massive pyrrho-
tite bodies.
A refinement of the dip needle
Fig. 13-13. Dip needles, (a) Ordinary dip is the Hotchkiss superdip 9 (Fig.
needle in external field with inclination 0.
13-136), which consists of a mag-
Gravitational torque of weight w balances mag-
netic torque, (b) Principle of Hotchkiss super- netic needle free to rotate about a
dip. Auxiliary bar A has adjustable weight w. horizontal axis and a nonmagnetic
Angle a is variable. [After Stearn, Trans. Am.
Inst. Mining Met. Engrs., 1932.)
bar with a counterweight at the end
which is attached to the needle at
its pivot, the two axes making an angle that can be varied. The instru-
MAGNETIC PROSPECTING: FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND INSTRUMENTS 279

ment adjusted until the magnetic needle is perpendicular to the total

is

field of the earth and the weighted arm is horizontal. Any changes in
the earth's field will then cause rotation of the system, which is in a
state of unstable equilibrium and highly sensitive.
The instability arises from the fact that any small shift of the weight
arm from the horizontal caused by a change in the magnetic pull on the
magnet will decrease the opposing moment of gravity and thus increase
the rotational moment of the change in external magnetic field. The
sensitivity can be varied by changing the angle between the two arms.
The angle through which the arms rotate between one reading and another
can be translated into variation of total field by use of an empirical calibra-
tion. While the instrument was originally designed to measure changes
in total field, it can be used to measure variations in vertical field as well if

its plane is oriented in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic meridian.

James 10 has compared the performance of the Hotchkiss superdip as used
in this way with that of standard magnetometers and concludes that this
technique is reliable only for anomalies greater than 400 gammas.
Schmidt-type Magnetic Field Balance. This has been the most com-
monly used magnetic instrument for prospecting on land. In principle, it
consists of a magnet pivoted near but not at its center of mass, so that the
magnetic field of the earth creates a torque around the pivot that is
opposed by the torque of the gravitational pull upon the center. The
angle at which equilibrium is reached depends on the strength of the field.
To attain high sensitivity a great deal of precision is required in the design
and construction of the mechanical and optical systems. The principle,
however, is intrinsically simple.
Schmidt-type magnetometers, like dip needles, do not measure absolute
fields but they respond to changes in field components as small as 1 gamma
under favorable conditions. Separate models are available for measuring
vertical and horizontal fields.

Vertical Balance. The operation of the vertical balance is illustrated

schematically in Fig. 13-14. Assume an approximately horizontal magnet
oriented perpendicular to the magnetic meridian so that the horizontal
component of the earth's field exerts no effect. The magnet is balanced
on a knife-edge displaced from the center of gravity C a horizontal dis-
tance d and a vertical distance a. The vertical component of the earth's
magnetic field, acting on the poles as shown, tends to cause counter-
clockwise rotation, and the gravitational force clockwise rotation. The
position of equilibrium is indicated on a graduated scale by a light
beam reflected from a mirror attached to the magnet. If the vertical
field changes, as at a different location, the position of equilibrium
shifts and the difference in scale readings gives a measure of the difference
in the vertical fields.
280 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

___ __ .- —^ '
°^ C is center ofgravity
F is fulcrum
U--
PV ^mg
Fig. 13-14. Principle of Schmidt-type vertical magnetometer.

The dependence of the equilibrium position upon the vertical field is

readily derived.Using the notation of Fig. 13-14, the gravitational

moment exerted on the beam is
mgd cos + mga sin (13-14)

and the magnetic moment is 2V(PL/2) cos where P is the pole strength.
Equating these,
mg(d cos + a sin 0) = PVL cos <f>
(13-15)

But P = M/2L, where M is the magnetic moment, so that

mg(d cos + a sin 0) = MF cos (13-16)

{mgd — MV) cos = <f>
—mga sin

tan =
¥7- ra#d (13-17)
mga
It can be shown that for the small values of </> involved,

tan = - -g (13-18)

For a different vertical field F', the angle of tilt is </>' and the scale deflec-
tion is x' . In this case

tan </>'
MV - mgd _ 1 x'

mga 2S
The difference in deflections is

x — x = 2SM (V' - V) = k(V - V) (13-19)

mga
MAGNETIC PROSPECTING: FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND INSTRUMENTS 281

so that proportional to the change in vertical field.

it is The propor-
tionality constant k depends on the dimensions, mass, and magnetic
moment of the instrument. A sensitivity of 10 gammas per scale
division is customary in oil exploration and 20 gammas per scale division
in mineral prospecting. Readings are generally to the nearest tenth
of a division.
The two parallel magnets, both identical,
vertical instrument contains
attached on opposite sides of a nonmagnetic center block, from which rods
containing weights for temperature and latitude compensation extend in
opposite directions (Fig. 13-15).Penetrating the block is a sapphire or
quartz This is lowered
knife-edge.
onto cylindrical quartz bearings when
in operating position. Figure 13-16
shows the construction, both internal
=a)=( =c^
and external, of a typical vertical 'nr
balance. The magnets are cradled in
copper damping vanes to inhibit oscilla-
tion. The moving system is enclosed
in a cork-lined case penetrated by a
telescope and by a lever system for
raising and lowering the knife-edge from
its bearings.The case is supported by
a tripod which has a head with an ori-
IXU
enting spindle and a graduated meridian
circle. Three leveling screws attach =LU= =&-
©
the head to the base. A compass can
be mounted on the tripod head in place
Fig.
wr
13-15. Three views of magnet system
of the magnetometer case to locate the
of vertical magnetometer. Top diagram
magnetic meridian. is plan view; middle is elevation; bottom is

The and hence the total view from underside. (Ruska Instrument
sensitivity,
Corp.)
range, of the magnet can be adjusted
by moving a special weight protruding through the bottom of the
frame. Changing the position of this weight moves the center of gravity
with respect to the support and varies the distance a (Fig. 13-14), which
governs the sensitivity. Temperature compensation is automatic at a
given magnetic latitude. When the temperature rises, the magnet loses
some of its moment, the apparent vertical intensity decreases, and the
north-seeking pole rotates upward. At the same time, however, the
compensating bar, always on the north side of the frame, expands, and
the increased gravitational torque tends to cause downward rotation
of thenorth pole. Selection of a material for the bar having a proper
thermal expansion coefficient and one for the magnet having a proper
temperature coefficient of magnetic moment makes it possible to com-
282 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

^Fh
\

1
&
=[
g ^Ba
H|||iiiiiiii||Hf BMiiiijiill
t

BBrciiiiffliiiia

Fig. 13-16. Vertical magnetometer. Left view is cross section through center of instrument in plane
parallel to magnets. Right view shows exterior of instrument. {Ruska Instrument Corp.)

pensate to than a gamma. When the absolute value of the vertical

less
field ischanged substantially (as by a change in magnetic latitude),
the normal deflection may be thrown off scale completely. A special
invar bar with an adjustable weight is used to bring the deflection on scale
again.
Horizontal Balance. The Schmidt-type horizontal balance, much less
commonly used than the vertical type, is quite similar to it in construction
except that the magnet points approximately vertically instead of hori-
MAGNETIC PROSPECTING: FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND INSTRUMENTS 283

zontally. Any
variation in the horizontal component of gravity causes
rotation of the magnet which is counteracted by a gravitational torque.
The vertical component of the earth's magnetism affects the equilibrium
position, and its approximate value must be used in computing intensity
variations from the readings. For details of the theory and construction
of Schmidt magnetometers, readers are referred to a publication by
Joyce 11 which gives complete information about both the vertical and
horizontal types.
Calibration. Schmidt-type magnetometers are deter-
Sensitivities of
mined from the deflections caused by known changes of field. The known
variations can be produced either by a Helmholtz coil or by a calibrating
magnet of known moment clamped at a number of measured distances
from the main magnet of the field balance. The Helmholtz coil is a dual-
coil ring placed around the magnetometer. An electric current through
the coil, measured by an ammeter, results in a uniform magnetic field
across the balance which is proportional to the current, the proportionality
constant having been previously determined for each coil. For calibra-
tion in the field, a compensating magnet is attached at various points
along a graduated brass tube, about 100 cm long, extending downward
from the base of the magnetometer head. The moment of the magnet is
determined in the laboratory, but this can change because of mechanical
shock or other disturbances, and frequent redeterminations are desirable
during the course of a survey.
The Flux-gate Magnetometer. Developed initially for use in aircraft,
the flux-gate magnetometer has also been employed at sea, where it is
towed from a ship, on the ground, and, on an experimental basis, in bore-
holes. Its most common application, however, has been in airborne
work.
The flux-gate magnetometer, also known as the saturable reactor,
makes use of a ferromagnetic element of such high permeability that the
earth's field can induce a magnetization that is a substantial proportion of
its saturation value (see Fig. 13-3, page 266). If the earth's field is

superimposed upon a cyclic field induced by a sufficiently large alternating

current in a coil around the magnet, the resultant field will saturate the
core. The place in the energizing cycle at which saturation is reached
gives a measure of the earth's ambient field.
Figure 13-17 illustrates how the field is measured by elements of this
type. Two parallel cores, each with a magnetization curve as shown
at the upper left, are aligned with their axes in the direction of the earth's
field. Identical primary coils in series magnetize the two cores with the
same flux density but in opposite directions, since they are wound
oppositely around the respective cores. At any time, the earth's field
reinforces the field set up by one of the coils and opposes the field of the
284 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

other. Each coil has, in addition, a secondary winding, the two sec-
ondaries being connected to a voltmeter that reads the difference of the
two outputs.
Consider the magnetization of a single core in the absence of an ambient
field (as when the core's axis is normal to the earth's field). The sinus-
oidal exciting field H
(see curve a of Fig. 13-17) drives the core past
saturation at the top and bottom of each cycle (as shown by the trun-
cated peaks in curve b). The secondary voltage is proportional to the

t \

Range of ft
from o. Excitation vo/tage,
primary ~"^

\<y
//
-y— h a
Vp , ofprimary

H b. F/ux density, B, in
'1- Earth's
core driven beyond

-Jy field, Hc saturation with no

ambient field (Ho =0)

Magnetizqfr'on curve of core c. Vo/tage induced in

secondary ofcore by
change of flux as
indicated in b (tt =0)

d. Voltage induced in
secondary ofcoret
in presence of
Secondary-^' ambient fieid
winding

e. Voltage induced in
secondary ofcore 2
in presence of
ambient field

Fig.
T T V
13-17. Principle of flux-gate magnetometer.
f. Resultant,
V, and Vz
VR of
,

rate of change of magnetic flux and thus will dip toAvard zero during the
portion of the cycle when the core is saturated (as in curve c).

Now if an ambient field is introduced which aids the magnetization

from the exciting current, the saturation point, as indicated by the dip
in the secondary, is reached earlier in the cycle than if the ambient field
and exciting field are opposed. This is illustrated by curves d and e.
If the voltage outputs of both coils are connected in opposition, the

resultant output (curve /) consists of pairs of pips, as shown. It can

be demonstrated that the height of the pips is, within reasonable limits,
proportional to the ambient magnetic field.
The Gulf Airborne Magnetometer. 12 13 In this instrument (shown in
-
MAGNETIC PROSPECTING: FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND INSTRUMENTS 285

Fig. 13-18a and b), the output pulses are stepped up by a transformer
and fed to a detector that yields a d-c voltage, proportional to the pulse
height, which is recorded on a self-balancing moving-tape potentiometer
(Fig. 13-18c). Since variations in the earth's fields are of much more
importance than absolute values in exploration work, provision is made
for balancing out most of the field with one of several compensating coils
so that the differences can be recorded with maximum sensitivity. The
higher the full-scale sensitivity selected for the potentiometer, the larger
will be the proportion of the field so nullified. The total field is the com-
pensated portion plus the residual as read from the recorder tape.
The AN/ASQ-3A Magnetic Airborne Detector. 14 This instrument,
developed by the NOL and the Bell Telephone Laboratories, operates
somewhat differently from the reactor illustrated in Fig. 13-17. Here a
single core is magnetized beyond saturation 2,130 times a second. A
back electromotive force is set up in the magnetizing coil which has even
harmonics when there is an external field in the direction of the axis but
only odd harmonics when such a field is missing. The amplitude of the
even harmonics is proportional to the strength of the external field.
The electronic system is so designed that it amplifies and rectifies the even
harmonics and the d-c output is recorded on a moving-tape milliammeter,
the sensitivity of which is adjusted by potentiometers on a control panel.
Orientation Methods. With conventional magnetometers one usually
measures the vertical (or occasionally the horizontal) component of the
earth's field to an accuracy of 1 gamma. To get this precision with a
flux-gate element, it would be necessary to keep its axis no more than 11"
of arc off the vertical. Such accuracy would be entirely unobtainable
in an airplane and difficult enough on the ground. Total fields, on the
other hand, can be measured with much less accuracy of orientation,
and a total-field precision of 1 gamma is within the range of practical
attainment. For this reason all flux-gate magnetometers used in pros-
pecting are designed to measure total fields. All types have orienting
mechanisms that automatically keep the axis of the flux-gate element
used for measurement in the true direction of the earth's field.
In the Gulf instrument, a magnetic vane is mounted radially on a disk
perpendicular to the core axis, which rotates about it at 3,600 rpm.
With this arrangement, there will be a small component of 60-cps oscilla-
tion in the magnetometer coil voltage at any orientation of the core
except that at which the axis is in the direction of the earth's field. The
amplitude of this ripple is proportional to the angle between the axis
and the total external field, and the phase depends on the direction of
misalignment. The signal can thus be used to actuate a servo system
consisting of two orienting motors driving gimbals in two mutually
perpendicular planes. This system keeps the magnetometer axis pointing
286 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

in the direction of the earth's field within a small fraction of a degree.

The orientation unit is shown at the left of Fig. 13- 18a.
The AN/ASQ-3A orientation mechanism consists of three identical
magnetometer coils with axes all mutually perpendicular. The outputs
of two of the coils are fed into servo motors which respond to any signal

(a)

Jlj
r

W 1 H

4HHBI

(b)

Fig. 13-18. Gulf airborne magnetometer, (a) Complete magnetometer head unit with housing
removed; servo motor for orientation at right end, flux-gate unit at left, (b) Housing and reeling
mechanism for detector element.

from either coil by rotating that coil into null position (perpendicular
to the earth's field). When both coils are moved into null position, the
third coil will of course be oriented in the direction of the field. Its
output, which is what the milliammeter records, then measures the earth's
total field.
Nuclear Magnetometer. The nuclear magnetometer is based on the
phenomenon of nuclear magnetic resonance, discovered in 1938 by Bloch.
The development of this device was announced by Packard and Varian 15
MAGNETIC PROSPECTING: FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND INSTRUMENTS 287

in 1954. independent investigation of the technique in England was

An
16
reported by Waters and Phillips in 1956. Like the flux-gate magnetom-
eter, this instrument is particularly suitable for airborne work. Ground
magnetometers and towed marine versions are also in use. A brief but
comprehensive review of developments in this field up to 1958 has been
17
published in The Petroleum Times.

Fig. 13-18. (c) Power supply (bottom) high-speed pen recorder (left), and associated control equip-
ment. [Gulf Research and Development Co.)

Principle. About two-thirds of all atomic nuclei have a magnetic

moment. Such nuclei might be looked upon as minute magnets in the
form of spheres spinning about their magnetic axes. According to the
laws of quantum mechanics, such spheres will tend to align themselves
either parallel or perpendicular to any external magnetic field. Thus, the
randomly oriented nuclei of this type will separate into two spinning
groups, one parallel and one antiparallel, when the external field is applied.
The nuclei in the latter group will have a higher energy level than those in
the former. For this reason, a larger number will point in the antiparallel
direction and there will be a resultant magnetic force in that direction.
288 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

The simplest nucleus having this property

is the proton, or hydrogen

nucleus. Because oxygen has no magnetic moment, a water sample can

be regarded as an assemblage of protons so far as its nuclear resonance
characteristics are concerned.
Let us assume that a bottle of water is polarized by the earth's field
alone. Suddenly a much greater field is applied in a direction approxi-
mately at right angles to the earth's field. The orientation of the protons'
moment will shift until it points in the direction corresponding to the
resultant of the two fields. If the external field is100 or more times as
great as that of the earth, the resultant field within the substance will
point in approximately the same direction as the applied field. However,
the internal field will not reach its full value immediately upon application
of the external field but will approach it exponentially with a time con-
stant of approximately 3 sec.
When the external magnetic field is removed, the magnetic moment will
return to its original value and direction in the earth's field H by precessing
around that field at an angular velocity co = y p H where y p the gyro- ,

magnetic ratio of the proton, is a constant. The mechanism is similar to

the precession of a gyroscope. The frequency of precession is about
2,000 cps.
The precessional oscillation will induce an electrical potential in a coil
wound around the water sample. To determine the earth's total field, it
is only necessary to measure the frequency of this induced voltage with the
requisite precision. The most convenient way to measure this frequency
is to count a predetermined number of cycles of the precessional voltage
and to time these cycles precisely with an appropriate electronic system.
The Varian Nuclear Magnetometer. The Varian magnetometer is
available in two models, one for airborne surveys and the other for use on
the ground. Both measure the total magnetic field of the earth rather
than its components. The precision of the airborne unit is substantially
greater than that of the ground magnetometer.
In the airborne instrument, a polarizing field of about 100 oersteds is
applied to the towed sensing head, which is an electrostatically shielded
bottle of water. Frequencies of the precessing nuclei are measured once
each second over an interval of about }4 sec. Figure 13-19 is a simplified
block diagram showing the operation of the frequency-measuring system.
After the polarizing field is cut off, the precessional signal induced in the
coil causes an electronic gate to open. This gate closes after a specified
number of sine waves (about 500 for a J^-sec interval) have passed
through the circuit. While the gate is open it passes a signal from a stand-
ard-frequency (100 kc) oscillator whose sine waves are in turn counted by
the "fast counter." A binary digital recorder registers the number of
cycles of the high-frequency signal that have passed through the gate
MAGNETIC PROSPECTING: FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND INSTRUMENTS 289

during the time corresponding to the specified number of cycles from the
precessional oscillation. This number is converted to a voltage and
presented on a moving tape and it is also punched into a digital tape in its
original form (Fig. 13-20). Since the count of the oscillator signal is

Coil and
somple

Fig. 13-19. Block diagram of Varian nuclear resonance magnetometer. (Varian Associates.)

Fig. 13-20. Sample tapes from Varian nuclear resonance magnetometer. Lower strip shows con-
ventional analogue presentation. Upper strip is equivalent digital record in punch-mark form.
(Spartan Aerial Surveys, Ltd.)

accurate to the nearest cycle and since 50,000 cycles will pass through
Y
the counter in 2 sec, the accuracy of measurement is one part in 50,000, or
about 1 gamma in most parts of the world.
The entire instrument weighs less than 120 lb, so that it can be installed
in any light single-engine airplane. The instrument is free from drift
290 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
and the sensing element does not require the complicated mechanism
needed for orienting the flux-gate type of towed element.
The nuclear magnetometer used on the ground operates on a similar
principle but the system has been designed to be portable. A number of
modifications have been introduced with this object in view. Total
weight, including batteries, is less than 16 lb. All electronic parts are
transistorized and the accuracy is now 10 gammas, a value which is
entirely adequate for mining applications. Readings, which are taken
at 6-sec rather than 1-sec intervals, are made visually and are recorded on
data sheets by the operator.
Six plug-in tuning units are provided, each covering a different range
of 12,000 gammas total field. The unit to be used is selected for the value
of field appropriate to the part of the world where the work is being done.
A vibrating-reed frequency meter, calibrated in gammas, makes it possi-
ble to read the frequency directly. A total of 53 reeds, spaced in 20-
gamma steps, gives a full-scale range of more than 1,000 gammas. There
is also a 12-step range selector, so that the total range is 12,000 gammas

for each plug-in unit. An earphone enables the operator to monitor the
signal audibly and to tell, from the change in pitch, when the earth's
magnetic field is varying along his traverse.
Other Nuclear Instruments. Nuclear magnetometers for measurements
at sea have been developed by the Lamont Geological Observatory of
Columbia University and by the Department of Geodesy and Geophysics
at Cambridge University. The sensing head is towed astern of a ship at
a distance about twice the vessel's length in order to minimize the effect
of the ship's own field. The frequency-measuring equipment is on board
the ship.
At the Imperial College of Science and Technology in London, a
portable nuclear magnetometer has been designed for observations on the
ground. Operation is similar in many ways to that of the Varian porta-
ble instrument. Total weight is 25 lb and an accuracy of 5 gammas is
claimed.

REFERENCES
1. Runcorn, S. K.: Magnetization of Rocks, in Handbuch der Physik, Vol. 47, Geo-
physics pp. 470-497, 1956.
I,

2. Vacquier, Victor: Magnetic Properties of Rock, in Francis Birch (ed.), "Handbook

of Physical Constants," Geological Society of America Special Paper 36, pp.
296-297, 1942.
3. Mooney, Harold M.: Magnetic Susceptibility Measurements in Minnesota.
Part I: Technique of Measurement, Geophysics, Vol. 17, pp. 531-543, 1952.
4. Barret, W. M.: A Semi-portable A. C. Susceptibility Meter, "Early Geophysical
Papers," pp. 17-24, Society of Exploration Geophysicists, 1947.
5. Slichter, L. B.: Certain Aspects of Magnetic Surveying, "Geophysical Prospect-
ing, 1929," Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs., Vol. 81, pp. 238-260, 1929.
MAGNETIC PROSPECTING: FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND INSTRUMENTS 291

6. Stearn, N. H.: A Background for the Application of Geomagnetics to Explora-

tion, "Geophysical Prospecting, 1929," Trans. Am. Inst.Mining Met. Engrs.,
Vol. 81, pp. 315-344, 1929.
7. Nettleton, L. L.: Gravity and Magnetic Calculations, Geophysics, Vol. 7, pp. 293-
310, 1942.
8. Stearn, N. H.: The Dip Needle as a Geological Instrument, "Geophysical Pros-
pecting, 1929," Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs., Vol. 81, pp. 345-363, 1929.
9. Stearn, N. H.: Practical Geomagnetic Exploration with the Hotchkiss Superdip,
"Geophysical Prospecting, 1932," Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs., Vol. 97,
pp. 169-199, 1932.
10. James, H. L. Field Comparisons of
: Some Magnetic Instruments with Analysis of
Superdip Performance, Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs. Tech. Pub. 2293, in Mining
Technol, Vol. 12, 1948.
11. Joyce, J. W. "Manual on Geophysical Prospecting with the Magnetometer,"
:

U.S. Bureau of Mines publication, American Askania Corp., Houston, Tex., 1937.
12. Muffly, Gary: The Airborne Magnetometer, Geophysics, Vol. 11, pp. 321-334,
1946.
13. Wyckoff, R. D.: The Gulf Airborne Magnetometer, Geophysics, Vol. 13, pp. 182-
208, 1948.
14. Jensen, Homer: Geophysical Surveying with the Magnetic Airborne Detector
AN/ASQ-3A, U.S. Naval Ordnance Laboratory Report 937, 1945, 93 pp. Rum-
baugh, L. H., and L. R. Alldredge: Airborne Equipment for Geomagnetic Measure-
ments, Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, Vol. 30, pp. 836-849, 1949.
15. Packard, M., and R. Varian: Phys. Rev., Vol. 93, p. 941, 1954.
16. Waters, G. S., and G. Phillips: A New Method of Measuring the Earth's Magnetic
Field, Geophysical Prospecting, Vol. 4, pp. 1-9, 1956.
17. Anonymous: The Nuclear Magnetometer, Petrol. Times, Vol. 62, pp. 46-51, 1958.
 CHAPTER 14

THE MAGNETISM OF THE EARTH

In order to isolate magnetic anomalies from the shallow features having

economic interest, we must subtract larger-scale variations in the geo-
magnetic field from our observed magnetic intensities. To do this prop-
erly, we must be familiar with the earth's magnetism on a global scale.
Fortunately, a large body of data on this subject has accumulated over the
past century from magnetic observatories and systematic field measure-
ments all over the world.
We have seen that the gravitational effects of the earth vary in a fairly
simple and predictable way with elevation and latitude, so that correc-
tions based on them are essentially routine. This is not the case with
magnetic variations, whose dependence on position is no simple function
of latitude or longitude and may be quite irregular. There are also varia-
tions with time. The adjustments of the data thus require much more
care and skill than the corresponding gravity adjustments.
This chapter summarizes very briefly our present knowledge of the
earth's magnetic field. For more detailed information the reader is
referred to the monumental treatise of Chapman and Bartels, l to a highly
readable collection of review papers edited by Fleming 2 on terrestrial
magnetism and electricity, and to a more compact but comprehensive
review by Runcorn. 3

14-1. The Earth's Magnetism as Observed through Field Measurements

At every point along the earth's surface, a magnetic needle free to

orient itself around a pivot at
its center will assume a position in space

determined by the direction of the earth's total magnetic field at that

point. Normally, this direction will be at an angle with the vertical, and
its horizontal projection will make an angle with the meridian. Since
the most commonly used geomagnetic measuring instruments respond
only to the horizontal or vertical component of the total field and since
fields are most conveniently specified in terms of their various components,
it is desirable to resolve the total field F into its horizontal component H
(divided into X and Y projections) and its vertical component Z (see
292
THE MAGNETISM OF THE EARTH 293

Fig. 14-1). The angle which F makes with its horizontal component H
is the inclination /, and the angle between H and X (which points

north) is the declination D.

The quantities X, Y, Z, D, I, H, and F are known as magnetic elements.
They are related as follows:
H= F cos / Z = F sin /= H tan I
X= H cos D Y = H sin D
X +
2
F = H
2 2
X + Y +
2 2
Z = 2
H +Z2 2
= F 2

All these relations are derivable from the diagram. The vertical plane
through F and H is called the local magnetic meridian.
If we take observations with our magnetic needle at various points
over the earth we will find that in most of the Northern Hemisphere
the north-seeking end of the needle
will dip downward, while in most North
of the Southern Hemisphere the
south-seeking end will be lower-
most. In between, there will be
a location along every meridian Easr
where the needle is horizontal (i.e.,
the inclination is zero) . The curve
around the earth connecting all

such points is called the magnetic

equator. It issomewhat irregular
in shape and runs roughly but 4-1. The magnetic elements.

not exactly along the geographic

equator. As one goes north or south from the equator, the angle of
inclination becomes increasingly larger until the point is reached, in
either the arctic or antarctic region, where the needle becomes vertical.
These respective points are the earth's North and South Magnetic Poles.
Both poles are displaced from the geographic poles by about 18° of
latitude. They are not diametrically opposite one another, the line that
joins them passing about 750 miles from the earth's center.
The magnetic field observed on the surface extends far out into space,
diminishing to one-eighth its surface strength at a height of 4,000 miles.
The approximate a pattern such as would be delineated by
lines of force
iron filings around a uniformly magnetized iron sphere (Fig. 14-2). This
suggests that the earth itself is a giant permanent magnet, a concept first
stated in 1600 by William Gilbert, physician to Queen Elizabeth. If the
field of the earth had exactly the same shape as that of an iron sphere and

if it were not to vary with time, such a description would probably suffice.

The deviations from this idealized picture, however, and the widespread
time variations indicate the need for a more complete explanation.
294 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
The irregularities of the earth's field are quite evident on the standard
isomagnetic charts used for navigation and other purposes. These
charts show, plotted on a map of the world, lines along which various
magnetic elements are equal. They may be lines of equal declination,
equal inclination, or equal horizontal or vertical intensity. In every
case the lines deviate from the smooth, regular curves one would expect
from a homogeneous magnetized
sphere. World maps showing the
variation of horizontal intensity H
A/
1 is* and inclination I are reproduced in
Figs. 14-3 and 14-4, respectively.
Even more striking are the con-
tinual changes of the earth's field
Magnejjc_ with time. These are of several
-14
equator kinds. There are slow progressive
changes, which continue for cen-
turies, known as secular variations.
There is a daily cycle of change
referred to as diurnal variation,

Fig. 14-2. Magnetic field of an earth having

which has solar and lunar compo-
characteristics of homogeneous sphere. nents of periodicity. Then there
are sudden large-scale
occasional
variations in the field which are called magnetic storms. These will
be discussed subsequently.

14-2. Analysis of the Earth's Permanent Field

Through the application of potential theory to the earth's observed

field,some investigators have separated this field into components from
sources originating (1) inside the earth, (2) outside the earth, and (3) on
the surface. Whether such a separation is justified by the observational
data has been a matter for controversy among specialists in the field. The
method of separation involves the use of spherical harmonics and it will be
described only in a general way here. The theoretical expression for the
magnetic field (more precisely, the magnetic potential) in the neighbor-
hood of a sphere comprises two sets of terms, one based on contributions
from magnetic material inside the sphere and the other from sources of
magnetism outside the sphere. At any latitude, the respective contribu-
tions can be shown to have different effects on the north-south component
of the earth's field than on its east-west component. By analyzing these
components at a number of locations, it should be possible to solve simul-
taneous equations and resolve the field into the portions associated with
the internal and with the external sources.
THE MAGNETISM OF THE EARTH 295
296 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
THE MAGNETISM OF THE EARTH 297

The Internal Field. Such analysis indicates that 94 per cent of the
field from sources inside the earth. By further application
originates
of spherical harmonics one can express the observed internal field as the
effect of a number of fictitious magnetic dipoles, each with different
orientation, located at the center of the earth. The process involves
successive approximations. The first imaginary magnet, which is most
powerful, is oriented along the earth's magnetic axis. If the internal

field of the earth were symmetrical about this axis, such a magnet would

itself suffice to account for the observed internal field. Because of the
various irregularities in the field, however, we add an indefinite number
of weaker magnets with axes tilted in various directions, the strongest
being perpendicular to the primary axis. The relative strengths of these
magnets are ascertained by world-wide measurements of the earth's
field,the coefficients corresponding to the contribution of each magnet
being adjusted to give the best possible fit to all the data.
If one considers only the magnet assumed to lie along the axis, the

totalmagnetic moment of the earth comes out to be 8.1 X 10 25 cgs units,

which for an earth composed of uniformly magnetized material would
require a polarization of 0.08 cgs unit. This is many orders of magnitude
higher than the polarization of ordinary igneous rocks. A further
difficulty is that all materials are believed to lose the power to become
permanently magnetized at temperatures which are exceeded throughout
most of the volume of the earth. The influence of the high pressures
on this phenomenon cannot be estimated from present knowledge.
Bullard, 4 developing a concept originally proposed by Larmor in 1919, has
recently proposed that the internal field is maintained by electric currents
within the earth induced by conducting material in the core which is set
into motion by convection.
The External Field. The existence of some source of magnetism outside
the earth has been shown, it is claimed, by mathematical analysis of the
earth's field. Only a small percentage of the earth's field would have to
be accounted for in this way. McNish 5 and Hulbert 6 summarize the
various mechanisms that have been proposed to explain this external
component. Most of them involve the inductive effect of circulating
electric currents in the ionosphere. Runcorn does not believe that such
3

an external field exists and attributes the component of the earth's field
that had been thus allocated by others to faulty data.
The Nonpotential Field. The internal and external fields just dis-
cussed can be described by mathematical expressions developed on the
assumption that each type of field is derivable from a potential. This
means from a permanent magnet or
essentially that the field originates
from an array of moving charges whose magnetic effect can be repre-
sented by a permanent magnet. Some magneticians, such as Bauer, 7
298 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

after comparing theory with observational data, have claimed that there is
a small residue of magnetic intensity (about 3 per cent) that apparently
cannot be accounted for by potential theory. This residue is attributed
by some to experimental uncertainty, while others claim that it repre-
sents a "nonpotential" contribution to the earth's field that must be
explained by assuming that electric currents flow from the earth into
the air and vice versa across the surface. For these currents to explain
such a nonpotential field, would have to be 10~ 12 amp/cm 2
their density ,

much greater than has ever been observed in measurements of atmospheric

electricity.
Regional Anomalies. The more localized departures in the earth's
fieldfrom the values that would be predicted if the field were to originate
with a single magnet oriented along the magnetic axis are known as
regional anomalies. These have maximums as great as 10,000 gammas,
which is about a third the total intensity at the equator, and extend over
areas as large as a million square miles. The locations of such features do
not change with time as do anomalies associated with secular variation,
which will be discussed in the next section.

14-3. Variations with Time in the Earth's Magnetic Field

In the early days of navigation with the compass, was recognized

it

that the earth's magnetic intensity changes its and

direction slowly
irregularly. Later measurements at magnetic observatories showed
that there are also short-period changes in the magnitude of the field.
The variations may be resolved into secular changes, solar diurnal
changes, lunar diurnal changes, and magnetic storms.
Secular Variation. Changes in the earth's field which are progressive
for decades or centuries are known as secular variations. Such changes
are noted in all the magnetic elements at magnetic observatories every-
where in the world. The
rates of change vary with time. Secular varia-
tions are often plotted on isoporic maps, isopors being lines of equal annual
change. An isoporic chart of declination, for example, shows wavy globe-
encircling lines of zero change and also a number of widespread closed
highs of maximum annual change, the centers of which are called "foci
of isopors." In 1925, an annual change in declination of 13' was observed
at such a focus in Great Britain. Figure 14-5 is a chart of world vertical
intensity isopors for 1942. Note the respective foci south of India and
south of Africa. These foci continually shift; new ones develop and old
ones move along the surface and die out. The pattern of this slow but
continual motion is unpredictable, largely because no one as yet knows its
cause. It is believed that the source of
the variations is within the earth's
interior, being associatedwith mechanical stresses, convection currents, or
the distribution of internal heat flow.
THE MAGNETISM OF THE EARTH 299

80 100 120 140 160 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 20 40 60 80 100 110

Fig. 14-5. Rate of change of the vertical component of earth's magnetic field for 1942, in gammas per
year. [After Bullard, Phys. Today, 1 949.)

Measurements magnetic intensity over the past century

of the earth's
give evidence that the total magnetic moment of the earth has been
decreasing at a rate of one fifteen-hundredth its total value per year.
If the trend continues, the moment should be half its present amount by

the year 3000. Whether this change will be continuous or whether it is

but a single manifestation of a long-
period cyclic change in the earth's
magnetism is not known.
A more conspicuous type of secu-
lar change is the apparent revolu-
tion of the earth's magnetic poles
about its axis of rotation. This is
evidenced by simultaneous periodic
changes in the declination and
inclination at single points where Fig. 14-6. Changes in declination and inclination
at London since 1580. (After Bauer.)
precise magnetic records have been
kept for several centuries. Figure 14-6 shows how the direction of
magnetic force has changed at London since 1580. The suggestion
of a cyclic character of the changes shown in this diagram is confirmed to
some extent by recent measurements on " fossil magnetism" or paleo-
magnetism in various clays of Recent and Pleistocene age. Johnson,
Murphy, and Torreson 8 have shown that the declinations preserved in
such clays from New England have varied over a range of 30° with a
300 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

periodicity of about 2,000 years. Griffiths 9 has observed a similar perio-

dicity in clays from Sweden. The period of the cyclic changes thus appears
to be substantially greater when determined from paleomagnetism than
when deduced from observatory records. Data from a single observation
point would suggest that the earth's magnetic poles have precessed
around the geographic poles. Comparison of observations at different
stations shows, however, that such a precession could not account for all
the data. The periodicity appears to be regional rather than planetary.
Secular variation appears to be related to the earth's internal field.
There is, in addition, an 11-year cycle of variation in horizontal and
vertical intensities which appears to correlate with sunspot activity and

rJ vo7
H
H base
line
Z
Zbase
lineQ T 15' I -
iO(h<•
Dbase
line
Time 8 12 20 4 M.S.T
Oct. 29 I 0c/.30

Fig. 14-7. Magnetogram of typical "quiet-day" variation in horizontal and vertical intensities H and Z
and in D at Tucson, Ariz., for Oct. 29, 1947. [U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.)
declination

which has a distribution with latitude such that it is believed to originate

outside the earth.
Observed Diurnal Variation. More significant in magnetic prospect-
ing are the smaller but more rapid oscillations in the earth's field which
have a periodicity of about a day and an amplitude averaging about
25 gammas. Diurnal variations, as these are called, are regularly recorded
on magnetograms at magnetic observatories. The records generally
show two types of variation: the " quiet day" and the " disturbed day."
The "quiet-day" variation is smooth, regular, and low in amplitude; it
can be separated into predictable components having both solar and
lunar periodicities. The "disturbed-day" variation is less regular and
is associated with magnetic storms. Figure 14-7 shows a magnetogram
made on a quiet day at the USC & GS magnetic observatory at Tucson,
Ariz. The horizontal and vertical intensity and the declination are
shown on this record.
Solar Diurnal Variation. Analysis of variation records on mag-
netically quiet days shows a definite 24-hr periodicity that depends,
to a close approximation, only on local time and geographic latitude.
Because of its correlation with the period of the earth's rotation as
referred to the sun, this portion of the variation is referred to as the
solar diurnal variation. The average range of this variation in magnetic
THE MAGNETISM OF THE EARTH 301

intensity is of the order of 30 gammas, the amplitude being intensified

in each hemisphere during the local summer. Most of the elements

appear to vary simultaneously but in opposite phase in the Northern and
Southern Hemispheres. The nature of the variation at different latitudes
is illustrated in Fig. 14-8.
The solar diurnal variation almost certainly has its origin in the effect
of the sun upon electric currents in the earth's outer atmosphere. Varia-
tions in these currents lead to corresponding variations in the magnetic
field they induce at the earth's surface.
Lunar Diurnal Variation. There is another component in the periodic
variation of the earth's magnetic elements having about one-fifteenth

6Noonl8 6 Noonl8 6 Noon 18 6 Noonl8 Time

Equator

50?
40 c
30 o
20/*
10 °

o
to
North Com p,X E Com p, Y Vert. Comp,Z Inclination I

Fig. 14-8. Solar diurnal variation of four magnetic elements at latitudes 10° apart from 60° N. to
60° S. [After Chapman.)

the amplitude of the solar diurnal variation and a periodicity of approxi-

mately 25 hr. Since this is the length of the lunar day, the variations
have been related to the earth's rotation with respect to the moon and
are referred to as lunar diurnal variations. The most significant difference
between lunar and solar variations lies in the fact that the solar varia-
tion is approximately constant from day to day, while the intensity of
the lunar variation of the same elements varies cyclically throughout
each month. The explanation for the lunar variation given by the
Stewart-Schuster theory 5,6 assumes tides in the upper atmosphere due to
periodic changes in the attraction of the moon. According to this theory,
the motion of electric charges in the atmosphere caused by these tidal
forces is reflected in the earth's magnetic field.
Magnetic Storms. In addition to the predictable short-term variations
in the earth's field, there are transient disturbances which, by analogy
with meteorological disturbances, are called magnetic storms. From
302 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

the equator to latitudes of 60°, the variations during such storms may
be as much as 1,000 gammas. In polar regions, particularly during the
auroral displays with which they are often associated, the storms may
show much greater amplitudes of magnetic variation. Magnetic storms
are not predictable, but they tend to come at intervals of about 27

San Juan, Puerto Rico

I 1 1 M M I I I I

20 4 8 12 16 20 20
Nov. 8 | Nov. 9 Time-*- Nov. <?l Nov. 10
Fig. 14-9. Magnetograms of horizontal magnetic field variations at five stations during magnetic
storm starting on Nov. 9, 1947. Times are all for respective local time zones. [Data from U.S.
Coast and Geodetic Survey.)

days. Their frequency correlates with the extent of sunspot activity.

