DR Ayano Final-Impacts of Sustainable Development Goals On Economic Growth in Nigeria

IMPACTS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS ON NIGERIA ECONOMY
AYANO, DAVID AYANNIYI (PhD)

Phone: (+234-803-482-2401)
Mail: [email protected]
Deputy Director, Management Consultant and Senior Research Fellow, Economic

Management Department, Centre for Management Development, Management Village,
Shangisha, Magodo, Lagos, Nigeria.
Being a Submission at 2nd International Conference on Research in Management and

Social Sciences Organized by Christopher University, Mowe, Ogun State in
Collaboration with Social and Management Scientists Forum
August 2022
ABSTRACT
This study investigated the impact of the first six goals of sustainable development goals on
Nigeria economy from 2000 to 2020. The secondary data for Nigeria on the targets and
indicators on the first six goals of the sustainable development goals: No poverty, zero
hunger, good health and well-being, quality education, gender equality, clean water and
sanitation were obtained from National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), Central Bank of Nigeria
(CBN), and World Development Indicators (WDI). The study used a mix of techniques which
include percentage analysis and multiple regression analysis of the variables. The result
shows that goals 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6 have negative and significant relationship with economic
growth in Nigeria, while only goal 4 has a positive and significant relationship with
economic growth in Nigeria. Thus, Nigeria government needs to revisit her formulation and
implementation of policies that will address improved sustainable development goals
especially in the first six goals under this study.
Keywords: Sustainable development goals, No poverty, zero hunger, good health and well-
being, quality education, gender equality, clean water and sanitation
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Sustainable economic growth is economic development that attempts to satisfy the needs of
humans but in a manner that sustains natural resources and the environment for future
generations. An economy functions in the ecosystem, which provides the factors of
production that fuels economic growth: land, natural resources, labour, and capital.
Sustainable economic growth is managing these resources in a manner that they will not be
depleted and will remain available for future generations. Sustained and inclusive economic
growth is a prerequisite for sustainable development, which can contribute to improved
livelihoods for people around the world. Economic growth can lead to new and better
employment opportunities and provide greater economic security for all.
Sustainable development aims at the creation of sustainable improvements in the quality of

life for all people as the principal goal of development policy. Besides, increasing economic
growth and meeting basic needs, the aim of lifting living standards includes a number of
more specific goals such as bettering people’s health and education opportunities, giving
everyone the chance to participate in public life, helping to ensure a clean environment,
promoting intergenerational equality. Sustainable development also aims at maximizing the
net benefits of economic development, subjecting to maintaining the stock of all
environmental and natural resource assets (physical, human and natural) over time.(WCED,
1987).
The sustainable development goals (SDGs) were developed in the Post-2015 Development
Agenda, 2030 as the future global development framework to succeed the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) which were ended in 2015. The 17 SDGs are: no poverty, zero
hunger, good health and well-being, quality education, gender equality, clean water and
sanitation, affordable and clean energy, decent work and economic growth, industry,
innovation and infrastructure, reduced inequality, sustainable cities and
communities, responsible consumption and production, climate action, life below water, life
on land, peace, justice, and strong institutions, partnerships for the goals. This agenda has 92
paragraphs. Paragraph 59 outlines the 17 Sustainable Development Goals and the associated
169 targets and 232 indicators (United Nations, 2015).
According to United Nation, Nigeria office report, despite the commitment of Nigeria to the
Sustainable Development Goals, the country continues to lag behind when it comes to socio-
economic development that targets the goals. The country had also failed to achieve
the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) which had similar development aspirations and
a similar 15 year implementation period. For instance, in the 2019 SDG index, Nigeria
ranked 159th among 162 countries compared in terms of their achievement of the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs). Nigeria’s performance score of 46.4 is just a little above the
score for the Central African Republic, a country sitting at the lowest rung of the index.
Nigeria is undisputedly the giant of Africa and the most populous nation – with
a population of 213 million and an estimated GDP of 45 trillion naira as at the third quarter of
2021 making it the largest economy in the continent. Between 1951-2021, the number of
people living in Nigeria increased at a rate above two percent with a current death and infant
mortality rate of 11.188 and 56.220 deaths per 1000 live births respectively.
The giant of Africa in 2019 became the global headquarters of poverty with an estimated 91.8
million of its population living in extreme poverty. The World Bank has also projected that
the number of Nigerians living below the poverty line will increase to 95.7 million in
2022.Nigeria is a country with a very low Human Capital Index rating and a high level of
youth unemployment. The country’s unemployment rate rose from 27.1 percent to 33.3
percent from December to March 2021, according to the National Bureau of Statistics,
NBS. On health, Dataphyte review of the budgetary allocation to the health sector in the last
twenty years revealed that Nigeria has never met the 15% target agreed to by the heads of
state of the African Union (AU) countries at the summit which is known as the Abuja
Declaration. The allocation to the health sector in the 2022 proposed budget is just 4.34% of
the entire budget. This means that Nigeria has again failed to meet the 15% commitment it
agreed to since 2001.
On education, according to UNICEF (2021) about 10.5 million of the country’s children aged
5-14 years are not in school which is the largest in the world. In 2017, the World Economic
Forum ranked Nigeria 120th out of 136 countries with regard to the quality of primary
education.
A recent report by the Sustainable Development Goals Center for Africa – ―Africa 2030:
Sustainable Development Goals Three-Year Reality Check‖ – corroborated that little
progress has been made towards the achievement of SDGs in Africa as a whole. One in three
Africans is at the risk of food insecurity while more than half of the global poor (those who
earn under $1.90 PPP per day) are found in Africa.
The Sustainable Development Goals Center for Africa report highlighted that the global
COVID-19 pandemic has caused a humanitarian and economic crisis that poses risks for the
attainment of SDGs and compromised the efforts on the ―Decade of Action.‖
The report estimated an additional 60 million Africans could be pushed into poverty and food
insecurity is expected to nearly double. It also estimates that 110 million African children
and youth are out of school, fragile health care systems are being tested, and women are at
risk of being left out even more. ―Slow economic activity and lockdowns will increase
unemployment and debt while decreasing remittances, development assistance and domestic
revenue are added risks to financing for development and SDGs.’‖ says the report. There
appears to be a consensus among stakeholders that Nigeria does not have the capacity to meet
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030. One of the biggest stumbling blocks to
the achievement of the goals is that the country requires $350 billion to achieve the
goals. $350 billion is about 800% more than the entirety of the country’s 2022 budget and
37.28% of this budget will be financed by debt.
In 2020, 7.9 million people were in need of humanitarian assistance in Nigeria, yet more than
a million people remained beyond the reach of humanitarian actors because they live in areas
controlled by armed groups. Food insecurity remains extremely high as a result of population
displacement, climate change and the economic impact of COVID-19. Additionally, the
nutrition and health situation remains worrying: only 58% of health infrastructures are
functional, and one million people receive less than 15 liters of water per day (Caton, 2021)
Stakeholders had expressed doubt in the country’s ability to achieve the Sustainable
Development Goals. Lack of planning and poor implementation are some of the reasons
identified for the country’s failure to achieve these goals. Others say the country’s budgetary
allocations and priorities have gone in the opposite direction of the achievement of the goals.
The World Food Programme (WFP) situation report shows that about 14.5 million Nigerians
face food insecurity challenges and need humanitarian assistance as of the end of the year's
first quarter. Insecurity, poor transport network, import dependence, global market
disruptions, and climate change contributed to the high food insecurity incidence. With food
inflation rising period-on period and currently at 19.5 percent, it is partly reflecting food
insecurity. Food insecurity suggests hunger crises and might trigger crimes. Thus, the
government needs to continue to update the social registers so that support in the form of
food transfers gets to households experiencing food deprivation. For the government to
increase food production and tame the pace of food prices increase, there is a need for the
government to address insecurity problems decisively and improve the transport system
(CSEA, 2022).
The impacts of COVID-19 could be considerably higher on the urban poor living in slums,
who don’t have access to clean water. UN-Habitat is working with partners to facilitate
access to running water and hand washing in informal settlements. In response to the
COVID-19 outbreak, the International Organization for Migration (IOM) is adjusting its
WASH services to prevent the spread of the disease. This includes continued support to
affected, at-risk, low-capacity and fragile countries to secure WASH services and infection
prevention control in health facilities. UNICEF is urgently appealing for funding and support
to reach more girls and boys with basic water, sanitation and hygiene facilities, especially
those children who are cut off from safe water because they live in remote areas, or in places
where water is untreated or polluted, or because they are without a home, living in a slum or
on the street. While substantial progress has been made in increasing access to clean drinking
water and sanitation, billions of people—mostly in rural areas—still lack these basic services.
Worldwide, one in three people do not have access to safe drinking water, two out of five
people do not have a basic hand-washing facility with soap and water, and more than 673
million people still practice open defecation (UN, 2022).
According to UNICEF (2017), the proportion of the household population in Nigeria with
access to improved drinking water sources is estimated at about 64.1%. The predominant
improved water source is tube-well/borehole (32.3%) while unprotected sources representing
18.5% account for the dominant unimproved source in Nigeria. Based on the settlement
types, approximately 82.9% and 54.6% gained access to improved drinking water sources in
the urban and rural areas of Nigeria respectively.
This study was motivated based on the foregoing narratives about Nigeria current position
towards the achievement of sustainable development goals. The study investigated the
impacts of sustainable development goals on Nigeria economy. Specifically, the study
examined the extent of achievement of the first six goals of SDGs namely: No poverty, zero
hunger, good health and well-being, quality education, gender equality, and clean water and
sanitation from 1990 till 2020. And examined how these goals impact Nigeria economy in
terms of growth and development.
After, the introduction, the study discussed the relevant literatures in section two, while
section three mentioned the appropriate methodology, section four presented, analysed and
interpreted data and finally section five summarized and discussed findings as well as
recommended policies relevant to the study.
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
Conceptual review
Goal 1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere.
1.1 By 2030, eradicate extreme poverty for all people everywhere, currently measured as
people living on less than $1.25 a day.
1.1.1 Proportion of the population living below the international poverty line by sex, age,
employment status and geographic location (urban/rural).
1.2 By 2030, reduce at least by half the proportion of men, women and children of all ages
living in poverty in all its dimensions according to national definitions.
1.2.1 Proportion of population living below the national poverty line, by sex and age.
1.2.2 Proportion of men, women and children of all ages living in poverty in all its
dimensions according to national definitions.
1.3 Implement nationally appropriate social protection systems and measures for all,
including floors, and by 2030 achieve substantial coverage of the poor and the vulnerable.
1.3.1 Proportion of population covered by social protection floors/systems, by sex,

