PROBLEM 1.

1
Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer Bergman
7th Edition Solutions Manual
Full version at: https://testbankbell.com/product/fundamentals-of-heat-and-mass-
transfer-bergman-7th-edition-solutions-manual/

KNOWN: Thermal conductivity, thickness and temperature difference across a sheet of rigid
extruded insulation.

FIND: (a) The heat flux through a 2 m × 2 m sheet of the insulation, and (b) The heat rate
through the sheet.

SCHEMATIC:

A = 4 m2

W
k = 0.029
m ⋅K qcond

T1 – T2 = 10˚C

T1 T2

L = 20 mm
x

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction in the x-direction, (2) Steady-state

conditions, (3) Constant properties.

ANALYSIS: From Equation 1.2 the heat flux is

dT T -T
q′′ = -k =k 1 2
x
dx L
Solving,

W 10K
q" = 0.029 ×
x
m ⋅K 0.02 m

W
q′x′ = 14.5 <
m2

The heat rate is

W
q = q ′′ ⋅ A = 14.5 × 4 m 2 = 58 W <
x x 2
m
 PROBLEM 1.2
COMMENTS: (1) Be sure to keep in mind the important distinction between the heat flux
(W/m2) and the heat rate (W). (2) The direction of heat flow is from hot to cold. (3) Note that
a temperature difference may be expressed in kelvins or degrees Celsius.
 PROBLEM 1.3

KNOWN: Thickness and thermal conductivity of a wall. Heat flux applied to one face and
temperatures of both surfaces.
FIND: Whether steady-state conditions exist.
SCHEMATIC:
L = 10 mm

T2 = 30°C
q” = 20 W/m2
q″cond

T1 = 50°C k = 12 W/m·K

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction, (2) Constant properties, (3) No internal energy
generation.

ANALYSIS: Under steady-state conditions an energy balance on the control volume shown is

qi′n = qo′ut = qc′ond = k (T1 − T2 ) / L = 12 W/m ⋅ K(50°C − 30°C) / 0.01 m = 24,000 W/m 2

Since the heat flux in at the left face is only 20 W/m2, the conditions are not steady state. <

COMMENTS: If the same heat flux is maintained until steady-state conditions are reached, the
steady-state temperature difference across the wall will be

ΔT = q ′L / k = 20 W/m 2 × 0.01 m /12 W/m ⋅ K = 0.0167 K

which is much smaller than the specified temperature difference of 20°C.

 PROBLEM 1.3
KNOWN: Inner surface temperature and thermal conductivity of a concrete wall.
FIND: Heat loss by conduction through the wall as a function of outer surface temperatures ranging from
-15 to 38°C.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction in the x-direction, (2) Steady-state conditions, (3)
Constant properties.
ANALYSIS: From Fourier’s law, if q′x′ and k are each constant it is evident that the gradient,
dT dx = − q′x′ k , is a constant, and hence the temperature distribution is linear. The heat flux must be

constant under one-dimensional, steady-state conditions; and k is approximately constant if it depends

only weakly on temperature. The heat flux and heat rate when the outside wall temperature is T2 = -15°C
are o o
dT T1−T2 25 C− −15 C ( ) 2

q′x′ = −k =k = 1W m ⋅ K = 133.3 W m . (1)

dx L 0.30 m

q x = q′x′ × A = 133.3 W m 2 × 20 m 2 = 2667 W . (2) <

Combining Eqs. (1) and (2), the heat rate qx can be determined for the range of outer surface temperature,
-15 ≤ T2 ≤ 38°C, with different wall thermal conductivities, k.

3500

2500
Heat loss, qx

1500

500
(W)

-500
-1500
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40

Outside uiernfatcaei temperature, T2

demsbsurfacer
Ambient
iA
ai (C)

Wall thermal conductivity, k = 1.25

W/m.K
k = 1 W/m.K, concrete
wall
k = 0.75
W/m.K

For the concrete wall, k = 1 W/m⋅K, the heat loss varies linearly from +2667 W to -867 W and is zero
when the inside and outer surface temperatures are the same. The magnitude of the heat rate increases
with increasing thermal conductivity.
COMMENTS: Without steady-state conditions and constant k, the temperature distribution in a plane
wall would not be linear.
 PROBLEM 1.4
KNOWN: Dimensions, thermal conductivity and surface temperatures of a concrete slab. Efficiency
of gas furnace and cost of natural gas.
FIND: Daily cost of heat loss.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady state, (2) One-dimensional conduction, (3) Constant properties.
ANALYSIS: The rate of heat loss by conduction through the slab is
T −T 7°C
q = k ( LW ) 1 2 =1.4 W / m ⋅ K (11m ×8 m ) = 4312 W <
t 0.20 m