The more intense storms rage simultaneously all around the world,
beginning suddenly and, so far as time can be compared with precision,
at the same instant everywhere in the world. They usually last for
several days. The storms involve characteristic changes in each of the
magnetic elements which seem to depend mainly on latitude. There
THE MAGNETISM OF THE EARTH 303

are also characteristic diurnal variations which are quite different from
the variations observed on quiet days. A
complete theory for magnetic
storms has never been developed. There is certainly some connection
with solar activity, as evinced by correlations with sunspot occurrence
and the 27-day period of solar rotation and also by the fact that chromo-
spheric eruptions have been observed at the same instant that sudden
bursts of magnetic activity are recorded at observatories around the
globe.
Figure 14-9 shows magnetograms of the horizontal intensity at five
USC & GS magnetic observatories during the first day of a magnetic
storm on Nov. 9, 1947. All records show considerable similarity except
for the one from Sitka. The apparent time difference between onsets is
explained by the fact that the times on the records are all local, the
apparent difference from Honolulu to San Juan being 7 hr.
Magnetic storms have considerable practical significance. Their effect
on radio reception is pronounced; also, magnetic prospecting operations
are usually discontinued until they are over, since there is no way of
correcting for their unpredictable effect on magnetic field data.

REFERENCES

1. Chapman, S., and J. Bartels: "Geomagnetism," 2 vols., Oxford University Press,

New York, 1940.

2. Fleming, J. A. (ed): "Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity," Physics of the
Earth series 8, National Research Council, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
New York, 1939. Chapters 1 and 7 are especially recommended.
3. Runcorn, S. K.: The Magnetism of the Earth's Body, in J. Bartels (ed.), Handbuch
der Physik, Vol. 47, pp. 498-533, 1956.
4. Bullard, E. C: Terrestrial Magnetism, Phys. Today, Vol. 2, No. 9, pp. 6-13, 1949.
5. McNish, A. G.: On Causes of the Earth's Magnetism and Its Changes, in J. A.
Fleming (ed.), "Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity," Chap. 7, pp. 308-384,
Physics of the Earth series 8, National Research Council, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1939.
6. Hulburt, E. O.: The Upper Atmosphere, in J. A. Fleming (ed.), "Terrestrial
Magnetism and Electricity," Chap. 10, pp. 492-572, Physics of the Earth series 8,
National Research Council, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1939.
7. Bauer, L. A.: Chief Results of a Preliminary Analysis of the Earth's Magnetic
Field for 1922, Terr. Mag. Atm. Elec, Vol. 28, pp. 1-28, 1923.
8. Johnson, E. A., T. Murphy, and 0. W. Torreson: Prehistory of the Earth's Mag-
netic Field, Terr.Mag. Atm. Elec, Vol. 53, pp. 349-372, 1948. Torreson, O. W.,
T. Murphy, and J. W. Graham: Magnetic Polarization of Sedimentary Rocks and
the Earth's Magnetic History, /. Geophys. Research, Vol. 54, pp. 111-129, 1949.
9. Griffiths, D. H.: The Remanent Magnetism of Varved Clays from Sweden,
Monthly Notices, Royal Astron. Soc, Geophys. Suppl, Vol. 7, pp. 103-114, 1955.
 CHAPTER 15

MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS ON LAND

AND INTERPRETATION OF V E RT C AL- F I I E L D DATA

The field methods and interpretation procedures used in magnetic pros-

pecting depend primarily on the type of instrument used and the purpose
of the survey. In this chapter, we shall limit our discussion of field pro-
cedures to surveys on land. Until recently the great majority of these
surveys were made with vertical magnetometers of the Schmidt type.
As we have seen in Chap. 13, nuclear precession magnetometers have
now been adapted for use on the ground. Interpretation of vertical-field
data will be considered in the present chapter but the analysis of total
field measurements will not be taken up until the next chapter, which
is mainly on airborne magnetics. Although the Schmidt-type instru-
ment has been a standard tool in reconnaissance prospecting for petroleum
as well as in mining exploration, the airborne magnetometer, because of
its speed and economy, is rapidly superseding it in the search for oil.
For much mineral prospecting, however, the ground magnetometer will
probably remain the more useful tool. Even where aerial surveys are
carried out, it is often worth while to detail anomalies located with the
airborne instruments by ground surveys.
In petroleum exploration, the magnetometer can sometimes locate
sedimentary oil traps by picking up anomalies in the earth's magnetic
field caused by underlying basement structures. Buried hills, anticlines,
and faults in igneous or metamorphic rocks are often reflected in the
structure of overlying oil-bearing formations. Mineral surveys with the
magnetometer may reveal shallow faults, dikes, and other intrusives, as
well as deposits of magnetite or ilmenite. Often the magnetometer is
used in the search for buried structures favorable for ore deposition. In
such cases, the ore may not itself be magnetic but it is associated struc-
turally with rocks that are detectable by the magnetometer.

15-1. Field Procedures

In magnetic surveys for petroleum, stations are usually spaced about

a mile apart; in sectionized parts of the United States and Canada, they
304
MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS ON LAND 305

are placed at section corners. For mining exploration, on the other hand,
the spacing of stations is much closer, separations being as little as 25 ft.
Regardless of the objective, stations should be set up at safe distances
from all iron objects that might interfere with the normal field. Accord-
ing to Heiland, 1 there should be no railroad tracks within 125 yd, no
automobiles within 30 yd, and no wire fencing (particularly in the north-
south direction; within 35 yd. Power lines, bridges, culverts, and houses
should be avoided. Moreover, the operator should carry a minimum of
magnetic material about his person.
If a single instrument is used on the survey, a base station is chosen

at the beginning of the day's work and a schedule is arranged that will
permit a return reading there after every few stations in the field are
occupied. The procedure is much like that employed in gravity pros-
pecting, differences being picked off a daily variation curve comparable
to the drift curve used in gravity work. Another method of eliminating
diurnal variation is to use two instruments, a base-station magnetometer
and a field magnetometer. This way it is only necessary to return the
field magnetometer end of the day. as
to the base for checking at the
the base magnetometer adapted for continuous recording of the varia-
is

tion at the base station. Any difference between relative readings of the
two instruments at the beginning and end of the day is distributed among
the stations occupied during the day. Many geophysicists find this
technique unsatisfactory because of the difference in instrumental drift
characteristics.
In operations with the Schmidt magnetometer, it is good practice to
occupy two sites about 50 ft apart at each location. To ensure against
local disturbances, four readings are made at each station, two of them
with the north end of the magnetometer magnet pointing east and two
with it pointing west. Extreme care must be exercised in the leveling
and orienting of the instrument.

15-2. Reduction of Magnetic Data

Before magnetic readings can be mapped, several corrections must be

applied. These are the temperature correction, the diurnal correction,
and the normal correction. A terrain correction may be desirable under
special conditions.
Temperature Correction. In the older type of uncompensated field

balance, there is a temperature coefficient of about 8 gammas/°C, caused

by thermal expansion or contraction as well as by changes with tempera-
moment of the magnet itself. In modern compensated instru-
ture in the
ments the effect of temperature change is less than one-tenth this great.
In either case, the reading of field intensity is corrected to a standard
306 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

temperature (usually 20°C) by use of the temperature coefficient estab-

lished for each instrument. The temperature inside the moving system
isread through a window on a thermometer inside the insulated case.
In surveys using a compensated magnetometer where very high accu-
racy is not necessary, it is usually possible to neglect the temperature
correction.
Diurnal Correction. The diurnal variation of the earth's magnetic
field, discussed in the last chapter, may have an amplitude as great as
100 gammas and it must therefore be taken into account in reducing
data taken with magnetometers. There are several techniques by
field
which diurnal effects can be removed. If only a single instrument is avail-
able and if high precision is not necessary (as is often the case in mining
surveys), it is possible to determine the approximate background field
at any time from published variometer curves taken at the magnetic
observatories of the USC & GS. Since the curves are often tens of
gammas different at places only a few hundred miles apart, this approach
would be unreliable for precision work anywhere but in the vicinity of
magnetic observatories. A procedure more commonly used for single-
instrument operations is to return to the base station every two hours
and to construct a variation curve for each day's work by plotting the
readings at this station against time. Even here irregularities as great
as 10 gammas might be missed during intervals between reoccupations
of the base, so that this technique is not reliable if a precision of a few
gammas is necessary.
Where two instruments are employed no farther than 50 miles apart
and where the one at the base station records continuously, the diurnal
correction should be accurate to a few gammas.
Use of any diurnal-variation curve for correcting field observations
requires, of course, that the time of each reading at the field station be
noted quite accurately. A reference time is chosen on each curve and
all values are corrected to this time.
When variations in the earth's field are large and highly irregular, as
in magnetic storms, it is not feasible to correct for them at all and field
work must be discontinued until conditions return to normal. A record-
ing magnetometer set up in a central location such as a regional office
is often used to monitor such disturbances.

Normal Corrections. In the last chapter it was shown that there are
continual changes in the magnitude and direction of the earth's main or
" permanent" field as one goes from one place to another. These changes
correspond in a sense to the variations of the earth's gravity with latitude.
The correspondence is not exact because the changes in magnetic field
over comparable distances constitute a much larger proportion of the
total field than with gravity and also because normal magnetic changes
MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS ON LAND 307

over the earth are not regular functions of latitude and longitude as is the
case with the gravitational field. This variation, which cannot generally
be correlated with known geologic features, is in many ways similar to
the large-scale regional variations often observed in gravity work. In
magnetic prospecting, it is usually necessary to correct for these "normal"
variations, which are on a larger horizontal scale than the anomalies due
to localized geologic features of economic interest. For surveys confined
to small areas where the geologic structures are large, this reduction can
sometimes be neglected. The correction is made by methods quite
similar to those used for removing the regional trend in gravity inter-
pretation. In the United States the regional values can be picked from
the published maps and tables of the USC & GS, which has measured
various components of the earth's magnetic field with a well-distributed
net of stations that covers the entire country (see Howe and Knapp 2 ).
The spacing of these stations, averaging about 10 miles, is much too great
for locating anomalies from small subsurface structures but it is small
enough to delineate most regional trends.
The standard maps based on these surveys are contoured with an
interval of 1,000 gammas. It is often desirable to work with regional
contours having a much smaller spacing. In such cases, normal con-
tours with intervals as small as 10 gammas may be drawn across the area
covered in a magnetic survey by interpolation of the published contours
or by determination of their gradients.
When closer control is necessary, regional contours can be drawn by
eye across anomalous features by connecting the apparently undisturbed

TABLE 15-1. Sample Reduction Calculation

Station

Base Base

Time 9:00 10:00 11:30 1:15 2:30 3:00

Temperature, T 16 19 21 23 22 20
A, east reading 5.1 6.9 7.6 9.0 9.5 5.8
A, west reading 5.4 6.7 7.2 8.7 9.7 5.8
Average A 5.2 6.8 7.4 8.9 9.6 5.8
kA 84 110 120 144 156 94
a(10 - T) -4 -6 -8 -9 -8 -7
Diurnal variation -15 -22 -40 -25 -12 -6
Regional correction -316 -328 -340 -352 -364 -316
Base correction 545 545 545 545 545 545
Z, gammas 294 299 277 303 315 310
Instrument closure error -3 -8 -11 -14 -16
Adjusted Z 294 296 269 292 301 294
308 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

contour lines on either side of the zone of interest. Another method is

to select one magnetic station of, say, each ten established in the pros-
pecting operation, to contour the readings of these alone, and finally to
smooth the contours and use them as regionals to be subtracted from the
contours based on all the readings. The differences are themselves con-
toured, so that the resulting map will detail the anomalies to be isolated.
Sample Reduction. The reduction procedure may be illustratedby a
calculation sheet (Table 15-1) of the type used in an actual survey. The
instrument has a sensitivity k of 16.2 gammas per scale division and a
temperature coefficient a of 0.7/°C.
Standard temperature is 10°C.
The diurnal variation curve ob-
tained by the second instrument at
the field station is shown in Fig.
15-1. The regional correction is

taken from USC & GS contour

maps of vertical magnetic intensity.
The base correction is simply the
vertical magnetic field strength as
established at the base station by
9 10 12 2 3
II I
with a preexisting net. The
ties
A.M. R M.
Fig. 15-1. Diurnal variation curve for sample
adjustment for instrumental clo-
computation. sure is required because the value
of Z must always be the same at
the base station. Any difference between values for successive occupa-
tions must be considered as a closure error and distributed, as shown,
among all observations within the loop.

15-3. Interpretation of Magnetic Data

Qualitative Methods. After the reduced magnetic readings are
plotted on maps and contoured, the techniques of interpretation are
rather similar to those employed in gravitational prospecting. Much
magnetic interpretation involves only qualitative examination of the con-
tour maps. In areas where the surface rocks are sedimentary, such
maps may cast light on the structure at the surface of the igneous base-
ment. Major structural trends in the Wichita Mountain area of Okla-
homa are delineated very clearly on the magnetic map of the region, as
shown in Fig. 15-2. Here the magnetic trend follows the northwest-
southeast trending Arbuckle- Wichita axis, which is well expressed in the
topography and surface geology of the area.
The qualitative approach to magnetic interpretation, which is fre-
quently used, is not confined to delineating trends. Changes in the
MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS ON LAND 309

separation of contours often provide a useful criterion for indicating

structure. The closer the contours, i.e., the greater the gradients, the
shallower, in general, is the source. Any sudden change in the spacing

over an appreciable distance suggests a discontinuity in depth, possibly

R 22 W R 2i

R 22 W R 21 W
Fig. 15-2. Vertical magnetic intensity in neighborhood of Mangum, Okla. Contour labels are in

gammas. [U.S. Geological Survey.)

a fault. The boundariessedimentary basins can often be delineated

of
in the same way. Also, the deepest portions of such basins may be
indicated as the areas with the smallest magnetic gradients.
A qualitative procedure frequently used in mining is to construct geo-
logical maps from magnetic data showing rock contacts, fault axes, dip
directions, etc. Identification of rocks and structures is made from
geologic outcrops often observable on aerial photographs. A super-posi-
310 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

tion of magnetic contours on the photographs makes it possible to fill

in the gaps in geological control.

Even in qualitative interpretations one should bear in mind that an
anomaly may signify either relief in the basement surface or variation in
the susceptibility. Changes of polarization in basement rocks buried a
mile or more may result in anomalies up to several thousand gammas.
At the same depth, structural features of the type sought in oil prospect-
ing would seldom produce anomalies larger than 50
Figure gammas.
15-3 illustrates why
anomalies due to polarization can be so much larger.
The vertical field above a semi-infinite slab of magnetic material is 2x7
regardless of the depth of the top surface. A lateral change from granite

4000

| 3000
s
c 2000

•- 1000

I 2 3 4
Disfonce along surface in miles

I
Surface
fmife Sedrmenfs,k negligible

cVwwwvww
Granite A ndes ife
k = 0.00 3 cgs k = 0.013 eg s
i
Fig. 15-3. Comparison of magnetic effect of lateral susceptibility change in basement with effect of
structural feature on basement surface.

(k = 0.003) to andesite (k = 0.013) in a polarizing field H of 0.5 oersted

would give rise to a change in I (which is kH) of 0.005 cgs. The maxi-
mum change in field corresponding to this would be 2ir X 0.005 cgs, or
about 3,000 gammas. A boss 1,000 ft high and 1,000 ft in diameter on
an otherwise flat andesite surface covered by 5,000 ft of nonmagnetic
sediments would yield a surface anomaly of only about 120 gammas.
This example indicates how deep-seated susceptibility changes can cause
anomalies of no structural significance which may be much greater than
those resulting from unusually high relief in the basement topography.
Any inclination in the magnetic axis of a buried mass may be sug-
gested qualitatively by a lack of symmetry in the magnetic profile or
contours, although the same asymmetry could result from irregularity
in shape. In the case of a vertically polarized buried sphere, there
will be an area of negative intensity (a magnetic low) symmetrically
MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS ON LAND 311

surrounding the central positive high, as indicated by Fig. 13-7 (page

272). If, however, the magnetic axis is inclined, the magnetic low may

be observed only on one side of the center.

Quantitative Techniques. Quantitative analysis of magnetic data is

generally more than with gravity data for a number of reasons.

difficult

The variation which may be expected in susceptibility is generally much

greater than the variation of density. Also, there is generally uncer-
tainty with regard to the direction of the rock's polarization, since the
magnetization is not always oriented along the earth's field. Finally,
the bipolar nature of magnetic sources makes for some unique complica-
tions. There are many instances, however, where susceptibilities are
known and where it is fairly safe to assume that the magnetization is in
the direction of the earth's field. In such cases it may be useful to cal-
culate the probable depths and shapes of the sources of the observed
anomalies.
Representation of Buried Magnetic Bodies as Simple Magnets. A linear
vein of magnetic ore which is so long in comparison to the depth of its

top that the effect of its lower pole may be neglected can sometimes be
represented as an isolated magnetic pole buried at the depth of its upper
pole. Such a source should give a shown in Fig.
profile similar to that
13-6 (page 272). The variation with horizontal distance is the same as
was obtained for the sphere in the gravitational case. Thus we can find
the depth of the isolated pole from the "half width," which is known
to be 0.768 times the depth z. As pointed out by Peters, 3 however, all
depth determinations by half-width formulas lack precision because of
from neighboring magnetic bodies. For less extended linear
interference
ore bodies necessary to treat the body as a buried dipole or elementary
it is

magnet. Several empirical methods for computing depths to vertical

and dipping dipoles are discussed in more advanced texts, such as that
of Heiland.
Extended Sources. When the anomaly has such an appearance that
a more complex and extended source is suspected, it may be useful to

compare the profile or contours with theoretical profiles or contours from

simple geometrical forms. Figure 13-9 (page 274) shows several typical
profiles, computed by Nettleton,
for the theoretical variation of vertical
magnetic intensity in accordance with the formulas given on page 177.
From these formulas, relations can be ascertained between the depth
z c to the center of the sources and the half width of the anomaly curve,
just as was done with the corresponding gravity formulas. For a sphere,
z c is twice the half width; for a horizontal cylinder, it is 2.05 times the
halfwidth while for a fault, it is equal to the horizontal distance from the
;

center to the edge of the anomaly.

Of all the simplified geometrical forms for which magnetic fields have
312 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

been determined analytically, the most widely applicable is the two-

dimensional (i.e., elongated) dike. Dikes are not only significant as
potential sources of ore but also as indicators of depth to the basement
where they occur as intrabasement features.
Several comprehensive studies have been published on the quantitative
interpretation of magnetic anomalies over dikes of various kinds. Cook 4
has applied the formulas derived by Haalck and others to compute
anomalies for a large variety of model dikes: vertical, inclined, infinitely
deep, of finite depth, striking north, striking east, etc. Many of these
areshown in Fig. 13-12 (pages 276-277). Hutchison 5 has developed a
method for determining the structure of dikes by superimposing the
observed magnetic profile plotted logarithmically over a family of master
curves for dikes of different assumed shapes.
Where the shape of the buried magnetic body cannot be represented
adequately by generalized geometric forms, graphical devices similar to
the graticules described for gravity calculations can sometimes be used.
For homogeneous, vertically magnetized sources, it is occasionally possi-
ble to apply graticules or other charts designed primarily for gravity and
torsion-balance interpretation, making use of Poisson's relation between
the gravitational and magnetic potential. Where the polarization is

inclined, such charts would have to be much more complex.

Peters's Methods. Peters 3 has described some analytical techniques
based on potential theory which he developed for interpreting magnetic
data on a routine basis. The vertical fields observed on the surface are
" continued downward" to the source by analytical means similar to
those employed in gravity interpretation; generalized regional contours
are then removed, and the basement relief is calculated from the residual
anomalies. The calculations are facilitated by special grids placed over
vertical magnetic contours. This procedure sharpens anomalies and
gives much more apparent relief to features of interest than is observable
on maps of magnetic intensity as actually measured. It is particularly
valuable for enhancing the effect of structural features on the basement
surface without increasing the effect of polarization changes.
Peters also describes two rule-of-thumb techniques for depth estima-
tion which are simple and applicable to a large number of cases. The
"slope" method makes it possible to determine the depth to the top of the
basement surface from the anomaly curve of a portion of the basement
having a different susceptibility from the rest. Figure 15-4 illustrates
the method. It is based on the assumptions that (1) the anomalous
mass is in the shape of an infinitely long slab of thickness t with vertical
sides, which has a horizontal top at a depth h and extends to an infinite
depth and (2) it is uniformly magnetized in the vertical direction, having
;

a magnetization different by Al x from the surrounding materials. On

MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS ON LAND 313

the anomaly curve of vertical intensity as measured across the slab,

one locates the inflection point corresponding to maximum slope, draws
the tangent here (line A), and measures its slope. Then one constructs
a line B with half this slope and draws the two tangents C and D that
are parallel to B to the anomaly curve. The horizontal separation s
between the two points of tangency may be roughly related to the depth
h by the formula
s = 1.6/*

if h and t are of about the same magnitude. The same rule can be applied
to estimate the depth to the top of a thin vertically magnetized dike
projecting vertically upward into the sedimentary section, provided this
depth is small compared to the depth of the basement. Here the mag-
netization contrast could be taken as the magnetization of the dike itself.

Tangent ofmaximum slope

A
- -Inflection point

*-x

Fig. 15-4. "Slope" method of L. J. Peters for calculating depth to magnetic surface from anomaly
curve for vertical slab having anomalous magnetization.

A
more general technique described by Peters is called the " error-
curve" method. With this one locates the point of maximum curvature
on a contour observed vertical intensity. A series of circles is
map of
drawn about having radii of b n h where the 6 n 's are specified
this point
constants ranging from 0.1 to 3.75 and h is the estimated depth of the
anomaly based, for example, on a half-width formula. By averaging
the observed values around each circle and by applying a formula from
analytical continuation theory, one can calculate a hypothetical intensity
at the center which should be very close to the observed value at this
point for all values of h that are smaller than the true depth, but which
diverges rapidly with increasing h when h becomes greater than the true
depth. computed and observed intensity
Plotting the deviation between
(the error E) for a range of h values, as shown in Fig. 15-5, one locates
the true depth of burial at the value of h where E shows a sharp inflection.
Limitations of Magnetic Data. All the statements made in Chap. 12
on the ambiguity of gravity data hold equally well for magnetic data.
314 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

The same laws of potential theory that tell us why gravity data can
never be accounted for by a single, unique interpretation apply also to
the magnetic case. Here again in-
dependent geological information is

necessary if the interpreter is to

choose the most reasonable of an in-
definite number of subsurface pic-
tures that might fit the magnetic
observations equally well. Just as
it was often impossible to differen-
tiate between structure and density
change as the source of a gravity
h = estimated depth anomaly, it is equally impossible in
Fig. 15-5. "Error-curve" method for estab- many cases to specify whether an
lishing depth of burial of magnetic anomaly.
observed magnetic anomaly results
(After L J. Peters, Geophysics,
1 949.)
from structural relief at the top of
the basement or from a lateral change in basement susceptibility.
Even when concentrations of magnetic material are accurately detailed
by magnetic methods, it is not generally possible to evaluate their eco-
nomic possibilities from magnetic data alone. There is often such wide
divergence in the susceptibility of various magnetic minerals that very
small quantities of one may have more effect than very large quantities
of another. Because this fact was not recognized, early magnetic pros-
pecting for iron deposits in Wisconsin, Michigan, and Minnesota was
spectacularly unsuccessful. A large-scale program of magnetic explora-
tion begun about 1875 showed up innumerable magnetic anomalies which
were suggestive of commercial iron deposits. When these were investi-
gated further it was found that in most cases no economically valuable
concentrations of iron were present. Other areas exhibiting no magnetic
anomalies at all often turned out to be highly productive. This puzzle
remained unsolved for 50 years until Mason, Slichter, and Hay began to
investigate the fundamental magnetic properties of various minerals
associated with iron deposits. Discovering that magnetite has a much
greater susceptibility than any other iron-bearing mineral, they were the
first to realize that the magnetic data reflected the concentration of

magnetite but not of other ferrous constituents. A minute amount of

magnetite disseminated in nonferrous minerals could give a greater
magnetic anomaly than would a large, commercially productive deposit
of hematite, a much less magnetic ferrous mineral. This discovery
immediately led to new and more successful interpretation techniques in
magnetic prospecting for iron. Weaver 6 has cited this example to show
how empiricism not supported by proper analytical reasoning can lead
to trouble in exploration.
 '

MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS ON LAND 315

15-4. Results of Typical Magnetic Surveys

In this section we shall show the results of a number of magnetic

surveys on land over subsurface features which have been detailed by
drilling. Examples have been chosen to illustrate three different types
of survey: (1)where magnetic ores are sought directly; (2) where non-
magnetic minerals are associated with structures which can be detected
by magnetic means; and (3) where oil-bearing structures in the sedi-
mentary section are associated with topographic features on the basement.
Direct Search for Magnetic Ores. Although the earliest magnetic
prospecting was for intrinsically magnetic iron deposits, the available
literature provides but few instructive examples correlating magnetic

•50,000 „
B
E
100,000 §
IT*

Z
/Ver heal
50,000 >s
o

o 2
Horizontal \

_ -
50,000

Sediments
Pre - Cam br/an - Cambrian
x *
300 /
Meters

Fig. 15-6. Magnetic anomalies across Kursk iron deposit.

data over a ferrous ore body with depth and shape as determined in
subsequent drilling. The Kursk iron-ore body in Russia is responsible
for what is undoubtedly the most spectacular of all magnetic anomalies.
As shown in Fig. 15-6, the horizontal component of intensity varies from
20,000 to 70,000 gammas within about a mile, and the vertical intensity
reaches a maximum of three times its value at the North Pole. In addi-
tion, the declination varies by almost 180°. Although the anomaly was
discovered as early as 1874, it was not until 1923 that the source was
located. A diamond drill hole found iron quartzite ore at about 500 ft,
while later drilling outlined the shape of the upper part of the body.
Estimates based on magnetic and drilling data put the total reserves here
at about 10 12 tons. The iron thus far reached by the drill is of restricted
commercial value because it is difficult to extract from the quartzite.
At Berggiesshlibel in Germany, Heiland located a productive magnetic
316 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

dike by magnetic measurements on the surface. Figure 15-7 illustrates

the horizontal and vertical profiles observed over this ore deposit.
Magnetic Prospecting for Structures Favorable to Mineral Accumu-
lation. We
next consider some examples of how magnetic surveys have
been used to locate nonmagnetic minerals by outlining structures favor-
able to their occurrence or by finding magnetic materials with which
these minerals are commonly associated. According to Koulomzine and
Brossard, 7 95 per cent of the geophysical work on the Canadian shield in
1947 consisted of magnetometer surveys for gold and base metals over
drift-covered areas. Although such metals are not magnetic in them-
selves, they are frequently found on the margins of batholiths and of other
intrusives, which can be detailed under the drift with the aid of the
magnetometer. Three significant base-metal discoveries in Canada
Quemont, East Sullivan, and Lynn Lake followed surveys with the —
ground magnetometer. The Snowshoe plug, a granodiorite body with
Verfica/ yariafo/i from norma/

~^
//
,%'~Ore body

Fig. 15-7. Horizontal and magnetic fields observed along north-south profile across the Berg-
vertical
giesshubel iron deposit. [Adapted from Chapman and Bartels "Geomagnetism," Oxford University
Press, 1940.)

commercial gold concentrations, was located under Lake Demontigny by

a magnetometer survey. The contrast between the smooth magnetic
profiles over the plug and the irregular ones over the enclosing greenstone
was used to delineate the shape of the granodiorite mass.
In the Sudbury nickel district of Canada, nickel and copper sulfide ore
bodies containing pyrrhotite and magnetite occur at norite contacts.
Figure 15-8 shows the vertical intensities which Galbraith 8 observed
with a Hotchkiss instrument, oriented across the meridian, over such an
ore body. Its outcrop is concealed by more than 100 ft of drift. The
structure was subsequently determined by drilling.
Joesting 9 has used the magnetometer to locate gold in Alaska, taking
advantage and magnetite in gravels where
of the close association of gold
there is a uniform Figure 15-9 shows the correlation he
pay streak.
observed between the vertical magnetic field and the gold values over a
mud-covered pay-streak placer at Portage Creek. It appears that the
magnetic shows little or no correlation with the thickness
field of the
gravel or the depth of the basement.
MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS ON LAND 317

Petroleum Prospecting. In some instances sedimentary formations

have a high enough concentration of magnetic minerals that their struc-
ture can be outlined by magnetic surveys. Lynton 10 has found that
vivianite in the Pliocene sandstones of California could give such forma-
-6
tions a susceptibility as high as 4,120 X 10 cgs. He shows that the
contrast between the magnetic sediments and adjacent nonmagnetic
strata makes it possible to follow the Kettleman-Lost Hills trend on a

A,B,C,D are diamond

drill hole focat/ons
'
"^y^yFootwall
complex
'

Fig. 15-8. Magnetic field over drift-covered sulfide-ore body at Sudbury, Ontario. (After Galbraith,

Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs., 1945.)

O a 60 , Vertical magnetic
f\ / anoma/y
J | 40
SV* 20
i- .-
^^Gold value
Muck n30ff.
•i
20 "5

10 ?

500 ft / Basement 0%
Hor. scale
Fig. 15-9. Magnetic field, gold values, and geologic structure along profile at Portage Creek, Alaska.
(After Joesting, Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs., 1945.)

magnetic map. Basement rocks are much too deep here

to account
for the sharpness of the anomaly.
Peters 11 has tabulated data on 19 oil and gas fields in the United States
which were discovered either entirely or in large part through magnetom-
eter surveys. The majority of these, all along the Balcones fault zone
in Texas, have their production in highly magnetic serpentine plugs which
have the proper porosity to serve as oil traps. Figure 15-10 shows the
magnetic anomaly observed over such a serpentine plug in south central
Texas.
A more conventional relationship between magnetic anomalies and
petroleum occurrence is encountered when a sedimentary oil trap is
318 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

associated with structural features in the underlying basement rocks.

The Cumberland Field (Fig. 15-11) is located along the axis of a magnetic
high (with a 100-gamma reversal). Subsurface geological information
has led Cram 12 to the conclusion that there is an anticline here in the pre-
Cambrian 13,000 ft deep and that the basement surface is faulted upward
almost to the surface on the northeast side of the field. The Jackson gas
field in Mississippi is located over a magnetic high 20 miles in diameter

with more than 1,200 gammas of closure. Although the drill has pene-
trated more than a mile, the source of the anomaly has not been reached.
80- '

60-

<*
UJ

2 S
- < 40-

< z \. A'

X 20-
111

> A

oJ
MAGNETIC PROFILE

UJ MEAN SURFACE
tsoo- K DWAT
U.
i
r z NAVARRO

z -500-
o TAYLOR

\ SERPENTINE,/ AUSTIN
>
•I500 J
-J

VERTICAL INTENSITY CONTOURS u GEOLOGIC SECTION

(CONTOUR INTERVAL 10 GAMMAS)

ERPE NT IN E plug'
SOUTH CENTRAL TEXAS
HORIZON TAL SCALE in FEE T

Fig. 15-10. Magnetic anomaly over oil-bearing serpentine plug in south central Texas. [After J. W.
Peters, Mines Mag., 1949.)

The shape of the magnetic profile suggests the existence of a large igneous
plug, and domal uplift which has
this is believed responsible for the
trapped the gas in the overlying formations. The largest field for which
discovery can be credited to a magnetic survey is the Hobbs Field of Lea
County, N. Mex. The discovery well here was drilled in 1927 on the
basis of a magnetic survey followed by torsion-balance work.
Weak negative magnetic anomalies are to be expected over salt domes
because of the contrast between the slight negative susceptibility (about
— 0.5 X 10~~ 6 cgs) of the salt or cap rock and the small positive sus-
ceptibility (10 to 50 X 10 -6 cgs) of the surrounding sediments. Thus
far, no oil pools associated with salt domes have been discovered by the
magnetometer, although several experimental surveys over known domes
have revealed anomalies of the expected magnitude. Figure 15-12 shows
MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS ON LAND 319

MAGNETIC PROFILE

VERTICAL INTENSITY CONTOURS GEOLOGIC SECTION

(CONTOUR INTERVAL 50 GAMMAS)

CUMBERLAND FIELD
BRYAN S MARSHALL COUNTIES, OKLAHOMA
HORIZONTAL SCALE IN MILES

Fig. 15-11. Magnetic intensities observed over Cumberland Field, Okla. Geologic section also shown.
(After J. W. Peters, Mines Mag., 1 949.)

t- 5
2 5 60

IAGNETIC PROFILE

VERTICAL INTENSITY CONTOURS GEOLOGIC SECTION

(CONTOUR INTERVAL 10 GAMMAS)

HOCKLEY SALT DOME

1ARRIS CO, TEXAS
SCALE IN FEET

Fig. 15-12. Negative magnetic anomaly over Hockley salt dome, Tex. {After J. W. Peters, Mines Mag.
1949.)
320 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

the 20-gamma negative anomaly observed in a Magnolia Petroleum Co.

experimental magnetometer survey over the Hockley salt dome, the
cap rock of which comes within 100 ft of the surface. The Garber Field
in Oklahoma Healdton and Oklahoma City fields show
as well as the
negative magnetic anomalies, the one at Garber reaching a maximum
of 300 gammas. Such lows have been variously attributed to well casing,
thickening of magnetic sediments, erosion of highly magnetic sedi-
mentary material from the crest of the structure, and irregular basement
magnetization.
The negative anomaly over Oklahoma City Field was discovered several
13
years before the field itself was found. Clifford has compared the mag-
neticmap made here in 1927, a year before oil was discovered, with
another map made in 1932 after 867 wells had been drilled (across the
entire northeastern part of the city). He concludes that the differences,
which are not pronounced, are probably not caused so much by casing
effects as by other sources of magnetic disturbance introduced during
the 5-year interval.