distinguishing children, unemployed persons, older persons, persons with disabilities,
pregnant women, newborns, work-injury victims and the poor and the vulnerable.
1.4 By 2030, ensure that all men and women, in particular the poor and the vulnerable, have
equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to basic services, ownership and control
over land and other forms of property, inheritance, natural resources, appropriate new
technology and financial services, including microfinance.
1.4.1 Proportion of population living in households with access to basic services
1.4.2 Proportion of total adult population with secure tenure rights to land, (a) with legally
recognized documentation, and (b) who perceive their rights to land as secure, by sex and
type of tenure
1.5 By 2030, build the resilience of the poor and those in vulnerable situations and reduce
their exposure and vulnerability to climate-related extreme events and other economic, social
and environmental shocks and disasters.
1.5.1 Number of deaths, missing persons and directly affected persons attributed to disasters
per 100,000 population.
1.5.2 Direct economic loss attributed to disasters in relation to global gross domestic product
(GDP).
1.5.3 Number of countries that adopt and implement national disaster risk reduction strategies
in line with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030.
1.5.4 Proportion of local governments that adopt and implement local disaster risk reduction
strategies in line with national disaster risk reduction strategies.
Goal 2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote
sustainable agriculture
2.1 By 2030, end hunger and ensure access by all people, in particular the poor and people in
vulnerable situations, including infants, to safe, nutritious and sufficient food all year round.
2.1.1 Prevalence of undernourishment
2.1.2 Prevalence of moderate or severe food insecurity in the population, based on the Food
Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES)
2.2 By 2030, end all forms of malnutrition, including achieving, by 2025, the internationally
agreed targets on stunting and wasting in children under 5 years of age, and address the
nutritional needs of adolescent girls, pregnant and lactating women and older persons.
2.2.1 Prevalence of stunting (height for age <-2 standard deviation from the median of the
World Health Organization (WHO) Child Growth Standards) among children under 5 years
of age.
2.2.2 Prevalence of malnutrition (weight for height >+2 or <-2 standard deviation from the
median of the WHO Child Growth Standards) among children under 5 years of age, by type
(wasting and overweight)
2.2.3 Prevalence of anaemia in women aged 15 to 49 years, by pregnancy status (percentage).
2.3 By 2030, double the agricultural productivity and incomes of small-scale food producers,
in particular women, indigenous peoples, family farmers, pastoralists and fishers, including
through secure and equal access to land, other productive resources and inputs, knowledge,
financial services, markets and opportunities for value addition and non-farm employment
2.3.1 Volume of production per labour unit by classes of farming/pastoral/forestry enterprise

size
2.3.2 Average income of small-scale food producers, by sex and indigenous status.
2.4 By 2030, ensure sustainable food production systems and implement resilient agricultural
practices that increase productivity and production, that help maintain ecosystems, that
strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, drought, flooding and
other disasters and that progressively improve land and soil quality.
2.4.1 Proportion of agricultural area under productive and sustainable agriculture.
2.5 By 2020, maintain the genetic diversity of seeds, cultivated plants and farmed and
domesticated animals and their related wild species, including through soundly.
2.5.1 Number of (a) plant and (b) animal genetic resources for food and agriculture secured in
either medium- or long-term conservation facilities managed and diversified seed and plant
banks at the national, regional and international levels, and promote access to and fair and
equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources and associated
traditional knowledge, as internationally agreed.
2.5.2 Proportion of local breeds classified as being at risk of extinction.
2.a Increase investment, including through enhanced international cooperation, in rural