The daily cost of natural gas that must be combusted to compensate for the heat loss is
= q Cg 4312 W × $0.02 /
MJ ( 24 h / d × 3600s / h ) = $8.28 / d <
Cd = ( Δt ) =
ηf 0.9 ×106 J / MJ
COMMENTS: The loss could be reduced by installing a floor covering with a layer of insulation
between it and the concrete.
 PROBLEM 1.5

KNOWN: Thermal conductivity and thickness of a wall. Heat flux through wall. Steady-state
conditions.
FIND: Value of temperature gradient in K/m and in °C/m.
SCHEMATIC:

k = 2.3 W/m·K

q”x = 10 W/m2

x L = 20 mm

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction, (2) Constant properties.

ANALYSIS: Under steady-state conditions,

dT q" 10 W/m 2
dx
=− =−
k
x
2.3 W/m ⋅ K
= −4.35 K/m = −4.35 °C/m <

Since the K units here represent a temperature difference, and since the temperature difference is the
same in K and °C units, the temperature gradient value is the same in either units.

COMMENTS: A negative value of temperature gradient means that temperature is decreasing with
increasing x, corresponding to a positive heat flux in the x-direction.
 PROBLEM 1.6

KNOWN: Heat flux and surface temperatures associated with a wood slab of prescribed
thickness.

FIND: Thermal conductivity, k, of the wood.

SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction in the x-direction, (2) Steady-state

conditions, (3) Constant properties.

ANALYSIS: Subject to the foregoing assumptions, the thermal conductivity may be

determined from Fourier’s law, Eq. 1.2. Rearranging,
L W 0.05m
k=q′x′ = 40
T1 − T2 m2 ( 40-20 )o C

k = 0.10 W / m⋅ K. <
COMMENTS: Note that the °C or K temperature units may be used interchangeably when
evaluating a temperature difference.
 PROBLEM 1.7

KNOWN: Inner and outer surface temperatures of a glass window of prescribed dimensions.

FIND: Heat loss through window.

SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction in the x-direction, (2) Steady-state

conditions, (3) Constant properties.

ANALYSIS: Subject to the foregoing conditions the heat flux may be computed from
Fourier’s law, Eq. 1.2.
T −T
q x′ = k 1 2
L
o
W (15-5 ) C
q′x′ = 1.4
m ⋅ K 0.005m
q′x′ = 2800 W/m 2 .

Since the heat flux is uniform over the surface, the heat loss (rate) is
q = q′x′ × A
q = 2800 W / m 2 × 3m2

q = 8400 W. <
COMMENTS: A linear temperature distribution exists in the glass for the prescribed
conditions.
 PROBLEM 1.8
KNOWN: Net power output, average compressor and turbine temperatures, shaft dimensions and
thermal conductivity.
FIND: (a) Comparison of the conduction rate through the shaft to the predicted net power output of
the device, (b) Plot of the ratio of the shaft conduction heat rate to the anticipated net power output of
the device over the range 0.005 m ≤ L ≤ 1 m and feasibility of a L = 0.005 m device.
SCHEMATIC:
Combustion
Compressor chamber Turbine

d = 70 mm

Tc = 400°C
Th = 1000°C
Shaft P = 5 MW
k = 40 W/m·K

L = 1m

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Constant properties, (3) Net power output is
proportional to the volume of the gas turbine.
PROPERTIES: Shaft (given): k = 40 W/m⋅K.
ANALYSIS: (a) The conduction through the shaft may be evaluated using Fourier’s law, yielding
k(Th−Tc) 40W/m⋅K(1000−400)°C
q = q" A = π d2 /4 =( ) π (70 ×10−3 m) 2 / 4 = 92.4W ( )
c
L 1m

The ratio of the conduction heat rate to the net power output is
q 92.4W
r= = = 18.5 ×10−6 <
P 5 ×106 W