REFERENCES

1. Heiland, C. A.: Magnetic Prospecting, in J. A. Fleming (ed.), "Terrestrial

Magnetism and Electricity," pp. 110-148, Physics of theNational Earth series 8,
Research Council, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1939.
2. Howe, H. H., and D. G. Knapp: "U.S. Magnetic Tables and Magnetic Charts for
1935," U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Serial 602, 1938.
3. Peters, L. J. The Direct Approach to Magnetic Interpretation and Its Practical
:

Applications, Geophysics, Vol. 14, pp. 290-320, 1949.

4. Cook, Kenneth L. Quantitative Interpretation of Magnetic Anomalies over
:

Veins, Geophysics, Vol. 15, pp. 667-686, 1950.

5. Hutchison, Ralph D.: Magnetic Analysis by Logarithmic Curves, Geophysics,
Vol. 23, pp. 749-769, 1958.
6. Weaver, Paul: The Relative Place of Empirical and Analytical Methods of
Geophysical Exploration, Geophysics, Vol. 7, pp. 281-292, 1942.
7. Koulomzine, T., and L. Brossard: The Use of Geophysics in Prospecting for Gold
and Base Metals in Canada, Geophysics, Vol. 12, pp. 651-662, 1947.
8. Galbraith, F. M.: The Magnetometer as a Geological Instrument at Sudbury,
"Geophysics, 1945," Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs., pp. 98-106, 1945.
9. Joesting, H. R. Magnetometer and Direct-current Resistivity Studies in Alaska,
:

"Geophysics, 1945," Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs., pp. 66-87, 1945.
10. Lynton, E. D. Some Results of Magnetometer Surveys in California, Bull. Am.
:

Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, Vol. 15, pp. 1351-1370, 1931.

11. Peters, Jack W. The Role of the Magnetometer in Petroleum Exploration,
:

Mines Mag., Vol. 39, No. 7, pp. 11-15, 1949.

12. Cram, Ira H.: Cumberland Oil Field, Bryan and Marshall Counties, Okla.,
"Structure of Typical American Oil Fields," American Association of Petroleum
Geologists, pp. 341-358, 1948.
13. Clifford, O. C, Jr. : Magnetic Resurvey of Oklahoma City Field, "Early Geophysi-
cal Papers," pp. 329-334, Society of Exploration Geophysicists, 1947.
 CHAPTER 16

PROSPECTING WITH
THE AIRBORNE MAGNETOMETER

The preceding chapter has dealt for the most part with the long-estab-
lished procedures used for magnetic measurements on the earth's surface.
During and after the Second World War, newer techniques were perfected
for magnetic mapping from the air. These have turned out to be highly
effective, and widespread areas in all the continents of the world have
now been surveyed by airborne magnetic instruments.
The advantages of making geomagnetic measurements from the air
were recognized long before the instrumentation was developed that
made them possible. The most obvious one is the tremendously greater
speed and economy with which operations can be carried out. Another
is the possibility of eliminating disturbing magnetic effects from near-

surface irregularities which make it difficult to recognize low-gradient

anomalies from deep-seated geologic features. Still another lies in the
fact that in aeromagnetic surveys it is possible to obtain data over
swamps, jungles, mountains, lakes, and other areas inaccessible to a
ground surveying party.

16-1. Development of the Method

The earliest aerial magnetic survey on record was made by Lundberg,

who in 1921 measured the field above the Kiruna ore body in Sweden
from a captive balloon. 1 Logachev 2 has reported on some Russian
experiments in 1936 with an earth inductor specially designed for use in
an airplane. Flight tests were run over a number of large magnetic
ore bodies, including the one at Kursk. The sensitivity of the device
was about 1,000 gammas; it was thus inadequate for detecting any but
the largest magnetic anomalies.
With the earth inductor much too insensitive and the conventional
magnetic balance entirely unsuitable for use in flight (because it requires
gravitational stability not obtainable in an airplane), attention was
turned in the middle 1930's to the flux-gate magnetometer 3 as a possible
321
322 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

tool for airborne surveying. This type of magnetometer offered con-

siderable promise because of its lack of any moving parts, but at that
time it did not have the sensitivity necessary for most prospecting opera-
tions. Improvements made by Vacquier and others in the flux-gate
element and the detecting circuits increased its sensitivity sufficiently

that variations in magnetic field as small as 1 gamma could be detected.

Perfected in 1941, Vacquier's flux-gate magnetometer became the basic
element of the MAD
(Magnetic Airborne Detector), developed and used
successfully for submarine location in the Second World War.
Shortly after the MAD
was put into service on submarine patrol
planes in 1942, H. E. Hawkes of the USGS proposed that it be adapted
to measure geomagnetic effects of geologic structures. In 1944, the
Naval Ordnance Laboratory undertook such an adaptation. The USGS
cooperated in this project, particularly in early field tests conducted in
Pennsylvania and Michigan. The first actual exploration survey was
carried out in 1945 for the Naval Petroleum Reserve in the vicinity of
Point Barrow, Alaska, where 10,000 miles of poorly accessible terrain
were mapped by personnel from the two organizations. Upon the close
of the war, commercial development of airborne magnetometers was
resumed. By 1946 the Gulf Research and Development Co. had per-
fected a workable magnetometer and location system. Other instru-
ments were developed by the Heiland Research Corp., the Geotechnical
Corp., and Frost Geophysical Corp.
In 1954, the nuclear resonance magnetometer was developed by
Varian and Packard and shortly thereafter this device was adapted for
use from the air. The lower weight of the equipment made it possible
to conduct surveys from light, single-engined planes, which could be
operated more economically than the larger aircraft generally needed in
surveys with flux-gate instruments.
Both the flux-gate and nuclear magnetometers have been described
in Chap. 13. From the standpoint of interpretation, the most significant
difference between these instruments and the Schmidt type is the fact
that the former measure the total field regardless of its direction while the
latter measures a single component of the field, generally the vertical.
New mathematical techniques have had to be developed for total field
interpretation and some of these will be considered later in this chapter.

16-2. Position Location

For mapping aeromagnetic data it is necessary to correlate all total-

field readings with the position of the plane at the instant they are taken.
Two methods are used. One involves radio devices such as Shoran; the
other, aerial photography. Shoran is an electronic system for measuring
PROSPECTING WITH THE AIRBORNE MAGNETOMETER 323

the distances from each of two ground stations to the plane. A micro-
wave transmitter-receiver unit operating at two frequencies (one for
each ground station) is installed on the plane and constitutes the " mas-
ter" station of the system. Such a unit is illustrated at the left of Fig.
16-1. Other radio systems involving the use of land-based stations are
Lorac, Raydist, and Decca. A new electronic system which is self-
contained in the airplane is the Doppler, which makes use of Doppler's
principle of frequency shift of waves emanating from a moving source.
In this system, a pulsed or continuous wave is sent diagonally downward

Fig. 16-1. Inboard equipment in operation during aeromagnetic survey. On the left is the Shoran
position location apparatus. On the right is the magnetometer recorder and control panel. (Gulf
Research and Development Co.)

fore and aft, and the frequencies are compared in order to obtain the
true ground speed. The heading is obtained from a special magnetic
compass and is maintained by a directional gyro used as an integrating
device. The distance thus determined has a precision better than one
part in a thousand, which is sufficient for most geophysical surveys.
Where positions are determined by aerial photography, continuous-
strip cameras are generally used, although some companies still photo-
graph intermittently. The Aeropath, developed by Aero Service Corp.,
is one example of this type of camera. An electronic intervalometer is
used for marking time intervals on all records. This permits fiducial
marks at any desired interval ranging from 1 to 120 sec. The marks are
324 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

also impressed on the moving paper strips containing the record of mag-
netic intensity. Over water or featureless terrain such as the arctic
wastes, aerial photography is of course not suitable and electronic
techniques are mandatory.

16-3. Operating Procedures

Location of Magnetometer Head with Respect to the Plane. Several

arrangements have been used for the location of the magnetometer head
during flight. The principal objective in each case is to remove magnetic
effects from iron in the plane itself.

Fig. 16-2. Gulf airborne magnetometer being trailed in flight. [Gulf Research and Development Co.)

In the early days of aeromagnetic surveying the most usual procedure

was to tow the magnetic element (often referred to as the "bird") at
the end of a cable (Fig. 16-2).This arrangement is still used by some
companies. The cable is about 80 to 100 ft long and at this distance the
magnetic effect of the plane is negligible. The outer case (see Fig.
13-186, page 286) is streamlined for maximum stability and minimum air

resistance and equipped with fins to prevent rotation. The "bird"

is

is lowered through a trap door in the floor of the cabin after the take-off.
 : : '

PROSPECTING WITH THE AIRBORNE MAGNETOMETER 325

Hunting Airborne Geophysics, Ltd., of Toronto has placed its magnetic

detecting element at the tip of the airplane's tail. This arrangement is
required because a receiver is trailed at the same time for airborne elec-
tromagnetic measurements. The USGS 4
carried out a survey over the
Gulf of Mexico shortly after the Second World War with a similar type

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:

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! h M '

[ iiii •

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Fig. 16-3. Sample record tape made during flight with Gulf airborne magnetometer. Shift of base
line appears in middle of record. [Gulf Research and Development Co., published in Geophysics, 948. 1

of installation. Aero Service Corp. places its detector inboard, the mag-
netic field effects of the iron in the aircraft being compensated.
In 1949, the Frost Geophysical Corp. developed a wing-tip installation
with a set of compensating coils to remove the effects of both permanent
and induced magnetization in the plane itself.
Instrument Operation. Operation of the magnetometer in flight is
relatively simple. With the Gulf equipment, the magnetometer observer
326 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

need only adjust the an automatic mechanism

sensitivity, since there is
for shifting the recording pen to keep from going off scale. Figure
it

16-3 reproduces a typical tape record of total magnetic intensity which

shows a signature that has been shifted by this mechanism. Another
observer operates the Shoran system. With the USGS-NOL equipment,
the operator must adjust the balance as well as the sensitivity in discrete
steps. All settings of the dials are automatically recorded to facilitate
later reduction.
The Varian nuclear magnetometer records with a pen on moving paper
and also digitally on punched tape (Fig. 13-20, page 289). The punch
tapes are reduced to numerical values after the flight
is completed. This
digitalsystem requires no scale adjustment or scale shifting, nor is there
danger of going off scale. Also there need be no limitation in precision
where the magnetic relief is large.
Flight Patterns. The geometry of the flight pattern depends on the
magnitude and areal extent of the anomalies being sought, the diurnal
variation that is expected, the precision necessary in the final map, and
the layout of any transmitting stations needed for electronic position
location. The path will ordinarily consist of a network of closed loops
around which any misclosure due to diurnal variation can be removed
by proper adjustment.
The most common pattern in current use is illustrated in Fig. 16-4.
This consists of mutually perpendicular sets of parallel legs separated
from one another by an interval which usually ranges from 5 to 10 miles.
All the north-south legs are flown consecutively and then the east-west
legs (or vice versa). Adjustment for diurnal variation is made by least
squares, working from the misclosures around the individual loops.
This is illustrated in the figure for the four north westernmost loops.
Differences in magnetic field are determined from the tape records for
each side of each respective rectangle. If there were no drift or diurnal
change the differences would add up to zero around the loop. The actual
misclosures are written down inside the rectangles and adjustments for
them are distributed by least squares over the flight trajectory. One
technique for doing this has been described by Gibson. 5
For most operations, a continuously recording ground magnetometer,
located at a base station near the area being flown, monitors ambient
geomagnetic variations. When a magnetic storm begins, aerial record-
ing is discontinued until normal background conditions return. For
surveys in connection with oil exploration where high precision is required,
the ground monitor is used to ensure that the rate of diurnal variation is
linear within specified limits so that the differences around the loops can
be distributed without excessive error. If the departure from linearity
exceeds specifications, the survey must be repeated.
PROSPECTING WITH THE AIRBORNE MAGNETOMETER 327

Wickerham 6 has devised a mag-

special flux-gate device for monitoring
netic storms on the ground. The magnetometer element is the same as
that of the Gulf magnetometer. The monitor and associated equipment
are illustrated in Fig. 16-5.

•^120 76

+30@-100 ©-15
-55 55

-48© 32 (£j-70
-23

,
10 miles ,

Fig. 16-4. Standard flight pattern to facilitate elimination of diurnal variation and other errors.
Figures around rectangles in upper left illustrate method of adjustment for errors. Numbers along
sides are differences in gammas of total field between adjacent corners. Numbers in center show

misclosures around each loop. Values at corners are adjusted by least squares to minimize misclosures.

Height of Flight Path. The height of the flight above the ground may
vary anywhere from 200 ft to the plane's maximum flying altitude. In
oil exploration the pilot is generally instructed to fly at a constant altitude
above sea level, but necessary deviations are recorded on the altimeter
tapes. In mining surveys, on the other hand, flying is usually at a con-
stant height above the ground surface. The height chosen for a given
survey depends on the purpose of the mapping, the nature of the terrain,
and the disturbance to be expected from superficial sources of magnetic
328 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

field at and just A

survey of basement struc-
below the earth's surface.
tures that might be associated with overlying oil traps would be flown

at a higher altitude than a survey for near-surface magnetic ore bodies.

Surveys from Helicopters. In the early days of aeromagnetic work,
Lundberg 7 conducted surveys over the Canadian shield from a helicopter
using a specially designed earth inductor as magnetometer. More
recently, flux-gate and nuclear resonance instruments have been used in
helicopters for mining surveys. The principal advantage of using a
helicopter is in very rugged terrain where only this type of aircraft can

Fig. 16-5. Magnetic storm monitor equipment used on ground during aeromagnetic surveys. [Gulf
Research and Development Co.)

maintain approximately constant elevations above the ground surface.

Variable ground clearance from airplanes over such terrain may result in
strong " herringbone " patterns on the magnetic maps. Also, it is easier
to follow a precise flight line with a helicopter. This may be an important
factor in detailed mining surveys.

16-4. Interpretation of Aerial Magnetic Data

The interpretation of the total field data obtained with airborne instru-
ments is based on the same general principles as were discussed in the

preceding chapter for vertical or horizontal fields measured on the ground.

PROSPECTING WITH THE AIRBORNE MAGNETOMETER 329

The procedures are more complex with total fields because both magnitude
and direction vary for each reading whereas magnitude is the only param-
eter that need be considered with the vertical ground magnetometer.
As with all potential field data, whether magnetic or gravitational, the
principal interpretational problem is to separate effects due to sources
having economic interest from larger "regional" features and from areally
smaller and generally shallower disturbances which might be looked
upon as "noise." An experienced interpreter can carry out such a
separation qualitatively by careful study of the total field map. Changes
in the direction of contours from the regional may be significant. Occa-
sionally, the entire pattern of contours shows an abrupt shift of several
miles. This effect can often be associated with wrench faults. In gen-
eral,such qualitative interpretation is much easier if second derivative
rather than total field maps are used. The variable direction of the field
complicates matters somewhat, but it is safe over much of the world to
treat it as vertical.
As with ground magnetometer interpretation, it is difficult to separate
structural anomalies from those caused by changes in susceptibility. In
oil exploration, this problem is particularly critical since basement

topography is generally small and lateral susceptibility contrasts may be

large. For surveys of this kind, aeromagnetic maps are generally used
to determine the minimum depth to the basement, on the assumption
that the major anomalies are from deep intrabasement features. As
shown in Fig. 15-4 (page 313), the slope of the anomaly curve will decrease
as depth to the basement increases; quantitative techniques are available
for computingthis depth from the magnetic gradients and from the
second derivative maps.
Vacquier, Steenland, et al. 8 have worked out a numerical method for
calculating the depth to the source of many typical total field anomalies.
It can be applied to any anomaly resulting from a buried body of uniform
polarization whose shape can be approximated by one of a large number
of generalized prismoidal forms. The polarization is assumed to be in the
direction of the earth's field, different models having been set up for
different inclinations and orientations of the bodies with respect to the
external field. The method involves the computation of the curvature
of the observed total intensity by superposition of a special grid over the
intensity contours. The curvature is proportional to the second vertical
derivative of the magnetic intensity. As with second derivatives of
gravity (page 245), the effects of subsurface bodies at the depths of
primary interest are sharpened in comparison with regional field varia-
tions. Along any profile, the distance between the point of maximum
curvature and the point of zero curvature is a function only of the lati-
tude and the depth of burial of the source, except for narrow geometric
330 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

forms. The method has been tested by being applied to aeromagnetic

maps from areas where the depth to the basement is known, and the
computed depths have agreed well with the actual values.
Vacquier's method is considered most reliable for sources having dimen-
sions which are large compared to depth of burial. In selecting anomalies
for these computations, it is best to take features which show a large
area inside a closed zero contour on the second derivative map.
Where the anomalies are long and extended, methods based on dike
analysis may give good results. The logarithmic plotting technique of
Hutchison, 9 referred to briefly in the previous chapter, has been found
useful for depth estimation.
The two analytic depth estimation procedures developed by Peters
and described briefly on pages 312 to 313 can be applied successfully to
aeromagnetic data as well as to vertical magnetometer data. The
" slope" method should be used only in cases where the polarization of the
anomalous magnetic mass is uniform and essentially vertical.
Grid systems for computing second derivative maps and also for
upward continuation from total magnetic intensities have been worked
out in a pair of papers by Henderson and Zietz. 1011 The same authors 12
have developed curves by which the depth of isolated poles or of a line
of such poles can be calculated from the total intensity profile obtained
over each kind of feature. The curves make it possible to compute the
depths from the half widths of the profiles if the inclination of the earth's
field and the angle between the profile direction and the magnetic north

are known.

16-5. Effect of Flight Elevation and Flight Spacing on Observed Fields

When the same area is surveyed at a number of different altitudes

above the ground, the magnetic profiles and maps made at the lower
elevations show more sharply defined and better resolved magnetic
anomalies than those made at greater heights. That this should be
the case follows from the fact that the half width of the magnetic-intensity
peak above a buried vertically magnetized sphere or horizontal cylinder
is proportional to the depth of the mass's center. Since there is virtually
no difference between the magnetic effect of most sediments and that of
air, an aeromagnetic profile made at a height h above the ground showing

an anomaly from a magnetic mass buried at a depth z should be identical

to a ground magnetometer profile of the same feature buried at a depth
z + h. Thus at higher altitudes the effect of any magnetic feature is
attenuated in amplitude and spread out over a wider area. Figure 16-6
shows three profiles flown over the Benson Mines magnetite deposit in
St. Lawrence County, N.Y., at heights ranging from 1,000 to 10,000 ft
PROSPECTING WITH THE AIRBORNE MAGNETOMETER 331

above the ground. The very sharp magnetic peak measured near the
center of the profile from the 1,000-ft altitude becomes almost indis-
tinguishable at 10,000 ft. The effect is also demonstrated in the two
contour maps of Fig. 16-7, representing flights at two different altitudes
over the area in the Wichita Mountains for which the previous chapter
shows a ground magnetometer map (Fig. 15-2). The smaller anomalies
on the maps made at the lower elevations disappear at the higher alti-

tudes, while the larger anomalies become more spread out.

As the flight altitude increases, anomalies from adjacent subsurface
sources merge and attenuate, so that it becomes impossible to resolve
them from one another. This sets an effective limitation, illustrated
by Fig. 16-8, on the height at which the survey should be flown if indi-
vidual features at any specified depth are not to be missed.

3
Miles
Fig. 16-6. Effect of flying at different elevations over Benson Mines. {U.S. Geological Survey.)

The choice of flight-line spacing is always difficult because of the eco-

nomic factors that are involved. The closer the spacing the greater the
chance of detecting all significant anomalies and the greater the accuracy
of the final map. On the other hand, the cost of the survey is propor-

tional to the total mileage flown and this consideration sets obvious limits
to the closeness of the flight lines. As with other types of geophysical
survey, the final decision represents a compromise between the desire
for the most complete possible control and the lowest expenditure that
will meet the objectives of the program. Here, the size and depth of the
target are the most important factors to be considered. In petroleum
basement features being sought generally have a large
exploration, the
enough diameter and are deep enough that a spacing of several miles is
usually adequate. In mineral prospecting, the ore bodies are smaller
and shallower, so that a spacing of a mile or less is necessary to be sure
that an anomaly will not be lost between the lines.
Agocs 13 has studied the maps that would be obtained with different
flight-line spacings over the Marmora ore body in Ontario. This feature,
2,400 ft long, a maximum of 500 ft wide and 500 ft high, with a northwest-
332 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
PROSPECTING WITH THE AIRBORNE MAGNETOMETER 333

southeast strike, is a complex of magnetite, skarn, and syenite averaging

about 373^ per cent iron. An aeromagnetic survey at a height of 500 ft
with flight lines running north-south would give no indication of this ore
body if the lines were to straddle the center of the feature symmetrically.
A shift up to half a mile from this symmetrical position would show an
anomaly from the ore mass but, according to Agocs, the peak value of the
anomaly thus observed would be too small to arouse serious interest.
The true importance of the anomaly would only be recognized if the
flight line passed directly over the ore body. The probability of picking
up a meaningful anomaly increases as the spacing is reduced. A half-
mile spacing should be adequate to direct attention to the anomaly but
a quarter-mile spacing would be necessary for estimating the size of the
body with any reasonable precision.
Anomaly af h3

^^Limifirig aliifade
for resolution

Anomaly at
surface
Magnetic f\ V Magnetic
body No. body Mo. 2
Fig. 16-8. Resolution of anomalies from two buried magnetic bodies a distance x apart. Magnetic
profiles shown at surface and at three flightelevations (hi, h 2/ h 3 ). Anomalies will not generally be
resolved if flight-line altitude is greater than distance x — y above ground.

This example illustrates the advantage that might be gained from a

detailed resurvey with close spacing over any interesting features brought
to light in reconnaissance surveys. In the case history of the Mattagami
ore discovery reviewed in Chap. 19, maps are reproduced in Figs. 19-27
and 19-28 (pages 428 and 429) which show how a survey flown with a
spacing of y± mile made it possible to map an anomaly that led to a major
discovery after a survey with a flight-line spacing of ^ mile had missed
the feature completely.

16-6. Advantages and Limitations of Aeromagnetic Surveying

Balsley 14 has summarized the relative advantages and disadvantages

and ground magnetic surveys. As with most other geophysical
of aerial
methods, the type of survey most suitable for one area or application
might be inadvisable for another.
334 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
Advantages. The advantages of aeromagnetic surveys over magnetic
surveys on the ground may be listed as follows
1. The most obvious advantage of the aerial magnetometer is its speed.
A crew of four men made an aerial survey in two months over the Adiron-
dacks, covering an area which would have required 27 four-man ground
crews to obtain the same data in a 6-month field season.

2. Because of this advantage in speed, the cost of an aerial survey is

much lower than an equivalent ground survey over areas which are large
enough to justify the high fixed costs. A ground survey with a station
spacing of a few hundred feet (as is usual in mineral prospecting) costs
$30 to $60 per linear mile; a standard airborne survey costs as little as
$5 per mile.* The normal rate of coverage by airplane is about 500
miles per day.
3. The airborne magnetometer can be used over water and over ter-
rain which is inaccessible for ground operations. This is particularly
important in remote parts of the earth where roads and modern trans-
portation facilities are highly limited.
4. On account of the speed of aerial surveys, the effects of instrument
drift and diurnal variation are minimized.
5. Because of the height of the plane, magnetic materials on the earth's

surface, such as in pipes, rails, buildings, etc., do not affect the record,
whereas such extraneous sources of magnetism continually interfere with
the usability of ground magnetic data.
6. In the same way, the effects of extraneous magnetic rocks, sands,

and dikes at or just below the surface will not interfere with the recogni-
tion of anomalies caused by deep subsurface bodies. The flight elevation
can be varied for maximum discrimination of features at depths of greatest
interest.
7. Smoothness of the data admits freer use of analytical methods.
Disadvantages. The following disadvantages and limitations of the
aerial methods should also be noted:
1. The accuracy of the results in aerial work is always limited by the

accuracy of the map on which the magnetic data are transcribed. In

some areas available maps are too incomplete or inaccurate for reliable
location of magnetic features. When ground surveys are carried out
in such areas, all necessary topographic surveying can be done along with
the magnetic readings. Errors of 50 ft in location generally occur even
on precise maps when the flight altitude is 1,000 ft.
2. The minimum cost of an aeromagnetic survey is high because of the

basic investment in the aircraft employed. One advantage of the nuclear

magnetometer is that the equipment is so light that it can be carried
in a small single-engined plane. If the area to be covered is small, this
type of survey becomes prohibitive on the basis of cost per mile.
* These figures are for 1958.
PROSPECTING WITH THE AIRBORNE MAGNETOMETER 335

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336 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

16-7. Results of Some Typical Aeromagnetic Surveys

A considerable number of maps showing results of aeromagnetic surveys

by the USGS have been released for publication, as well as some maps
and profiles based on experimental surveys by commercial companies.

R3E R4E
Fig. 16-10a. Aeromagnetic map of total intensity over portion of Payne County, Okla. (Frost Geo-
physical Corp.)

Figure 16-9 shows the correlation between the surface geology and the
aeromagnetic data over a portion of Iron County, Mich. The magnetic
results are represented in the form of trend lines rather than contours,
but their correspondence with the surface geology is unmistakable.
Figure 16- 10a shows the magnetic-field contours over a portion of
PROSPECTING WITH THE AIRBORNE MAGNETOMETER 337

Payne County, Okla., where the basement complex is about 5,000 ft

deep. The boundaries of the oil fields in the area are indicated by dotted
lines. The Stillwater Field and the fields not named on the map have
production from Pennsylvanian sand bodies unrelated to structure.

I ' Contour interval = 50ft /

R3E R4 E
Fig. 16-1 Ob. Structural contours on top of Viola limestone in same portion of Payne County, Okla.
(Frost Geophysical Corp.)

These have no magnetic expression. The other named fields have pro-
duction from the Wilcox. Their structures (Fig. 16-106) reflect to a
greater or lesser extent in the magnetic contours, although regional effects
sometimes obscure the correlation. A second derivative map would
show up the relationship more closely.
The possibility of locating salt domes by the weak negative magnetic
338 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

anomaly often associated with them has been discussed in connection

with ground surveys. Hoylman 15 has suggested that the airborne mag-
netometer should be more likely to reveal 10-gamma negative anomalies
of this type than ground instruments because of the attenuation of dis-
turbing effects from magnetic material in the soil.

REFERENCES

1. Eve, A. S. A Magnetic Method for Estimating the Height of Some Buried

:

Magnetic Bodies, "Geophysical Prospecting, 1932," Trans. Am. Inst. Mining

Met. Engrs., pp. 200-215, 1932.
2. Logachev, A. A. The Development and Applications of Airborne Magnetometers
:

in the U.S.S.R. (translated by H. E. Hawkes), Geophysics, Vol. 11, pp. 135-147,

1946.
3. Muffly, Gary: The Airborne Magnetometer, Geophysics, Vol. 11, pp. 321-334,
1946. WyckofT, R. D.: The Gulf Airborne Magnetometer, Geophysics, Vol. 13,
pp. 182-208, 1948.
4. Balsley, J. R., Jr.: Total-intensity Aeromagnetic Survey of Part of the Gulf of
Mexico, USGS Geophysical Investigation, Preliminary Map, 1949.
5. Gibson, M. D.: Network Adjustment by Least Squares- Alternative Formulation
and Solution by Iteration, Geophysics, Vol. 6, pp. 168-179, 1941.
6. Wickerham, W. E.: Magnetic Storm Monitor, Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs.
Tech. Pub. 4044L, in Mining Eng., October, 1955.
7. Lundberg, Hans: Magnetic Surveys from a Helicopter, Geophysics, Vol. 12, p. 487,
1947 (abstract).
8. Vacquier, V., N. C. Steenland, R. G. Henderson, and I. Zietz: Interpretation of
Aeromagnetic Maps, Geol. Soc. Am., Mem. No. 47, 1951.
9. Hutchison, Ralph D.: Magnetic Analysis by Logarithmic Curves, Geophysics,
Vol. 23, pp. 749-769, 1958.
10. Henderson, Roland G., and Isidore Zietz: The Computation of Second Vertical
Derivatives of Geomagnetic Fields, Geophysics, Vol. 14, pp. 508-516, 1949.
11. Henderson, Roland G., and Isidore Zietz: The Upward Continuation of Anomalies
in Total Magnetic Intensity Fields, Geophysics, Vol. 14, pp. 517-534, 1949.
12. Henderson, R. G., and Isidore Zietz: Analysis of Total Magnetic-intensity Anom-
alies Produced by Point and Line Sources, Geophysics, Vol. 13, pp. 428-436, 1948.
13. Agocs, W. B.: Line Spacing Effect and Determination of Optimum Spacing Illus-
trated by Marmora, Ontario Magnetic Anomaly, Geophysics, Vol. 20, pp. 871-885,
1955.
14. Balsley, J. R., Jr.: The Airborne Magnetometer, USGS Geophysical Investiga-
tion,Preliminary Report 3, 1946.
'5. Hoylman, H. W.: Detection of Salt Domes with the Airborne Magnetometer,
Geophysics, Vol. 14, p. 447, 1949 (abstract).
 CHAPTER \7

ELECTRICAL PROSPECTING METHODS

Electrical methods of prospecting are farmore diversified than any of

the other geophysical methods we have considered thus far. Some of
them, such as the spontaneous-polarization and telluric-current tech-
niques,depend on naturally occurring fields and in this respect resemble
gravity and magnetic prospecting. Other methods require currents or
fields which are introduced into the earth artificially and in this respect
compare with the seismic techniques. Among the latter type are the
potential-drop methods, such as equipotential line and resistivity; also
the electromagnetic and electric-transient methods. Because of the
diversity of electric prospecting methods and their rather limited use,
they will not be treated in as much detail as the geophysical methods
discussed in previous chapters. Readers interested in more complete
information on this branch of geophysics are referred to the exhaustive
treatments in Heiland's and Jakosky's textbooks as well as to papers in
the journals of the SEG, AIME, and EAEG.
Electrical methods are more frequently used in searching for metals and
minerals than in exploring for petroleum. This is because most of them
have proved effective only for shallow exploration, seldom giving informa-
tion on subsurface features deeper than 1,000 or 1,500 ft. Some of the
methods, such as spontaneous polarization, are valid only for locating
ores within 100 ft of the surface. In any case, only one electrical method,
telluric prospecting, is likely to penetrate to the depths where oil and gas
are normally found. Some of the other methods have been able to detect
shallow features which may reflect structural traps for oil at much greater
depths.
Electrical prospecting methods are becoming increasingly important in
engineering geology, where resistivity techniques are used to measure the
depth to bedrock at prospective dam sites and locations for other engi-
neering works.

17-1. Electrical Properties of Rocks

Electrical prospecting makes use of three fundamental properties of

rocks. One is the resistivity, or inverse conductivity. This governs the
339
340 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

amount of current that passes through the rock when a specified potential
difference is applied. Another is the electrochemical activity with
respect to electrolytes in the ground. This is the basis for the self-poten-
tial methods. The third is the dielectric constant. This gives infor-
mation on the capacity of a rock material to store electric charge, and it
must be taken into consideration when high-frequency alternating cur-
rents are introduced into the earth, as in inductive prospecting techniques.
Resistivity. The electrical resistivity of any material is defined as the
resistance, in ohms, between opposite faces of a unit cube of that mate-
rial. If the resistance of a conducting cylinder having a length I and
cross-sectional area >S is R, the resistivity p is expressed by the formula

P = — (17-1)

The unit of resistivity in the metric system is the ohm-centimeter. The

current / is related to the impressed voltage V and the resistance R by
Ohm's law:

1 = (17_2)
i
The conductivity a of a material is defined as 1/p, the reciprocal of its

resistivity.
The range among rocks and rock materials is enormous.
of resistivities
It extends from 10~ 3 ohm-cm to 10 17 ohm-cm. Rocks and minerals with
resistivities from 10 -3 to 10 ohm-cm are considered good conductors;
from 100 to 10 9 ohm-cm, intermediate conductors; and from 10 10 to 10 17
ohm-cm, poor conductors. Table 17-1 gives resistivities for a number of
typical minerals and rock materials.
It is observed that there is no consistent difference between resistivities
of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. Certain minerals,
however, tend to have anomalously low resistivities (high conductivities)
with respect to surrounding rocks; this makes it possible to locate them by
resistivity measurements on the surface.
In porous sedimentary formations, particularly sands, gravels, con-
glomerates, muds, etc., the resistivity is governed more by the elec-
trolyte concentration of the liquid filling the interstices within the forma-
tion than by the intrinsic conductivity of the rock material itself.
Electrochemical Activity. The electrochemical activity depends on
the chemical composition of the rocks and also on the composition and
concentration of the electrolytes dissolved in the ground water with
which they are in contact. This is the property that governs the mag-
nitude and sign of the voltage developed when the rock material is in
equilibrium with an electrolyte.
ELECTRICAL PROSPECTING METHODS 341

TABLE 17-1. Resistivities of Typical Rock Materials

Frequency at
Resistivity,
Material measurement, cps
ohm-cm
(if not d-c)

Minerals:
Galena 0.5-5.0
Pyrite 0.1
Magnetite 0.6-1.0
Graphite 0.03
Rock salt (impure) 3 X 10 3-5 X 10 6
Serpentine 2 X 10 4
Siderite ... 7 X 10 3
Igneous rocks
Granite ... 10 8
Granite 16 5 X 10 5
Diorite 10 6
Gabbro 10 7-1.4 X 10 9
Diabase 3.1 X 10 5
Metamorphic rocks
Garnet gneiss 2X 10 7

Mica schist 16 1.3 X 10 5

Biotite gneiss 10 -6 X 10
8 8

Slate 6.4 X 10 -6.5 X 4

10 6
Sedimentary rocks
Chattanooga shale 50 2 X 10M.4 X 10 6
Michigan shale 60 2 X 10 5

Calument and Hecla conglomerates 60 2 X 10 -1.3 X

5
10 6
Muschelkalk sandstone 16 7 X 10 3

Ferruginous sandstone 7 X 10 5

Muschelkalk limestone 16 1.8 X 10 4

Marl 7 X 10 3

Glacial till 5 X 10 4

Oil sand 4 X 10 -2.2 X

2
10 4

Electrochemical activity has its most important practical application

in potential logging. When
a salt-water-saturated sand and an under-
lying impervious clay are both penetrated by a borehole filled with a
high-resistance mud, an electromotive force E is generated which has a
magnitude K
log p m /pw, where p m is the resistivity of the mud, p w is the
resistivity of the connate water in the mud, and K is a constant depend-
ing on the constitution of the solids and fluids in contact. If the mud
and water have the same resistivity, no potential is generated.
Dielectric Constant. The dielectric constant, which corresponds to
permeability in magnetic materials, is a measure of the polarizability of a
material in an electric field. The polarization or electrical moment per
unit volume, P, is proportional to the impressed electrical field E and the
342 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

proportionality constant is e, the electrical susceptibility. The total elec-

trical flux per unit area (corresponding to magnetic flux density) is

E + 4nP or (1 + 4ire)E. The quantity (1 + 47re) is designated as k, the

dielectric constant.
This property determines the effective capacitance of a rock material
and consequently its static response to any applied electric field, either

direct or alternating. The dielectric constant of a vacuum is unity. For

most hard rocks it ranges from about 6 to 16 electrostatic units. For wet
soils and clays it is somewhat greater than this, extending up to 40 or
50 esu.