infrastructure, agricultural research and extension services, technology development and
plant and livestock gene banks in order to enhance agricultural productive capacity in
developing countries, in particular least developed countries.
2.a.1 The agriculture orientation index for government expenditures.
2.a.2 Total official flows (official development assistance plus other official flows) to the
agriculture sector.
2.b Correct and prevent trade restrictions and distortions in world agricultural markets,
including through the parallel elimination of all forms of agricultural export subsidies and all
export measures with equivalent effect, in accordance with the mandate of the Doha
Development Round.
2.b.1 Agricultural export subsidies.
2.c Adopt measures to ensure the proper functioning of food commodity markets and their
derivatives and facilitate timely access to market information, including on food reserves, in
order to help limit extreme food price volatility.
2.c.1 Indicator of food price anomalies.
Goal 3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.
3.1 By 2030, reduce the global maternal mortality ratio to less than 70 per 100,000 live births.
3.1.1 Maternal mortality ratio.
3.1.2 Proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel.
3.2 By 2030, end preventable deaths of newborns and children under 5 years of age, with all
countries aiming to reduce neonatal mortality to at least as low as 12 per 1,000 live births and
under-5 mortality to at least as low as 25 per 1,000 live births.
3.2.1 Under-5 mortality rate.
3.2.2 Neonatal mortality rate.
3.3 By 2030, end the epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and neglected tropical
diseases and combat hepatitis, water-borne diseases and other communicable diseases.
3.3.1 Number of new HIV infections per 1,000 uninfected population, by sex, age and key
populations 3.3.2 Tuberculosis incidence per 100,000 population.
3.3.3 Malaria incidence per 1,000 population.
3.3.4 Hepatitis B incidence per 100,000 population.
3.3.5 Number of people requiring interventions against neglected tropical diseases.
3.4 By 2030, reduce by one third premature mortality from non-communicable diseases
through prevention and treatment and promote mental health and well-being.
3.4.1 Mortality rate attributed to cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes or chronic

respiratory disease.
3.4.2 Suicide mortality rate.
3.5 Strengthen the prevention and treatment of substance abuse, including narcotic drug
abuse and harmful use of alcohol
3.5.1 Coverage of treatment interventions (pharmacological, psychosocial and rehabilitation

and aftercare services) for substance use disorders.
3.5.2 Alcohol per capita consumption (aged 15 years and older) within a calendar year in
litres of pure alcohol
3.6 By 2020, halve the number of global deaths and injuries from road traffic accidents
3.6.1 Death rate due to road traffic injuries
3.7 By 2030, ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health-care services,
including for family planning, information and education, and the integration of reproductive
health into national strategies and programmes.
3.7.1 Proportion of women of reproductive age (aged 15–49 years) who have their need for
family planning satisfied with modern methods
3.7.2 Adolescent birth rate (aged 10–14 years; aged 15–19 years) per 1,000 women in that
age group.
3.8 Achieve universal health coverage, including financial risk protection, access to quality
essential health-care services and access to safe, effective, quality and affordable essential
medicines and vaccines for all.
3.8.1 Coverage of essential health services.

3.8.2 Proportion of population with large household expenditures on health as a share of total
household expenditure or income.
3.9 By 2030, substantially reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from hazardous
chemicals and air, water and soil pollution and contamination
3.9.1 Mortality rate attributed to household and ambient air pollution
3.9.2 Mortality rate attributed to unsafe water, unsafe sanitation and lack of hygiene
(exposure to unsafe Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for All (WASH) services)
3.9.3 Mortality rate attributed to unintentional poisoning
3.a Strengthen the implementation of the World Health Organization Framework Convention
on Tobacco Control in all countries, as appropriate.
3.a.1 Age-standardized prevalence of current tobacco use among persons aged 15 years and
older.
3.b Support the research and development of vaccines and medicines for the communicable
and non-communicable diseases that primarily affect developing countries, provide access to
affordable essential medicines and vaccines, in accordance with the Doha Declaration on the
TRIPS Agreement and Public Health, which affirms the right of developing countries to use
to the full the provisions in the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property
Rights regarding flexibilities to protect public health, and, in particular, provide access to
medicines for all.
3.b.1 Proportion of the target population covered by all vaccines included in their national
programme.
3.b.2 Total net official development assistance to medical research and basic health sectors.
3.b.3 Proportion of health facilities that have a core set of relevant essential medicines
available and affordable on a sustainable basis.
3.c Substantially increase health financing and the recruitment, development, training and
retention of the health workforce in developing countries, especially in least developed
countries and small island developing States
3.c.1 Health worker density and distribution
3.d Strengthen the capacity of all countries, in particular developing countries, for early
warning, risk reduction and management of national and global health risks
3.d.1 International Health Regulations (IHR) capacity and health emergency preparedness
3.d.2 Percentage of bloodstream infections due to selected antimicrobial-resistant organisms.
Goal 4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning
opportunities for all.
4.1 By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys complete free, equitable and quality primary and
secondary education leading to relevant and effective learning outcomes
4.1.1 Proportion of children and young people (a) in grades 2/3; (b) at the end of primary; and
(c) at the end of lower secondary achieving at least a minimum proficiency level in (i)
reading and (ii) mathematics, by sex
4.1.2 Completion rate (primary education, lower secondary education, upper secondary
education)
4.2 By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys have access to quality early childhood
development, care and pre-primary education so that they are ready for primary education
4.2.1 Proportion of children aged 24–59 months who are developmentally on track in health,
learning and psychosocial well-being, by sex.
4.2.2 Participation rate in organized learning (one year before the official primary entry age),
by sex.
4.3 By 2030, ensure equal access for all women and men to affordable and quality technical,
vocational and tertiary education, including university.
4.3.1 Participation rate of youth and adults in formal and non-formal education and training
in the previous 12 months, by sex.
4.4 By 2030, substantially increase the number of youth and adults who have relevant skills,
including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs and entrepreneurship
4.4.1 Proportion of youth and adults with information and communications technology (ICT)
skills, by type of skill.
4.5 By 2030, eliminate gender disparities in education and ensure equal access to all levels of
education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons with disabilities,
indigenous peoples and children in vulnerable situations.
4.5.1 Parity indices (female/male, rural/urban, bottom/top wealth quintile and others such as
disability status, indigenous peoples and conflict-affected, as data become available) for all
education indicators on this list that can be disaggregated.
4.6 By 2030, ensure that all youth and a substantial proportion of adults, both men and
women, achieve literacy and numeracy.
4.6.1 Proportion of population in a given age group achieving at least a fixed level of
proficiency in functional (a) literacy and (b) numeracy skills, by sex.
4.7 By 2030, ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote
sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable
development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture
of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of
culture’s contribution to sustainable development
4.7.1 Extent to which (i) global citizenship education and (ii) education for sustainable
development are mainstreamed in (a) national education policies;(b) curricula; (c) teacher
education; and (d) student assessment
4.a Build and upgrade education facilities that are child, disability and gender sensitive and
provide safe, non-violent,inclusive and effective learning environments for all
4.a.1 Proportion of schools offering basic services, by type of service.
4.b By 2020, substantially expand globally the number of scholarships available to