(b) The volume of the turbine is proportional to L3. Designating La = 1 m, da = 70 mm and Pa as the
shaft length, shaft diameter, and net power output, respectively, in part (a),

d = da × (L/La); P = Pa × (L/La)3

and the ratio of the conduction heat rate to the net power output is
k(Th−Tc)
(
πd 2 / 4 )
k(Th−Tc)
π( d L/L ) /4
2
( ) k(Th−Tc)π
d 2 L /P
q" Ac a a a a a
r= = L = = 4
L
P P Pa (L / La ) 3 L2
40W/m⋅K(1000−400)°Cπ −3
(70×10 2
m) ×1m/5×10 6W 18.5×10−6m 2
= 4 =
L2 L2

Continued…
 PROBLEM 1.8 (Cont.)

The ratio of the shaft conduction to net power is shown below. At L = 0.005 m = 5 mm, the shaft
conduction to net power output ratio is 0.74. The concept of the very small turbine is not feasible since
it will be unlikely that the large temperature difference between the compressor and turbine can be
maintained. <

Ratio of shaft conduction to net

power

0.1

0.01
r

0.001

0.0001
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
1

L (m)

COMMENTS: (1) The thermodynamics analysis does not account for heat transfer effects and is
therefore meaningful only when heat transfer can be safely ignored, as is the case for the shaft in part
(a). (2) Successful miniaturization of thermal devices is often hindered by heat transfer effects that
must be overcome with innovative design.
 PROBLEM 1.9
KNOWN: Width, height, thickness and thermal conductivity of a single pane window and
the air space of a double pane window. Representative winter surface temperatures of single
pane and air space.
FIND: Heat loss through single and double pane windows.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction through glass or air, (2) Steady-state

conditions, (3) Enclosed air of double pane window is stagnant (negligible buoyancy induced
motion).
ANALYSIS: From Fourier’s law, the heat losses are

Single Pane: qg = k g A ( )
T1−T2 = 1.4 W/m ⋅ K 2m 2 35 Co = 19, 600 W <
L 0.005m
T −T
Double Pane: q a = k a A 1 2 = 0.024 2m 2
L ( )
25=oC
0.010 m
= 120 W <

COMMENTS: Losses associated with a single pane are unacceptable and would remain
excessive, even if the thickness of the glass were doubled to match that of the air space. The
principal advantage of the double pane construction resides with the low thermal conductivity
of air (~ 60 times smaller than that of glass). For a fixed ambient outside air temperature, use
of the double pane construction would also increase the surface temperature of the glass
exposed to the room (inside) air.
 PROBLEM 1.10

KNOWN: Dimensions of freezer compartment. Inner and outer surface temperatures.

FIND: Thickness of styrofoam insulation needed to maintain heat load below prescribed
value.

SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Perfectly insulated bottom, (2) One-dimensional conduction through 5

2
walls of area A = 4m , (3) Steady-state conditions, (4) Constant properties.

ANALYSIS: Using Fourier’s law, Eq. 1.2, the heat rate is

ΔT
q = q′′ ⋅ A = k A total
L

2
Solving for L and recognizing that Atotal = 5× W , find

2
5kΔ T W
L =
q

L=
o
( )
5 × 0.03W/m⋅ K ⎡⎣35- ( -10 ) ⎤⎦ C 4m 2
500 W

L = 0.054m = 54mm. <

COMMENTS: The corners will cause local departures from one-dimensional conduction
and a slightly larger heat loss.
 PROBLEM 1.11

KNOWN: Heat flux at one face and air temperature and convection coefficient at other face of plane
wall. Temperature of surface exposed to convection.
FIND: If steady-state conditions exist. If not, whether the temperature is increasing or decreasing.
SCHEMATIC:

q”conv
Air

h = 20 W/m 2·K
q” = 20 W/m 2
T∞ = 30°C

Ts = 50°C

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction, (2) No internal energy generation.