17-2. The Self-potential Method

The self-potential method involves measurement at the surface of elec-

tric potentials developed in the earth by electrochemical action between
minerals and the solutions with which they are in contact. No external
electric fields are needed with this technique. When different portions
of an ore body are in contact with solutions of different composition,
chemical reactions take place which result in different solution pressures
along the respective areas of contact. The difference in solution pressure
gives rise to a potential difference which causes current flow in the ground.
Sources of Potential. When an ore body is responsible for a potential
difference of this kind, most usually because of differential oxidation
it is

between one part of the body and another. Often the unconsolidated for-
mations near the surface are aerated to a much greater extent than in the
zone below. An elongated vertical ore body, say of pyrite, penetrating
the aerated zone from the oxygen-deficient rocks below, would be oxidized
near its top but not along
bottom. Oxidation of the pyrite yields sul-
its

furic acid, which is by carbonates adjoining the ore body.

neutralized
The solution of salts thus produced is in equilibrium with the pyrite at a
different pressure and electric potential than is the solution in contact
with the ore below the aerated zone. The difference in potential causes a
current to flow between the upper and lower ends of the pyrite mass, and
the return current through the ground (see Fig. 17-1) causes a potential
anomaly measurable at the surface. The ore body can thus be detected
at the surface from the negative potential associated with the oxidation
reaction at the upper end.
While the strongest potentials of this kind are excited in ores such as
pyrites, a number of other minerals, such as pyrrhotite and magnetite,
give rise to self-potential patterns which are often observable on the
surface. According to Kruger and Lacy, 1 alunite was responsible for a
1,700-millivolt potentialanomaly at Cerro de Pasco in Peru. The polar-
ization was attributable to free acid released during alunitization of the
ELECTRICAL PROSPECTING METHODS 343

country rock. As pointed out by Brant, all near-surface sulfide bodies2

do not exhibit anomalous potentials, since there are many surface condi-
tions that inhibit oxidation. Beneath the water table or permafrost,
oxidation is virtually absent.
Spurious sources of potential often obscure effects of subsurface electro-
chemical action. Elevation changes (on account of normal atmospheric
potential gradient) often cause spurious potentials for which it may or
may not be possible to correct. Telluric currents (natural earth currents
of global extent flowing through the earth's crust) also result in potential
differences which are sometimes difficult to separate from electrochemical
potentials.
Field Procedure and Interpretation. Self-potential anomalies, often
hundreds of millivolts in magnitude, can be detected by nonpolarizing

.5 >300
E 200
J
£- E 100

D/sfance

^X
~\ Aerated zone
\

1—1 Waferfab/e
I I I

Fig. 17-1. Natural potential profile over sulfide body oxidized at top.

porous electrodes. The potentials may be measured along profiles with

pairs of such electrodes maintained at uniform separation. With this
arrangement, gradients are usually mapped rather than actual potential
differences. Equipotential lines are sometimes determined by main-
taining one electrode in fixed position and finding the line along the sur-
face for which no potential difference is observed between it and a mova-
ble probe.
The theory of interpretation is quite similar to that for magnetic work,
since dipole potential fields are involved in both cases. Theoretical
studies by Petrovski, 3 Stern, 4 de Witte, 5
and Yungiil 6 have led to quanti-
tative techniques for interpreting potential anomalies. These are useful
only when the polarized body can be represented by a sphere or some
other simple geometrical form.
Self-potential surveys have been responsible for the discovery of numer-
ous sulfide ore bodies at shallow depths of burial. Several sulfide bodies
344 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

have been located at Noranda by this method, as was a copper body near
Sherbrooke, Quebec. Its possibilities have been investigated in other
areas, such as the Tri-State zinc and lead district (see Jakosky, Dreyer,
and Wilson 7 ) where no correlation was found between natural potentials
and lead and zinc mineralization.

SARIYER, ISTANBUL
25m
_J

1 S 1
Devonian schist

\
ot
|
Senonion ondesite

Sulphide

N-W
m

-120mv 170

160

150

140

J30
m
oc oc

Fig. 17-2. Self-potential profile and geologic section, Sariyer, Turkey. (After Yungul, Geophysics, 1 954.)

Yungiil 8 has described a self-potential survey in the Sariyer area of

Turkey which led to the discovery of a sulfide mass containing zones with
copper concentrations as high as 14 per cent. A cross section of this ore
body, as determined from core drilling and mining operations, is shown in
Fig. 17-2, along with the polarization profile observed on the surface.
The steep topography required the use of terrain corrections which dis-
placed the predicted center of the ore body northwestward from the polar-
ization minimum observed in the field. A drill hole over the low axis of
potential would have encountered only pyrite, as was learned subse-
ELECTRICAL PROSPECTING METHODS 345

quently when the adit shown in the figure was put through. Applying
6
equations he had derived in a previous paper, the author had predicted
that a spheroidal-shaped body would be found at a depth of 23 m.

17-3. Equipotential-line Method

Except in the special cases where electrochemical reactions result in

measurable potential anomalies, electric currents of external origin are
needed to locate bodies having anomalous electrical properties. In recent
years, a method has been developed for using natural earth currents, and
this will be discussed subsequently. Of all methods requiring artificial
currents, however, the equipotential-line technique is the simplest.
Principles. If two electrodes are inserted in the ground and if an

external voltage is applied across them, there will be a flow of current

through the earth from one electrode to the other. If the medium through
which the current flows is homo-
geneous in its electrical properties,
the flow lines will be regular and, in
a horizontal plane, symmetrical
about the line joining the elec-
trodes. Any inhomogeneities in
these properties will cause distor-
tions in the lines of current flow.
Such distortions indicate the exist-
ence of buried material with higher
conductivity than its surroundings,
so that it attracts the flow lines Fig. 17-3. Distortion of current flow lines by
bodies having [A) anomalously high or (8)
toward itself, or with lower con-
anomalously low conductivity.
ductivity, so that it tends to force
the lines into the surrounding medium. Figure 17-3 illustrates the effects
that might be expected in either case.
It is not possible to measure the direction of electric current flow in
the earth by any direct means. One applies instead the general principle
that the lines of flow are always perpendicular to the lines along which
the potential is equal. This is illustrated by the vertical section shown in
Fig. 17-4a. The potential difference (or voltage) impressed across elec-
trodesA and B is distributed along the space in between them as indicated
by the dotted In a homogeneous conductor, the potential with
lines.
respect to A along a vertical plane cutting the surface at C midway
between A and B will be half its value at B. If one could measure the
potential underground, he would observe that the potential is the same as
at any surface point, such as D, wherever the ratio of distances to A and
to B is the same as the ratio at that point. In the case of D, this ratio is
346 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

one-third. The full line extending downward from D and bending back
under A the trace of this " equipotential surface" on the vertical plane
is

containing A and B. Figure 17-46 shows where a family of such surfaces

intersects the horizontal plane of A and B. Each trace is known as an

Lines of current flow

Equipofenfial lines
(a)

L ines of currenf flow

Equipo fen fieri lines
(&)

Fig. 17-4. Equipotential lines and flow lines, Below the earths surface
(a) in vertical plane of
electrodes, (b) On plane of earth's surface; electrodes at A and B.

equipotential line. If probes are placed at any two points along such a
line, no current will flow between them. This characteristic is used to
locate the lines.
The equipotential lines must always be perpendicular to the lines of
current flow, since no component of the current at any point can flow
along the equipotential line at that point. Hence any irregularity in the
flow lines will show up as distortions in the equipotential lines.
ELECTRICAL PROSPECTING METHODS 347

Equipment and Field Operations. In equipotential surveys the earth

is energized with a pair of primary electrodes, about 2,000 ft apart, across

which a high-power gasoline generator maintains a voltage of around 200

volts. The positions of these electrodes remain fixed during the survey.
The equipotential lines are traced
on the surface by a pair of search
electrodes (usually copper-jacketed
steel rods) inserted into the ground.
One of the search electrodes remains
in a fixed position between the pri-
mary electrodes, and the other is
moved until no current is observed
to flow between it and the fixed
search electrode. Figure 17-5 illus-
Primary current e/ectrodes
•
trates the arrangement. x
Fixed potential e/ectrode
Distortions in the equipotential o Successive positions ofother
lines are utilized to locate masses, search e/ecfrode alonq
such as ore bodies, of anomalously equiporentiaf
high or low conductivity to depths Fig 17 . 5 Location of equlpotentFal lines
Up tO about 50 ft. Interpretation is by search electrodes (plan view).
almost entirely qualitative. Strikes
and lineation of known ore bodies concealed by overburden can often be
traced by this means, even though depths cannot be determined.

17-4. Resistivity Methods

Introduction. The method is based essentially on the same

resistivity
principle as the equipotential-line method but it is much more powerful in
that it provides a quantitative measure of the conducting properties of
the subsurface. Under favorable conditions, this technique can be used
to find the depths of layers in the earth having anomalously high or low
conductivities and to determine the depth and approximate shape of
discrete ore bodies with anomalous resistivity. The basic procedure is to
measure the potential gradient on the surface associated with a known
current which flows into the earth. Irregularities in the conductivity
below the surface affect the relation between the current and the potential
drop at the surface.
Principles. All resistivity techniques in general use require the
measurement of apparent resistivity. To illustrate this concept, let us
consider a semi-infinite solid with uniform resistivity p. Assume that
a current I is introduced into this material through electrodes at
positions A and B, respectively, on its surface (Fig. 17-6). Assume also
that the potential gradient associated with this current is measured across
348 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

two other electrodes at positions C and D on the same surface The

potential at electrode C will be

(17-3)
27r\r ] ^
where n is the distance from potential electrode C to current electrode A
and r 2 its distance to current electrode B. Similarly, the potential at
electrode D is

Fz> (17-4)
2ir\Ei R 2/

where Ri is the distance from D to A and # the distance from D to B.

2

The potential difference F measured by potentiometer across electrodes

C and D is simply V c - V D . Subtracting Eq. (17-4) from Eq. (17-3) and
solving for p, we obtain

p = 2tV (17-5)
I 1_ 1.

r2

This value is independent of the positions of the electrodes and is not

affected when the current and potential electrodes are interchanged.

Fig. 17-6. Arrangement of current electrodes (A and B) and potential electrodes (C and D).

When the resistivity is not constant throughout the medium, the

effective resistivity as computed from Eq. (17-5) varies with the position
of the electrodes. If the electrodes are laid out along a line and the sepa-
rations are increased in a systematic manner, the change in p with elec-
trode spacing makes it possible in many simple cases to determine the
variation of resistivity with depth. The resistivity of Eq. (17-5) is now
designated as the apparent resistivity.
To illustrate how this concept assume that the sub-
is applied, let us
surface consists oftwo layers, the upper layer having a resistivity pi and
the lower one having a resistivity p 2 which is less than p x The current .

between electrodes A and B will not flow along circular arcs as it would
with a homogeneous earth (Fig. 17-4). The lines of flow are distorted
downward as shown in Fig. 17-7 because the higher conductivity below
 '

ELECTRICAL PROSPECTING METHODS 349

the interface results in an easier path for the current within the deeper
zone. For the same reason, the total current is greater than itwould be
if the upper material were to extend downward to infinity. Moreover,
the deeper the interface, the smaller the increase in current flow, while the
greater the electrode separation in proportion to the depth of the inter-
face the greater the effect of the low-resistivity substratum on the current
that flows between the electrodes.
It is easy to see that the apparent resistivity would be virtually the
same as the resistivity pi of the upper medium when the electrode sepa-
ration very small compared with the thickness h of the upper layer.
is

This because very little of the current would penetrate to the sub-
is

stratum below the interface. At spacings which are very large compared

/interface /
'

Resistivity =p2

Fig. 17-7. Lines of current flow between electrodes A and 8 in two-layered earth with higher conduc-
tivity in deeper layer. Compare with flow lines for homogeneous earth (Fig. 17-4).

with h, the apparent resistivity approaches p 2 because the portion of the

current confined to the surface layer becomes negligible. Figure 17-8
shows the curve of apparent resistivity vs. the ratio of electrode spacing
to depth for the two-layer case.
Electrode Arrangements and Field Procedures. In actual practice a
number of different surface configurations are used for the current and
potential electrodes. Both sets of electrodes are laid out along a line for
all of The current electrodes are generally but not
these arrangements.
always placed on the outside of the potential electrodes, although the
opposite layout is theoretically equivalent.
Wenner Arrangement. The most common electrode setup, at least in
North America, is the Wenner arrangement, illustrated in Fig. 17-9a.
Here each potential electrode is separated from the adjacent current elec-
trode by a distance a which is one-third the separation of the current elec-
trodes. For this case, Eq. (17-5) becomes

= V
p 2ira (17-6)
-J
350 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

Lee Partitioning Method. This is a variation of the Wenner arrange-

ment in which an additional potential electrode E is placed at the center of
the spread (Fig. 17-96). Potential differences are measured first between
electrodes B E
and then between electrodes C and E. Unsym-
and
metrical arrangements are sometimes used with this technique.
"Trielectrode" Arrangement. An interesting variation on the Wenner
arrangement has been devised by Carpenter and Habberjam. 9 The
spacing of electrodes, shown in Fig. 17-9c, is "semisymmetric," the two
inside electrodes having a separation s that is different from the separation
r between adjacent outermost electrodes. A switching system is used so

C A and D are current electrodes

o 6 and C are potential e/ectrodes
Q.
a.
O A B C D Electrodes
v '

-*-

> S/7//S/7S77SS77777777
CO
CO
Pi>fz
a:

&
ti

^^^__
! ? ? « 5 *
Curreni electrode sepa ration _ s
Depth to interface h
Fig. 17-8. Apparent resistivity as function of electrode separation for two-layer case illustrated in

Fig. 17-7 (schematic).

that the functions of the individual electrodes are interchanged cyclically.

In the first arrangement, illustrated in the diagram, the two outer units
are current electrodes and the two inner ones potential electrodes (CPPC
or PCCP, which gives identical results). In the second, both current
electrodes and both potential electrodes are adjacent (CCPP or PPCC)
and along the line in CPCP or
in the third the respective types alternate
PCPC sequence. claimed that this technique gives more informa-
It is
tion than can be derived from a single reading for each electrode setup.
Schlumberger System. In the Eastern Hemisphere, the Compagnie
Gen£rale de G6ophysique customarily expands its electrode spacing by
increasing the distance between current electrodes or that between
potential electrodes, but only one at a time, during the course of a meas-
ELECTRICAL PROSPECTING METHODS 351

urement. The potential electrodes are assumed to be an infinitesimal

distance apart; observed values of potential are adjusted by extrapolation
to fit this assumption. This electrode arrangement is illustrated in
Fig. 17-9d

©
<v>
77* ^//////////////////r/yv///////////////sn//s////
*\* a *}*

A B C D
Current Potential Potential Current
electrode electrode electrode electrode

(a)

Vbe~
a
?^ <J>

E
(b)
Vec

Fig. 17-9. Electrode configurations, (a) Wenner arrangement, a is spacing used in resistivity calcu-
lations, (b)The Lee partitioning arrangement, (c) "Trielectrode" arrangement in CPPC switch
position, (d) Schlumberger arrangement, a is constant, r is increased during a measurement. For
all arrangements current electrodes are designated by A and 0, potential electrodes by 6, C, and E.

Gish-Rooney Method. In addition to the potential associated with the

current introduced into the earth by the current electrodes, the potential
difference as read may include spurious electrochemical potentials
between the electrodes and electrolytes in the earth. Often nonpolarizing
electrodes (such as copper-copper sulfate porous pots) are used to avoid
352 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

such effects. A frequently used technique for eliminating contact poten-

tialswas devised by Gish and Rooney. 10 It makes use of a commutator
which reverses the directions of the current flow as well as the potential
polarities about thirty times each second. Any polarizing potentials at
the electrodes, being reversed in sign with each half revolution of the
commutator, will cancel out.
Spurious electrode potentials are frequently canceled by using low-
frequency alternating current.
Fixed vs. Variable Electrode Separations. Two general approaches are
used for taking resistivity measurements in the field. With the first, the
electrode spacings are fixed and the array of electrodes is moved with con-
stant separation from one place to another, the apparent resistivities being
plotted at the mid-points. These data are contoured over the area of
interest. Any ore body having anomalous conductivity which is shal-
lower than the depth of maximum effective penetration should show up as
an anomaly on the resulting map. In the second type of measurement
the center of the electrode spread remains fixed but the separation of elec-
trodes is maximum desired depth pene-
progressively increased until the
tration is This method locates horizontal discontinuities in
reached.
conductivity and makes it possible to determine their depth. It is
widely used in engineering surveys as well as in mineral prospecting.
Interpretation. The quantitative interpretation of resistivity data
has been the subject of mathematical studies for several decades. Numer-
ous papers on this subject have appeared in the geophysical literature.
In spite of the attention that has been given to the problem, it is very
difficult by applying theoretical analysis to
to obtain reliable results
resistivitydata obtained in the field. This is because the theory thus far
worked out can only be applied to simple models, such as multiple layers
(up to four at the most) separated from one another by plane, preferably
horizontal, interfaces. It is seldom that the rock formations near the
earth's surface exhibit such a simple stratification in electrical properties.
The variations in resistivity are usually much more complex both in the
lateral and vertical directions.
In spite of these difficulties, some situations in nature can be approx-
imated quite closely by a simple layering picture. Where there is an
unconsolidated overburden over bedrock, it may be possible to compute
the depth to solid rock fairly accurately from resistivity measurements
using the formulas based on the two-layer case.
Some ore bodies with anomalous conductivity can be represented as
spheres or spheroids and their dimensions and depth of burial can fye
calculated from resistivity data using mathematical expressions worked
out for these geometrical forms. The same approach can sometimes be
applied to the study of filled sinks.
ELECTRICAL PROSPECTING METHODS 353

Layered Media with Horizontal Interfaces. The simplest configura-

tion for theoretical handling is a small number of discrete layers, each
having a uniform but different resistivity and separated from one another
by plane horizontal interfaces.
Hummel 11 has worked out the theory for the two- and three-layer cases
by using the method of images. This technique is based on the premise
that there an infinite number of current sources at the positions of the
is

mirror images of the electrodes as they would be reflected optically by the

interfaces of discontinuity. Since each reflection involves a loss of
intensity (as in the analogous optical case) and successive reflections cor-
respond to increasingly distant sources, it is only necessary to consider the
few multiples to obtain a usable value for the potential.
effect of the first
In the case of a surface layer of resistivity pi overlying an infinitely
thick substratum of resistivity p 2 the apparent resistivity p a
, is

P\
hi Vl +
A;
(2h/a) 2
2
V4 +
/c
(2/i/a) 2
2

Vl + (4/i/a) 2
V4 + (4/i/a) 2

* v + ...
+ 11
Vl + (6V<*) 2
V4 + (6/i/a) 2
J J

(17-7)

where a is the electrode separation for the Wenner arrangement, h is the

thickness of the layer, and k, the resistivity contrast, is (p 2 — pi)/(p2 + Pi).
This is an infinite series with the nth term having the form

, r kn k r

4p:
Vl + (2nh/a)* V4 + (2nh/a)

Since k is always less than unity, the series converges, i.e., the terms
approach zero as n increases, and only a limited number of terms (each
corresponding to a successive " multiple reflection") is needed.
With the Wenner arrangement of electrodes the apparent resistivity as
measured in the field is simply 2to,(V/I). When p a is determined over a
range of a values, the quantities h and k can be found by matching the
curves of p a vs. a, as observed, with theoretical curves based on various
assumed layering conditions. A number of techniques have been devel-
oped for doing this conveniently.
Tagg 12 has constructed a set of curves based on Eq. (17-7) which facili-
tate computation of resistivities and layer thickness for the two-layer
case. These curves are reproduced in Fig. 17-10, one set for p 2 /pi > 1,
the other for p 2 /pi < 1. Each horizontal line, corresponding to a meas-
 1.0

0.9

0.8
k* oi

/ •fc
7*s
/ yA / X
yT
£> /\y/
/^
// k
/ A // Y/
0.7
4)
/
V / //, y // (a)
0.6
h, / '// /C positive

^0.5
or
0.4 v
//
-7^ V,
0.3 /
r

0.2 4® '/I
/
3

0.1

1.0
#
/ 0.5 1.0
^ 1.5 2.0

0.9
m
r*
""

fr"
^ y
0.8 s .

A ./ > v //
0.7
—^ .

// ///,/
T 7/
JL
'

Q6 -.9 ft j (b)

'// /// K negative

i/ /
0^*0.5

*lr / 0- '///
/ 7//
0.4

0.3
^4
V/
>/
1

y
//
2
v/
{/

0.2 V
0.1
PiV
/
\ i

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

*/a
Fig. 17-10.Tagg's curves for two-layer cases where (a) upper layer has lower resistivity than lower
layer, and (b) upper layer has higher resistivity, k is — pi)/(p2 Pi)/ where p\ is resistivity of
(p 2 +
upper layer and p 2 is that of lower layer. Abscissa scale is h/a (layer thickness/electrode repara-
tion). (From Tagg, Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs., 1934.)
354
'
ELECTRICAL PROSPECTING METHODS 355

ured pal Pi value, will cross from one to ten of the lines representing vari-
ous integral-tenth values of k.
In applying these curves to field observations of pa vs. a, one assumes
that the value of p a for values of a approaching zero is pi and divides all
p a readings by pi. The p a /pi ratio for then drawn as a
each value of a is

horizontal line across the appropriate set of master curves. At each

intersection with a curve corresponding to a different k, the h/a value is
converted to k simply by multiplication with a. The k values are then
plotted vs. h on another graph, all points for a given electrode separation
being connected by a line. If the two-layer assumption regarding resis-

tivity variation with depth actually applies, the lines for the various
electrode separations should intersect at a point; i.e., the value of h at the
point of intersection is the depth to the interface and the value of k gives
deeper layer, since it is assumed that pi is known.
p 2 the resistivity of the
,

Let us illustrate the use of Tagg's curves by an example. Assume that

the apparent resistivity varies with electrode spacing as in Table 17-2.

TABLE 17-2. Apparent Resistivity vs. Electrode Spacing

a, ft p a , ohm-cm Pl/pa

300 8,960 0.750

400 10,740 0.623
500 12,320 0.545
600 1 3,860 0.483
700 15,220 0.440
800 16,480 0.407

Because pi/p a is less than unity, the upper family of curves shown in
Fig. 17-10 is used. Considering the pi/p a value of 0.750 for the 300-ft
first

electrode spacing, we see that the 0.750 line crosses the k = 0.2 curve at
an h/a value of 0.315, the k = The first two of
0.3 curve at 0.560, etc.
these correspond to h values of 95and 150 ft, respectively. The k values
are plotted against the h values, as shown in Fig. 17-11, a separate line
being drawn to connect all points for the same electrode spacing. The
respective curves are seen to intersect near the point h = 300, k = 0.755.
Whenever the lines come together in this way, it is reasonable to assume
that there is a simple two-layer resistivity configuration in the earth, the
depth of the interface and the resistivity contrast being the respective
coordinates at the intersection of the lines.
A more general method of interpreting apparent resistivity curves is to
compare the observed curve with a family of theoretical curves for vari-
ous layering configurations. The theoretical curve giving the best fit

specifies the geometry and resistivity contrasts where the measurement

356 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

was made. It is usually most expeditious to plot the curves on log-log

paper, corresponding to a dimensionless form for both coordinates.
Roman has used this type of plot, constructing a log-log version of
13

Tagg's curves for the two-layer case.

More recently, the Compagnie Generate de Geophysique 14 published a
set of 480 master curves for the three-layer case. The relative thicknesses
of the different layers and their relative resistivities are varied system-
atically over the ranges of both that might have practical interest. This

600
300.400/ 600/00.800
1.0

0.9

J A
i

/ /
/

0.8
is?
"At intersection
0.7
47/1h y-ZOO
K= 0.755,

0.6
f ft El = 7J6
rt

f 0.5 6
M %< ^^/
/- /

0.4

0.3

r
0.2

0.1

100 200 300 400

h in ft

Fig. 17-11. Sample plot showing how Tagg's curves are used to determine depth of discontinuity h
and resistivity contrast k. [Adapted from Tagg, Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs., 1934.)

set of curves is computed for the Schlumberger electrode arrangement, in

which only the spacing of the current electrodes is increased.
Figure 17-12 illustrates the use of one family of the curves. The data
points (p a vs. AB/2, where AB
is the current electrode separation) are

plotted on semitransparent log-log paper. A rapid inspection of the

various sets of curves should indicate which set might have a curve that
would fit the plot of experimental points. The graph paper is then
superimposed on the sheet containing this set and its position shifted
horizontally and vertically for the best possible fit. In the example of
Fig. 17-12, the data points appear to fit a three-layer curve for the case
where the second layer has a resistivity one thirty-ninth that of the
first and five times the thickness and where the infinitely thick third layer

has an infinite resistivity.

ELECTRICAL PROSPECTING METHODS 357

A more elaborate set of curves covering four layers as well as three has
been published somewhat more recently by Mooney and Wetzel. 15 The
album containing these curves, about 2,400 in all, is accompanied by a
book which has 2,400 tables of potential values for various combinations
of layer thickness and resistivity. There are 20 two-layer curves, 350
three-layer curves, and more than 2,000 four-layer curves. Calculation
of the tables and curves was done with an electronic computer. Although
the formulas for the curves had been developed by Wetzel more than 25
years before the book appeared, it required automatic digital computing
facilities to put the equations into their present usable form. The curves
are used in the same way as the Compagnie Generale's curves, illustrated
in Fig. 17-12, except that the calculations are based on the assumption
that the Wenner or Lee electrode configurations have been used in the field.
The theoretical curves thus far discussed are all for the case of plane
horizontal interfaces between layers. The theory for an inclined inter-
face between two layers is much more complicated. A number of papers
have appeared in the literature on the interpretation of apparent resis-
tivity data for dipping beds. Perhaps the most useful curves for this
purpose may be found in a paper by Unz. 16 A critical evaluation of the
literature on resistivity data over dipping beds has been made by Van
Nostrand and Cook. 17
The limiting case of the inclined interface is the vertical discontinuity
in resistivity, one that may be approached in nature over outcrops of
dikes or over nearly vertical fault outcrops. Logn 18 has worked out
theoretical curves for single vertical planes of discontinuity in resistivity
and also for two vertical planes not far apart which bound a material
having anomalous resistivity, as in the case of a vertical dike.
Effects of Discrete Rock Masses Having Anomalous Resistivity. The
mathematical analysis of the potential field distortions caused by discrete
buried bodies such as ore masses is considerably more complicated than
it is for layered media of the type just discussed. It is generally necessary
to assume that the buried mass can be represented as a generalized geo-
metrical form such as a sphere or spheroid. Van Nostrand 19 has worked
out a solution for the apparent resistivity, as measured by a Wenner
electrode configuration, over a buried conducting sphere. From his
analysis he concludes that the sphere whose top is buried to a depth
greater than its radius cannot be detected by conventional resistivity
measurements at the surface.
The same theoretical approach was extended by Cook and Van
Nostrand 20 to the mapping of filled near-surface sinks, a problem of
considerable practical importance. In their treatment, the sinks were
represented by hemispheres and hemispheroids with their bounding planes
at the surface of the earth. Theoretical curves were worked out both for
358 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
ELECTRICAL PROSPECTING METHODS 359

"horizontal" field studies (electrode spacing constant but spread shifted

horizontally along a traverse) and for "vertical electric drilling" (center
of spread at a single location but spacing of electrodes systematically
varied). An example of this technique over a known filled sink will be
examined shortly.
In exploratory drilling for highly conductive ore bodies, such as sul-
fides, it is often desirable to estimate the over-all extent of such a deposit

after it has first been penetrated by the drill without the expense of addi-
tional boreholes. measurements with one or more electrodes
Resistivity
making contact with the ore body in the borehole are often used for this
purpose. Such a procedure is most practical if the mass has a shape
that can be approximated analytically by a geometrical form such as a
spheroid. Siegel 21 worked out apparent resistivity curves for a buried
oblate spheroid with its long axis horizontal which is penetrated by a
borehole through its vertical axis of revolution, the electrode array strad-
dling the center of the mass. Clark 22 has published similar curves for a
conducting "spindlelike" ore body having the shape of a prolate spheroid,
both for the case where the long axis is vertical and for that where it dips
at 45°. Curves are presented for the case where the borehole makes con-
tact with the ore body at its end and also for that where the borehole
penetrates it between its center and its end.
Discussion. In applying techniques that involve the fitting of observa-
tional data points to theoretical curves, one should always realize that the
same data might equally well fit a number of such curves representing
widely different subsurface configurations. The ambiguity inherent in
all potential methods of prospecting is also met with in the electrical case,
except that unique solutions can be obtained for certain simple subsurface
configurations. Here, as before, it is necessary that there be independent
geologic controls to eliminate alternative assumptions which might also
be justified on the basis of the electrical data alone.
Examples of Resistivity Surveys. The simplest kind of resistivity
survey is the "horizontal" type, using a constant electrode spacing in
which subsurface features are recognized qualitatively from anomalies in
the apparent resistivities along a profile. The resistivity value is plotted
vs. distance along the profile at the position of the center of the electrode
spread. Hubbert 23 has reported on a survey of this type in Illinois to
test the value of resistivity methods for locating shallow oil structures,
mineralized faults, and gravel beds. Figure 17-13, from his paper,
illustrates the effect of faulting upon the apparent resistivity along a
profile run perpendicular to the fault planes.
Cook and Van Nostrand 20 have compared the "horizontal" resistivity
profilesover a shale sink in Cherokee County, Kans., with theoretical
curves for a sunken hemispherical boss with its plane boundary flush
360 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

>l
Longitudinal
-+-
traverse

to _ Transverse
"5
OkY traverse
1_

E \
a

<
b~

Distance along profile

500 1000 1500

i i i 1

Feet
(Horizontal scale)

Fig. 17-13. Resistivity profiles showing values with electrodes laid in lines extending both along and
across profile over faulted area in Illinois. (After Hubbert, Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs., 1 934.)

7
1 1 1
400
la) 100 200 feet id)

D.H. = drill hole

A 300
B

VzrA 1

C / \ ""
t
t '

"T
\
X
±
200 :>

Vert, scale =3 X horiz. scale -i

± V 100
1
w
1 1

^2 P C
-o
Surface E \ Surfcrce o J o 1 o i
:™2~ v

-20

-40 li!
O) |
1
----;
--;lf_<K= -^-"Alluvium
l^ ir^- =p^
M |
1

Limestone
I
£z=T.yZr.zi

1 PO- V^lf -J
1 1 1 1
^f
1
i ;
„<'

1 a
i
1

'='
50
i

-«n

Fig. 17-14.
1 1
I

W\ i

Mil*| |

Comparison of observed and theoretical horizontal

|
40- Vert, scale = horiz. scale

1 I I I I I

resistivity profiles
I

over
r
.
'-250-
1

filled sink for

Wenner configuration, (a) Observed field curve with geologic cross section, (b) Theoretical field
plot with assumed data points only at electrode positions. Assumed diameter of sink 3a/2. Assumed
p"/pi = \i>. [After Cook and Van Nostrand, Geophysics, 954.) 1
 1

ELECTRICAL PROSPECTING METHODS 361

with the free surface. Figure 17-14 illustrates the comparison for a
Wenner electrode configuration. It is seen that the resemblance between
theoreticaland observed curves is sufficiently close that the effective
diameter of the sink can be determined from the separation of cusps
A and B.
Swartz 24 used resistivity measurements to locate the depth of the
transition from fresh to salt water in the ground water of the Hawaiian
Islands. Figure 17-15 shows a set of apparent resistivity curves he
obtained on Maui compared with salinity-depth data taken at the same
location. He assumed here that the electrode spacing a is equivalent to
the maximum depth of current penetration, an empirical relation which
is in many cases a good approximation. Using the Lee partitioning

.-*

'J
r^' X^ v

/S— \
-
e zooo V *
'
-

g
E
/ y
1600
.

^ y/ /s
/
/
/ /
/ 1 600 1:

% 1200
/
r"\
-^^^
/"*- i
I200"|
*<n »*/
e 1
tic
V 800 -|
1 !

800 -{400 1
,
J i

40 80 120 160
Electrode spacing = depfh of penetraHon,fi
Z m
measured on two sides of
} Resistivity
spread center by Lee Partitioning Method
Salinity of ground water
Fig. 17-15. Comparison of resistivity curves and salinity curve in drill hole at Kahului Fair Grounds,
Maui, Hawaii. [After Swartz, Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, 1939.)

configuration of electrodes, he obtained two curves, one measuring the

potential to the right of the spread center, the other to the left. The
average of the two curves was expected to eliminate the effect of near-
surface irregularities.

17-5. Telluric Currents and Natural Alternating Magnetic Fields

In resistivity prospecting one measures the potential drop on the surface

caused by an externally applied current. The penetration obtained with
the method is approximately proportional to the separation of the
current electrodes. To obtain information to depths of thousands of
feet would require impractically large separations of the electrodes and
involve impractically long lines. In 1939 Schlumberger 25 reported some
resistivity measurements in France in which the current electrodes were
dispensed with entirely and natural earth currents were used instead.
362 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

These currents, often referred to as telluric currents, flow everywhere

along the surface of the earth in large sheets. Since the war, telluric-
current prospecting has become the principal electrical method to be
employed for oil exploration. Although experimental surveys have been
carried out in the United States (see Dahlberg 26 and Boissonnas and
27
Leonardon for examples) , the widest application of telluric current pros-
pecting has been in Europe and North Africa. The technique has not
been used commercially in the United States because the interest there is

Mid Time —*- Mid

night night
0300 0600 0900 Noon 1500 1800 2100 2400

90° 135° E 180° W 135° 90° 45° W E 45° 90°

Fig. 17-16. Earth-current system at 1800, G.C.T. [After Rooney, "Terrestrial Magnetism and Elec-
tricity," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1939.)

primarily in deep features of limited areal extent and these are not
suitable targets for telluric prospecting.
General Observations on Earth Currents. Information on natural
earth currents which was available up to about 1940 has been well sum-
marized by Chapman and Bartels 28 and by Rooney. 29 A large amount of
new information on this type of phenomenon was collected during the
International Geophysical Year and will become available as the results
are analyzed and published.
Although the mechanism by which the
currents are generated has not been precisely established, it is generally
believed that they are induced in the earth's surface by ionospheric cur-
rents which correlate with the diurnal changes in the earth's magnetic
ELECTRICAL PROSPECTING METHODS 363

field. The earth currents cannot of course be measured as such, but the
horizontal potential gradients they produce at the surface and in bore-
holes can be measured quite readily, and the current densities can be
deduced in areas where earth resistivi-
Local meorn ffme
ties are known. 24
Earth currents vary geographically,
diurnally, and seasonally. As with
magnetic diurnal variation, the pat-
tern of earth currents appears fixed
with respect to the sun, shifting along
the earth's surface as the earth rotates.
This pattern is shown in Fig. 17-16.
It consists of eight current whorls
rotating in alternating clockwise and
counterclockwise directions as one
moves along any parallel of latitude.
0.4
The whorls closest to the sun are
strongest in current intensity, those
on the dark side of the earth being -0.4
quite weak. The diurnal curve for
any location can be deduced from the
world chart; sample curves for four
stations at different latitudes are Huyancayo, Peru
•0.4 /ah 12.0°S
reproduced in Fig. 17-17.
Application to Prospecting. Al-
though the currents flow along the
earth's surface in large sheets which
Wafheroo, Aust. Ioi.J0.3°S "0.4
extend well into the earth's crust, the
distribution of current density within Grad'tents in mv./km.
Fig. 17-17. Diurnal variation in earth-current
the sheets will depend on the resis- potential gradients in north-south direction at
tivity of the formations carrying the four latitudes. (After Rooney, "Terrestrial

currents. Thus if a poorly conduct- Magnetism and Electricity," McGraw-Hill

Book Company, Inc., 1939.)
ing salt dome penetrates more highly
conducting formations, the lines of current flow will tend to by-pass the
salt and cause which
distortions in the potential gradients at the surface
are associated with the current. These distortions when properly inter-
preted should make it possible to locate the dome.
Several technical difficulties have had to be solved, however, before
this principle could be applied to prospecting. In the first place, it is
difficult to measure true earth potentials because of polarization effects at
the electrodes, which depend on the soil in which they are buried. In
general there is no way of separating the polarization caused by electro-
chemical action at the electrodes from the potential associated with earth
364 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

currents. Moreover, the rapid variations sometimes require special

measuring equipment and interpretation procedures.
Recent investigations with high-speed recorders show that earth-cur-
rent potentials are often oscillatory, with periods of a few seconds to a
few minutes. The oscillations are observed to be homogeneous in char-
acter (although not in amplitude or direction) over wide areas. Figure
17-18 shows a typical record of such oscillation as observed at points
several miles apart but recorded on the same tape. Since individual
oscillationscan be correlated in this way, it is possible to map variations
in earth current from place to place by comparing amplitudes of simul-
taneous oscillations at two locations. The amplitude of the oscillation
in the potential is measured rather than the absolute potential difference
thus any polarization effects at the electrodes do not influence the results.

* - fmin- •>

S+a.

^% V\
*">.
/\/
"
\

*
waM \0.fmv.