developing countries, in particular least developed countries, small island developing States
and African countries, for enrolment in higher education, including vocational training and
information and communications technology, technical, engineering and scientific
programmes, in developed countries and other developing countries.
4.b.1 Volume of official development assistance flows for scholarships by sector and type of
study.
4.c By 2030, substantially increase the supply of qualified teachers, including through
international cooperation for teacher training in developing countries, especially least
developed countries and small island developing States.
4.c.1 Proportion of teachers with the minimum required qualifications, by education level.
Goal 5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.
5.1 End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere.
5.1.1 Whether or not legal frameworks are in place to promote, enforce and monitor equality
and non-discrimination on the basis of sex.
5.2 Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private
spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation.
5.2.1 Proportion of ever-partnered women and girls aged 15 years and older subjected to
physical, sexual or psychological violence by a current or former intimate partner in the
previous 12 months, by form of violence and by age.
5.2.2 Proportion of women and girls aged 15 years and older subjected to sexual violence by
persons other than an intimate partner in the previous 12 months, by age and place of
occurrence.
5.3 Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced marriage and female
genital mutilation.
5.3.1 Proportion of women aged 20–24 years who were married or in a union before age 15
and before age 18.
5.3.2 Proportion of girls and women aged 15–49 years who have undergone female genital
mutilation/cutting, by age.
5.4 Recognize and value unpaid care and domestic work through the provision of public
services, infrastructure and social protection policies and the promotion of shared
responsibility within the household and the family as nationally appropriate.
5.4.1 Proportion of time spent on unpaid domestic and care work, by sex, age and location.
5.5 Ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at
all levels of decision making in political, economic and public life.
5.5.1 Proportion of seats held by women in (a) national parliaments and (b) local
governments.
5.5.2 Proportion of women in managerial positions.
5.6 Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights as
agreed in accordance with the Programme of Action of the International Conference on
Population and Development and the Beijing Platform for Action and the outcome documents
of their review conferences
5.6.1 Proportion of women aged 15–49 years who make their own informed decisions
regarding sexual relations, contraceptive use and reproductive health care.
5.6.2 Number of countries with laws and regulations that guarantee full and equal access to
women and men aged 15 years and older to sexual and reproductive health care, information
and education.
5.a Undertake reforms to give women equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to
ownership and control over land and other forms of property, financial services, inheritance
and natural resources, in accordance with national laws.
5.a.1 (a) Proportion of total agricultural population with ownership or secure rights over
agricultural land, by sex; and
(b) Share of women among owners or rights-bearers of agricultural land, by type of tenure.
5.a.2 Proportion of countries where the legal framework (including customary law)
guarantees women’s equal rights to land ownership and/or control.
5.b Enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communications
technology, to promote the empowerment of women
5.b.1 Proportion of individuals who own a mobile telephone, by sex.
5.c Adopt and strengthen sound policies and enforceable legislation for the promotion of
gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls at all levels.
5.c.1 Proportion of countries with systems to track and make public allocations for gender
equality and women’s empowerment.
Goal 6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.
6.1 By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for
all.
6.1.1 Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services.
6.2 By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end
open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in
vulnerable situations.
6.2.1 Proportion of population using (a) safely managed sanitation services and (b) a hand-
washing facility with soap and water.
6.3 By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and
minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated
wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally.
6.3.1 Proportion of domestic and industrial wastewater flows safely treated.
6.3.2 Proportion of bodies of water with good ambient water quality.
6.4 By 2030, substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure
sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and substantially
reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity.
6.4.1 Change in water-use efficiency over time.
6.4.2 Level of water stress: freshwater withdrawal as a proportion of available freshwater

resources.
6.5 By 2030, implement integrated water resources management at all levels, including
through trans-boundary cooperation as appropriate.
6.5.1 Degree of integrated water resources management.
6.5.2 Proportion of trans-boundary basin area with an operational arrangement for water
cooperation.
6.6 By 2020, protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests,
wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes.
6.6.1 Change in the extent of water-related ecosystems over time
6.a By 2030, expand international cooperation and capacity-building support to developing