ANALYSIS: Conservation of energy for a control volume around the wall gives
dEst
= E& − E& + E&
in out g
dt
dEst
= q ′ A − hA(T − T ) = [ q ′ − h(T − T ) ] A
in s ∞ in s ∞
dt

= 20 W/m − 20 W/m ⋅ K(50°C − 30°C) A = −380 W/m A

2 2 2

Since dEst/dt ≠ 0, the system is not at steady-state. <

Since dEst/dt < 0, the stored energy is decreasing, therefore the wall temperature is decreasing. <

COMMENTS: When the surface temperature of the face exposed to convection cools to 31°C, qin =
qout and dEst/dt = 0 and the wall will have reached steady-state conditions.
 PROBLEM 1.12
KNOWN: Dimensions and thermal conductivity of food/beverage container. Inner and outer
surface temperatures.
FIND: Heat flux through container wall and total heat load.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Negligible heat transfer through bottom
wall, (3) Uniform surface temperatures and one-dimensional conduction through remaining
walls.
ANALYSIS: From Fourier’s law, Eq. 1.2, the heat flux is

T −T 0.023W/m⋅K ( 20−2 ) C o
q′ = k 2 1 = = 16.6 W/m 2 <
L 0.025 m
Since the flux is uniform over each of the five walls through which heat is transferred, the
heat load is
q = q ′× A total = q ′ H ( 2W1 + 2W2 ) + W1 × W2

q = 16.6 W/m 2 ⎡⎣0.6m (1.6m +1.2m ) + ( 0.8m × 0.6m ) = 35.9 W <

COMMENTS: The corners and edges of the container create local departures from one-
dimensional conduction, which increase the heat load. However, for H, W1, W2 >> L, the
effect is negligible.
 PROBLEM 1.13

KNOWN: Masonry wall of known thermal conductivity has a heat rate which is 80% of that
through a composite wall of prescribed thermal conductivity and thickness.

FIND: Thickness of masonry wall.

SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Both walls subjected to same surface temperatures, (2) One-
dimensional conduction, (3) Steady-state conditions, (4) Constant properties.

ANALYSIS: For steady-state conditions, the conduction heat flux through a one-
dimensional wall follows from Fourier’s law, Eq. 1.2,

ΔT
q′′ = k
L

where ΔT represents the difference in surface temperatures. Since ΔT is the same for both
walls, it follows that
L1 = L2 = 1 ⋅ =q 2′′
k
k2 q ′′
. 1

With the heat fluxes related as

q 1′′ = 0.8 q 2′′

0.75W/m⋅K 1
L = 100mm × = 375mm. <
1
0.25 W / m⋅ K 0.8

COMMENTS: Not knowing the temperature difference across the walls, we cannot find the
value of the heat rate.
 PROBLEM 1.14

KNOWN: Expression for variable thermal conductivity of a wall. Constant heat flux.
Temperature at x = 0.

FIND: Expression for temperature gradient and temperature distribution.

SCHEMATIC:
k = ax + b

q”

T1

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction.

ANALYSIS: The heat flux is given by Fourier’s law, and is known to be constant, therefore

dT
q x′ = −k = constant
dx

Solving for the temperature gradient and substituting the expression for k yields

dT q′′ q′
dx
=− x =− x
k ax + b
<
This expression can be integrated to find the temperature distribution, as follows:
dT q′′
∫ dx dx = − ∫ axx+ bdx

Since q′x′ = constant , we can integrate the right hand side to find

q′x′
T=− ln ( ax + b ) + c
a

where c is a constant of integration. Applying the known condition that T = T1 at x = 0,

we can solve for c.
Continued…
 PROBLEM 1.14 (Cont.)

T(x = 0) = T1
q′
− x ln b + c = T1
a
q′
c = T1 + x ln b
a

Therefore, the temperature distribution is given by

q′x q ′′
T=−
a
ln ( ax + b ) + T1 + x ln b
a
<
q′x′ b
= T1 + ln <
a ax + b

COMMENTS: Temperature distributions are not linear in many situations, such as when the
thermal conductivity varies spatially or is a function of temperature. Non-linear temperature
distributions may also evolve if internal energy generation occurs or non-steady conditions exist.
 PROBLEM 1.15
KNOWN: Thickness, diameter and inner surface temperature of bottom of pan used to boil
water. Rate of heat transfer to the pan.
FIND: Outer surface temperature of pan for an aluminum and a copper bottom.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional, steady-state conduction through bottom of pan.

ANALYSIS: From Fourier’s law, the rate of heat transfer by conduction through the bottom
of the pan is

T −T
q = kA 1 2
L
Hence,

qL
T1 = T2 +
kA

where A = π D 2 / 4 = π( 0.2m )2 / 4 = 0.0314 m 2 .