Fig. 17-18. Earth potential records made simultaneously at two stations 10 miles apart.

and Interpretation Procedure. Boissonas and Leonardon 27 have

Field
used this principle for mapping telluric effects over the Haynesville salt
dome in Texas. They maintained a base station in continual operation
while moving a second electrode setup to various observation points.
The variations in magnitude and direction between base and field station
were computed and used as the mapping parameter. Since the direction
of the earth currents is it was necessary to set up
constantly shifting,
two pairs each station, these being aligned in perpen-
of electrodes at
dicular directions. Readings from each pair gave the magnitude and
direction of the currents. Because of the rapid oscillations, the com-
ponent voltages could not be ascertained accurately from instantaneous
readings and had to be obtained from time averages of the deflections.
Each average was taken over a short time interval, the optimum duration
of which varied with the rate of change. The rotation of the initial
telluric field made it possible to allow for apparent resistivity in all

directionsand to average the effect at the observing point. Separations

of base and field stations ranged from 1 to 75 miles. The ratio of the
average potential gradient at the field station to that of the base was
ELECTRICAL PROSPECTING METHODS 365

plotted at each field location and the values for all the stations were
contoured.
In the survey around the Haynesville dome, the contours conformed
quite closely to the outlines of the salt dome, indicating that the telluric
currents tend to be deflected by the high-resistivity salt into the more
readily conducting formations, 1,200 ft thick, above the dome. It thus
appears that there was a higher current density above the dome than in
the surrounding area. Because the effective resistivity is greater across
bedding planes than along them, folded sediments, such as those in
anticlines, should also give observable telluric current anomalies.
Mainguy and Grepin 30 have described a number of telluric current
surveys which they carried out as part of a program to explore for oil in
southeastern France. Over the areas where these surveys were run, the
horizons of greatest interest consisted of formations with a high resistivity
such as dense limestone overlain by conducting strata. In most of these
areas, gravity surveys were also run. Since the density contrasts were
not as great as the resistivity contrasts, the telluric anomalies were
generally more definitive. In the Ales-Maruejols Basin, seismic surveys
gave a geologic picture quite different from that indicated by the telluric
currents. Subsequent drilling, which resulted in the discovery of oil,
supported the telluric picture.
The Magnetotelluric Method. In 1953, Cagniard 31 proposed an
entirely new application of telluric currents in which the magnetic fields
induced by the alternations in earth currents would be measured simul-
taneously with the voltage fluctuations between electrodes at the surface.
The ratio between the amplitudes of these alternating voltages and then
associated magnetic fields would be plotted as a function of frequency.
Cagniard's theory could be applied to this plot so that the resistivity
would be deduced as a function of depth. For the resistivities normally
associated with sedimentary rocks, oscillations having a period of 3 sec
should give information on the electrical properties of the section down to
about 20,000 ft. No other electrical method could give such penetration.
Cagniard's paper is entirely theoretical; it offers no experimental data.
The author suggests that the method might be most valuable for deter-
mining the depths of relatively unexplored sedimentary basins where this
information is not available from borings. Such an application would
require that all sedimentary formations have reasonably homogeneous
electrical properties and that there be a substantial contrast between the
resistivity of the sediments and that of the underlying basement.
Prospecting with Natural Alternating Magnetic Fields (AFMAG).
Closely related to the telluric and particularly to the magnetotelluric
methods is a technique based on the measurement of natural magnetic
fields at audio and subaudio frequencies. Known as " AFMAG" (for
366 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

audio-frequency magnetic fields), this technique was introduced early in

1958 by S. H. Ward.
In the subaudio and audio frequencies, magnetic fields appear as
rapidly occurring pulses of short duration. If there is no highly con-

ducting structure nearby, these fields will tend to be aligned in a hori-

zontal plane with a random azimuth of polarization. In the vicinity of a
good conductor, however, the plane of polarization becomes tilted out of
the horizontal and the azimuth of polarization becomes better defined.
The tilt will generally be less than 45°.
The basic principle of the method is to measure the tilt of the plane of
polarization of the audio-frequency fields. The azimuth is first deter-
mined to the nearest 10° or so with a detecting unit. The tilt is then
measured along with an accuracy of + 1 or 2°.
this azimuth, as a dip angle
The dip angles are plotted in profile form; anomalies on the profile can be
interpreted on the basis of experience gained over known conducting
bodies.
Frequencies of the magnetic fields thus analyzed are selected by tuning
and profiles are usually plotted for two frequencies over the same traverse.
Early surveys with the method have used frequencies in the neighborhood
of 150 and 500 cps.

17-6. Inductive Methods

A number of electrical techniques make use of the electromagnetic

waves generated at the surface by current alternations in loops on the
ground or, more recently, in aircraft. The electromagnetic waves will
have the same frequency as the alternating current at their origin, and
this may vary from a few cycles up to radio frequencies (thousands of
kilocycles).
A familiar application of such inductive techniques in the Second World
War was the locating of underground mines and bombs by " sappers"
which made use of search coils responding to the waves from high-
frequency currents induced in the buried metal. In prospecting, one of
two types of current source is applied: (1) horizontal or vertical circular
loops, or (2) long horizontal wires. The most usual frequencies are in the
neighborhood of 500 cps.
Principles. Electromagnetic waves attenuate in the earth at a rate
depending on the frequency and the electrical characteristics of the earth,
waves of higher frequency falling off in intensity more rapidly with depth.
When they pass through a conducting formation or ore body they induce
currents in the conductors, in accordance with the laws of electromagnetic
induction. These currents are the source of new waves which are
radiated from the conductors and can be detected by suitable instruments
ELECTRICAL PROSPECTING METHODS 367

on the surface. Any inhomogeneities in the electromagnetic field

observed on the surface would indicate variations in the conductivity
below and suggest the presence of anomalous masses in the subsurface.
Peters and Bardeen 32 have investigated theoretically the depth of
penetration of electromagnetic waves as a function of frequency. They
showed that for each depth and earth resistivity there is an optimum
frequency for greatest penetration, according to the formula

£- 10 (17-8)

where h is the depth of investigation in meters, / the optimum frequency,

and p the resistivity in ohm-centimeters. For a depth of 100 m and a
resistivity of 10 4 ohm-cm, the best frequency is 100 cps, while penetra-
tion to 300 m is best accomplished at 10 cps. If the resistivity is abnor-
mally high, say 10 6
ohm-cm, a conducting layer 1,000 m deep would
exhibit the greatest effect on a 100-cps signal, while a low-resistivity
layer would have its maximum effect at correspondingly shallower depths.
Presently available techniques of measuring electromagnetic waves at
very low frequencies are so ineffective and cumbersome that 1,500 ft
appears to be the limiting depth to which inductive methods can be used
in areas where the electrical properties of the earth are within the normal
range for sediments.
Inductive Surveys on the Ground. Zuschlag 33 has described the
operation of an inductive method developed by Sundberg. The current
flows through an insulated copper cable connected to a source of alter-
nating current and run along the surface in a rectangle 1 mile by 3^2 m ile
in dimensions. A series of transverse profiles are laid out perpendicular
to and crossing the cable, and the magnetic part of the electromagnetic
field is measured at discrete points along the profiles by special search

coils consisting of several hundred turns of wire. Figure 17-19 shows

how this method is used.
The magnitude and direction of the induced field observed by the coils
can be related to the inductive effect of the subsurface material directly
below. The theory has been worked out to the extent that depths of the
conducting material can be computed from the data if the number of
conducting layers is limited. Zuschlag shows the results of some sample
surveys run by the Sundberg method. One indicates the course of the
Bruner fault zone in Texas as a result of following a conducting marker
500 ft The zone of production, outlined subsequent to the survey,
deep.
was observed to be bounded by the fault. It appears that this method
can only be applied to study features at shallow depths.
A number of important lead-copper-zinc ore bodies were discovered in
368 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

the Bathurst area of northern New Brunswick as a result of surface elec-

tromagnetic surveys in 1952 and 1953. Two of these have reserves
estimated to exceed 30 million tons of ore. In evaluating the electro-
magnetic anomalies over this area, it was not possible to distinguish
between those caused by graphitic conductors and those from sulfide
bodies without auxiliary tests. The anomalous areas were therefore
explored by gravity, and geochemical methods were used to separate the
economic conducting zones from those having no commercial interest.
Airborne Electromagnetic Prospecting. Since the early 1950's an
increasing proportion of electromagnetic surveys has been carried out

a b c d e f a h

b' c'
x

d' e' Y'

x

g' h
4000 ft:

Loop of /nsu/afed
w/re

©-
Po wer source
Fig. 17-19. Detection of conducting ore body under shallow overburden by electromagnetic
induction. Current flows through ground loop, and search coils are moved along traverse lines such
as aa', bb', etc. Dotted lines show relative response of vertical search coil as function of position
along traverses.

with airborne instruments. This type of survey has been used most
widely in eastern Canada and in Sweden, the primary target in both
areas being sulfide ores. The advantage of airborne surveys in speed
and cost reduction is obvious but new technical problems, not encountered
in ground surveys, are introduced.
Two basic arrangements are used in airborne electromagnetic surveys.
Initially, a single airplane was used, with a transmitting antenna or
coil attached to the plane (in one system being stretched from wing to tail)
and the receiving antenna trailed in flight. A more recent procedure
(see Tornqvist 34 ) requires two planes flying 450 to 900 ft apart. Whether
one plane or two planes are used, the instrumentation is about the same.
A rotating magnetic field is generated by a transmitting unit comprising
ELECTRICAL PROSPECTING METHODS 369

an which supplies current to two identical coils at right angles

oscillator
to each other. These are so connected that the electromagnetic field
generated by the system will have equal strength in all directions per-
pendicular to the axis of rotation. This axis is so mounted that it points
toward the receiver. The receiving unit also consists of two coils, a
vertical and horizontal, with a common horizontal axis directed toward
the transmitter. A recorder responds to the difference between the
outputs of the respective receiving coils. In the absence of a secondary
field caused by induction in a conductor on or below the surface, this
difference will be close to zero. When such a field is picked up, however,
the unbalance is registered as a voltage on the meter. The ratio of this
voltage to the voltage picked up by the vertical coil alone will be constant
for a wide range of distances between transmitter and receiver. The

Amplitude

Phase Distance
Tronsm.-receiver = 575 it
Height of pione =250 ft
Speed of plane = 120 mph
0.5 km

•50
100 •Mineralized zones
H50
Depth, ft

Fig. 17-20. Record from two-plane airborne electromagnetic survey showing signals from buried ore
bodies having anomalously high conductivities. (After Tornqvist, Geophysical Prospecting, 1958.)

phase angle between the voltages from the respective coils is adjusted to
be zero when no induced field is picked up but an external field from a
conductor will result in a phase shift that will be registered by a special
recording pen. Thus a conducting ore body flown over in the course
of an airborne survey should show up both on the amplitude and phase
traces.
Using a single plane, it is generally necessary to tow the receiver
500 ft or so behind the aircraft. To keep the "bird" containing the
receiver from hitting the ground, the plane must fly at a height of at
least 400 ft. The two-plane arrangement makes it possible to trail the
bird by a much shorter cable, say 50 to 60 ft, so that a flying height of
300 ft is possible. At this height, with an 800-ft separation between
planes, conducting bodies as deep as 400 ft below the ground surface can
be detected on the signal traces. Figure 17-20 shows the signals observed
from the amplitude and phase recording pens as the plane crossed two
mineralized zones about 0.6 km apart.
370 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

17-7. Induced Polarization Methods

When an electric current passing into the earth through ground elec-
trodes is suddenly interrupted, a potential can be measured between
these or nearby electrodes for some time after the current stops. This
potential decays exponentially with time after the interruption. The
effectwas first observed by Schlumberger as early as 1912 and it was
ascribed by him to polarization of earth material by the current. Known
as induced polarization, this effect is associated with electrochemical
reactions in the earth. The nature of such polarization phenomena is
rather controversial and a number of theoretical and experimental
studies have been conducted with the object of explaining the field
observations. A
comprehensive study of the technique was made by
Bleil, 35 who was mainly
interested in applying it as a tool to prospect for
metallic minerals. Vacquier et al. 36 have been principally concerned with
ground-water exploration by this technique and they have carried out
numerous experiments on sand-clay mixtures saturated with different
electrolytes.
From and other experiments it appears that polarization effects
these
may from a number of sources within the earth. Where there are
arise
buried metallic conducting bodies, such as a clump of pyrrhotite, Bleil has
shown that the surfaces of the conductor opposite the two current elec-
trodes take on respective positive and negative polarities which are in
opposition to the polarities of the nearest electrodes. When the current is
interrupted, these surfaces act as elements of an electrolytic cell. This
cell will dissipate its charge by sending a current into the earth which
decays with time and which generates a potential measurable on the
surface. Vacquier has shown that this effect may be masked by the
polarization potentials from particles disseminated in wet soil. In sand
aquifers, there will generally be small amounts of clay distributed
throughout the sand. Ionic exchanges in the clay molecules cause the
clay-sand mixture to act as a distributed electronegative membrane.
According to Henkel and Van Nostrand, 37 the rate of decay is governed by
ionic diffusion.
Such
effects require the presence of water so that proper interpretation
of induced polarization data should make it possible to determine the
depth of the water table, an important economic problem in arid areas.
Formulas for this computation have been derived by Frische and von
Buttlar. 38
The procedure in the field, both in BleiFs and Vacquier's methods, is

to measure the ratio of the polarization potential immediately following

the opening of the main current switch to the potential across the same
electrodes when this current is flowing. To obtain the former potential,
ELECTRICAL PROSPECTING METHODS 371

thewaveform of the decaying voltage is recorded on an oscillograph.

In method the instantaneous value of the potential at the
Bleil's
moment of current interruption is obtained by backward extrapolation of
the observed waveform, as recording does not begin until a few milli-
seconds after the main current is switched off. In Vacquier's method,
the potential is determined by measuring the area under the decay curve.

17-8. Applicability of Electrical Methods

In general the electrical methods are all characterized by low pene-

tration and limited resolving power. Their success has been essen-
tially restricted to engineering surveys and to the location of shallow
mineral deposits which are not amenable to discovery by other geo-
physical methods. The effectiveness of all the methods is limited by
their undue response to near-surface anomalies as well as to effects
from noneconomic minerals.
In the search for petroleum, electrical methods over the years have met
with so little success that, except for telluric current prospecting, they are
seldom used at all. Rust 39 points out three reasons for the very limited
use of such methods in oil prospecting as compared with mineral explora-
tion. The first lies in the fact that the contrast of resistivities between
an ore body and the surrounding earth will ordinarily be very much
greater than the contrast between the resistivity of an oil sand and that of
the strata adjacent to it. Thus it is not generally possible to find the oil
sand itself in the same way that one locates minerals of economic interest,
i.e., by their own electrical properties. Secondly, most ore deposits are
located relatively near the surface, where electrical methods, with their
lower depth of penetration, are most effective; oil-bearing structures are
generally much deeper. Shallow variations will thus be likely to obscure
any effects from deeper sources. Finally, electrical methods will not
provide precise information on the depth and closure of an oil structure,
although they can often give information on the areal extent of an ore
deposit. It has proved much more fruitful for the petroleum industry
to apply electrical prospecting principles in boreholes rather than along
the surface.

REFERENCES

1. Kruger, F. C, and W. C. Lacy: Geological Explanation of Geophysical Anomalies

near Cerro de Pasco, Peru, Econ. Geol, Vol. 44, pp. 485-491, 1949.
2. Brant, A. A.: Some Limiting Factors and Problems of Mining Geophysics, Geo-
physics, Vol. 113, pp. 556-581, 1948.
3. Petrovski, A.: The Problem of a Hidden Polarized Sphere, Phil. Mag., Vol. 5,
pp. 334-353, 914-933, 1928.
4. Stern, Walter: Relation between Spontaneous Polarization Curves and Depth,
372 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
Size and Dip of Ore Bodies, "Geophysics, 1945," Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Met.
Engrs., Vol. 164, pp. 189-196, 1945.
5. De Witte, L.: A New Method of Interpretation of Self -potential Field Data,
Geophysics, Vol. 13, pp. 600-608, 1948.
6. Yiingiil, Sulhi: Interpretation of Spontaneous Polarization Anomalies Caused by
Spherical Ore Bodies, Geophysics, Vol. 15, pp. 237-246, 1950.
7. Jakosky, J. J., R. M. Dreyer, and C. H. Wilson: Geophysical Investigations in the
Tri-State Zinc and Lead Mining District, Bull. Univ. Kansas Eng. Exp. Sta., No.
24, 1942, 151 pp.
8. Yiingiil, Sulhi: Spontaneous Potential Survey of a Copper Deposit at Sariyer,
Turkey, Geophysics, Vol. 19, pp. 455-458, 1954.
9. Carpenter, E. W., and G. M. Habberjam: A Tri-potential Method of Resistivity
Prospecting, Geophysics, Vol. 21, pp. 455-469, 1956.
10. Gish, O. H., and W. J. Rooney: Measurement of Resistivity of Large Masses of
Undisturbed Earth, Terr. Mag. Atm. Elec, Vol. 30, pp. 161-188, 1925.
11. Hummel, J. N.: A Theoretical Study of Apparent Resistivity in Surface Potential
Methods, "Geophysical Prospecting, 1932," Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs.,
Vol. 97, pp. 392-422, 1932.
12. Tagg, G. F.: Interpretation of Resistivity Measurements, "Geophysical Prospect-
ing, 1934," Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs., Vol. 110, pp. 135-147, 1934.
13. Roman, Irwin: Some Interpretations of Earth-resistivity Data, "Geophysical
Prospecting, 1934," Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs., Vol. 110, pp. 183-200,
1934.
14. La Compagnie Generale de Geophysique: Abaques de sondage electrique, Geo-
physical Prospecting, Vol. 3, Supplement pp. 1-7 plus charts, 1955.
3,
15. Mooney, Harold M., and W. W. Wetzel: "The Potentials about a Point Electrode
and Apparent Resistivity Curves for a Two-, Three- and Four-Layer Earth,"
University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 146 pp., 243 loose sheets of reference
curves, 1956.
16. Unz, M.: Apparent Resistivity Curves for Dipping Beds, Geophysics, Vol. 18,
pp. 116-137, 1953.
17. Van Nostrand, Robert G., and K. L. Cook: Apparent Resistivity for Dipping
Beds —A Discussion, Geophysics, Vol. 20, pp. 140-144, 1955.
18. Logn, O.: Mapping Nearly Vertical Discontinuities by Earth Resistivities,
Geophysics, Vol. 19, pp. 739-760, 1954.
19. Van Nostrand, Robert G.: Limitations on Resistivity Methods as Inferred from
the Buried Sphere Problem, Geophysics, Vol. 18, pp. 423-433, 1953.
20. Cook, Kenneth L., and Robert G. Van Nostrand: Interpretation of Resistivity
Data over Filled Sinks, Geophysics, Vol. 19, pp. 761-790, 1954.
21. Seigel, H. O.: Ore Body Size Determination in Electrical Prospecting, Geophysics,
Vol. 17, pp. 907-914, 1952.
22. Clark, A. R. The Determination of the Long Dimension of Conducting Ore
:

Bodies, Geophysics, Vol. 21, pp. 470-478, 1956.

23. Hubbert, M. King: Results of Earth-resistivity Survey on Various Geologic
Structures in Illinois, "Geophysical Prospecting, 1934," Trans. Am. Inst. Mining
Met. Engrs., Vol. 110, pp. 9-39, 1934.
24. J. H.: Geophysical Investigations in the Hawaiian Islands, Trans. Am.
Swartz,
Geophys. Union, Vol. 20, pp. 292-298, 1939.
25. Schlumberger, Marcel: The Application of Telluric Currents, Trans. Am. Geophys.
Union, Vol. 20, p. 271, 1939.
ELECTRICAL PROSPECTING METHODS 373

26. Dahlberg, R. S., Jr.: An Investigation of Natural Earth Currents, Geophysics,

Vol. 10, pp. 494-506, 1945.
27. Boissonnas, Eric, and E. G. Leonardon: Geophysical Exploration by Telluric
Currents with Special Reference to a Survey of the Haynesville Salt Dome, Wood
County, Texas, Geophysics, Vol. 13, pp. 387-403, 1948.
28. Chapman, S., and J. Bartels: "Geomagnetism," pp. 417-448, Oxford University
Press, New York, 1940.
29. Rooney, W. J.: Earth Currents, in J. A. Fleming (ed.), "Terrestrial Magnetism
and Electricity," pp. 270-307, Physics of the Earth series 8, National Research
Council, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1939.
30. Mainguy, M., and A. Grepin: Some Practical Examples of Interpretation of
Methods in Languedoc (Southeastern France), Geophysical Prospecting,
Telluric
1, pp. 233-240, 1953.
Vol.
31. Cagniard, L.: Basic Theory of the Magneto-telluric Method of Geophysical
Prospecting, Geophysics, Vol. 18, pp. 605-635, 1953.
32. Peters, L. J., and John Bardeen: Some Aspects of Electrical Prospecting Applied
in Locating Oil Structures, Physics, Vol. 2, pp. 103-122, 1932; reprinted in "Early
Geophysical Papers," pp. 145-164, Society of Exploration Geophysicists, 1947.
33. Zuschlag, Theodor: Mapping Oil Structures by the Sundberg Method, "Geo-
physical Prospecting, 1932," Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs., Vol. 97, pp.
144-159, 1932.
34. Tornqvist, G.: Some Practical Results of Airborne Electromagnetic Prospecting
in Sweden, Geophysical Prospecting, Vol. 6, pp. 112-126, 1958.
35. Bleil, D. F.: Induced Polarization: A Method of Geophysical Prospecting, Geo-
physics, Vol. 18, pp. 636-661, 1953.
36. Vacquier, Victor, C. R. Holmes, P. R. Kintzinger, and M. Lavergne: Prospecting
for Ground Water by Induced
Electrical Polarization, Geophysics, Vol. 22, pp.
660-687, 1957.
37. Henkel, J. H., and R. G. Van Nostrand: Experiments in Induced Polarization,
Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs., Vol. 9, pp. 355-359, 1957.
38. Frische, R. H., and H. von Buttlar: A Theoretical Study of Induced Electrical
Polarization, Geophysics, Vol. 22, pp. 688-706, 1957.
39. Rust, W. M., Jr.: Typical Electrical Prospecting Methods, Geophysics, Vol. 5,

pp. 243-249, 1940.

 CHAPTER 18

PROSPECTING FOR RADIOACTIVE MINERALS

The presence of radioactive substances in rocks can be utilized in search-

ing for ore deposits and also in logging oil wells. Here we shall consider
methods of prospecting for ores of the radioactive elements uranium and
thorium and for commercially valuable minerals which might be detected
by their association with such elements.
The search for uranium itself has of course been the main object of
the great amount of effort put into radioactivity prospecting in the last
decade, since uranium is the principal "fuel" for atomic energy. Tho-
rium is a potential nuclear fuel but it is not presently in demand for this
purpose it has been used mainly as a refractory for many years, and the
;

supply of monazite available in the world today is quite adequate to meet

this demand. For this reason, there is no active exploration now going on
for thorium.
Among the substances which might be detected by their association
with uranium are the minerals of such elements as zirconium, yttrium,
beryllium, columbium (also called niobium), tantalum, and the "rare
earth" metals.* These minerals are mostly complex oxides containing
varying amounts of uranium and thorium and are widely disseminated
throughout granites, pegmatites, and contact metamorphic deposits,
as are uranium and thorium minerals. Like uranium, which until the
Second World War was valued primarily as the source for radium, these
metals have only recently assumed major importance. Columbium is
sought for its strength at the exceedingly high temperatures reached in
rocket and jet engines; zirconium, beryllium, and some of the rare earths
for their neutron-absorption qualities inatomic piles, etc. While zircon
and beryl have been found in sufficiently concentrated quantities that
their supply is not a problem at the present time, minerals of the other
elements are somewhat more elusive. However, columbium ore deposits
have been found in Ontario after radioactivity effects were noted from the
uranium with which the columbium was associated. Other deposits may
be found in the same way. Some of the rare earths, as well as several
* The naturally occurring rare earth elements are lanthanum, cerium, praeseo-

dymium, neodymium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium,

holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, and lutecium.
374
PROSPECTING FOR RADIOACTIVE MINERALS 375

other rare elements, are themselves radioactive; all are commonly found
in pegmatites, contact metamorphic rocks, etc., but their concentration
and amount of radiation are very small. Thus the contribution of their
activity is vastly overshadowed by that of the uranium, thorium, and

potassium found in similar rocks. It is therefore not likely that they will
ever be detected by virtue of their own radioactivity.
The uranium is reflected in the volume of literature
intense interest in
that has appeared on the subject since about 1950. For more complete
information on all the aspects of radioactivity prospecting, the reader is
referred to the volume by Nininger and the pamphlets on prospecting
1

published by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission and the U.S. Geologi-
2

cal Survey.
3
A more technical approach is taken by Rankama, 4 Faul, 5
and Birks. 6 Texts by Eve and Keys 7 and Jakosky 8 also contain good
discussions of the subject. Exhaustive mineralogical and petrological
information is available in a text by Heinrich. 9
Instrumental prospecting for uranium began around the early 1940's
when sufficiently sensitive field Geiger counters had been developed to
detect small amounts of gamma radiation. Before actual operational
procedures used in prospecting are described it is desirable to review the
fundamentals of radioactive disintegration.

18-1. Fundamental Principles of Radioactivity*

By radioactivity is meant the disintegration of an atomic nucleus by

emission of energy and particles of mass. This process takes place
spontaneously in some naturally occurring radioactive substances; three
—
types of radiation are observed alpha, beta, and gamma rays. Geo-
physical prospecting for radioactive minerals is based on physical detec-
tion of this radiation.
Atom, Nucleus, Isotopes. An atom of any element consists mostly of
space in which are distributed (1) a very small and extremely dense
nucleus whose mass accounts for most of the mass of the atom and (2)
" planetary" electrons. The nucleus carries one or more positive elec-
trical charges, their number determining the element. The electrons
circulate around the nucleus in discrete orbits. Each electron has a
single negative charge and an extremely small size and mass; the total
number of electrons equals the number of positive charges in the nucleus.
*For fuller information than can be given here, the reader is advised to consult
any good modern text on nuclear physics. The 1958 edition of the " Encyclopedia
Britannica" contains excellent discussions by leading authorities in the subject under
the headings Radioactivity, Radiations, Nuclear Instruments, Nucleus, Neutron, and
Atom. Rutherford, Chadwick, and Ellis's "Radiations from Radioactive Sub-
stances," (Macmillan, 1930) still remains a comprehensive and definitive work on
many aspects of the subject in spite of its age.
376 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

Though the precise structure of the nucleus itself is imperfectly under-

stood, it is known to be built up from two fundamental particles, protons

and neutrons, called the nucleons. A proton has a single elementary

positive electrical charge and an atomic mass of 1.007595 (physical
scale) ;* a hydrogen nucleus consists of a single proton. The number of
protons in a nucleus, called the atomic number, Z, determines the total
positive charge on the nucleus and hence the nature of the element and
its position in the periodic table. Thus the element with Z = 1 is hydro-

gen, that with Z = 2 is helium, and that with Z = 92 is uranium. A

neutron an electrically neutral particle with an atomic mass of 1.00893,
is

or slightly more than for a proton. The total number of neutrons and
protons which make up a nucleus is called the mass number, A this also ;

represents the actual atomic mass of the nucleus to the nearest whole
number. For example, hydrogen with one proton and no neutrons has
the mass number A = 1 and an atomic mass of 1.007595; for hydrogen
with one proton and one neutron, A = 2 (atomic mass 2.01412f); for
uranium with 92 protons and 143 neutrons, A = 235, uranium with 92
protons and 146 neutrons, A = 238. The different varieties of the same
element which have different mass numbers because of a variation in the
number of neutrons are called isotopes of that element. The essential
information about any isotope, namely the symbol of the element, its Z,
and its A, are written in abbreviated form as in the following examples:
xH 1 iH 2 92 U 235 92 U 23S
, , , .

Most found in nature are a mixture of isotopes; for

of the elements as
example, 99.98 per cent of natural hydrogen is iH 1 0.02 per cent is iH 2 ;

(deuterium) 99.76 per cent of oxygen in nature is 8 16 while 8 17 and 8 18

; ,

make up the rest.

Most naturally occurring isotopes are stable; a few are not and their
nuclei break up by radioactive disintegration, giving off alpha particles,
beta particles, and gamma rays.
Alpha An alpha particle is a helium nucleus its charge
(a) Particles. ;

Z is 2, its mass number A is 4, and its atomic mass is 4.003. Alpha rays
are emittedby radioactive nuclei of the heavier elements when two pro-
tons and two neutrons in the nucleus combine and break off. Thus the
parent nucleus's charge, Z, is reduced by 2 and its mass number, A, by 4;
it has become another and slightly lighter element. The emission
* Atomic masses based on the physical scale are the actual masses compared to a

standard value of exactly 16.000 assigned to the mass of the nucleus of the most
abundant oxygen isotope, 16
.

The discerning reader will notice that this figure for the atomic mass is not the
t
same as the sum of the masses given above for the free proton and neutron. This
discrepancy exists for all nuclei and is due to the transformation of some particle mass
into "binding energy" (in accordance with the Einstein equation, E = mc 2 ), when the
nucleons are bound together in a nucleus.
PROSPECTING FOR RADIOACTIVE MINERALS 377

velocity (about one-fifteenth to one-twentieth that of light) of nearly all

alpha particles from any particular alpha-active isotope is a constant
which is characteristic of that isotope. Because of their relatively large
charge and alpha particles readily strip electrons from atoms of the
size,

surrounding matter (i.e., are strongly ionizing) and soon come to a halt as
neutral helium atoms; they are thus able to penetrate only a few centi-
meters of air and are stopped by a sheet of paper. For this reason, it is
not practical to try to detect alpha radiation in prospecting.
Beta (0) Particles. A beta particle is an electron; its charge is — 1
and its mass 0.000548762, or 1/1836.12 of a proton. 10 Beta rays are
emitted by some nuclei of both the lighter and heavier radioactive ele-
ments when one of the neutrons in the nucleus breaks up into a proton,
which remains in the nucleus, and a beta particle, which leaves. Thus the
parent nucleus's charge Z is increased by 1, but its mass number A
remains the same; the daughter nucleus is another element with nearly
the same atomic mass as the parent. Unlike those of alpha particles,
emission velocities of beta particles for any particular radioactive isotope
are extremely variable,* ranging from relatively slow speeds up to speeds
approaching that of light. On
the average they are about ten times as
high as alpha velocities. Because of their high velocities, small size, and
charge, beta particles are much less likely than alphas to eject electrons
from atoms of surrounding matter, and in fact are only about a hundredth
as ionizing; correspondingly they are about 100 times as penetrating,
although all but the most energetic of them will be stopped by about 5 mm
of aluminum or a few millimeters of rock.
Gamma (7) Rays. Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation of the
same nature and velocity as light and X rays, but with much greater
energy and hence with higher frequencies. They are usually, but not
always, observed along with alpha and beta decay. Each gamma-active
isotope emits a characteristic spectrum consisting of one or more discrete
lines whose intensities and frequencies may differ widely. Gamma rays
have about one-hundredth the ionizing ability of beta rays; being
bundles of energy (quanta) rather than massive, charged particles of
comparatively slow speed, they are not so likely to collide with an elec-
tron and eject it from its atom. Correspondingly they are 10 to 100
times more penetrating than beta rays and may pass through several
centimeters of lead, up to 1 ft of rock, and several hundred feet of air. 3 6 11 - -

Because 7 rays are the most penetrating of the three types of radiation, it
* Very few beta particles are ever found to have the maximum energy expected of
them (i.e., the difference in bound-up energy between the parent and daughter
nucleus) this deficiency is thought to be made up by the neutrino, which is supposed
;

to accompany an unenergetic beta particle carrying the missing energy. Since the
neutrino has no charge and zero or almost zero mass, it is undetectable by direct
observation.
378 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

is chiefly their presence over an ore body which prospecting instruments

are designed to detect.
Electron Capture. This is a method of radioactive decay charac-
teristic of some isotopes. About 11 per cent of 19K 40 (potassium) nuclei,
for example, decay in this fashion. The nucleus captures one of the
K electrons from the innermost or "K" ring of orbital electrons, becoming
i8 A 40
(argon) and emitting gamma rays.
Rate of Radioactive Decay. Each radioactive isotope has a definite
rate of decay which is unaffected by any external chemical or physical
influence. Though the precise moment at which any one atom might
happen to disintegrate is entirely a matter of chance, it is found after
observation that, on the average, a definite and constant fraction X of the
total number of atoms, N, present of a given isotope will decay each
instant. That is, the ratio of the instantaneous rate of change to the

number present, which is

—^— , has the constant value X, or

In other words, at any moment, the rate of decay (dN/dt) of a radioactive

isotope is proportional to the number of its atoms present. X is the constant
of proportionality and has a characteristic value for each isotope. It
follows that the number of atoms of the active isotope still present after
a time t decreases in geometrical progression; i.e.,

where N is the number of atoms of the active isotope present after

an elapsed time t, and iV is the number originally present. Then
N/N = e~* and In N/N = -XL
Assuming that there were twice as many atoms of a given isotope
present initially as there are now, then N/N = }4, In Yz = -XT ^, 7

In 2 = \T^, and therefore T

H = In 2/X = 0.693/X. T H then, is the ,

time it has taken for half of the atoms to disintegrate; it is called the
half-life of the isotope. The half-life can be measured experimentally
and hence the rates of decay of radioactive isotopes are given in terms of
their half-lives. Half-lives range anywhere from the order of 10-7 sec
212
( 84 Po for example) to 10 9 years ( 92 U 238 ).
,

Disintegration
Series, Equilibrium. When a radioactive isotope
decays, the daughter isotope may itself be stable or unstable; if it is
unstable, it too will decay with its own characteristic radiation and
half-life.The process may continue through a whole series of such
transmutations from one element to another until a stable isotope is
PROSPECTING FOR RADIOACTIVE MINERALS 379
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 R R

PROSPECTING FOR RADIOACTIVE MINERALS 381

reached. Table 18-1 gives the abbreviated disintegration series for the
most common of the naturally occurring radioactive elements: potas-
sium, thorium, uranium, and actinium.
To illustrate the state of equilibrium in a disintegration series, suppose
that a quantity of radium (let us say, one gram-atomic weight, which
contains 6.02 X 10 23 atoms) were completely purified by chemical means.
The half-life of radium is so large (ca. 1,600 years) compared to that of its
daughter element radon (3.82 days) that, in a period of two months, only
about 7/100,000 of the radium will have changed to radon and one can
consider the radium's rate of decay as essentially constant during this
short a time. Of the first few new radon atoms formed by the radium
immediately after its purification, one-half will, of course, decay in 3.82
days, at an average rate of, let us say, one a day. Since, however, the
total number of radium atoms is so great that considerable numbers of
them decay each second, radon atoms will obviously accumulate rapidly —
at first, then more and more slowly —
for as their number increases,
so, proportionately, does their rate of decay. Ultimately the amount of
radon present and its corresponding decay rate will be such that a state of
equilibrium can be said to exist between the radium and radon, i.e.,
the number of atoms of the daughter isotope {radon) disintegrating per
second will essentially equal the number of atoms of the parent isotope
(radium) disintegrating per second. Then
^RnNRn = \RaNRa N n = 7
*Rn
N a

and thus the number of atoms, or proportion of thedaughter isotope in

equilibrium with a given number can be
of parent elements' atoms,
calculated. In the case of radium and radon, near-equilibrium is reached
in about two months. For purified uranium to reach equilibrium with
all the products in its series takes many hundreds of thousands of years; 8

the importance of this fact to prospecting work is discussed in Sec. 18-4.