countries in water and sanitation-related activities and programmes, including water
harvesting, desalination, water efficiency, wastewater treatment, recycling and reuse
technologies.
6.a.1 Amount of water- and sanitation-related official development assistance that is part of a
government coordinated spending plan.
6.b Support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water and
sanitation management.
6.b.1 Proportion of local administrative units with established and operational policies and
procedures for participation of local communities in water and sanitation management.
Theoretical review
According to Sanusi (2010), every nation strives for development. Economic progress is
merely a component of development but development goes beyond pure economics. In an
ultimate sense, development must encompass more than the material and financial side of
people’s lives. Development is, therefore, a multidimensional process involving the
reorganization and reorientation of the entire economic and social systems. In addition to
improvements in incomes and output, it typically involves radical changes in institutional,
social and administrative structures, as well as in popular attitudes and in many cases even
customs and beliefs. The post-World War II literature on economic development has been
dominated by four major and, sometimes, competing strands of thought: (a) the linear stages-
of-growth model, (b) theories and patterns of structural change (c) international dependence
revolution (d) the neoclassical, free market counterrevolution and (e) balanced growth model.
But for the purpose of this study we are going to focused on Linear stages-of-growth model.
The Linear Stages-of-Growth Model - The stages of growth model of development, was
advocated by an American economic historian W.W. Rostow (1959). He propounded that it
was possible to identify all societies, in their economic dimensions, as lying within one of
five categories: the traditional society, the preconditions for take-off into self-sustaining
growth, the take-off, the drive to maturity and the age of high mass consumption. He further
stated that one of the principal strategies of development necessary for take-off was the
mobilization of domestic and foreign savings to generate sufficient investment to accelerate
economic growth. This view assumes that domestic and foreign savings only are sufficient
for growth. The theory was supported by the Harrod-Domar model (1946) which
demonstrated that countries with higher savings ratio are expected to grow faster than those
with lower rates and that the main obstacle to development is the relatively low level of new
capital formation in most developing countries. In practice, however, it has been observed
that the mechanisms of development embodied in the theory of stages of growth do not
always work. This is not because savings and investment are not a necessary condition for
growth but because they are not a sufficient condition. Savings and investment will propel
growth if and only if such other conditions as integrated commodity and developed financial
(money and capital) markets, highly developed infrastructure, well-trained and educated
workforce, the motivation to succeed, and an efficient government bureaucracy/institutions,
etc. are prevalent (Sanusi, 2010).
Empirical review
Yu et al. (2022) used various econometric estimations to measure the effect of inequality and
poverty on economic development during 1990 to 2016 in Vietnam. Various econometric
estimation tests confirmed the presence of a long-run association between inequality and
poverty, and economic growth is the matter of poverty headcount ratio in Vietnam. When we
added the investment-to-GDP ratio and the number of years in education, it decreases by -
0.144. This is reduced to -0.05 when log population growth rate was added while the
employment, the coefficient decreases to -0.04 and becomes statistically insignificant. We
found a negative impact of poverty and we reassess the hypothesis's emphasis on inequality
and poverty and their combining effect of inclusive economic growth. Interestingly our
results verify the previous findings that inequality and poverty show a negative impact on
economic growth. The negative impact of poverty and inequality on economic growth
appears to be concentrated at the high poverty level. These findings recommend that poverty
reduction policies should be beneficial in encouraging economic growth even if they do not
decrease income inequality.
Ugwu, Obodoechi, Agu, and Olisa (2022), investigate the impact of economic policies on
providing sustainable water and sanitation facilities in Nigeria. In this study the binary
logistic model was adopted to understand how effective these policies are in providing these
facilities. The results show that expenditure on social and community service leads to an
increase in the use of unsafe sanitation facilities in the country. Furthermore, the study also
shows that expenditure in the health services sector helps in reducing the use of such unsafe
facilities. From the results, authors recommend that policies aimed toward providing
sustainable water and sanitation facilities need proper checks, improvement, and effective
implementation so as to achieve viable results.
Bala and Fibha (2022), dissected targets SDG 6.1 and 6.2 comparable to the state strategy and
mediations in Nigeria, looking at the frameworks that have neglected to add to accomplishing
a fair admittance to protected and safe drinking water for all, neglecting to address the
weaknesses experienced by women and children. The lack of access to adequate water,
sanitation and hygiene (WASH) in Nigeria has been credited to a huge level of diarrheal and
intestinal diseases in the country. The discoveries from this exploration study show that poor
policy making in Nigeria is compounding the difficulties connected with hygiene, water
insecurity, wellbeing and security, prompting potential issues like hunger, illness, mis-
governance and conflict. To address these issues, Nigeria’s administration needs to execute
some key policies that reconsider their water availability to guarantee the implementation of
SDGs 6.1 and 6.2.
Onwuka (2021), examined the relationship between poverty, income inequality and economic
growth in Nigeria. The study used time series data from National Bureau of Statistics (NBS)
and Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) Statistical Bulletin between the periods from 1981 to
2019. The study employed the use of Augmented Dickey Fuller test, Co integration test and
Error Correction technique. The findings revealed that income inequality has a negative
relationship with economic growth in the country while poverty was found to be positively
related to economic growth. Similarly, the findings also revealed that poverty and income
inequality has an insignificant effect on economic growth in Nigeria.
Anyanwu et al (2021) examined the female labour force participation and economic growth
nexus in Nigeria. Time series data for the period of 1981 to 2015 were used. With the
establishment of cointegrating relationships, they used the Ordinary Least Square (OLS)
estimation technique to obtain the long run elasticity coefficients. The major finding shows
an inverse relationship between Female labour force participation and economic growth.
Therefore, the study recommends that active labour market policies are needed particularly in
Nigeria to promote women’s labour market participation in the interest of overall economic
growth and development in Nigeria.
Aigbedion, Iyakwari and Kyang (2017), focused on the empirical examination of the impact
of education sector on economic growth in Nigeria. Time series data were used and the study
employed ordinary least squares (OLS) tools of analysis in the investigation of the impact and
relationships among the economic variables, multiple regression model was also used and the
data was estimated using e-views 9.0 software. The results revealed that the education sector
has a positive impact on economic growth in Nigeria. This implies that economic growth can
be improved by increasing education investment in Nigeria. But Government Expenditure on
Education is negatively related to Real Gross Domestic Product in Nigeria and statistically
significant at 5 percent level of significance in explaining variation in the Real Gross
Domestic Product in Nigeria, this may be due to the fact that education funds are not fully or
properly utilized in Nigeria. Therefore, the study recommends that the government through
budget planning, implementation and monitoring should ensure that education funds are
properly and fully utilized in Nigeria to improve the impact of education sector on economic
growth in Nigeria.
Fosu (2017) investigated the role of income inequality in transforming economic growth into
poverty reduction using data for both country-specific and developing countries from the
early 1990s. Poverty headcount ratios of 1.25 USD and 2.50 USD per day were adopted. The
study found that the significant factor driving the increase and decline in poverty is the
average income growth. Evidence showed that in states where the primary driver of poverty
reduction has been growth, there is an opinion that more progress with even income
distribution.
Babatunde and Adefade (2016) investigated the long run relationship between education and
sustainable economic development in Nigeria between 1970 and 2003 through the application
of Johansen Cointegration technique and Vector Error Correction Methodology. The result
revealed that a well-educated labour force possessed a positive and significant impact on
economic growth and development through factor accumulation and the evolution of total
factor productivity
Ogujiuba, Ehigiamusoe and Udefuna (2016), examined the challenges and implications of
sustainable development in Africa with a special focus on Nigeria. Using descriptive and
analytical approaches, the paper posits that the prominent challenges which hamper the
achievement of sustainable development in Africa include; extreme poverty, rapid population
growth rate, rapid urbanization, deforestation, environmental impact of extractive industries,
rate of economic growth, rural development, climatic variability and natural environmental
hazard. The paper considers the implications of these challenges on post 2015 agenda in
Africa and suggests plausible policy options to address social, economic and environmental
sustainability. Since it was discovered that inconsistency in government policies among
others things have impacted adversely on the sustainability of Nigerian development, the
paper furthermore recommends the establishment of the Sustainable Development Trust Fund
(SDF) saddled with the responsibility of enforcing economic, social and environmental
sustainability.
Fadi et al. (2014), studied the relationship between economic growth and income inequality
in developing economics, which they classified as high-income and low-income developing
countries (HIDC and LIDC). They make such distinction on theoretical and empirical
grounds. Empirically, the World Bank has classified developing economies in this manner
since 1978. The data in the sample are also supportive of such classifications. They provide
theoretical scaffolding that uses asymmetric credit constraints as a premise for separating
developing economies in such a way. The study shows strong evidence of a negative
relationship between income inequality and economic growth in LIDC to be in stark contrast
with a positive inequality–growth relationship for HIDC.
Onisanwa (2014) examined the impacts of health on Economic growth in Nigeria. The
Cointegration, and Granger Causality techniques were used in analysing Quarterly time series
data of Nigeria for the period of 1995-2009. The study finds that GDP is positively
influenced by health indicators in the long run and health indicators cause the per capita
GDP. It reveals that health indicators have a long run impact on economic growth. Thus, the
impact of health is a long run phenomenon .The major policy implication of the study is that,
a high level of economic growth can be achieved by improving the health status of the
populace, especially if the current status is at low ebb.
Mayer (2004) in his study on the intergenerational impact of health on economic growth
argues that human development is an intergenerational process in which early child
development plays a crucial role, and which can be characterized by poverty trap. He claims
that preventing the formation of human capital, will hampers economic growth in the long-
run, and reduce the scope of growth policies in other sectors of the economy. He identified
factors such as early child nutrition and health as having indirect effects on adult income
through education which explain a large portion of the long-term impact of nutrition and
health on economic growth. He concluded that, an integral public policy for long-term
growth and development aiming at dismantling poverty traps so as to eradicate poverty and
inequality must sufficiently emphasize the formation of the coming generations, beginning
with early child development. In particular, it must eradicate child malnutrition, including
micronutrient deficiency and obesity.
3.0 METHODOLOGY
Research design
This study employed descriptive survey research design. This study examined how an
independent variable affects a dependent variable. Thus, this study used independent
variables as sustainable development goals – Number of Population living below poverty
level (proxy for poverty), gross national income per capita (proxy for hunger), Under-5
mortality rate (proxy for good health and well-being), secondary school enrolment rate
(proxy for education), female labour force participation rate (proxy for gender equality),
percentage of population access to clean and drinkable water (proxy for clean water),
percentage of population access to basic sanitation (proxy for good sanitation), while we have
the dependent variable for this study as change in real gross domestic products (proxy for
economic growth) from 2000 to 2020.
Model specification
The specification for this study were based on Rostow’s Linear Stages-of-Growth Model and
modification of the work of Yu et al. (2022) used various econometric estimations to measure
the effect of inequality and poverty on economic development during 1990 to 2016 in
Vietnam.
Functional Models:
( ) ( )
( ) (2)
Econometric Models:
( )
Null Hypothesis, H0:
( )
Null Hypothesis, H0 :
PASB = Percentage of population that have access to basic sanitation