600W( 0.005m )
Aluminum: T1 = 110 oC + = 110.40 oC <
( )
2
240 W/m ⋅ K 0.0314 m
600W( 0.005m )
Copper: T1 = 110 oC + = 110.24 oC <
( )
2
390 W/m ⋅ K 0.0314 m

COMMENTS: Although the temperature drop across the bottom is slightly larger for
aluminum (due to its smaller thermal conductivity), it is sufficiently small to be negligible for
both materials. To a good approximation, the bottom may be considered isothermal at T ≈
110 °C, which is a desirable feature of pots and pans.
 PROBLEM 1.16

KNOWN: Dimensions and thermal conductivity of a chip. Power dissipated on one surface.

FIND: Temperature drop across the chip.

SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Constant properties, (3) Uniform heat
dissipation, (4) Negligible heat loss from back and sides, (5) One-dimensional conduction in
chip.

ANALYSIS: All of the electrical power dissipated at the back surface of the chip is
transferred by conduction through the chip. Hence, from Fourier’s law,

ΔT
P = q = kA
t
or
t⋅ P 0.001m× 4W
ΔT = =
kW 2 150 W/m ⋅ K ( 0.005 m )2

ΔT = 1.1o C. <
COMMENTS: For fixed P, the temperature drop across the chip decreases with increasing k
and W, as well as with decreasing t.
 PROBLEM 1.17

KNOWN: Heat flux and convection heat transfer coefficient for boiling water. Saturation
temperature and convection heat transfer coefficient for boiling dielectric fluid.
FIND: Upper surface temperature of plate when water is boiling. Whether plan for minimizing
surface temperature by using dielectric fluid will work.
SCHEMATIC:
Tsat,w = 100°C Tsat,d = 52°C

hw = 20,000 W/m2·K
hd = 3,000 W/m 2·K

q" = 20 × 10 5 W/m2

ASSUMPTIONS: Steady-state conditions.

PROPERTIES: Tsat,w = 100°C at p = 1 atm.
ANALYSIS: According to the problem statement, Newton’s law of cooling can be expressed for a
boiling process as

q ′ = h(Ts − Tsat )

Thus,

Ts = Tsat + q ′ / h

When the fluid is water,

20 ×105 W/m 2
Ts,w = Tsat,w + q ′/ hw = 100°C + = 200°C
20 ×10 3 W/m 2 ⋅ K

When the dielectric fluid is used,

20 ×105 W/m 2
Ts,d = Tsat ,d + q ′/ hd = 52°C + = 719°C
3×10 3 W/m 2 ⋅ K

Thus, the technician’s proposed approach will not reduce the surface temperature. <
COMMENTS: (1) Even though the dielectric fluid has a lower saturation temperature, this is more
than offset by the lower heat transfer coefficient associated with the dielectric fluid. The surface
temperature with the dielectric coolant exceeds the melting temperature of many metals such as
aluminum and aluminum alloys. (2) Dielectric fluids are, however, employed in applications such as
immersion cooling of electronic components, where an electrically-conducting fluid such as water
could not be used.
 PROBLEM 1.18
KNOWN: Hand experiencing convection heat transfer with moving air and water.
FIND: Determine which condition feels colder. Contrast these results with a heat loss of 30 W/m2 under
normal room conditions.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Temperature is uniform over the hand’s surface, (2) Convection coefficient is
uniform over the hand, and (3) Negligible radiation exchange between hand and surroundings in the case
of air flow.
ANALYSIS: The hand will feel colder for the condition which results in the larger heat loss. The heat
loss can be determined from Newton’s law of cooling, Eq. 1.3a, written as
q ′ = h ( Ts − T∞ )
For the air stream:

q′a′ ir = 40 W m 2 ⋅ K ⎡⎣30 − ( −5 ) K = 1, 400 W m 2 <

For the water stream:

′ ater = 900 W m 2 ⋅ K ( 30 −10 ) K = 18, 000 W m 2

q′w <
COMMENTS: The heat loss for the hand in the water stream is an order of magnitude larger than when
in the air stream for the given temperature and convection coefficient conditions. In contrast, the heat
loss in a normal room environment is only 30 W/m2 which is a factor of 400 times less than the loss in the
air stream. In the room environment, the hand would feel comfortable; in the air and water streams, as
you probably know from experience, the hand would feel uncomfortably cold since the heat loss is
excessively high.