18-2. Detection of Radiation

The three kinds of radiation we have considered are detected by the

effects produced when they collide with atoms. Of the many types
of instruments designed for this purpose, the Geiger-Mtiller counter
and the scintillation counter are most suitable for prospecting work and
are the only ones that will be discussed here.
The Geiger-Muller Counter. This instrument depends for its opera-
tion on the ability of particles and quanta of radiation to ionize atoms
with which they collide. It usually consists of a thin-walled glass or
aluminum tube enclosing a cylindrical metal cathode and a center wire
(the anode) which runs along the axis of the tube (Fig. 18-1). The
382 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

tube also contains an inert gas like argon, mixed with perhaps 1 part
in 10 of a "quenching agent," such as ethyl alcohol; gas pressure in
the tube is low, perhaps Ho atm. The cathode is given a negative
charge just short of that needed to discharge the tube; this is usually
around 1,000 volts. When an atom is ionized by collision with an
entering ray, the high voltage rapidly accelerates the positive ion toward
the cathode and the ejected electron toward the anode. Their high

Fig. 18-1. Some glass-walled Geiger tubes, The metal tubes are cathodes, and the center filaments
are anodes. (Herback and Rademan, Inc.)

energy enables them to ionize atoms with which they collide along the
way, and these ions are in turn accelerated, ionizing other atoms, etc.
The avalanche of ions collects almost instantaneously at the electrodes
as a single discharge pulse* which, suitably amplified, operates a recording

* Because of the production of secondary electrons at the cathode by the avalanche

of positive ions and their consequent acceleration toward the anode, the instrument
is likely to produce a continuous series of discharges. A polyatomic gas, such as
ethyl alcohol, found to be an effective "quenching agent," is therefore included in the
lube to suppress emission of the secondary electrons.
PROSPECTING FOR RADIOACTIVE MINERALS 383

circuit. In this way each ionizing ray triggers a discharge which may
flash a light orproduce an audible click and can then be counted by an
observer. These readings are usually quoted in counts per minute.
Some Geiger counters, called ratemeters, use a meter on which deflection
of the needle indicates average intensity of radiation; readings of these
meters are in milliroentgens (mR) per hour.
Counters may be designed for sensitivity to a, /?, or 7 rays. Glass-
tube counters for use in the field detect mainly 7 rays and high-energy
(" hard ") betas, which can penetrate the glass. Some, made of aluminum
or with an aluminum "window" in a glass tube, also allow medium-
energy betas to enter, a and "soft" rays are stopped by the tube
wall. No attempt is made to detect them, since they are largely absorbed
before they even reach the counter.
The much more penetrating y rays, however, are very weakly ionizing,
and therefore the 7-ray detecting efficiency of a Geiger counter is very
low (about 1 per cent; i.e., only about one in every 100 y rays passing
through the tube ionizes an atom and produces a discharge 7,8 ).
Scintillation Counters. Operation of these instruments is based on the
fact that a flash of visible light produced when a ray collides with
is

the atoms of some substances, "phosphors" because of this prop-

called
erty. The flash occurs when the excited electrons, which have received
some or all of an impinging ray's energy as it "collides" with their
atoms, lose their excitation energy and fall back into a "ground" state.
As they fall from one discrete energy level to a lower one they emit
electromagnetic radiation which, for the phosphors, is in the frequency
range of visible and ultraviolet light. In the early laboratory instru-
ments the scintillations produced when an a ray struck a zinc sulfide
crystal were counted by an observer looking through a microscope.
Scintillation counters could not be used as field 7-ray detectors, however,
until after the Second World War, when suitable 7-sensitive phosphors
(such as a thallium-activated sodium iodide crystal*) were found and a
sensitive electronic counting device (the photomultiplier tube) was devel-
oped. Figure 18-2 illustrates the operation of such a counter schemati-
cally. The incident ray produces scintillations in the phosphor by the
mechanism outlined above. Some of these light photons (quanta) in
turn collide with atoms of the cathode in the photomultiplier tube and
eject photoelectrons. These are accelerated by the potential between
the cathode and the first electrode (or dynode) of the tube. There each
electron ejects further electrons, which are accelerated toward the second
dynode, there ejecting further electrons, etc. In this way the stream of
* Inclusion of
molecules of an "activator" in the crystal lattice produces additional
which the electrons may enter during excitation and fall into
electronic energy levels
when returning to a ground state.
384 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

electrons originating from a single incident ray may be multiplied 10 6 to

10 9 timesand when the avalanche arrives at the collector plate, it pro-
duces an output pulse which is connected to a recording circuit and meter
6
similar to that in a Geiger counter.
Unlike Geiger counters, however, 7-ray scintillation counters have a
very high 7-ray detection efficiency, generally as much as 50 per cent 3
and even approaching 100 per cent for some 7-ray frequencies. 5,8,12

Phosphor Photons

Rn

Z
Rn > Electron

B 1 Collector

Fig. 18-2. Schematic diagram of photomultiplier scintillation counter. [After Birks, in D. W. Fry (ed.),
"Scintillation Counters" McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1953.]

For this reason scintillation counters have largely replaced Geiger coun-
ters in exploration work requiring high sensitivity, such as airborne
prospecting.

18-3. Common Minerals of Radioactive Elements

The most important minerals of thorium, uranium, and potassium,

together with their most important deposits and modes of occurrence,
are shown in Table 18-2. It will be noted from the table that uranium
is associated principally with (1) pegmatites and metamorphic rocks
mineralized by various types of intrusives as in the shield areas of the
world, (2) alluvial sedimentary rocks, such as sandstones and placer
conglomerates, and (3) organic deposits of the phosphorite, asphaltite
lignite, and bituminous shale types. Excellent detailed description of
PROSPECTING FOR RADIOACTIVE MINERALS 385

the various minerals and ore deposits will be found in Nininger and
1

9
Heinrich.

18-4. Prospecting Techniques; Use and Limitations of Counters

Portable field Geiger and scintillation counters are illustrated in Figs.

18-3 and 18-4. Each is about the size of a shoe box. Geiger counters

Fig. 18-3. Portable Geiger counter. Case at right contains tube. [Herback and Rademan, /nc.)

are equipped with either earphones and a blinking light or a meter.

Scintillation counters, because of their high counting rate, use meters
exclusively. 1 Counters come in all price ranges; Geiger counters cost
as little as $30; scintillation counters range from $300 to $1,000 or more.
Geiger counters are quite satisfactory for general reconnaissance work,
but the more sensitive scintillation counter is used for radiometric sur-
veying and, when adapted to the rigors of flight, for airborne work.
Geiger counters require readings a minute or more in length for accuracy
but the sensitivity of scintillation counters allows the readings to be as
short as a few seconds.
386 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
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PROSPECTING FOR RADIOACTIVE MINERALS 387

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PROSPECTING FOR RADIOACTIVE MINERALS 389

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390 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

Since a little radioactivity is always present (due to cosmic radiation

and traces of radioactive isotopes in most materials, such as the rocks
under foot) counters will always show a more or less continuous "back-
ground count." Its amount, of course, will vary with the counter model,
with the elevation above the ground (cosmic radiation is more intense at
high elevations), and with the nature of the underlying rock. For
example, rocks with high potassium content such as granite raise the
background level considerably. Background must therefore be deter-
mined for every area and subtracted from the total count before an inter-
pretation of the counting rate can be made over a prospect.
Field Procedure. If, as the prospector slowly traverses the area
during general reconnaissance; the counter records a rate several times

Fig. 18-4. A portable scintillation counter. [Halross Instruments Corp., Ltd.)

greater than background, a radioactive deposit may be indicated. He

must remember, however, that the counting rate will vary considerably
even within the same area, depending on the soil cover, the topography, or
proximity to a large mass of rock with high over-all activity, such as a
granite cliff. An outcropping pegmatite dike with high potassium feld-
spar content might give the same count as a uranium deposit less than a
foot below the ground. Experience has shown that about 1 ft of rock or
perhaps 2 ft of overburden 2, 3 n -
is enough to absorb most y rays.
If, in spite of these pitfalls, the prospector feels justified in taking a
closer look, he may take outcrop readings and samples for field and labo-
ratory assay at regular intervals of perhaps 5 ft (Fig. 18-5). Also, he
may make a radiometric ("grid") survey, pacing the area in a grid pat-
tern and stopping to take longer readings at the corners of the grid
PROSPECTING FOR RADIOACTIVE MINERALS 391

squares, which might be laid out 10, 20, or even 50 or more feet apart
depending on the circumstances. The results may then be plotted and
contoured on a map.
Field counters may also be used for mapping underground in mines.
Use of Counters in Evaluating Ore Deposits. Samples of the poten-
tial ore deposit must be assayed to ascertain their worth (the lower limit

of Colorado Plateau ore, for example, is 0.1 per cent U 3 8 ). Only a 1

chemical analysis can give the uranium or thorium content of an ore

sample precisely, but if there is reason to expect the ore deposit to be in
equilibrium (see Sec. 18-1), and if it does not contain substantial quanti-
ties of thorium or potassium, then a rough field assay can sometimes be

mm
">V. .
*^J;.; .''':....
JH9HHHMI
'*'". ' * * f
-
"it: <
^H^HB\ -
....

mKmfnbr

383 * •""'^Kw . wbsk

'^^M

: ^
:
'

'
m
:

i i *& mj nt * %
• •%?

"'''V"" " '-- * v^ :?i

j v* V-^l
Fig. 18-5. Prospector taking outcrop reading with field Geiger counter. (U.S. Geological Survey.)

made with the counter. The count given by a standard sample whose
concentration of U 3 8 is known is compared to that given by the sample in
question, and the approximate concentration of U 3 8 can then be cal-
culated by simple proportion.
If the deposit contains significant amounts of thorium or large amounts
of potassium, the count will be increased.
out of equilib- If the sample is

rium, i.e., some of the members of the uranium series have been wholly or
partially removed so that they are not present in their equilibrium propor-
tions, then the count will be less. In either case, the proportion of ura-
nium present cannot be estimated by this means. Ancient uranium ore
deposits which have not been disturbed in the last several hundred
thousand years can be considered to be in equilibrium, but recent second-
ary deposits or recently leached, fractured, or otherwise disturbed old
392 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

deposits will not have had time to reach equilibrium after having lost
some by solution or escape of radon gas.
of their radioactive constituents
Since, however, chemical analyses are tedious and expensive, ingenious
methods have been devised to make quite accurate assays using counters
in the laboratory. This can be done even when the samples supplied
contain considerable thorium or when they are not in equilibrium. Two
counters are used simultaneously: one a /?-ray Geiger counter which is

above a tray containing the crushed sample and the other a 7-ray Geiger
or scintillation counter which is below the tray. The proportion of beta
to gamma rays, which has a certain known value for the uranium series,
can thereby be determined and a correction made for either excess tho-
rium or for lack of equilibrium of the uranium series in the absence of
excess thorium or potassium. 13 The total corrected count is then com-
pared to that of a standard, chemically analyzed sample and the uranium
content of the unknown is computed, again by direct proportion. Radio-
metric assays made by this means are, for favorable conditions of
sampling, accurate to within 2 to 3 per cent of the chemical analysis on
samples containing down to 0.002 per cent U 3 8 .

Airborne Exploration. Scintillation counters, with their high 7-ray

detection efficiency, are used almost exclusively for airborne work, but
even with these it is not possible to detect any but the largest natural
sources of radioactivity from altitudes greater than 1,000 ft. This limit
is set by 7-ray absorption in the air. For large-scale grid surveying,
DC-3 planes equipped with appropriately adapted scintillation counters
of the highest sensitivity fly at levels of about 600 ft above the ground
with cruising speeds of 140 to 145 mph. 5 For more detailed work or
1 -

for simple reconnaissance, a small plane flying at about 60 to 90 mph and

as close to the ground as possible (often 50 to 150 ft) is frequently used.
In "rim flying," a reconnaissance method commonly used in the Colorado
Plateau area, the plane follows an outcrop along steep canyon walls,
keeping where possible within 50 ft of the cliff face. This type of
prospecting has been successful in discovering new deposits in the Colo-
rado Plateau region. 3
Aerial radiometric surveying is now often combined with other air-
borne exploration methods, such as aeromagnetic and electromagnetic
surveying. An example of such a combination survey will be considered
later.
Drill-hole Counting. When results of a survey indicate a possible ore
deposit, test holes may be drilled and a special adaptation of a scintillation
counter, called the drill-hole counter, may be lowered in the hole in an
attempt to locate, outline, and assay the ore body. Like its counter-
part in 7-ray logging of oil wells, the drill-hole counter can distinguish
between formations by their radiation intensity. It may be used in
PROSPECTING FOR RADIOACTIVE MINERALS 393

combination with resistance logs, which give a better indication of actual

lithology. Broding and Rummerfleld 14 used this arrangement in the
Colorado Plateau to illustrate its utility; structure contours and isorad
maps based on correlation of logs from several holes accurately outlined
a previously known carnotite ore body along a canyon wall. They also
showed that if a deposit is in equilibrium the 7-ray drill-hole counter can
yield an approximate radiometric assay (15 to 20 per cent accuracy) in the
borehole.

18-5. Examples of Radioactivity Surveys

Survey at Great Bear Lake. One of the first radioactivity surveys in

which field Geiger counters were used was made by Ridland 15 over the

,Gamma- ray
F\ counfs/mfn.

— O verburc/en
I

Fig. 18-6. Profile of gamma-ray intensities recorded over No. 2 and No. 3 pitchblende zones and
overburden areas at La Bine Point. The pitchblende is in shear zones. (After Ridland, Trans. Am.
Inst. Mining Met. Engrs., 1945.)

pitchblende-bearing veins at Great Bear Lake, in 1939. With an early

adaptation of the Geiger counter for field use, Ridland made traverses
with stations at intervals of 50 to 150 ft and averaged the results of
ten to twelve 1-min counts to obtain the figure for the radioactivity at
each station. The resulting profile over No. 2 and No. 3 zones at LaBine
Point, Northwest Territories, reproduced in Fig. 18-6.
is

Nicholson Mine. Some of the first surveys with a field scintillation

counter were made by Brownell 12 in Saskatchewan. The mine claims
on which the Nicholson Mine is located are on Lake Athabaska. A grid
survey was made over these claims, observations being taken at 100-ft
intervals except where strong activity demanded more detailed surveying.
Counts up to 50,000 per minute were observed over the pitchblende-
bearing Nicholson Mine vein, and several new radioactive zones near this
vein were found. An intense zone of activity on an adjacent claim was
stripped and a new vein of pitchblende discovered under 6 ft of over-
394 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

burden. The sandy soil was found to be highly radioactive as a result of

migration of radon-gas emanation from the pitchblende. The area in
which the new vein was discovered had been previously gone over with a
Geiger counter and results had been negative. A map showing isorads,"
"

constructed from the scintillation-counter data taken over the Nicholson

Mine area, is reproduced in Fig. 18-7 along with a cross section of one of
the closed radioactivity highs. The variation above background imme-
diately over the vein is very large compared with that which would
have been observed by a field Geiger counter.

To .4 miltirontgene per hour

1(50,000 per minute)

Hi ai i'
,vey M. C.

.04miltirontgent per hr,

(5,000 count* per min.)

PETER M.C. 300

I 440 1

Variation of intensity (above normal)

across pitchblende vein.

Fig. 18-7. Isorads (lines of equal radioactivity) over Ivey and Peter Claims, Nicholson Mines, Ltd.,

Goldfields, Saskatchewan. (G. M. Browne//. Reproduced by permission of Economic Geology.)

Nisto Mines. In the area of the Nisto Mines, Black Lake, Saskatche-
wan, a grid survey using the portable scintillation counter on lines 50 ft
apart, with readings at 25-ft intervals, resulted in a map giving good
agreement with the geology of the area. This map is shown in Fig. 18-8.
Three systems of narrow veins, all associated with a major fault, were
brought out by the isorad map. One of these systems is parallel to the
foliation of the rock, the second makes an angle of about 20° with the
first, and the third set occupies tensional cross fractures. This is an
excellent illustration of how radioactive surveying can be used in geologic
mapping of ore bodies as well as in discovering uranium-thorium deposits
or potassium-rich pegmatites.
PROSPECTING FOR RADIOACTIVE MINERALS 395

North Bay, Ontario, Columbium Ore Deposits. 16 The discovery in

1952 of these, the first large pyrochlore deposits in North America, was
made by virtue of the association of uranium with columbium in the
mineral. The detection of radioactivity was followed by drilling in
outcrops on islands in Lake Nipissing. Since then substantial tonnages
an average grade of 0.8 per cent Cb 2 5 and 0.05 per cent
of material with
U 3 8 have been removed. The pyrochlore is found in steeply dipping
gneiss with some crystalline limestone where intruding pegmatite and
lamprophyre dikes cut the rock.

GAMMA RAY INTENSITIES

Unit of measurement
5XIO~ 4 millirontgens per hour.

Fig. 18-8. Isoradsover portion of property of Nisto Mines, Ltd., Black Lake, Saskatchewan. (G. M.
Browne//. Reproduced by permission of Economic Geology.)

Oka Area, Two Mountains County, Quebec. The survey over these
columbium ore deposits is an excellent example of the use and potenti-
alities of airborne radioactivity prospecting and combination with
its

other airborne methods (Fig. 18-9). This survey used a scintillation

counter and magnetometer and was flown just after the original discovery
of the ore in 1954. The plane flew at a level of 400 ft above ground;
flight lines were 1,000 ft apart. The strong radioactivity anomaly
and intense magnetic high made it possible to outline the ore bodies and
to determine their lateral extent. The close correspondence of the two
types of anomaly is due to the association of magnetite and columbium-
uranium minerals, such as perovskite, pyrochlore, and betafite, in a pre-
396 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

Fig. 18-9. Results of simultaneous airborne magnetometer and scintillation surveys over columbium ore
deposits in Oka area, Quebec. Sharp black contour lines represent isorads, shaded portions show
areas of high magnetic intensity. {Hunting Airborne Geophysics, Ltd.)
PROSPECTING FOR RADIOACTIVE MINERALS 397

Cambrian complex of gabbro, gneiss, and marble metasomatized by

intrusions of alkalic, silica-poor rocks. By 1957 over 100,000 tons of
columbium ore had been developed in this area. 9

REFERENCES

1. Nininger, R. D.: "Minerals for Atomic Energy," 2d ed., 1). Van No-strand Com-
pany, Inc., Princeton, N.J., 1956.
2. "Prospecting for Uranium," U.S. Atomic Energy Commission and U.S. Geological
Survey, 1949, 1951, 1956.
3. Wright, R. J.: "Prospecting with a Counter," U.S. Atomic Energy Commission,
1954.
4. Rankama, K.: "Isotope Geology," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New
York, 1953.
5. Faul, H. (ed.): "Nuclear Geology," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1954.
6. Birks, J. S.: "Scintillation Counters," in Electronics and Waves Series, McGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1953.
7. Eve, A. S., and D. A. Keys: "Applied Geophysics in the Search for Minerals,"
4th ed., Cambridge University Press, London, 1954.
8. Faul, H.: Radioactivity Methods, in J. J. Jakosky (ed.), "Exploration Geo-
physics," 2d ed., pp. 987-1015, Trija Publishing Company, Los Angeles, 1950.
9. Heinrich, E. William: "Mineralogy and Geology of Radioactive Raw Materials,"
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1958.
10. Strominger, D., J. M. Hollander, and G. T. Seaborg: Table of Isotopes, Rev. Mod.
Phys., Vol. 30, pp. 585-904, 1958.
11. Russell, William L., and S. A. Scherbatskoy The Use of Sensitive Gamma Ray
:

Detectors in Prospecting, Econ. GeoL, Vol. 46, pp. 427-446, 1951.

12. Brownell, G. M.: Radiation Surveys with a Scintillation Counter, Econ. GeoL,
Vol. 45, pp. 167-174, 1950.
13. Eichholz, G. G., J. W. Hilborn, and C. McMahon: The Determination of Uranium
and Thorium in Ores, Can. J. Phys., Vol. 31, pp. 613-628, 1953.
14. Broding, R. A., and B. F. Rummerfield: Simultaneous Gamma Ray and Resist-
ance Logging as Applied to Uranium Exploration, Geophysics, Vol. 20, pp. 841-859,
1955.
15. Ridland, G. C: Use of the Geiger-Muller Counter in Search for Pitchblende-
bearing Veins at Great Bear Lake, Canada, "Geophysics, 1945," Trans. Am. Inst.
Mining Met. Engrs., Vol. 164, pp. 117-124, 1945.
16. Gill, J. E., and O. E. Owens: Columbium-Uranium Deposits at North Bay,
Ontario, Can. Mining Met. Bull, Vol. 50, pp. 458-464, 1957.
 CHAPTER 19

INTEGRATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

AS ILLUSTRATED BY CASE HISTORIES

In exploring for oil and minerals, a combination of geophysical methods

is be more effective and more economical than any single method

likely to
used alone. In petroleum prospecting, relatively inexpensive recon-
naissance techniques such as gravity or magnetics may pinpoint restricted
areas for reflection surveys, which are much more costly. In geophysical
exploration for minerals, it is often profitable to employ a number of
geophysical methods so as to take advantage of the widest possible
range of physical properties possessed by the different constituents of
concealed ore bodies.
In this chapter we shall consider some actual examples of exploration
surveys, both for petroleum and minerals, in which a combination of
several geophysical tools has yielded useful and, in most cases, profitable
geological information. In recent years, the geophysical literature has
offered manysuch examples in the form of case histories. In these,
the geophysical results are presented as maps or cross sections which
can be compared with the geological picture as subsequently determined
by drilling or by mining operations. The Society of Exploration Geo-
physicists has published two volumes of such case histories, one in 1949
and one in 1956. The first contains histories relating only to oil explora-
tion while the second has in addition a few mining case histories along
with several which are concerned with "new uses" for geophysics such
as archaeological and engineering studies. Permission has been obtained
to condense in this chapter a number of the case histories from the SEG
volumes, but the reader is referred to the original books for a more
complete selection.

19-1. Significance of Case Histories

Published case histories almost always report instances where geo-

physical surveys have been successful. After studying them one might
easily be misled into thinking that discoveries can be regularly expected
398
INTEGRATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS 399

in geophysical exploration. Unfortunately, this is far from the case.

A geophysical party may work time for years without uncovering a
full

prospect on which a discovery is made. Negative geophysical results,

however, can also be useful. They may eliminate unfavorable areas from
further consideration and thus save the cost of additional geophysical
work or drilling.* Expensive leases might be abandoned and the rental
money applied to the exploration of more prospective areas.
From case histories, the geologist is able to observe which types of
geophysical measurement are most likely to detect various geologic
features of economic importance. A deep-seated salt dome, for example,
can be expected to give only a weak gravity anomaly, but structures
associated with the dome in overlying formations are frequently detect-
able by the reflection seismograph. A magnetic survey will not be
useful in petroleum exploration unless the oil trap is associated with a
basement uplift or a serpentine intrusion. The best methods for geo-
physical exploration depend on the type of geology and the manner in
which the material sought, whether oil or ore, is associated with the
geology. It is difficult to plan a survey intelligently unless prior infor-
mation is available on the geology of the area. In many cases, the geo-
physical survey itself is designed only to give geologic information which
can guide further exploration. One of the examples to follow shows how
gold was located from gravity and magnetic surveys; neither of these
could detect the gold itself, but a combination of them did reveal the
geologic conditions most favorable for the economic occurrence of this
metal.

19-2. Case Histories of Petroleum Surveys

Of our four case histories of petroleum exploration, the first three,

taken from the SEG's first volume, relate to the geophysical discovery
of oil fields associated with salt domes. These were chosen because of
the variety of geophysical methods that were employed. In the fourth
history, an unusual one, the oil field was originally outlined by magnetic
work, its indications being checked only by a gravity survey before the
discovery well was drilled.
The Lovell Lake Oil Field, Jefferson County, Tex. 1 Geologic Setting.
The Lovell Lake Field is near the Gulf of Mexico shore line, approximately
equidistant from Beaumont and Port Arthur, being about 15 miles from

* As Levorsen has pointed out, this is not always an unmixed blessing. Although
geophysical surveys may rule out the likelihood of structural oil traps they cannot in
themselves condemn the same area for possible stratigraphic oil pools. Yet a feature-
less geophysical map could well guarantee that no borehole will be drilled that might
test stratigraphic prospects.
400 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

each. It is near the southeastern corner of Texas. Although no salt

has been reached by any of the borings in this area, the existence of a
gravity minimum there indicates that the structure is associated with a

deep-seated salt dome. The field is separated into two disconnected

lobes by a normal fault having a throw of 700 ft. There is a closure of
200 ft on the downthrown side of the fault and one of 100 ft on the
upthrown side.
Geophysical History. Geophysical exploration of various kinds was car-
ried on for 9 years over the field before the presence of oil was established.

WILDCAT WELLS LOVELL LAKE FIELD

- BEFORE 1930 JEFFERSON CO TEXAS
»AFTER 1930 TORSION BALANCE
• OiSCOVERY WELL
—APPROXIMATE UVlTS SURVEY 1929
OF PRODUCTION

CONTOUR INT * 5MG

SCALE
O' 3000' 6000' 900d

Fig. 19-1. Lovell Lake Field. Torsion-balance gradients and gravity contours based on gradient
arrows. Dashed line shows limits of present production. [After Wendler, reproduced from "Geo-
physical Case Histories," Vol. 1, by permission of the Society of Exploration Geophysicists, 1948.)

1. The close proximity of historic Spindletop Field, only 3 miles away,

led to the drilling of eight dry holes before the first geophysical investi-
gation, a torsion-balance survey, was carried out over the area in 1929.
This revealed a gravity minimum of about a milligal, as shown in Fig.
19-1.
2. A refraction fan-shooting survey, laid out as shown in Fig. 19-2 and
sponsored by Humble Oil Co., covered the area during the same year.
There were no time leads. The lack of such leads over the area of the
torsion-balance anomaly indicated that any salt dome present would have
to be very deep.
3. In 1933, the first reflection survey was made of the area. The map
which resulted is shown in Fig. 19-3. Both dip and correlation methods
INTEGRATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS 401

^XXXA H
/ /

\^Ka fe^^
M\/ /
(u
fX'/X
/
/
"""""""""-"--^
^*^\^ \M> KXA
/ /lovell lake FIELO
/ / JEFFERSON TEXAS CO.

V SEISMIC REFRACTION
^^ SURVEY
SCALE
1929
flj
q 6000 12000'

APPROXIMATE LIMITS OF PRODUCTION

Fig. 19-2. Refraction fans for 1929 fan-shooting survey at Lovell Lake. No time leads were detected.
(After Wendler, reproduced from "Geophysical Case Histories," Vol. 1, by permission of the Society of
Exploration Geophysicists, 1 948.)

\
LOVELL LAKE FIELD
JEFFERSON CO.TEX.
SEISMIC REFLECTION
SURVEY 1933
CONTOUR INT. = 100 FT
SCALE
3000* 6000* 900

• •DISCOVERY WELL
APPROXIMATE LIMITS OF
PRODUCTION

Fig. 19-3. Depth contours from first reflection survey at Lovell Lake Field in 1933. Contour lines were
based mainly on seismic dip data. (After Wendler, reproduced from "Geophysical Case Histories,"
Vol. 1 , by permission of the Society of Exploration Geophysicists, 948.) 1
402 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

were used to construct the contours, which indicate a closed structure

containing a graben. The assumption of a graben was based more on
drilling information than on the seismic data.
4. Another and more detailed reflection survey was carried on in 1935.

Two interpretations were made, one based on dips and correlation, the
other on correlation alone. At the time, the interpretation based on
correlation alone, which showed no faulting, was favored over the other,

LOVELL LAKE FIELD

JEFFERSON CO. TEXAS
GRAVITY METER
SURVEY 1936
SCALE
Cf 3000' 6000' 9006

0» GRAVITY METER INST. LOCATIONS CONTOUR. INT • 05 MG

APPROXIMATE LIMITS OF PRO0UCTION

Fig. 19-4. Gravity contours over Lovell Lake Field based on 1936 survey. Note approximate coinci-
dence of gravity minimum and producing area. [After Wendler, reproduced from "Geophysical Case
Histories," Vol. 1, by permission of the Society of Exploration Geophysicists, 1948.)

which put a fault across the center of the area. The less-favored inter-
pretation, however, was afterward found to be more correct when drill-
ing had delineated the actual structure.
5. A gravimeter survey in 1936 indicated a minimum of about a

milligal displaced about a mile from the earlier torsion-balance mini-

mum. Figure 19-4 illustrates this.
6. While this geophysical work was going on, five dry wells were drilled,
one of which (No. 1 of Fig. 19-3) turned out to be inside the producing
area. The discovery well was drilled in 1938 at location No. 6. A reflec-
tion survey involving continuous profiling was undertaken by Humble
immediately after the discovery in order to define the anomaly as
closely as possible and thus to have a firmer basis for choosing subsequent
drilling locations.
INTEGRATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS 403

7. Step-out drilling showed that one of the reflection horizons bears a

close correspondence to the producing sand (Fig. 19-5). The displace-
ment of the reflection marker because of faulting is dramatically indi-
cated on one of the profiles by a jump in correlation within a single record.
Subsequent Development. By 1946, this field had produced some 10
million bbl of oil. In this year the average daily production from 100
wells was about 4,500 bbl.
Discussion. Several conclusions can be drawn from this history. In
the first place, a deep-seated salt dome can often give rise to a discernible

LOVELL LAKE FIELD

JEFFERSON CO. TEXAS
NW-S£. SECTION ACROSS FIELD
SEE FIG.8SECTI0NA-A*

HTTEROSTEGINA
UMESTONI

-TOOO -TOOO

-7SQQ -7SOO

REFLECTION MARKER
GEOLOGICAL MARKER

idOO"FEET

Fig. 19-5. Cross section across Lovell Lake Field showing reflection horizon and two known geological
marker formations. (After Wendler, reproduced from "Geophysical Case Histories," Vol. 1, by per-
mission of the Society of Exploration Geophysiusts, 1 948.)

gravity minimum where no time leads are obtained in refraction fan

shooting. Secondly, the fact that five dry holes were drilled from geo-
physical indications before the discovery well was located indicates that
persistence in continuing geophysical work and exploratory drilling can
pay in spite of repeated failures.
La Gloria Field, Jim Wells and Brooks Counties, Tex. 2 Geologic
Setting. La Gloria Field isTexas about 50 miles southwest
in southeast
of Corpus Christi. There are numerous salt domes in the vicinity, as
well as faults, and there is evidence, in the form of a gravity minimum,
that the field is over a deep salt dome. Production is from the Oligocene.
Geophysical History. The geophysical exploration of the area covered
404 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

a period of 10 years and involved torsion-balance, reflection-seismograph,

and gravity-meter surveys.
1. The first geophysical work in the area was a torsion-balance survey

carried on by Magnolia Petroleum Co. during 1934-1935. Gradients are

plotted in Fig. 19-6. Note the reversal of the gradients near the center
of theproducing area.
2. In 1936, the first of several seismic reflection surveys was under-

taken by the Independent Exploration Co. A reflection at about 1.8 sec

LOS OLMOS Y LOMA BLANCA

^ A A — *. *->

-.«'- '*$* *
\ _
A
\ ^t
y, "*•
^ ^ "»

V \/ S.

^
X/
^7*
/
/* .
—k \ ^^-APPROXIMATE OUTLINE
s^-^"^ OF PRODUCTION
y
.*—
^~ /DISCOVERY^ WELL V
v

"*
^ JIM WELLS co
<j- \*~
\ ^~
1
"*
» \ BROOKS CO
\

*
*-
^ ^v^VVAX<
N
•*
^^""«4
"*
"»-a.^«4.
^ 1

n
v >"^>,
-.
-* -. * ^

\ 1

SCALE II 4 MILES
2 3

SCALE IN ETVOS
30

Fig.19-6. Torsion-balance gradients observed over La Gloria Field in 1934-1935 survey. [After
Woolley, reproduced from "Geophysical Case Histories," Vol. 1, by permission of the Society of
Exploration Geophysicists, 1948.)

was correlated over the area, giving a broad high cut by a "misclosure
fault." The high area thus indicated turned out to
lie just inside the
boundaries of production as determined from subsequent development
drilling.

3. Two
years later a Magnolia party carried out a reflection dip shoot-
ing survey. The profile spacing was closer than in the 1936 operations.
Although the earlier high was confirmed, no fault was indicated across it.
Figure 19-7 shows a sample dip profile across the center of the structure.
The phantom horizon was drawn at a depth at which plotted segments
are sparse, but it shows an unmistakable reversal of dip.
 . . . — —

INTEGRATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS 405

® ®
r
5
l i i i i '
i
— —i
1

-3000
— -3000

-4000 — zrz —
-5000 — —
— ——
—
—
;

. — — — —
—
_^4000

_25000
— — —
-6000
—__
— — -6000

-7000
——— — — — _27000

-8000_

-9000
I IZ

—
— — ^8000
""

_-9000
— —— -— "*
-I0000_
— — -10000

-II000_ _HI000

Fig. 19-7. Reflection profile across anticlinal structure in La Gloria Field, based on dip-shooting survey
of 1938. Dashed line represents phantom horizon. (After Woo/ley, reproduced from "Geophysical
Case Histories," Vol. 1, by permission of the Society of Exploration Geophysicists, 1948.)

-APPROXIMATE OUTLINE
OF PRODUCTION

\
\

JIM WELLS CO.

BROOKS CO

/
/

Fig. 19-8. Reflection map of La Gloria Field based on 1938 correlation survey. [After Woolley,
reproduced from "Geophysical Case Histories," Vol. 1, by permission of the Society of Exploration
Geophysicists, 1 948.)
406 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

4. A correlation shooting surveywas carried on by the same Magnolia

crew in 1938. The resulting map is reproduced in Fig. 19-8. From it
the location of what turned out to be the discovery well was chosen.
This well was completed on Mar. 20, 1939. Initial production, from
the Frio at 6,560 ft, was 165 bbl of distillate and 5,646,000 cu ft of gas
per day.

APPROXIMATE OUTLINE
OF PRODUCTION

SCALE IN MILeS

Fig. 19-9. Residual gravity map of La Gloria Field based on 1943-1944 survey. Contour interval,
0.2 milligal. (After Woolley, reproduced from "Geophysical Case Histories," Vol. 1, by permission of
the Society of Exploration Geophysicists, 1 948.)

5. Four years survey was run over the area as a

later a gravity-meter
part of a regional survey. Upon removal of regional gradients, a mini-
mum was found which coincided quite closely with the producing area,
asshown in Fig. 19-9.
The subsurface structure of the field as based on well information
6. is

shown in Fig. 19-10. The resemblance to the seismic depth contours is

pronounced.
Subsequent Development. At the end of 1945 there were 10 producing
wells in the field. By this time there had been a cumulative production
of about 300,000 bbl of oil and about 10 million bbl of condensate.
Discussion. It appears that there were few problems associated with
the exploration program here. Each method of prospecting gave a
INTEGRATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS 407

definite anomaly which was subsequently shown to coincide closely with

the producing area.
Lake John Field, Concordia and Tensas Parishes, La. 3 Geologic
St.

Setting. This field is on the Mississippi River, in T-9N, R-3W, just

across the river from the state of Mississippi. The surface rock in this
area is recent alluvium about 250 ft thick. Formations down to about
13,000 ft and Cretaceous. The field is in the interior salt-
are Tertiary
dome and the structure of the Lake St. John Field is believed
province,
to be associated with a deep-seated dome.

LOS OLMOS Y LOMA BLANCA

M W ELL S CO.
BROOKS CO

scale in rcrr

Fig. 19-10. Structure contours of sand horizon at La Gloria Field based on well data as of 1946.
Contour interval, 50 ft. [After Woolley, reproduced from "Geophysical Case Histories," Vol. 1, by
permission of the Society of Exploration Geophysicists, 1 948.)

Geophysical History. Two types of geophysical exploration were

employed in the discovery of this field, gravity and seismic reflection.
In 1939, a California Co. gravity crew discovered a gravity minimum
1.

covering a large area during a routine survey across central Louisiana.

Figure 19-11 shows the map. An earlier Carter gravity survey had also
shown a low, but in this case the center was along the west edge of the
lake.
Later in the same year, a two-day dip reflection survey was made
2.

by Geophysical Service, Inc., to check the gravity anomaly. The dips

408 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

Fig. 19-11. Gravitymap of Lake St. John Field made after 1940 survey. Contour interval, 0.2 milligal
(After Smith and Gulmon, reproduced from "Geophysical Case Histories," Vol. 1, by permission of the
Society of Exploration Geophysicists, 1 948.)
INTEGRATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS 409

Fig. 19-12. Map

of phantom subsurface horizon at Lake St. John Field based on average of reflection
by arrows) between 8,000- and 17,000-ft depths. {After Smith and Gulmon, repro-
dips (indicated
duced from "Geophysical Case Histories," Vol. 1, by permission of the Society of Exploration Geo-
physicists, 1948.)
410 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

+ SHOT POINT LOCATIONS BY GENERAL GEOPHYSICAL CO.

A SHOT POINT LOCATIONS BY SEISMOGRAPH SERVICE CORP.
CONTOUR INTERVAL * 25'

APPROXIMATELY 200'* ABOVE TOP OF MIDWAY

SCALE IN MILES
I

Fig. 19-13. Seismic map of phantom horizon near Midwayformation at Lake St. John Field based on
correlation reflection survey in 1940. [After Smith and Gulmon, reproduced from ^'Geophysical Case
Histories," Vol. 1, by permission of the Society of Exploration Geophy si cists, 1948.)
INTEGRATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS 411

Fig. 19-14. Contours on top of Wilcox at Lake St. John Field based on well data. Compare with map
of Fig. 19-13. [After Smith and Gulmon, reproduced from "Geophysical Case Histories," Vol. 1, by
permission of the Society of Exploration Geophysicists, 1 948.)
412 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

obtained are indicated, along with associated contours, in Fig. 19-12. A

single north dip was the only basis for the closure shown.
3. Early in 1940, more detailed correlation shooting was undertaken
over the same area by General Geophysical Co. A large anticline,
trending northwest-southeast, was mapped, as indicated in Fig. 19-13.
As a result, a test well was drilled and bottomed at 6,600 ft with only

Fig.19-15. Magnetic contours over Stafford Field. Contour interval, 25 gammas. Dashed lines are
depth contours on top of Brown dolomite. {After Coffin, Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, Vol. 30,
No. 12, 1946.)

noncommercial shows of oil. A reflection resurvey was undertaken by

the Seismograph Service Corp. to find a better location, but the con-
clusion was reached that the initial location could not be improved upon.
Drilling was then begun on the southeast closure at the location marked
" Pan- Am#1," and production was obtained in the Wilcox on June 20,
1942. A final continuous profile survey was made by Seismograph Serv-
ice Corp. while the discovery well was still drilling. There was a sugges-
INTEGRATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS 413

tion of faulting in the but the seismic data gave no proof. Ultimate
field,

development of the showed a graben in the Tuscaloosa sand at about

field

9,000 ft. The depths, as established from drilling, of the considerably

higher Wilcox sand contoured in Fig. 19-14 show good agreement with
the geophysical data.
Subsequent Development. At the time the history was written, there
were 83 wells in the basal Tuscaloosa sand. Ten of these were gas wells;

Fig. 19-16. Observed gravity over Stafford Field. Gravity contours (full lines) have spacing of
0.2 milligal. Dashed lines are depth contours on top of Brown dolomite. [After Coffin, Bull. Am.
Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, Vol. 30, No. 1 2, 1 946.)

five, dry holes. The productive area was 13,000 acres, and the total
recovery to Nov. 1, 1946, was well over 6 million bbl.
Conclusions. This is an orderly history. A gravity indication led to a
seismic dip survey, and the dip survey led to a correlation survey, which
ultimately resulted in the discovery of oil.
Stafford Field, Sherman County, Tex. 4 This history is unusual in
that oil was discovered on the basis of gravity and magnetic work alone,
414 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

without the use of seismic techniques at all. The Stafford area is in the
northwest portion of the Texas Panhandle. Here buried granite domes
cause structures in the overlying sediments which serve as oil traps.
1. A magnetic survey indicated the closed magnetic high shown in

Fig. 19-15. The Indian Territory Illuminating Oil Co. leased a block
covering this feature on the basis of the magnetic results but before drill-

ing undertook a gravity survey.