RGDPG = Percentage Change in Real Gross Domestic Product - proxy for Economic Growth
PACSW = Percentage of Population that have access to Clean and Safe
Water
FLFPR = Female Labour Force Participation Rate (Gender)
IMR = Infant Mortality rate, under-5 (per 1,000 live births)
PHCR = Poverty headcount ratio at $1.90 a day (2011 PPP) (% of population)
SFI = Severe food insecurity in the population (%)
SSE = Secondary School Enrollment - proxy for Education
= stochastic factors for econometric model 1
= stochastic factors for econometric model 2
Definitions of variables:
Change in Real Gross Domestic Product (proxy for economic growth)
In broad terms, an increase in real GDP is interpreted as a sign that the economy is doing
well. When real GDP is growing strongly, employment is likely to be increasing as
companies hire more workers for their factories and people have more money in their
pockets. GDP is important because it gives information about the size of the economy and
how an economy is performing. The growth rate of real GDP is often used as an indicator of
the general health of the economy (Callen, 2020).
Poverty headcount ratio at $1.90 a day (2011 PPP) (% of population) (proxy for
poverty)
Poverty headcount ratio at $1.90 a day is the percentage of the population living on less than
$1.90 a day at 2011 international prices.
Infant Mortality rate, under-5 (per 1,000 live births) (proxy for good health)
Infant mortality is the death of an infant before his or her first birthday. The infant mortality
rate is the number of infant deaths for every 1,000 live births. In addition to giving us key
information about maternal and infant health, the infant mortality rate is an important marker
of the overall health of a society. In 2020, the infant mortality rate in the United States was
5.4 deaths per 1,000 live births. (CDC, 2020).
Gross National Income per capital (proxy for standard of living/hunger)

The GNI per capita is the dollar value of a country's final income in a year, divided by its
population. It should be reflecting the average before tax income of a country's citizens.
Knowing a country's GNI per capita is a good first step toward understanding the country's
economic strengths and needs, as well as the general standard of living enjoyed by the
average citizen. A country's GNI per capita tends to be closely linked with other indicators
that measure the social, economic, and environmental well-being of the country and its
people.
Secondary School Enrollment (proxy for Education)
Gross enrollment ratio is the ratio of total enrollment, regardless of age, to the population of
the age group that officially corresponds to the level of education shown. Secondary
education completes the provision of basic education that began at the primary level, and
aims at laying the foundations for lifelong learning and human development, by offering
more subject- or skill-oriented instruction using more specialized teachers. (UNESCO
Institute for Statistics, 2018).
Female Labour Force Participation Rate (proxy for gender)
This is defined as the proportion of the female population of working age (15 -65 years) who
are employed (included self-employed) or are seeking work. Basically, the female labour
force participation rate is the ratio of two numbers: between the females who are classified as
economically active in the labour force and the females inactive in the labour force.
Economically active females include those who are unemployed and those who are
unemployed but looking for work. This also includes women who already in the labour force
plus the inactive population. The inactive population excludes unemployed persons such as
children, inmates of institution, the disabled and the elderly. Therefore, the appropriate
definition of female labour force participation is the percentage of the female population that
has worked in the reference period or is willing to work (Julius, 2011).
Percentage of population that have access to basic sanitation (proxy for sanitation)
Basic sanitation is defined as having access to facilities for the safe disposal of human waste
(feces and urine), as well as having the ability to maintain hygienic conditions, through
services such as garbage collection, industrial/hazardous waste management, and wastewater
treatment and disposal (WHO, 2022).
Population that have access to Clean and Safe Water (proxy for water)
Sustainable Development Goal target 6.1 calls for universal and equitable access to safe and
affordable drinking water. The target is tracked with the indicator of ―safely managed
drinking water services‖ – drinking water from an improved water source that is located on
premises, available when needed, and free from faecal and priority chemical contamination.
(WHO, 2022).
4.0 DATA ANALYIS, RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION
Descriptive statistic
Table 4.1: Descriptive statistic and interpretation
__________________________________________________________________________
RGDPG PHCR IMR GNIPC SSE FLFPR PASCW PABS

Mean 6.332377 56.00688 141.4190 50.58103 27847732 55.79714 18.83189 33.91272
Median 4.887387 56.40000 135.5000 50.84700 28462570 55.79000 19.30548 33.60096
Maximum 33.73578 64.90000 182.9000 54.30600 31752780 56.66000 19.43004 36.14097
Minimum 1.231750 39.10000 113.8000 46.26600 20509658 54.77000 16.77415 32.60096
Std. Dev. 6.683485 5.507577 20.47427 2.724155 3588897. 0.591271 0.802087 1.095993
Skewness 3.466874 -1.001507 0.613058 -0.174313 -0.701791 -0.112203 -1.283451 0.665713
Kurtosis 14.89345 5.941898 2.225735 1.657436 2.195275 1.806261 3.422687 2.170751
Jarque-Bera 165.8395 11.08348 1.839993 1.683517 2.290422 1.290949 5.921694 2.152804

Probability 0.000000 0.003920 0.398520 0.430952 0.318157 0.524414 0.051775 0.340820
Sum 132.9799 1176.144 2969.800 1062.202 5.85E+08 1171.740 395.4696 712.1671

Sum Sq. Dev. 893.3794 606.6680 8383.912 148.4204 2.58E+14 6.992029 12.86688 24.02400
Observations 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21
________________________________________________________________________________________
Source: Author’s Computation from E-View 10 Software
Table 4.1 shows the descriptive statistic of all the variables under this study. Real gross
domestic products growth indicates that its mean stood at 6.332377 from year 2000 to 2020
in Nigeria. The maximum value of 33.73578 recorded in 2004, while its minimum value was
1.231750 in 2018 owing to economy recession Nigeria experienced in 2016.
The poverty head count ratio which measure the state of poverty in Nigeria recorded a mean
value of 56.00688 from year 2000 to 2020. The maximum headcount ratio value was
64.90000 recorded in 2000, 2001 and 2002, while the minimum headcount ratio was
39.10000 and recorded in 2018, which resulted from the economy rebound from recession
that occurred in 2016.
Infant mortality rate is a measure of quality health and recorded mean value of 141.4190 in
every 1,000 of child birth in Nigeria from 2000 to 2020. Maximum value of infant mortality
rate stood at 182.9 and was recorded in the year 2000, while the minimum value stood at
113.8 and was recorded in the year 2020. The foregoing results were demonstration of
improved in reproductive health in Nigeria.
Gross national income per capita which measure standard of living and hunger stipulated an
average value of 50.58103 from 2000 to 2020. The maximum value of gross national income
per capita stood at 54.30600 in 2018 while its minimum value stood at 46.26600 in 2000.
Secondary school enrollment was on average at 27,847,732 in Nigeria from year 2000 to
2020. The maximum value of secondary school enrollment stood at 31,752,780 and was
recorded in the year 2015, while its minimum value stood at 20,509,658 and was recorded in
the year 2000.
Female labour force participation rate is a measure of gender. The mean value of female
labour force participation rate in Nigeria stood at 55.79714 between year 2000 and 2020. The
maximum value of the female labour force participation rate stood at 56.66000 and was
recorded in the year 2018, while its minimum value stood at 54.77000 and was recorded in
the year 2004. This is a reflection of variation of government policies in favour equal gender
participation at workplace.
Percentage of population with access to safe and clean water is a measure of access to
drinkable water. The mean value of percentage access to safe and drinkable water stood at
18.83189 from 2000 to 2020. The maximum value stood at 19.43004 in the year 2013, while
its minimum value stood at 16.77415 in the year 2000. Thus, there is a decline in the
percentage of population in Nigeria that have access to clean and safe water from 2013 to
date.
Percentage of population with access to basic sanitation is a measure of sanitation. The mean
value of Nigerian that have access to basic sanitation in terms of modern toilets and not open
defecation stood at 33.91272 from 2000 to 2020. The maximum value of percentage of
population of Nigerians with access to basic sanitation stood at 36.14097 in 2000 while its
minimum value stood at 32.60096 in 2014. Thus, the foregoing results show a decline in the
percentage of Nigeria population with access to basic sanitation.
Unit root tests
Table 4.2: Augmented Dickey-Fuller Test @ 5% critical value

