VECTORS IN ℝ𝟑

Vector 𝐴⃗ = 〈𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 〉 with components 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ∈ ℝ

1. It is the directed line segment from the origin O to the point 𝑄(𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ). This is the
position representation of 𝐴⃗.

𝑄(𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ) 𝑄(𝑥 + 𝑎1 , 𝑦 + 𝑎2 , 𝑧 + 𝑎3 )

𝐴⃗ 𝐴⃗

𝑂(0,0,0) 𝑆(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

2. It is the directed line segment from 𝑆(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) to the point 𝑇(𝑥 + 𝑎1 , 𝑦 + 𝑎2 , 𝑧 + 𝑎3 ).

3. The magnitude of 𝐴⃗ = 〈𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 〉 is |𝐴⃗| = √𝑎1 2 + 𝑎2 2 + 𝑎3 2 .

For example, |〈−2, 3, 1〉| = √(−2)2 + 32 + 12 = √14

4. The direction angles of 𝐴⃗ ≠ 𝑂 ⃗⃗ , denoted by α, β, and γ, are measured from the positive x,
y, and z-axes, respectively, to the position representation of 𝐴⃗ and 0 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 𝜋, 0 ≤ 𝛽 ≤
𝜋, and 0 ≤ 𝛾 ≤ 𝜋.

5. If 𝛼, 𝛽, and 𝛾 are the direction angles of a nonzero vector 𝐴⃗ = 〈𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 〉, then

𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
cos α = , cos β = , cos γ = .
|𝐴⃗| |𝐴⃗| |𝐴⃗|

The direction cosines of vector 𝐴⃗ are the three numbers cos α , cos β, and cos γ.
 For the vector 𝐴⃗ = 〈3, 2, −6〉, we have

|𝐴⃗| = √32 + 22 + (−6)2 = √49 = 7

3 2 6
cos α = , cos β = , cos γ = − .
7 7 7

VECTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

If 𝐴⃗ = 〈𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 〉 and 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 〈𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 〉, then

𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 〈𝑎1 + 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 , 𝑎3 + 𝑏3 〉,

𝐴⃗ − 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 〈𝑎1 − 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 , 𝑎3 − 𝑏3 〉.

𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
𝐵
⃗⃗
𝐵 𝐴⃗ − 𝐵
⃗⃗

𝐴⃗ 𝐴⃗

EXAMPLE Find 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗ if 𝐴⃗ = 〈5, −2, 6〉 and 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 〈8, −5, −4〉.

Solution.
𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 〈5 + 8, (−2) + (−5), 6 + (−4)〉 = 〈13, −7, 2〉

𝐴⃗ − 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 〈5 − 8, (−2) − (−5), 6 − (−4)〉 = 〈−3, 3,10〉

⃗⃗ − 𝐴⃗ = 〈8 − 5, (−5) − (−2), −4 − 6〉 = 〈3, −3, −10〉

𝐵

SCALAR MULTIPLICATION

The product of scalar (real number) c and 𝐴⃗ = 〈𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 〉 is

𝑐𝐴⃗ = 𝑐〈𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 〉 = 〈𝑐𝑎1 , 𝑐𝑎2 , 𝑐𝑎3 〉.

The negative of 𝐴⃗ = 〈𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 〉 is −𝐴⃗ = (−1)𝐴⃗ = 〈−𝑎1 , −𝑎2 , −𝑎3 〉.

EXAMPLE Given 𝐴⃗ = 〈−4, 7, −2〉 and 𝐵

⃗⃗ = 〈2, −3, 1〉, find |3𝐴⃗| and |−5𝐵
⃗⃗ |.

Solution. 3𝐴⃗ = 3〈−4, 7, −2〉 = 〈−12, 21, −6〉,

|3𝐴⃗| = √122 + 212 + 62 = √621 = 3√69 = 3|𝐴⃗|

⃗⃗ = −5〈2, −3, 1〉 = 〈−10, 15, −5〉,

−5𝐵

⃗⃗ | = √102 + 152 + 52 = √350 = 5√14

|−5𝐵
 |3𝐴⃗ − 5𝐵
⃗⃗ | = ?

3𝐴⃗ − 5𝐵
⃗⃗ = 〈−12, 21, −6〉 − 〈10, −15, 5〉 = 〈−22, 36, −11〉

|3𝐴⃗ − 5𝐵
⃗⃗ | = √222 + 362 + 112 = √1,901

UNIT VECTORS

Let î = 〈1, 0, 0〉, ĵ = 〈0, 1, 0〉, and k̂ = 〈0, 0, 1〉. Then

𝐴⃗ = 〈𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 〉

= 𝑎1 〈1, 0, 0〉 + 𝑎2 〈0, 1, 0〉 + 𝑎3 〈0, 0, 1〉

= 𝑎1 î + 𝑎2 ĵ + 𝑎3 k̂.

𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
From a theorem, we have cos α = |𝐴⃗1| , cos β = |𝐴⃗2| , cos γ = |𝐴⃗3|.

Hence, 𝐴⃗ = 𝑎1 î + 𝑎2 ĵ + 𝑎3 k̂

= (|𝐴⃗| cos α)î + (|𝐴⃗| cos β)ĵ + (|𝐴⃗| cos γ)k̂

= |𝐴⃗|[(cos α)î + (cos β)ĵ + (cos γ)k̂].

Thus, any nonzero vector can be expressed in terms of its magnitude and direction cosines.

EXAMPLE Express 𝐴⃗ = 〈3, 2, −6〉 in terms of its magnitude and direction cosines.

Solution. Verify that |𝐴⃗| = 7, cos 𝛼 = 3/7, cos 𝛽 = 2/7, and cos 𝛾 = −6/7.

3 2 6
we have 𝐴⃗ = 7 [7 î + 7 ĵ − 7 k̂].

⃗⃗ having the same direction as the

A unit vector is a vector with magnitude 1. The unit vector 𝑈
nonzero vector 𝐴⃗ = 〈𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 〉 is given by

𝐴⃗ 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
⃗⃗ =
𝑈 =〈 , , 〉.
|𝐴⃗| |𝐴⃗| |𝐴⃗| |𝐴⃗|

EXAMPLE Given the points 𝑅(2, −1, 3) ans 𝑆(3, 4, 6), find the unit vector in direction as ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑅𝑆.

SOLUTION. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 〈3, 4, 6〉 − 〈2, −1, 3〉 = 〈1, 5, 3〉,

𝑅𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = √35.
|𝑅𝑆

Therefore, the desired unit vector is

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑅𝑆 1 5 3
⃗⃗ =
𝑈 =〈 , , 〉.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
|𝑅𝑆 √35 √35 √35
EXERCISES