Fig. 19-17. Residual gravity map of Stafford Field after removal of regional trend. Contour interval,
0.2 milligal. [After Coffin, Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, Vol. 30, No. 12, 1946.)

2. Observed gravity contours are shown in Fig. 19-16. The residual

gravity map, after removal of the regional, is as reproduced in Fig. 19-17.
The gravity high had a closure of about 1.5 milligals, with a center only
from the magnetic maximum.
slightly displaced
3. was discovered in the area of geophysical closures; subsequent
Oil
development of the field indicated a geologic section as shown in the
lower part of Fig. 19-18. Core samples revealed density discontinuities
at the top of the Brown dolomite and, of course, at the granite surface.
INTEGRATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS 415

The gravity anomaly was associated primarily with the density contrast
at the dolomite anticline. The magnetic anomaly was from the granite
ridge 3,000 ft deeper. The
interpretation was checked by computation
of effects to be expected from different parts of the section. The observed
gravity profile was compared with the profiles to be expected (1) if the

3
Computed gravity A
Computed gravity B
2h Observed
o
S
I

Magnetic *
V Computed magnetic A
N s
B

V)
600 / N^- Comp uted mctgne tic B
O Observed
1 400

^300

Surface

3000 Geol. cross-section

C

1000

$1000

Sea
level D-267
rfiss.
-1000 To?

-2000 pr e xq
.
Imile
Scale
D-277
-3000
Fig. 19-18. Geological cross section of Stafford Field shown with gravity and magnetic profiles across
center of struclure. Computed curves labeled A are for Brown dolomite; those labeled B are for pre-
Cambrian. (After Coffin, Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, Vol. 30, No. 12, 1946.)

density contrast were all at the top of the Brown dolomite, and (2) if it
were all pre-Cambrian surface.
at the The latter computed curve is so
differentfrom the observed that there is little doubt that the source of the
gravity anomaly is mainly in the sediments. A similar calculation for
the magnetic anomaly shows that theoretical curve B, calculated on the
assumption that the susceptibility contrast is associated with the base-
ment, is much closer to the observed curve than A, which would be
416 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

expected if the source of the magnetic effect were the Brown dolomite.
Laboratory tests on the magnetic susceptibility of the various sediments
corroborated the conclusion that the source of magnetic anomaly could
only be in the basement rocks.

19-3. Integration of Methods in Mining Geophysics

With a growing trend toward concentration on the seismic method in

oil mining geophysics is currently offering more oppor-
exploration,
tunities than petroleum geophysics for integrating the results of different
techniques over individual prospects. In mineral exploration, the
emphasis is mainly on electrical, magnetic, and radioactivity methods.
Many of these techniques have been adapted to airborne operations
during the past decade. It is possible to record magnetic, electro-
magnetic, and radioactivity effects simultaneously from a single airplane;
in many surveys all three types of data are obtained on a routine basis
because the cost of obtaining the three is very little more than that of
recording any one type alone.
In selecting representative case histories to illustrate such integration
inmining exploration, we are hampered by the fact that only a limited
number are available in the literature. This is partly because of the
more modest level of activity in the field and partly because no extensive
collection of mining histories has thus far been published. As of 1959,
however, a volume of this type, prepared by a committee of the European
Association of Exploration Geophysicists, is in press. The difficulties
that are inherent in the search for solid minerals with geophysical tools
could very well limit the number of clear-cut examples from which case
histories really suitable for publication might be drawn.
In mining geophysics, several difficult problems are encountered which
hardly arise at all in prospecting for oil. All the methods used in petro-
leum exploration are designed to map structures favorable for oil accumu-
lation. They are not called upon to detect the hydrocarbons themselves.
In some types of mining surveys, it is true, the main objective is to deter-
mine structure, but more generally it is to locate the desired ore bodies
or minerals directly. Unfortunately, the contrast between the physical
properties of most ore minerals and the country rock surrounding them
may not be well defined. This is particularly common in the case of
disseminated minerals. It is usually very difficult in mineralized zones
to recognize whether an anomaly of interest is from a valuable mineral or
from some associated rock material having no economic importance.
These are two ideal types of targets for mining geophysics. The
first are deposits closely associated with structures which can be mapped

geophysically. Our first case history gives an excellent example of this

INTEGRATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS 417

type. The second is that where an economic mineral has some physical
property measurable at a distance which is not shared by the surrounding
rock material. Most magnetite ore deposits fall in this category.
The case histories that follow give examples of successful surveys where
conditions were favorable for locating ores by geophysics. The impor-
tance of choosing the correct technique for the problem at hand is par-
by these examples.
ticularly well illustrated
Discovery of a Potential Gold Field near Odendaalsrust in the
Orange Free State, Union of South Africa. The paper describing this
work by Frost, Mclntyre, Papenfus, and Weiss 5 is a classic in the annals
of geophysical prospecting. It illustrates how properly interpreted grav-
ity and magnetic data can give geological information leading to the
discovery of a substance —
which itself has neither
in this case, gold —
gravitational nor magnetic effects. Here is an excellent example of how
imaginative geological thinking can enhance the usefulness of routine
geophysical data to an enormous extent.
Geologic Setting. The Upper Witwatersrand quartzites of South Africa
contain the most productive gold deposits of the world. Most of the
gold is in conglomerate beds intercalated in the quartzites. The top of
the productive formations may be many thousands of feet deep, a situa-
tion which complicates both exploration and mining operations.
The shown in Fig. 19-21 (pages 422-423). Upper
geologic setting is

Witwatersrand quartzites and conglomerates have an average specific

gravity of 2.65 and are nonmagnetic. This series is underlain by the
Lower Witwatersrand magnetic shales and quartzites having an average
specific gravity of 2.80. Overlying the pay formations are nonmagnetic
Ventersdorp conglomerates and lavas, with a specific gravity as great as
2.81. Above the Ventersdorp are the Karoo sandstones, shales, and
dolerites, which lie unconformably on the earlier formations.
In the Orange Free State, southwest of the Rand gold-producing area
near Johannesburg, the Ventersdorp formations normally have a thick-
ness of 5,000 to 7,000 ft and the overlying Karoo beds average more than
1,000 ft thick. Thus the depth
to gold-bearing formations should
normally range from 6,000 to 8,000 ft, in which case the prospects for
economic exploitation of the metal are small. The sub-Karoo section
is considerably faulted, however, and it is possible that in some areas the

Upper Witwatersrand formations will lie much closer to the surface; it is

conceivable that the gold-bearing quartzites could be so upthrust in
places that they would underlie the Karoo directly. If the gold values
of theconglomerates in such a raised block were sufficiently high, it would
be economically feasible to sink shafts through 1,000 ft or so of Karoo
formations for mining purposes.
From the densities of all the formations involved, one would expect
418 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

that any upfaulting of the light Upper Witwatersrand through the heavier
Ventersdorp conglomerates and lavas should give rise to a gravity mini-
mum on the surface. Moreover, where the magnetic Lower Witwaters-
rand shales are locally high there would be a magnetic high on the surface.
Thus gravity and magnetic measurements might indicate the areas in
which the quartzites were anomalously shallow. Such areas would be
the most favorable locations for diamond drill holes.

Geophysical and Drilling History. After a great deal of unsuccessful

geologic prospecting for gold in the Orange Free State had virtually
condemned the and mining operators,
entire area in the eyes of investors
Western Holdings, Ltd., was organized in 1937 to undertake further
exploration in the area. An unmanageable amount of acreage had been
taken under option, and it was decided that geophysical work would
provide a basis for deciding which options to abandon. Because of the
considerations outlined in the preceding paragraph, it was decided that
torsion-balance and magnetometer surveys would be most advisable
for this purpose. Flat terrain favored the use of the torsion instrument
for the gravity investigation.
The torsion-balance survey showed only one feature of interest, a
well-defined gravity low in the vicinity of St. Helena which indicated
that low-density rocks were probably upthrust below the Karoo. Figure
19-19 shows the gradients and curvatures in this area, along with gravity
contours drawn from the gradients. Because the curvatures were not
symmetrical on opposite sides of the feature, it was predicted that the
contact separating the high-density from the low-density rocks should
show less dip on the east side of the axis than on the west side.
Although drilling was recommended at the center of the anomaly, it
was decided to carry on a magnetometer survey over this and adjacent
areas before actually commencing the boring. The results of this survey
are shown in Fig. 19-20. Along the western edge of the gravity low
there is a north-south magnetic axis. The magnetic high here is not
repeated, however, on the opposite side of the gravity anomaly. "From
the combination of the torsion balance and the magnetic survey results,"
the authors state, "it was concluded that the heavy and magnetic rocks
on the west flank of the expected Upper Witwatersrand quartzites were
Lower Witwatersrand shales, while the heavy but non-magnetic rocks on
the eastern flank were Ventersdorp lavas." This prediction was con-
firmed by subsequent drilling, and most important, the first borehole,
St. Helena No. 1, went into Upper Witwatersrand quartzites directly
beneath the Karoo at 991 ft, and gold-bearing reefs were penetrated at
1,907, 2,417, and 2,751 ft.
Subsequent boreholes made possible complete subsurface mapping of
the area, with results shown in Fig. 19-21. The essential correctness of
INTEGRATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS 419

all the geophysical predictions was borne out. Analysis of gold values
in core samples at many locations within the uplift established that a
major gold discovery had been made.

IFGFND :

TORSION BALANCE GRADIENTS

1
CURVATURES:
GRAVITY CONTOURS :.

HOR.ZONTAL SCALE ? ^ ^°° «**«*», «j%,

SCALE OF GRADIENT
AND CURWJURE ANOMALIES
*™ -1<
— —"
2JL££±d°:0rvOs
rorv °5 u
k *' 3
units

GKAW7Y CONTOURS IN JO"* C6.S UIW7S

Fig. 19-19. Torsion balance map of St. Helena area in Orange Free State. Gravity contours based
on gradients have interval of 0.5 milligal. (After Frost, Mclntyre, Papenfus, and Weiss, Trans. Geo/.
Soc. S. Africa, 1946.)

Discussion. This case history gives an ideal example of how geo-

physical methods can locate structures favorable to the economic exploi-
tation of mineral deposits even where they can give no direct indication
of the deposits themselves. Considerable geologic insight was displayed
in the planning of the geophysical surveys and in the interpretation of
their results.
Pima Mine Discovery, Pima County, Ariz. The Pima mining district,
located about 20 miles south of Tucson, Ariz., has produced copper,
420 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

lead, zinc, silver, and gold, mostly from small operations. The attention
of the authors, Heinrichs and Thurmond, 6 was directed to an alluvium-
covered area adjacent to the Mineral Hill mines; a study of the geology
had suggested to them that new ore bodies might be discovered under the
alluvium by proper geophysical investigations. Samples of ore and
country rock from Mineral Hill were studied in the laboratory, magnetic
and conductivity being measured. As a result
susceptibility, density,

De Rusi Mygansf/e 7rJ/ R/ef-kui/

702 705 }\ A 528

Tr.J Theroma £
Vlakplaa+s 667
Si/versfraal 6/0 La France <

Erfenis
687
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-j^T^The Prairie
Wo/wepan / m jgj
Rietpan 85
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5000 Feel-

/V Horizontal scale

l_L
500 Gamma
Scale of magnetic
anomalies

Fig. 19-20. Vertical magnetic cross sections across area surrounding St. Helena. [After Frost, Mclntyre,
Papenfus, and Weiss, Trans. Geo/. Soc. S. Africa, 1946.)

itwas decided to concentrate on magnetic and electromagnetic techniques

in exploring the area. The major part of the prospecting effort was
devoted to these two methods, although limited gravity, resistivity, and
self-potential surveys were carried out across the zones where magnetic
and electromagnetic anomalies were observed.
A survey with a standard vertical magnetometer showed a substantial
high which compared favorably with highs observed over known miner-
alization in the area. The magnetic feature was believed to originate
from magnetite and pyrrhotite, which are generally associated with
INTEGRATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS 421

copper sulfide ores in the mineralized zones. Figure 19-22 shows the
magnetic field along a profile through the center of the anomaly.
Before drilling on the magnetic feature, it was decided to confirm the
results by an electromagnetic survey. Tests over the area indicated that
dual-coil vertical-component phase and ratio measurements would give
the best results. A 1,500- watt, 400-cps generator was connected to a
5,000-ft wire grounded with electrodes at each end. Readings were
taken with pickup coils over the range from 500 to 3,000 ft from the
electrode line. A typical electromagnetic ratio profile is shown in Fig.
19-22. The pronounced maximum is displaced slightly from the mag-
netic high.
A
magnetic survey was subsequently carried out using a continuous-
recording mobile magnetometer which records total-field rather than
vertical intensity. The profile from this survey is also plotted in the
figure.
A short gravity survey over the anomalous zone showed only a slight
feature, not considered significant. Spontaneous potential measure-
ments indicated a 50-millivolt low offset to the northwest of the other
anomalies. This anomaly was associated with oxidation in the mineral-
ization above the water table. A resistivity survey led to the estimate
that the alluvium is 210 ft thick over the anomalous zone.
The first drill hole, shown in the figure, encountered bedrock and
oxidized minerals at 209 ft, and sulfide ore (chalcopyrite) was reached
at 255 ft. From this and subsequent test holes, it was decided that a
zone of copper mineralization had been discovered with good economic
possibilities. Shafts and adits later delineated an ore body with the
structure and composition shown in the lower part of Fig. 19-22. The
copper sulfide ore, consisting of chalcopyrite with small amounts of
pyrite, replaces highly metamorphosed limestones along a wide fracture
zone. Magnetite and pyrrhotite were found in the ore body also.
Secondary mineralization extends from the bedrock surface down about
80 ft.

Three years after the first drill hole was put down, more than 3,000,000
lb of copper had been extracted from the mine.
Geophysical Surveys at Malachite Mine, Jefferson County, Colo.
These surveys, reported by Heiland, Tripp, and Wantland, 7 were carried
out primarily for instruction of students in geophysics at the Colorado
School of Mines. An unexpected result of this educational activity
was the discovery and working of a new ore body in a mine property
that had been virtually abandoned. The Malachite Mine near Golden,
Colo., had been worked since 1888, and the extensive tunneling had given
considerable geologic information that would be most valuable for com-
parison with the students' results based on surface measurements above
the mine workings.
422 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

BOREHOLE PLAN
3d\d

MAP OF SUB-KAROO GEOLOGY

SCALE IN ENGLISH FEET
10 000

REFERENCE 1

v v v
VENTERSOORP LAVA
V V

2S£ VENTERSOORP BASAL CONGLOMERATE

ST HELENA
SERIES
^5g.-55?S5*| ST HELENA REEF ZONE

SPECKLED QUARTZlTE (foOTWall OUARTZCTe)

UPPER WITWATERSRANO QUARTZITES & CONGLOMERATES

LOWER WITWATERSRANO MAGNETIC SHALES AND QUARTZITES

TEAR TAULTS— OIRECTION OF THROW

^ POST VENTERSOORP FAULTS

f s . — m
, /•—{ p«E- VENTERSOORP FAULT DOWNTHROW SIDE OF FAULTS

GEOLOGICAL CONTACTS DIRECTION OF THROW ON FAULT

DiP 1 SYNCLINAL STRUCTURE ANTICLINAL STRUCTURE

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SOOCH S.KT V7 V5
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SEA LEVEL
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SECTION C-D

SECTION! A-B

VERTICAL SECTIONS
VERT & HOR. SCALES AS FOR PLAN
Fig. 19-21. Geologic map (sub-Karoo) and cross sections of St. Helena area, based on exploratory
borings. (After Frost, Mclntyre, Papenfus, and Weiss, Trans. Geo/. Soc. S. Africa, 1 946.)
 !

INTEGRATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS 423

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Fig. 19-21 (Continued)

424 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

Geologic Setting. The Malachite Mine is in an amphibolite belt sur-

rounded by gneisses and schists. The formations are only partly exposed
on the surface. A quartz diorite dike cuts through the schists with nearly
vertical dip. The dike contains lenticular copper sulfides developed by
magmatic segregation. The ore bodies are from 10 to 35 ft wide, up to

Vertical intensity
Observed 1800
magnetic profile Projected
Observed total intensity
Continuous recording -1700
mobile magnetometer

-1600'
Vertical intensity
Theoretical
magnetic profile

1400t

1300°

Zone of copper sulphide mineralization

and disseminated Fe 3 4

700 700

Fig. 19-22. Pima Mine. Magnetic and electromagnetic profiles over geologic cross section through
mine workings. [After Heinrichsand Thurmond, reproduced from "Geophysical Case Histories," Vol. 2,
by permission of Society of Exploration Geophysicists, 1 956.)

200 and as much as 300 ft deep. Oxidized near the surface, they
ft long,

are primarily malachite and azurite. The primary sulfides occur at

greater depths and consist in the western part of the mine of chalcopyrite,
pyrrhotite, sphalerite, bornite, pyrite, and chalcocite. At the eastern
end there is no bornite or sphalerite but cuprite, malachite, and azurite.
There is a local concentration of magnetite in the wall rock at the western
edge of the property, with small amounts in the ore elsewhere. Figure
19-23 is a geologic map of the mine property showing the mine workings.
The following types of geophysical survey have been conducted over
the mine property: (1) magnetic, (2) self-potential, (3) resistivity, (4)
INTEGRATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS 425

equipotential-line, and (5) electromagnetic. These were carried out by-

successive classes from 1937 to 1941.

Magnetic Survey. The magnetic survey includes 800 vertical-intensity
stations and 100 horizontal-intensity stations. A magnetic high was
expected over the ore because of its pyrrhotite content. The magnetite in
the wall rock would also contribute to the magnetic effect. Figure 19-24
shows the vertical-intensity contours for the area. The correlation of
the magnetic axis with the axis of the main ore body is pronounced. A

H
Pegmatite Amphibolite Leached
Biotlie schist Ore zone
Qtz. orthoc/ase Injection
biotite schist gneiss
50 100 Ft

Scale

Gneissand Ridge Alluvium Bull Weathered

schist forming quarfz gneiss
amphibolite
Fig. 19-23. Geologic map, Malachite Mine area. Coordinate lines labeled as shown to facilitate
comparison with other maps. (After Heiland, Tripp, and Wantland, Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Met.
Engrs., 1945.)

calculation of the depth to the source by the usual half-width formula

gives 30 which is in good agreement with the actual depth to the top
ft,

of the stope, namely, 35 ft. The magnetic effect is believed to result

from both the pyrrhotite in the ore and the magnetite in the wall rock.
Hence the source could not be expected to conform exactly to any simple
model.
Self-potential Survey. The survey was conducted by
self-potential
measuring potential differences between equidistant points along profile
lines at right angles to the strike of the ore body. On the west side the
electrode spacing was 25 on the east side, 50 ft. Figure 19-25 shows
ft;

contours of equal self-potential, based on differences obtained in the

426 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

individual measurements. The strike of the mineralized zone lines up

with the main axis of the contours. A pronounced self-potential low
is crossed by north-south line 22. A depth calculation was made from a
profile along this line on the assumption that the source was a polarized
doublet. From the half-width formula for this case, it was estimated that

Fig. 19-24. Magnetic map, Malachite Mine area, showing lines of equal verlical intensity. Contours
labeled in gammas. (After Heiland, Tripp, and Wantland, Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs., 1945.)

I 5 9 13 17 21 25 29 53

Fig. 19-25. Map of self-potential data over Malachite Mine area. Contours, labeled in millivolts, are
isopotentials resulting from spontaneous polarization. (After Heiland, Tripp, and Wantland, Trans.
Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs., 1945.)

the upper pole was 45 ft below the surface, the lower pole 155 ft below.
On the basis of this anomaly the mine owners drove a crosscut north-
westward (tunnel near #-22 in Fig. 19-23) and discovered a massive ore
body approximately 35 ft wide.
Resistivity. A resistivity survey, confined to the eastern end of the
area, was carried out with the Wenner arrangement of electrodes. Con-
tours of equal resistivity showed a pattern somewhat similar to the mag-
netic and self-potential contours. The resistivity low is near the magnetic
INTEGRATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS 427

high. A second low south of the first one is attributed to accumulation

of sulfates leached from the mineralized zone and concentrated in alluvial
beds.
Equipotential Lines. A
small area on the west was tested by the equi-
potential-line method. The contours are shown in Fig. 19-26. Here
again the axis of the mineralized body is reflected, as a nosing of the
contours. Another survey was made in a limited area surrounding the
ore body discovered as a result of the self-potential survey. One elec-
trode was inserted in the ore body, the other being placed at various
positions along the surface. The dotted lines shown in Fig. 19-25 are

5 9 12

Fig. 19-26. Map of equipotential lines in western portion of Malachite Min< (Afte

Heiland, Tripp, and Wantland, Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs., 1945.)

equipotentials obtained in this way and their shape essentially reflects

that of the ore body.
Electromagnetic Survey. An electromagnetic survey, using a newly
developed field was run across the mineralized zone by J. E.
ratiometer,
Hawkins. Ratios of vertical intensity and phase differences of the
electromagnetic field were determined along two profile lines. Both
parameters gave anomalies closely related to the magnetic and spon-
taneous polarization features previously observed on the same profiles.
Although excellent results appear to have been obtained with all the
geophysical methods, it should be borne in mind that the depth of burial

of the mineralized zone was quite small and that the geology in and around
the mine was, except for the newly discovered ore body, very well known.
Mattagami Sulfide Discoveries, Quebec*
This history is unusual
in that the initial reconnaissance was done with an airborne survey.
* Information for this case history was furnished by Hunting Airborne Geophysics,
Ltd.
428 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
-2300-

Fig. 19-27. Portion of aeromagnetic map flown with }^-m}\e flight spacing over area of Maftagami
and New Hosco sulfide discoveries. Rectangle encloses area covered by subsequent maps. (Geo-
logical Survey of Canada.)
INTEGRATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS 429

Anomalies were found which were detailed further by ground surveys.

A diamond drill hole located from the results of the surveys on the ground
encountered massive copper and zinc sulfides and opened up one of
Canada's potentially richest base-metal mining districts.
Early in the days of aeromagnetic prospecting, the area around Mat-
tagami Lake in Quebec, about 110 miles north of Val d'Or, was surveyed
with the airborne magnetometer but no interesting features were
observed (Fig. 19-27). The maps were subsequently published by the
Geological Survey of Canada and became generally available. A few

Vz mile Vz mile

Fig. 19-28. Aeromagnetic map of Mattagami Fig. 19-29. Ralio contours from airborne electro-
area flown with }^-mile spacing. Major anomaly magnetic survey conducted simultaneously with
indicated here is virtually missing in map from second aeromagnetic survey. Maximum ratio of
survey with }^-mile spacing. (Hunting Airborne 1.3 coincides with center of magnetic anomaly.
Geophysics, Ltd.) (Hunting Airborne Geophysics, Ltd.)

years later an airborne electromagnetic survey was run by private

interests, again with negative results.
In spite of this lack of encouragement, the members of the Mattagami
Syndicate engaged the Aeromagnetic Surveys, Ltd. (now Hunting Air-
borne Geophysics, Ltd.) to resurvey the area with aeromagnetic and
airborne electromagnetic instruments. A single survey was carried out
using a plane equipped with a Gulf airborne magnetometer and with an
electromagnetic system measuring phase shifts at 400 and 2,300 cps.
The was 500 ft and the line spacing was 1,320 ft.
flying height
Amagnetic anomaly of 1,750 gammas was observed in the vicinity of
Watson Lake (Fig. 19-28). This was considered to be too large to have
430 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING

originated from pyrrhotite but not large enough to indicate a commercial

iron deposit. The most probable cause was believed to be a base intrusive
or mineralized zone with disseminated magnetite.
The electromagnetic anomaly showed a maximum ratio of low-fre-
quency to high-frequency response of 1.3. This maximum virtually
coincided with the magnetic high (Fig. 19-29). This indicated the source

Fig. 19-30. Contours obtained in ground magnetic survey to detail anomcly observed from the air.
Station positions shown along traverse lines. (Hunting Airborne Geophysics, Ltd.)

of the anomaly to be a conductor having the

same range of conductivities
as sulfides or graphite. was concluded that the anomaly was probably
It
from a sulfide ore body and claims were staked over the area. Since
there were no outcrops, ground magnetometer and electromagnetic sur-
veys were carried out to pinpoint the location for a diamond drill hole.
The magnetic map obtained from the surface measurements showed a
sharply defined maximum (Fig. 19-30) and the electromagnetic survey
INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 431

showed a number of anomalies scattered over the area with a concentra-

tion in the neighborhood of the ground magnetic anomaly.
In June, 1957, a diamond drill hole, located primarily on the basis of
the magnetometer survey, penetrated nearly 100 ft of overburden, and
then encountered massive copper and zinc sulfides. Subsequent drilling
has outlined a large, massive sulfide replacement body with widths up to
400 ft and a strike length of at least 1,300 ft.
About one year later, a new strike was reported near the original dis-
covery when a review of the published aeromagnetic maps based on the
earliest survey in the area drew attention to a small but distinctive
anomaly at New Hosco (Fig. 19-27). A ground electromagnetic survey
over the anomalous zone outlined a good electrical conductor, which,
upon diamond drilling, proved to be a high-grade copper ore.
The most significant aspect of this history lies in the fact that the
initial aeromagnetic survey missed the major anomaly completely. The
explanation lies in the flight spacing. The earlier survey was flown with
a Jij-rcrile spacing while the later one used a }^-mi\e spacing. The
anomaly has a diameter of only about half a mile and it is easy to see
from Fig. 19-27 that the lines must have straddled the feature in such a
way that it hardly showed up at all on the final map.

REFERENCES

1. Wendler, A. P. Geophysical History of the Lovell Lake Oil Field, Jefferson County,
:

Texas, Geophysics, Vol. 11, pp. 302-311, 1946; also in "Geophysical Case Histories,
Vol. 1," pp. 85-94, Society of Exploration Geophysicists, 1948.
2. Woolley, William C. Geophysical History of the La Gloria Field, Jim Wells and
:

Brooks Counties, Texas, Geophijsics, Vol. 11, pp. 292-301, 1946; also in "Geophysi-
cal Case Histories, Vol. 1," pp. 379-388, Society of Exploration Geophysicists,
1948.
3. Smith, N. J., and G. W. Gulmon: Geophysical History, Lake St. John Field,

Concordia and Tensas Parishes, Louisiana, Geophijsics, Vol. 12, pp. 369-383, 1947;
also in "Geophysical Case Histories, Vol. 1," pp. 224-238, Society of Exploration
Geophysicists, 1948.
4. Coffin, R. Clare: Recent Trends in Geological-Geophysical Exploration and
Methods of Improving Use of Geophysical Data, Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists,
Vol. 30, pp. 2013-2033, 1946.
5. Frost, A., R. C. Mclntyre, E. B. Papenfus, and O. Weiss: The Discovery and
Prospecting of a Potential Gold Field near Odendaalsrust in the Orange Free State,
Union of South Africa, Trans. Geol. Soc. S. Africa, Vol. 49, pp. 1-24, 1946.
6. Heinrichs, Walter E., Jr., and Robert E. Thurmond: A Case History of the Geo-
physical Discovery of the Pima Mine, Pima County, Arizona, "Geophysical Case
Histories, Vol. 2," pp. 600-612, Society of Exploration Geophysicists, 1956.
7. Heiland, C. A., R. M. Tripp, and Dart Wantland: Geophysical Surveys at the
Malachite Mine, Jefferson County, Colorado, "Geophysics, 1945," Trans. Am. Inst.
Mining Met. Engrs., Vol. 164, pp. 142-154, 1945.
 NDEX

Accelerometer, 43 Ambiguity, of magnetic data, 314

seismograph as,29 in resistivity interpretation, 359
Adler, J. L., 197, 199 Ambronn, R., 15
Aerial photography, position location by, Amplifiers, seismic, 46-48
323-324 Analytical continuation of gravity, 248
Aeromagnetic surveys, 321-338 Analytical methods, of determining veloc-
advantages, 334 ity, 120-123
disadvantages, 334-335 of isolating regional gravity, 245
effect on, of flight elevation, 330-333 (See also Regional gravity)
of flight spacing, 331-333 of isolating residual gravity, 243
history, 321-322 Angona, F. A., 29
Mattagami area, 429-430 Anticlines, gravity effects over, 236-237
operation, 324-328 Aplanatic surface in salt-dome detailing,
typical, results of, 336-338 102-103
Aeropath camera, 323-324 Apparent resistivity, definition, 348
AFMAG, 365-366 Apparent-resistivity curves, 348-349
Agocs, W. B., 331, 338 log-log, 355-356
AIMME, 10 Arc shooting, refraction, 98-99
Air shooting, 66-67 Asymmetry of structures, magnetic
Airborne electromagnetic prospecting, effect, 310-311
368-369 Atlas gravimeter, 213-215
Airborne magnetic data, interpretation, Atomic number, 376
328-330 Attenuation, seismic, 24
Airborne magnetic surveys (see Aeromag- of seismic filters, 46-47
netic surveys) Automatic volume control, 48
Airborne magnetometer, AN/ASQ-3A,
285 Baker, P. E., 241
Gulf, 284-286 Balsley, J. R., Jr., 333, 338
nuclear, 286-290 Bar magnets, intensity from, 272
prospecting with, 321-338 Bardeen, J., 367, 373
Airborne radioactivity surveys, 392 Barnet, W. M., 268, 290
Airy, G. B., 192, 198 Bartels, J., 292, 303, 362, 373
Airy's theory of isostasy, 192-193 Barthelmes, A. J., 90, 103
historical background, 192 Barton, D. C., 80, 103, 204, 217, 235, 241,
Alberta foothills, gravity operations in, 256, 262
220 Barus, Carl, 11
seismic interpretation in, 159-161 Base metals, magnetic prospecting for,
Alcock, E. D., 87, 103 316
Alpha particles, 376-377 Basic science, dependence of exploration
Altus Oil Field, gravity map over, 237- geophysics on, 3-4
238 Bauer, L. A., 303
Ambiguity, of gravity information, 253- Benson mines, magnetic profiles over,
256 330-331
433
434 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
Berryman, L. H., 151, 168 Coefficients for analytical gravity inter-
Beta particles, 377 pretation, 249
Birch, F., 18, 24, 29, 227, 241 Coffin, R. C, 241, 431
Birks, J. S., 375, 397 Coker, F. B., 168
Bleil, D. F., 370, 373 Collaboration between geologists and geo-
Blundun, G. J., 98, 104 physicists, 148-149, 166-168
Boissonnas, E., 362, 373 Columbium, 374
Borehole electrodes for resistivity work, discovery by radioactivity survey, 395
359 Compaction, effect on shale density, 252-
Born, W. T., 113, 147 253
Bouguer anomaly, 190, 194-195 Compagnie Generale de Geophysique,
Bouguer correction, 189, 230 356, 372
Bowie, W., 189, 190, 198 Compensation, isostatic (see Isostasy)
Boyd, L. H., 237, 241 Composite forms in gravity interpreta-
Brant, A. A., 343, 371 tion, 260-261
Broadside shooting, refraction, 96-98 Compositing of signals from magnetic
ties to inlines, 97-98 recordings, 54-55
use in Alberta foothills, 98 Compressibility, 18
Broding, R. A., 147, 219, 240, 393, 397 Compressional waves, 20
Brossard, L., 316, 320 Compton scattering in density logging,
Brownell, G. M., 393, 397 228
Brunner chart, 36 Computer, seismic, functions, 56
Bryan, A. B., 217 Continuation, downward, of gravity data,
Bubble pulse, 59-60 248
Bulk modulus, 18 of magnetic data, 312
Bullard, E. C., 195, 199, 303 Continuous profiling, reflection, 111
Bullen, K. E., 37, 39 Continuous velocity logs, 119-120
Buttlar, H. von, 370, 373 Continuous wave sources, 67
Byerly, P., 28, 29, 39 Cook, K. L., 312, 320, 357, 359, 372
Coordination, of geology and geophysics,
148-149, 166-168
Cagniard, L., 9, 15, 365, 373 of gravity data with geology, 254-256
Calibration of gravimeters, 215-216 Corrected record sections, 132-133
California, offshore seismic work, 62-63 advantages, 133
Cameras, seismic, 48-49, 50 hazards, 133
Capacitative geophones, 43 Corrections, for gravity reductions, 229-
Carpenter, E. W., 350, 372 235
Case histories, geophysical, 398-431 for magnetic reductions, 305-308
of mining surveys, 416-431 for reflection records, 123-129
of petroleum surveys, 399-416 in refraction interpretation, 99-102
publication, 398 Correlation of reflections, 111-112
significance, 398-399 Correlation shooting, reflection, 113
Cavendish, H., gravitational studies by, Cortes, H. C, 58, 60, 68
170 Cram, Ira H., 318, 320
Cavendish balance, 170, 201-202 Critical angle, 27
Central office playbacks, 54 Critical distance, calculation of depth
Cerro de Pasco potential anomaly, 342- from, 73
343 Cross correlation with continuous wave
Chapman, S., 292, 303, 362, 373 sources, 67
Chromite, gravity survey for, 238-239 Cross-correlation filtering, 47-48
Circum-Pacific belt, seismic activity in, Crust of earth, 37-39
32 Cumberland Field magnetic survey, 318
Clark, A. R., 359, 372 Curvature, differential, 180-183
Clay, effect on induced polarization, 370 measurement by torsion balance, 202-
Clewell, D. H., 67, 68, 213, 217 203
Clifford, O. C, Jr., 320 Cylinder, horizontal, depth determina-
"Clipped trace" record sections, 132 tion from gravity, 259-260
INDEX 435

Cylinder, horizontal, gravitational effect, Dikes, inclined, magnetic effects, 276-277