_________________________________________________________________________
Variables Level 1st Difference 2nd Difference Integration of Order_
RGDPG - 4.462182*** - - I (0)
(-3.658446)
PHCR -3.570195 3.817652** - I (1)
(-3.658446) (3.690814)
GNIPC 4.120635 - - I (0)
(-3.710482)
IMR -9.488037*** - - I (0)
(-3.673616)
SSE -0.433974 -3.292843 -4.184870** I (2)
(-3.658446) (-3.673616) (-3.710482)
FLFPR -3.908401** - - I (0)
(-3.658446)
PASCW -2.251727 -4.459917*** - I (1)
(-3.673616) (-3.673616)
PABS 4.808146 - - I (0)
(-3.733200)
Source: Author’s Computation from E-View 10 Software (*** represent 1% probability level
and ** represent 5% probability level), while values in bracket ( ) represent t-statistic
Table 4.2 shows that growth of the real gross domestic product, gross national income per
capita, infant mortality rate, female labour force participation rate, and percentage of
population with access to basic sanitation are stationary at level, while poverty headcount
ratio and percentage of population with access to safe and clean water are stationary at first
difference. Finally, secondary school enrolment become stationary at second difference.
Analysis of Model 1:
Johansen Co-integration Test
Given the non-stationarity of some of the variables, Johansen co-integration test was carried
out for variables in model 1.
Table 4.3: Johansen Co-integration result for model 1
______________________________________________________________________
Trend assumption: Linear deterministic trend (restricted)

Series: RGDPG PHCR GNIPC IMR SSE
Lags interval (in first differences): 1 to 1
Unrestricted Cointegration Rank Test (Trace)
Hypothesized Trace 0.05

No. of CE(s) Eigenvalue Statistic Critical Value Prob.**
None * 0.991313 265.6784 88.80380 0.0000

At most 1 * 0.982370 175.5060 63.87610 0.0000
At most 2 * 0.927556 98.78149 42.91525 0.0000
At most 3 * 0.777185 48.90748 25.87211 0.0000
At most 4 * 0.657904 20.38059 12.51798 0.0020
Trace test indicates 5 cointegrating eqn(s) at the 0.05 level

* denotes rejection of the hypothesis at the 0.05 level
**MacKinnon-Haug-Michelis (1999) p-values
Unrestricted Cointegration Rank Test (Maximum Eigenvalue)
Hypothesized Max-Eigen 0.05

No. of CE(s) Eigenvalue Statistic Critical Value Prob.**
None * 0.991313 90.17241 38.33101 0.0000

At most 1 * 0.982370 76.72451 32.11832 0.0000
At most 2 * 0.927556 49.87402 25.82321 0.0000
At most 3 * 0.777185 28.52688 19.38704 0.0018
At most 4 * 0.657904 20.38059 12.51798 0.0020
Max-eigenvalue test indicates 5 cointegrating eqn(s) at the 0.05 level

* denotes rejection of the hypothesis at the 0.05 level
**MacKinnon-Haug-Michelis (1999) p-values
___________________________________________________________________

The results of the cointegration tests are presented in Table 4.3 for variables in the model 1 at
their various levels of stationarity. The trace and maximum eigenvalues test statistics indicate
that the hypothesis of no cointegration among the variables is rejected at the 5% significance
level. From the result, Trace test indicates 5 cointegrating equations at the 0.05 level. While
maximum engenvalue statistics also, indicates 5 cointegrating equations at the 0.05 level.
The results from both the Trace and Maximum Eigenvalue tests showed that there are 5 co-
integrating equation in the system. This means that the null hypotheses of no co-integration
are rejected. The implication of rejecting the null hypotheses at 0.05 levels is that there exists
a long-run relationship among the variables in the model.
Table 4.4: Ordinary Least Square with Dependent variable: RGDPG in Model 1
Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob.
C 224.8623 1412.838 0.159157 0.8755

PHCR -0.348284 0.391740 -0.889069 0.3871
LOG(GNIPC) -193.0234 140.6156 -1.372703 0.1888
IMR -0.104392 0.641965 -0.162613 0.8729
LOG(SSE) 33.43187 64.94322 0.514786 0.6137
R-squared 0.265389 Mean dependent var 6.332377

Adjusted R-squared 0.081737 S.D. dependent var 6.683485
S.E. of regression 6.404520 Akaike info criterion 6.756142
Sum squared resid 656.2860 Schwarz criterion 7.004838
Log likelihood -65.93949 Hannan-Quinn criter. 6.810115
F-statistic 1.445062 Durbin-Watson stat 2.378553
Prob(F-statistic) 0.264878
Table 4.4 shows that the coefficient of determination (R-square) and adjusted R-square are
0.265389 and 0.081737 respectively. The foregoing results indicate that 26% of the
independent variables of this model explained the variations in the dependent variable. The F-
statistic value is 1.445062 and significant at the probability level of 10%, shows the best fit of
the model. Durbin-Watson statistic value is 2.378553 which indicate that the model is devoid
of serial correlation.
Poverty headcount ratio- Proxy for poverty (SDG 1)