173-174 vertical, magnetic effects, 274, 312, 315
magnetic intensity from, 273 resistivity effects over, 357
vertical, gravitational effect, 174-175 Dip calculation, from reflection data, 107-
gravity effect off axis, 175-176 109, 142
magnetic effect, 273 from refraction data, 81-83
Cyprus, gravity anomaly on, 196 Dip needles, 278-279
Dip shooting, reflection, 113
Dipping interfaces, reflection from, 107-
Dahlberg, R. S., Jr., 362, 373 109
Daly, R. A., 196, 199 refraction from, 81-83
Damon mound salt dome, gravity profile Directivity curves, application, 146
over, 235 Directivity patterns, 144-146
Damping, 43-45 Discovery of oil, record of geophysics in,
critical, 44-45 1-2
of geophones, 43 Disintegration series, radioactive, 378-
Darling, J. W., 234, 241 381
de Boeckh, H., 11 Dispersion, of Love waves, 23
Declination, magnetic, 293 of Rayleigh waves, 21
DeGolyer, E. L., 12, 15 use in crustal studies, 38
Delay-line filtering, 47-48 Diurnal correction of magnetic data, 306
Delay times, concept, 83-84 Diurnal variation, lunar, 301
separation, in arc shooting, 99 magnetic, 294, 300, 306, 326
by Gardner's method, 93 solar, 300
in profile shooting, 89-96 Diving bells for gravity measurement,
in triangle shooting, 98 226-227
Densities of rocks, 250-252 Dix, C. H., 9, 15, 70, 103, 122, 143, 147
Density, choice for gravity interpreta- Dix method of velocity determination,
tion, 250 122-123
dependence of velocity on, 20 Dobrin, M. B., 21, 29, 68
determination, 227-229 Doppler location system, 323
Nettleton method, 227 Downward continuation of gravity, 248
increase with depth in shales, 252-253 Draping over reefs, 163
laboratory measurement, 227 Dreyer, R. M., 372
Density contrast, 173 Drift, adjustment in gravity, 222-223
dependence of seismic reflections on, of gravimeters, 216-217
25-26 Drift curves, 216, 222
Density logger, 227-229 Drill-hole counting, radioactive, 392-393
Density logs, uncertainties, 229 Driller, seismic, functions, 57
Department of Terrestrial Magnetism Dugan, A. F., 236, 241
crustal studies, 38 Dutton, C. E., 193, 198
Depth, of compensation, isostatic, 191
of penetration, for circular ray paths,
78-79 Earth currents, 362-363
for electromagnetic waves, 367 Earth shape (see Figure of earth)
for magneto-telluric method, 365 Earth-tide correction of gravity data,
presentation of seismic data 154-155
in, 234-235
Depth cross sections, reflection, 133-134 Earth tides, 197-198
Depth estimation from gravity, 259-260 Earthquake seismograms, 33
Derivative maps, 245-258 Earthquake times, determination, 35-36
Detectors, seismic (see Geophones) Earthquake wave paths, 32-35
de Witte, L., 343, 372 Earthquakes, 31-39
Diamagnetic materials, 266 Eckhardt, E. A., 15
Dielectric constant, 341-342 Ehlert, G. W., 144, 147
Differential curvature, 180-183 Eichholz, G. G., 397
Diffraction, seismic, 27, 133, 140-141 Elastic constants, bulk modulus, 18
Digital filtering, 47-48 Poisson's ratio, 17
436 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
Elastic constants, relations between, 18 Explosion studies of earth's crust, 38
shear modulus, 18 External magnetic field of earth, 297
typical values, 18
Young's modulus, 17
Elastic waves, 18-23 Fall-off of seismic energy with distance,
Electric logs, in mapping unconformities, 23-24
165 Fan shooting, 88-89
in seismic interpretation, 158-159, 161 with well geophone, 102
in velocity determination, 155 Faul, H., 228, 241, 375, 397
Electrical properties of rocks, 339-342 Faults, detailing, by refraction, 80-81
Electrical prospecting, 8, 339-371 by use of well control, 158
Electrochemical activity principles. 340- detection on reflection sections, 140
341 gravitational effect, 176-178
Electromagnetic geophones, 41-42 location by diffraction, 133, 140
Electromagnetic prospecting, 366-369 Faust, L. Y., 23, 29, 156, 168
from air, 368-369 Fearon, R., 13
on ground, 367-368 Figure of earth, 184-188
principles, 366-367 determination from gravity, 187
using two planes, 369 Filled sinks, resistivity over, 357-359
Electromagnetic surveys, Malachite Fillippone, W. R., 168
Mine, 427 Filter curves, 47
Mattagami area, 430-431 Filters, seismic,46-48
Pima Mine, 420-421 Fleming, J. A., 292, 303
Electromagnetic waves, 366-367 Flight elevation, effect on magnetic data,
penetration into earth, 367 330-333
Electromagnetism, 268 Flight-line spacing, effect on magnetic
Electron capture, 378 data, 331-333
Elevation correction, gravity data, 229- Flight path in aeromagnetics, 327-328
230 Flight patterns for aeromagnetic surveys,
reflection records, 123-124 326-327
refraction records, 100-101 Flux-gate magnetometer, 283-284, 321-
Elkins, T. A., 246, 262 322
Ellipsoid, earth as, 186 orientation mechanism, 285-286
Ellsworth, T. P., 143, 147 Focal depths of earthquake, determina-
Energy of seismic waves, 23-24 tion, 36
relation to amplitude, 23 Focus of earthquake, 31-32
Eotvos, R. von, 11 "Folded-trace" record sections, 132
Eotvos torsion balance, 201-204 Four-layer resistivity problem, curves for,
Epicenter of earthquake, 32 357
location, 35 Fox, Robert, 2, 10
Equilibrium, radioactive, 381 Frank, N. H., 18, 29
Equipotential line method, 345-347 Free-air anomaly, 190
equipment and field operations, 347 Free-air correction, 188-189, 230
principles, 345-346 Frequency modulation, in magnetic re-
Equipotential surface, 180-181, 202-203 cording, 51
Equipotential surveys, 345-347 with vibratory sources, 67
in Malachite Mine, 427 Frische, R. H., 370, 373
Erosional surfaces, reflections from, 152- Frost, A., 417, 431
154 Frowe, E., 226, 241
Error-curve method of magnetic analysis,
313
Eve, A. S., 9, 15, 338, 375, 397 Galbraith, F. M., 316, 320
Evison, F. F., 67, 68 Galitzin seismograph, 29
Ewing, M., 38, 60, 68, 77, 103 Galvanometers, seismic, 48-49
Expanders in amplifiers, 48 Gamburtsev, G. A., 87, 103
Exploration departments, organization, Gamma as magnetic unit, 267-268
166-168 Gamma rays, 377-378
INDEX 437

Gardner, D. H., 40, 67 Graf shipborne gravimeter, 223-224

Gardner, L. W., 79, 93, 98, 99, 102, 103, Graham, J. W., 303
121, 147, 156, 168 Grand saline salt dome, gravity
Garrett, L. P., 12 over, 236
Gauss as magnetic unit, 267 Grant, F. S., 249, 262
Gay, M. W., 206, 217 Graphical vs. analytical methods in grav-
Geiger method of epicenter location, 35- ity, 248-249
36 Graphical methods for isolating residual
Geiger-Muller counters, 381-383 gravity, 243-245
Generalized geometrical forms, for grav- Graticules, for gravity interpretation,
ity interpretation, 258-259 256-258, 261
gravity profiles from, 178 formagnetic interpretation, 312
for magnetic interpretation, 311 Gravimeters, Atlas, 213-215
magnetic profiles from, 273-275 calibration, 215-216
Geograph, McCollum, 65 drift, 216,217
Geoid, 186-187 Graf shipborne, 223-224
reduction of gravity to, 188-190 Gulf, 209-210
Geologic aspects of reflection process, Hartley, 208-210
151-154 Humble, 212
Geological-geophysical coordination, LaCoste-Romberg, 211-212
166-168 Mott-Smith, 212-213
Geological information, access of geo- operation, 221-222
physicist to, 167 stable types, 208-209
Geophone housings, 45-46 Thyssen, 218
for marine work, 60 transportation of, 220-222
Geophones, 40 underwater, 224-226
capacitative, 43 unstable types, 208-210
characteristic curves, 44-45 use in regional surveys, 223
damping, 43 Gravitational acceleration, 170-171
electromagnetic, 41 Gravitational constant, 170
piezoelectric, 43 Gravity, analytical continuation, 248
pressure, 43 downward continuation, 248
for refraction, 85 drift adjustment in, 222-223
reluctance, 42 graphical vs. analytical methods in,
Geophysical activity statistics, 13-14 248-249
Geophysical methods, summaries, 3-9 residual, 242-249
table comparing, 6-7 in water-covered areas, 223-227
Geophysical Prospecting, 9 Gravity anomaly, definition, 190
Geophysical prospecting, definition, 1 Gravity corrections, 229-235
Geophysics, 143 Bouguer, 189, 230
"Ghost" reflections, 143-144 earth-tide, 234-235
effect on record character, 144 elevation, 229-230
Gibson, M. D., 326, 338 free-air, 188-189, 230
Gill, J. E., 397 latitude, 234
Gillin, J. A., 87, 103 terrain, 230-234
Gish, O. H., 352, 372 topographic, 189-190
Gish-Rooney method, 351-352 Gravity data, interpretation, 242-262
Gold, prospecting, by magnetic methods, reduction, 229-240
316 subsurface structure from, 253
discoverv at Odendaalsrust, 417-419 Gravity instruments, 200-217
Good Field, 163 Gravity interpretation, 242-262
Gough, D. I., 66, 68 qualitative, 201
Goupilland, P. L., 168 Gravity monsnromont, on land, 218-223
Gradient, gravitational, 178-180, 182- over water, 223-227
183 in diving bells, 226-227
measurement by torsion balance, 203- by remote-control methods, 224-226
204 with tripod, 224
438 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
Gravity measurement, under water, Heinrichs, W. E., Jr., 420, 431
239-240 Heiskanen, W. A., 184, 196-199
Gravity meter, 207-217 Helicopters, magnetic work from, 328
(See also Gravimeters) Henderson, R. G., 330, 338
Gravity prospecting, 169-262 Henkel, J. H., 370, 373
principles, 169-183 High-resolution techniques, seismic, 63-
summary, 5 64
Gravity surveys, 218-241 Hilborn, J. W., 397
La Gloria, 406 Hockley dome, magnetic survey, 320
Lake St. John, 407 Hollander, J. M., 397
Lovell Lake, 402 Holmes, C. R., 373
place in exploration, 256 Horizontal cylinder, gravitational effect,
Stafford Field, 414 173-174
station location for, 218-219 magnetic effects, 274-275
Great Bear Lake radioactivity survey, " Horizontal" resistivity surveys, 359-
393 361
Grepin, A., 365, 373 Horizontal slab, magnetic intensity from,
Grey, Helen, 104 273
Griffin, W. R., 245, 262 Hotchkiss superdip, 278-279
Griffin's method of residual determina- Housings for geophones, 45-46, 60
tion, 245 Houston, C. E., 77, 103
Griffiths, D. H., 300, 303 Howe, H. H., 307, 320
Ground mixing of geophones, 114 Howell, L. G., 67, 68
Ground roll, 21 Hoylman, H. W., 338
Ground-water exploration, using induced Hubbert, M. K, 219, 240, 257, 262, 372
polarization, 370 Hubert, F., 65
using resistivity, 361 Hulburt, E. O., 303
Grouping of geophones for noise cancella- Humble gravimeter, 212
tion, 113-114 Hummel, J. N., 353, 372
Gsell, R. N., 58, 60, 68 Hutchison, R. D., 312, 320, 330, 338
Gulf airborne magnetometer, 284-285 Hutchison's method of magnetic interpre-
operation, 325-326 tation, 330
Gulf gravimeter, 210 Huy gens' principle, 24
Gulf gravity graticule, 257 Hysteresis loop, 270
Gulf underwater gravimeter, 224-225
Gulman, G. W., 431
Gutenberg, B., 32, 39 Igneous rocks, densities, 251-252
magnetic susceptibilities in, 268-271
velocities in, 23
Habberjam, G. M., 350, 372 Inclination, magnetic, 293
Hagedoorn, J. G., 140, 147 Inclined layers, resistivity in, 357
Hales, F. W., 95, 104 Inclined polarization, magnetic, 277-278
Half-life, radioactive, 378 Induced polarization methods, 370-371
"Half -width" use, in gravity interpreta- Inductive methods, 366-369
tion,260 Inductive surveys, from air, 368-369
in magnetic interpretation, 311 on ground, 367-368
Hammer, S., 185, 198, 217, 218, 231, 240, Inline refraction, 81-96
241 (See also Profile shooting)
Harris, S., 90, 103 Integration, of geology and geophysics,
Hartley, K, 217 148-168
Hartley gravimeter, 208-210 of geophysical methods, 398-431
Hastings, W. K, 218, 240 in mining geophysics, 416-431
Hawkes, H. E., 322 Intensity of magnetization, 265
Hayford, J. F., 190, 198 Intensity scales for earthquakes, 32
Hedberg, H. D., 252, 262 Intercept times, 72
Heiland, C. A., 2, 9, 15, 183, 320, 431 computation of depths from, 73
Heinrich, E. W., 375, 397 derivation of delay times from, 83-84
INDEX 439

Interference patterns, reflections as, 150, LaCoste, L. J. B., Jr., 217

151-153 LaCoste seismograph, 211-212
Interior of earth, 36-37 LaCoste-Romberg gravimeter, 211-212
Internal magnetic field of earth, 297 Lacy, W. C., 342, 371
International Geophysical Year, 187-188 La Gloria Field, case history, 403-407
"International gravity formula," 234 Lahee, F. H., 15
Interpolation of seismic velocities, 155- Lake St. John Field, case history, 407-413
158 Lambert, W. D., 234, 241
Interval velocities, analytical determina- LaRue, W. W., 102, 104
tion, 122-123 Latitude correction of gravity data, 234
from well surveys, 118 Laubscher, H. P., 147
Intrabasement features, magnetic effects, Lavergne, M., 373
310 Lay, Roy L., 59, 68
Ion, D. C, 167, 168 Lee partitioning method, 350
Iron County, Michigan, magnetic survey Leet, L. D., 77, 103
over, 336 Leonardon, E. G., 362, 373
Island arcs, gravity anomalies along, Lester, O. C., Jr., 67
196 Limestone reefs, gravity effects over, 237-
Isoporic maps, 298 238
Isostasy, 184^198 seismic mapping, 163-165
gravitational evidence for, 194-197 Limitations of magnetic data, 313-315
introduction of term, 193-194 Linear-velocity function, 77-79
origins, 191-192 Lineman, seismic, functions, 57
Isostatic anomalies, 195-196, 197 Link, T. A., 159, 168
Isostatic compensation in United States, Literature of applied geophysics, 9-10
196 Logachev, A. A., 321, 338
Isostatic correction, 195-196 Logn, O., 357, 372
Isotopes, 376 Logs, density, 227-229
velocity, 119-120, 150
Lombardi, L. V., 145, 147
Longitudinal waves, 19-20
Jakosky, J. J., 9, 15, 339, 372, 375 Loper, G. B., 51, 67
James, H. L., 279, 291 Love waves, 21-23
Jameson Reef, gravity experiments over, Lovell Lake Oil Field, case history, 399-
237 403
Jensen, H., 291 Lundberg, Hans, 11, 328, 338
Joesting, H. R., 320 Lynton, E. D., 317, 320
Johnson, C. H., 145, 147 Lyons, P. L., 10, 15
Johnson, E. A., 299, 303
Jolly, R. N., 21, 29
Jones, H. J., 67 Mabey, D. R., 68
Joyce, J. W., 283, 291 McCarver, H. D., 161, 168
Jump correlation for reflection shooting, McCollum, B., 65, 68, 102, 104
117 McDonal, F. J., 24, 29
Macelwane, J. B., 15
McGuckin, G. M., 137, 147
Karcher, J. C, 13 Mclntyre, R. C., 417, 431
Keen, C. H., 67, 68 McKay, A. 147
E., 146,
Kettleman Hills-Lost Hills area gravity McMahon, 397
C.,
survey, 237 McNish, A. G., 303
Keys, D. A., 9, 15, 375, 397 Magnedisc, 53
Kintzinger, P. R., 373 Magnetic Airborne Detector (MAD), 322
Klipsch, P. W., 115, 147 Magnetic data, corrections, diurnal, 306
Knapp, D. 320
G., 307, normal, 306-308
Koulomzine, 320
T., 316, temperature, 305-306
Kruger, F. C., 342, 371 interpretation, 308-314
Kursk ore body, magnetic effect, 315 limitations, 313-315
440 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
Magnetic data, reduction, 305-308 Magnetism of earth, nonpotential field,
sample, 307 297-298
Magnetic elements, 293 time variations in, 298-303
Magnetic equator, 293 Magnetite, magnetic effects, 314
Magnetic field balance, 279-283 Magnetite content, effect on susceptibil-
Magnetic fields, 264-265 ity, 270
of earth, nonpotential, 297-298 Magnetometer, flux gate, 283-285, 321-
permanent, 294-298 322
Magnetic force, 264 ground nuclear, 290
Magnetic induction, 266 Gulf airborne, 284-285
Magnetic intensities from vertically marine, 290
polarized bodies, 275-277 nuclear, 286-290, 322
horizontal, 275-277 Schmidt-type, 279-283
vertical, 271-275 Magnetotelluric method, 365
Magnetic interpretation, 308-314, 328- Magnolia velocity logger, 120
330 Mainguy, M., 365, 373
Henderson-Zietz methods, 330 Malachite mine case history, 421-427
Hutchison's method, 330 Mallet, R., 12
Peters's methods, 312-313 Mantle of earth, 36
qualitative approach to, 308-311, 329 Mapping of reflection data, 141-142
for total fields, 328-330 Marine seismic operations, 58-63
Vacquier-Steenland method, 329-330 (See also Offshore seismic operations)
for vertical fields, 308-314 Marmora airborne survey, 331-333
Magnetic meridian, 293 Mason, R. G., 65, 68
Magnetic moment, 265 Mass number, 376
Magnetic ores, direct search for, 315-316 Mattagami case history, 427-431
Magnetic polarization, 265 Mayne, W. H., 145, 147
Magnetic poles, 263-264 Mercalli intensity scale, 32
Magnetic prospecting, 263-338 Meres, M., 25, 29
with AFMAG, 365-366 Migration, of contours, 139-140
comparison with gravity, 263 of steep-dip reflections, 134-140
fundamental principles, 263-290 Mills, R. L., 29
instruments for, 279-290 Mineral exploration (see Mining geo-
summary, 5-8 physics)
Magnetic recording equipment, 51-55 Minerals of radioactive elements, 384-385
advantages, 51 Mining geophysics, 2-3, 416-431
AM systems, 51 applicability of electrical methods, 371
extent of use, 51 case histories, 416
FM systems, 51 comparison with petroleum geophysics,
with Geograph, 65 416
heads used for, 52 early history, 10-11
playback systems, 53-55 high-resolution techniques for, 63-64
timing impulses, 50 integration of methods, 416-431
Magnetic storm monitors, 326-327 publications, 416
Magnetic storms, 294, 301, 303, 306 recent developments, 11
Magnetic surveys, field procedures, 304- Miscellaneous geometrical shapes, grav-
305 ity and magnetic effects, 178
at Malachite Mine, 425 Mixing of reflection signals, 114-115
at Odendaalsrust, 418 Mohorovicic discontinuity, 36, 39
at Pima Mine, 421 Mooney, H. M., 268, 290, 357, 372
typical, 315-320 Morrison, J. A., 67
Magnetic susceptibility (see Suscepti- Mott-Smith, L. M., 217
bility) Mott-Smith gravimeter, 212-213
Magnetic units, 267-268 Moveout time on reflection records, 109
Magnetism of earth, 292-303 correction for, 54
external field, 297 Muffly, G., 291, 338
internal field, 297 Multilayer resistivity problem, 353-357
INDEX 441

Multiple geophones, use, 114 Oscillographs, seismic, 48-49

Multiple reflections, 142-144 Owens, O. E., 397
in California, 143
identification, 123, 143
Murphy, T., 299, 303 P-wave velocities, 36
Musgrave, A. W., 104, 138, 144, 147 Packard, M., 286, 291
Muskat, M., 25, 29, 70, 103 Pakiser, L. C, 68
Mykawa-Friendswood-Hastings-Manvel Paleomagnetism, 267, 300
gravity maps, 247 Palmer, E. M., 147
Papenfus, E. B., 417, 431
Nash, D. M., Jr., 144, 147 Paramagnetic materials, 265-266
Neitzel, E. B., 65, 68 Parr, J. O., Jr., 145, 147
Nettleton, L. L., 9, 10, 15, 173, 183, 218, Party chief, functions, 55
227, 240, 253, 260, 262, 273, 291, 311 Patrick, H. G., 14, 15
New Hosco copper discovery, 431 Pattern shooting, 144-146
Newton's law, 169-171 areal, 146
application to large masses, 171-178 Payne County, Oklahoma, magnetic map
Nicholson Mine radioactivity survey, over, 337
393-394 Peabody, Gwendolyn, 90, 103
Nininger, R. D., 375, 397 Pendulum seismograph, 28
Nisto Mines radioactivity survey, 394 Pendulums, geodetic, 205-206
Noise, seismic, 113, 144-146 gravity, 204-207
cancellation, of coherent, 145-146 operation, 205
of incoherent, 146 principle, 204, 205
Noise cancellation in reflection work, 113 Gulf, 206-207
Nonpotential magnetic field of earth, Holweck-Lejay, 207
297-298 inadequacy for exploration work, 200
Normal corrections, magnetic, 306-308 Pepper, T. B., 225, 241
Nuclear magnetic resonance, 287-288 Permanent magnetic field of earth, 294-
Nuclear magnetometer, 286-290 298
operation in air, 326 Permeability, 266
use, on ground, 290 Peters, J. W., 236, 241, 252, 271, 317, 320
at sea, 290 Peters, L. J., 248, 262, 312, 313, 317, 320,
Varian, 288-290 367, 373
Nuclear resonance magnetometer (see Peterson, R. A., 151, 168
Nuclear magnetometer) Peters's methods of potential field inter-
Nucleus, 375 pretation, application to total fields,
330
Observer, seismic, functions, 50 downward continuation, 248
Odendaalsrust gold field case history, error-curve, 313-314
417-419 slope, 312-313
Oersted as magnetic unit, 267 Petroleum exploration, 1-2
Offsetting of reflection points, 142 case histories, 399-416
Offshore exploration, 2 use, of electrical methods, 371
Offshore seismic operations, 58-63 of magnetic methods, 317-320
California, 62-63 Petroleum geophysics history, 11-13
Gulf Coast, 60-62 Petrovski, A., 343, 371
Oka area radioactivity survey, 395-397 Phases on earthquake seismograms, 33-
Oklahoma City Field magnetic survey, 34
320 Phillips, G., 287, 291
Ore bodies, electrical prospecting for, Pieuchot, M., 147
342-345, 357, 359, 368-369, 371 Pima Mine case history, 419-421
gravity surveys for, 238-239 Pinchouts, location by reflection, 153
magnetic surveys for, 315-316 Pittman, R. R., 51, 67
Ore deposits, radioactive, assay with Plate, gravitational effect, 171, 175
counters, 391-393 Pohly, R. A., 238, 241
Origin of reflections, 149-151 Poisson's ratio, 17, 18
442 NTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
Polar flattening, 184-185 Rayleigh waves, 21
Polarization, induced, 370-371 Record sections, reflection, 132-135
Polarization changes, magnetic effect, 310 comparison of types, 135
Polarization potentials, 370-371 hazards, 167-168
Position location in aeromagnetic work, over reefs, 165
322-324 over salt dome {frontispiece)
Potential, gravitational, 171, 180 Reef location, by gravity, 237-238
Potential logging, 341 seismic, 154-155, 163-165
Poulter, T. C, 66, 68 Reflection, basic principles, 24-26
Poulter method, 66-67 from dipping beds, 107-109
Pratt, J. H., 192, 198 geometry of ray paths for, 105-109
Pratt's theory of isostasy, 193-194 from horizontal interfaces, 106
historical background, 192 as interference pattern, 150-151
Press, F., 38, 39, 68 mechanism in layered earth, 149-
Pressure geophones, 43 151
Profile shooting, refraction, 89-96 Reflection coefficient, 25-26
methods, Barthelmes, 90-91 Reflection cross sections, in depth,
Hales, 95-96 133-134
Slotnick, 93-94 in time, 129-132
Tarrant, 94-95 Reflection method {see Seismic
Wyrobek, 91-93 reflection method)
Proton, 376 Reflection records, 109-112
Pulse-width modulation, 52 correlation, 111-112
Pyrite, self-potential of, 342 {See also Record sections)
Reflection shooting {see Seismic
reflection method)
Qualitative interpretation, 261
Reflection surveys, typical, La Gloria,
gravity, 261
404-406
magnetic, 308-311
Lake St. John, 407-413
Quality of reflections across unconform-
Lovell Lake, 400-402
ity, 165-166
Reflections, between formation tops,
Quarles, M., Jr., 147
151-152
origin, 149-151
Radioactive assays, 392 resolution, 151
Radioactive decay rate, 378 from unconformities, 152-153
Radioactive disintegration series, 378- Refraction, continuous increase of speed,
380 77-80
Radioactive minerals, prospecting for, corrections in, 99-102
374-397 curved-path theory, 77
table, 386-389 detailing of salt domes by, 102-113
Radioactive ores, evaluation, 391-393 for dipping beds, 81-83
Radioactivity, fundamental principles, across fault, 80-81
375-381 by low-speed layer, 76
use in density logging, 227-229 marker below zone of linear speed
Radioactivity prospecting, 374-397 increase, 79-80
from 392
aircraft, mechanism at interface, 70-71
in boreholes, 392-393 multilayer case, 75-76
field techniques, 385-393 principles, 26-27
summary, 8 ring snooting in, 99
Radioactivity surveys, typical, 393-397 three-layer case, 73-75
Rankama, K, 375, 397 two-layer case, 72-73
Rare earths, detection by radioactivity, {See also Seismic refraction method)
374 Refraction operations, 84-85
radioactivity of, 374-375 Refraction records, 86-88
Ray, Robert H., servomechanism for Regional anomalies, magnetic, 329
marine gravity work, 226 Regional corrections, magnetic, 306-
use of diving bells, 226-227 308
INDEX 443

Regional gravity, analytical methods Salt domes, gravity effects over, 173,
for removing, 243 235-236, 261
direct computation, 245 location by fan shooting, 88-89
downward continuation, 248 magnetic detection, 337-338
second derivative, 245-248 magnetism over, 318-320
definition, 242-243 Sandberg, C. H., 234, 241
graphical methods for removing, Sarafnan, G. O., 67
243-245 Sariyer self-potential survey, 344-345
Regional gravity surveys, 223 Saturation of magnetized material, 267
Regional magnetic anomalies, 298, Scherbatskoy, S. A., 397
307-308 Schlumberger, C., 11, 13
Reluctance geophones, 42 Schlumberger, M., 13, 361, 370, 372
Remote-control methods for marine Schlumberger system of resistivity
gravity work, 224-226 measurement, 350-351
Residual gravity, isolation of, 242-249 Schmidt-type magnetometer, 279-283
graphical methods for, 243-245 operation, 305
Residual magnetism, 266-267 Scintillation counters, 383-384
Resistivities of rock material, 341 use from aircraft, 392
Resistivity, basic principles, 340 Seaborg, G. T., 397
of discrete rock masses, 357-359 Second derivative computation, gravity,
Resistivity prospecting, 347-361 245-248
electrode arrangements, 349-352 magnetic, 329-330
field procedures, 349-352 Second events, use in refraction, 87-88
interpretation, 352 Secular variations, magnetic, 294, 298-
principles, 347-349 300
Resistivity surveys, examples, 359-361 Seismic crews, organization, 55-57
Malachite Mine, 426-427 Seismic instruments, 40-67
Resolution of reflections, 151 Seismic operations on land, 55-58
Resolved-time method of migration, in water-covered areas, 58-63
138-139 Seismic reflection method, 105-146
Resonance in seismographs, 28 advantages, 105
Response curves, for filters, 46-47 corrections, 123-129
for geophones, 44 interpretation, 148-168
Reynolds, F. F., 146, 147 mapping techniques, 141-142
Rice, R. B., 139, 147 plotting of data, 129-140
Richard, H., 147 sample record, 110
Richards, T. C, 40, 67 shooting procedures, 112-117
Richter, C. F., 32, 39 shot-geophone arrangements for,
Ricker, N. H., 24, 29 115-117
Ridland, G. C, 393, 397 summary, 4-5
Rigidity modulus, 18 velocity determination for, 117-123
Ring shooting in refraction, 99 Seismic refraction method, 69-104
Roman, L, 222, 240, 356, 372 broadside shooting, 96-98
Romberg, F. E., 249, 262 comparisons with reflection method,
Rooney, W. J., 352, 372, 373 69-70
Rosaire, E. E., 67 in earthquake studies, 31
Rothe, E., 9, 15 field operations, 84-86
Rothe, J. P., 9, 15 profile shooting, 89-96
Rummerfield, B. F., 393, 397 shot and geophone arrangements, 88-99
Runcorn, S. K., 267, 290, 292, 303 summary, 5
Russell, W. L., 397 triangle shooting, 98
Rust, W. M., Jr., 15, 371, 373 use in locating faults, 80-81
Seismogram synthesis, 151
S-wave velocities, 36 Seismograph, frequency range, 29
Salt domes, detailing by refraction, principle, 27-29
102-103 vertical, 28-29
gradient and curvature over, 182 (See also Geophones)
444 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
Seismos Company, 12 Steep-dip areas, reflection setup for,
Self-potential method, 342-345 117
field procedures, 343 Stern, W., 343, 371
interpretation, 343-344 Stratigraphic features, seismic mapping,
principles, 342-345 163-166
Self-potential surveys, 343 Stripling, A. A., 219, 240
Malachite Mine, 425-426 Strominger, D., 397
Sariyer, 344-345 Structure, of earth, internal, 36-37
Sengbush, R. L., 29 of earth's crust, 37-39
Serpentine plugs, magnetic effects, 317 Stulken, E. J., 118, 147
SH waves, 21 Subsurface geology, seismic correlation
Shaking table, 44 with, 158-162
Shallow-water reflection work, 58 Sudbury magnetic survey, 316
Shaw, E. S., 12 Summers, G. C., 147
Shear modulus, 18 Sundberg method, 367
Shear waves, 20-21 Sunspots, effect on magnetic fields,
Shooter, seismic, functions, 57 301-303
Shooting of explosives, on land, 57 Surface geology, seismic correlation
in marine surveys, 59-63 with, 158-162
Shoran, 322 Surface waves from earthquakes, 34
Shot and detector patterns, 144-146 Surveying, barometric, 219-220
Shot-moment indicator, 50-51 electronic, 59
Siegel, H. O., 359, 372 on land for gravity work, 219-220
Simon, R. F., 67, 68 seismic, 57
Simple harmonic motion, 19 Surveyor, functions on seismic crew,
Skeels, D. C, 163, 168, 257, 261, 262 56-57
Slab, faulted, gravitational effect, Susceptibility, magnetic, 265, 266,
176-178 268-271
horizontal magnetic intensity from, instruments for measuring, 268
273 of rocks, 268-271
infinite, gravitational effect, 175 tables, 269
290
Slichter, L. B., 270, statistical observations, 271
Slope method of magnetic analysis, SV waves, 21
312-313 Swartz, J. H., 361, 372
Slotnick, M. M., 77, 93, 103, 181, 183 Swick, C. H., 205, 217
Smith, Mark K, 48, 67 Swinging-arm method of migration,
Smith, N. J., 431 134-137
SnelPs law, 26 Synthetic seismograms, 151
Society of Exploration Geophysicists, Synthetic velocity curves, 155-156
10, 143
Sphere, gravitational effect, 172-173, 260
magnetic effect from, 273, 274 T -X 2 method
2
of velocity determination,
Spheroid, earth as, 185-186 120-121
reference, 185-187 Tagg, G. F., 353, 372
triaxial, 187 Tagg's curves, 353-355
Spieker, L. J., 67 Tarrant, L. H., 95, 104
Split-spreads for reflection shooting, Tatel, H. E., 39
115-116 TAT method of velocity determination,
Sprengnether seismograph, 29 121-122
Spring, natural period, 28 Telluric current prospecting, 361-366
"zero-length," 212 field procedures, 364-365
Stafford Field case history, 413-416 365
in France,
Stearn, N. H., 270, 278, 291 363-364
principles,
Steele,W. E, 122, 147 over salt domes, 365
Steenland, N. C, 68, 329, 338 Telluric currents, 361-363
Steep-dip areas, coordination with Temperature compensation of
geology in, 159-161 magnetometers, 281-282
INDEX 445

Temperature correction of magnetic " Trielectrode " arrangement, 350

data, 305-306 Tripp, R. M., 431
Temperature effects in gravimeters, Tuve, M. A., 39
213-215 Two-layer resistivity problem, 353-357
Terrain correction of gravity data,
189-190, 219, 230-235
charts, 231-235 Unconformities, reflections from,
tables, Hammer's, 232-233 152-153
Thickness of earth's crust > 38-39 seismic detailing, 165-166
Thompson, R. R., 67, 68 Uniqueness lack, in gravity data,
Thorium, assay, 391-392 253-254
exploration for, 374 in magnetic data, 314
Three-layer refraction problem, 73-75 U.S. Geological Survey, 63, 240, 322
Three-layer resistivity problem, curves Unz, M., 357, 372
for, 356-357 Uphole weathering, 128-129
Thurmond, R. E., 420, 431 Uranium, assay in rocks, 391-392
Thyssen gravimeter, 211 exploration for, 374
Thyssen-Bornemisza, S. V., 217 minerals, 384-389
Tidal effects on gravity, 197-198
Time, presentation of seismic data in,
154-155 Vacquier, V., 267, 290, 322, 329, 338,
Time cross sections, 129-132 370, 373
Time-depth conversion, 133-134 Vacquier-Steenland method, 329-330
with lateral velocity change, 157-158 Vajk, R., 249, 262
Time-distance curves, for earthquakes, 34 Van Melle, F. A., 144, 147
refraction, 70-75 Van Nostrand, R. G., 30, 68, 359, 370,
for linear increase of speed, 78 372, 373, 375
relation between reflection and Variable-area record sections, 133
refraction, 107 Variable-density record sections, 132
use in fan snooting, 89 Variable-reluctance geophone, 42
Timing lines on seismic records, 49-50 Varian, R., 286, 291
Tittle, C. W., 228, 241 Varian nuclear magnetometer, 288-290
Topographic correction (see Terrain use in aeromagnetic work, 326
correction of gravity data) Velocities, seismic, 22, 156
Tornqvist, G., 368, 373 dependence on depth and geologic,
Torreson, O. W., 299, 303 age, 23
Torsion balance, Cavendish type, 201 determination, 117, 123-128
construction and operation, 204 problems in, 155-158
Eotvos type, 201-204 interpolation, 155-158
measuring gravity by, 178-183 use in geological coordination,
present status, 204 154-158
principles of design, 201-204 Velocity, of longitudinal waves, 20
Torsion-balance surveys, La Gloria, 404 for typical rocks, 22
Odendaalsrust, 418 of transverse waves, 20-21
Total-field interpretation, 328-330 for typical rocks, 22
Total-field magnetic measurement, Velocity contrast, basis for seismic
321-338 reflection, 24-26
by dip needle, 279 use in reef location, 163-164
by flux-gate magnetometer, 283-286 Velocity-depth relationship, 23
by nuclear magnetometer, 286-290 Velocity logging, 119-120
Total reflection, 27 check shots for, 119
"Trace-by-trace" plotting of reflec- Velocity logs, use in seismogram
tions, 132 synthesis, 151
Transverse waves, 20-21 Velocity-resistivity relationship, 23
reflection, 25 Velocity stratification in sediments,
Trejo, C. A., 248, 262 150-151
Triangle shooting, refraction, 98 Velocity surveys in wells, 118
446 INTRODUCTION TO GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
T
Vening Meinesz, F. A., 184, 198, 217, W elllogging, history, 13
224 summary,9
Vertical balance, Schmidt-type, 279-282 Well shooting for velocity, 118
Vertical cylinder, gravitational effect, Well tops, use in seismic contouring, 158
174-175 Well velocity surveys, 118
175-176
off axis, interpolation between, 155-158
magnetic effect, 273-274 Wendler, H. P., 431
Vertical electrical drilling, 352, 357 Wenner electrode arrangement, 349
Vertical magnetic balance, construction, Wetzel, W. W., 357, 372
281-282 Wharton, M., 6860,
equations for, 280 White, P. H. N., 227, 241
Vibratory sources, seismic, 67 Wichita Mountains, magnetic field
Vogel, C. B., 147 over, 331
Vogellogger, Shell, 120 magnetic trends in, 308
Wickerham, W. E., 327, 338
Wilhelm, E. S., 219, 240
Wantland, D., 431 Wilson, C. H., 372
Warrick, R. E., 68 Wolf, A., 197-199
Waters, G. S., 287, 291 Woods, J. P., 151, 168
Waters, K. H., 168 Woollard, G. P., 217, 241
Wavefront charts, 137-138 Woolley, W. C., 104, 431
Weatherby, B. B., 15, 23, 29 Worden gravimeter, 213-215
Weathered layer, 101 temperature compensation in, 215
refraction from base, 110 Worzel, J. L., 60, 68
relation to geological "weathered Wright, R. J., 397
zone," 126 Wuenschel, P. C., 151, 168
Weathering corrections for reflection WT
yckoff, R. D., 60, 68, 198. 199, 217,
records, 124-129 291
for refraction records,101-102 Wyrobek, S. M., 91, 103
sample computation, 128
shot, below weathered zone, 124-126
in weathered zone, 127-128 Young's modulus, 18
from uphole times, 128-129 stress-strain relationship, 17
Weaver, P., 314, 320 Yungiil, S., 343, 344, 372
Weight dropping for seismic recording,
65-66
Weighting factors in derivative "Zero-length" spring, 212
computations, 246-248 Zietz,I., 330, 338

Weiss, O., 417, 431 Zuschlag, T., 367, 373

-<*?.

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