The coefficient of poverty headcount ratio is (-0.348284) and not significant. Thus the
foregoing result implies that 1% increase in headcount ratio leads on average to 0.35%
decrease in real gross domestic product in Nigeria within the period of study. There exists a
negative relationship between real gross domestic product (a proxy for economic growth) and
poverty headcount ratio (a proxy for poverty). Thus, this result indicates that poverty has
negative impacts on economic growth in Nigeria. The foregoing results signify that Nigeria
needs to improve on the sustainable development goals 1, which focus on reduction of
poverty among men and women to half by 2030.
Gross national income per capita – Proxy for hunger (SDG 2)
The coefficient of gross national income per capita is (-193.0234) and not significant. Thus
the foregoing result implies that 1% increase gross national income per capita leads on
average to 193% decrease in real gross domestic product in Nigeria within the period of
study. There exists a negative relationship between real gross domestic product (a proxy for
economic growth) and gross national income per capita (a proxy for hunger). Thus, this result
indicates that hunger has negative impacts on economic growth in Nigeria. The foregoing
results signify that Nigeria is far from achieving sustainable development goals 2, which
focus on end hunger and ensuring food security by 2030. Therefore, there is need for all tiers
of government and private sectors in Nigeria to re-strategize on how to achieve sustainable
development goals by 2030.
Infant mortality rate – Proxy for good health (SDG 3)
The coefficient of infant mortality rate is (-0.104392) and not significant. Thus the foregoing
result implies that 1% increase of infant mortality rate leads on average to 0.10% decrease in
real gross domestic product in Nigeria within the period of study. There exists a negative
relationship between real gross domestic product (a proxy for economic growth) and infant
mortality rate (a proxy for good health). Thus, this result indicates that state of health has
negative impacts on economic growth in Nigeria. The foregoing results signify that Nigeria is
far from achieving sustainable development goals 3, which focus on good health for citizens
by 2030. Therefore, there is need for government to improve on primary, secondary and
tertiary health delivery in Nigeria so as to meet up with the health requirement of sustainable
development goals by year 2030.
Secondary school enrolment – proxy for quality education (SDG 4)
The coefficient of secondary school enrolment is 33.43187 and not significant. Thus the
foregoing result implies that 1% increase of secondary school enrolment leads on average to
33.4% increase in real gross domestic product in Nigeria within the period of study. There
exists a positive relationship between real gross domestic product (a proxy for economic
growth) and secondary school enrolment (a proxy for quality education). Thus, this result
indicates that education has positive impacts on economic growth in Nigeria. The foregoing
results signify that Nigeria is working towards achieving sustainable development goals 4,
which focus on inclusive and equitable quality education for citizens by 2030. However,
government needs to resolve myriads of issue standing on their ways of progress towards
achieving inclusive and equitable quality education aspect of sustainable development goals.
Analysis of Model 2:
Bound Co-integration Test for Model 2

Since all variables are stationary at level and first difference, we conduct Bound co-
integration test in order to know if there is a long run relation among the variables in model 2.
Table 4.5: ARDL F-Bound Test for Model 2
F-Bounds Test Null Hypothesis: No levels relationship
Test Statistic Value Signif. I(0) I(1)
Asymptotic:
n=1000
F-statistic 9.079659 10% 2.97 3.74
k 3 5% 3.38 4.23
2.5% 3.8 4.68
1% 4.3 5.23
___________________________________________________________________
Table 4.5 shows that F-statistic is greater than lower and upper bound critical values at 5%
and 1% respectively, therefore we can state that there exists a long run relationship among the
variables. Thus, the variables will eventually attained a state of equilibrium or stable state.
Optimal Lag
Table 4.6: Optimal Lag selection for Model 2
VAR Lag Order Selection Criteria

Endogenous variables: RGDPG FLFPR PASCW PABS
Lag LogL LR FPE AIC SC HQ
0 -93.01752 NA 0.192161 9.701752 9.900898 9.740627

155.8627 0.910906 1.906639 1.105284
1 10.89094 * 3.05e-05* * * *
* indicates lag order selected by the criterion

LR: sequential modified LR test statistic (each test at 5% level)
FPE: Final prediction error
AIC: Akaike information criterion
SC: Schwarz information criterion
HQ: Hannan-Quinn information criterion
Table 4.6 shows that the maximum lag for the model 2 is 1, owing to the fact that high
numbers of lag selection criterion supported lag 1, which is indicated by (* ).
Akaike Information Criteria
6.7
6.6
6.5
6.4
6.3
6.2
6.1
6.0
ARDL(1, 0, 0, 0)
Figure 4.1: Criteria graph for Model 2

ARDL Result and Interpretation for Model 2
Table 4.7: ARDL Result - Model 2, Dependent Variable RGDPG_________________
Model selection method: Akaike info criterion (AIC)
Dynamic regressors (0 lag, automatic):
Fixed regressors: FLFPR PASCW PABS C @TREND
Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob.*
RGDPG(-1) -0.385956 0.210160 -1.836490 0.0876

FLFPR -23.50792 6.563875 -3.581409 0.0030
PASCW -18.11731 9.127939 -1.984820 0.0671
PABS -8.121848 5.456055 -1.488594 0.1588
C 1916.956 631.8789 3.033740 0.0089
@TREND 2.000163 0.862071 2.320183 0.0359
R-squared 0.585786 Mean dependent var 6.383091


Table 4.7 shows the dynamics and short run relationship among the variables. The R-square
is 0.585786 and adjusted R–square is 0.437852, the foregoing results show that
approximately 59% of the explanatory variables explained the dependent variable – RGDPG.
While the F-statistic value is 290.0199 at 1 % level of probability. The Durbin-Watson value
is 2.150975, which indicate that the model is not spurious and devoid of serial correlation.
Coefficient Diagnostics:
Table 4.8: Error Correction Model 2
ECM Regression
Case 4: Unrestricted Constant and Restricted Trend
C 1918.957 251.1967 7.639259 0.0000

CointEq(-1)* -1.385956 0.181408 -7.639976 0.0000
R-squared 0.764303 Mean dependent var -0.164412

Table 4.8 reveals that co-integration coefficient is – 1.385956 which confirm that the speed of
adjustment between short run and long run equations is 138 with the expected negative value
and significant at 1% probability level. The R–square and adjusted R-square are 0.764303
and 0.751209 respectively. Thus, the foregoing value of adjusted R-square indicated that 75%
of the explanatory variables explained the dependent variable. The value of Durbin Watson is
2.150975 which indicate no linear serial correlation and that the equation is not spurious.
Table 4.9: Long run Coefficient with Dependent variable - RGDPG
FLFPR -16.96152 4.407297 -3.848508 0.0018

PASCW -13.07207 6.661701 -1.962271 0.0699
PABS -5.860103 3.962906 -1.478739 0.1614
@TREND 1.443164 0.615544 2.344535 0.0343
EC = RGDPG - (-16.9615*FLFPR -13.0721*PASCW -5.8601*PABS

+ 1.4432
*@TREND )

Female Labour Force Participation Rate – Proxy for Gender Equality (SDG 5)
Table 4.9 shows that the long run coefficient of female labour force participation rate (a
proxy for gender equality) is (-16.96152), significant at 1% level of probability. Thus, a 1%
percent increase in female labour force participation rate leads on average to about 17%
decrease in real gross domestic product (a proxy for economic growth). There exists a
negative relationship between real gross domestic product (a proxy for economic growth)
and female labour force participation rate (a proxy for gender equality) within the period of
study. The foregoing result signifies that inability of the Nigeria economy to absorb female
gender into its labour force could lead to decline in economic growth of the country.
Percentage of Population with Access to Safe and Drinking Water – Proxy for Access to
Water (SDG 6)
Table 4.9 indicates that that the long run coefficient of percentage of population with access
to safe and drinking water is (-13.07207), and is significant at 5% level of probability. Thus, a
1% percent increase in percentage of population with access to safe and drinking water leads
on average to about 13% decrease in real gross domestic product (a proxy for economic
growth). There exists a negative relationship between real gross domestic product (a proxy
for economic growth and percentage of population with access to safe and drinking water (a
proxy for access to water). The preceding result depicts that the lower the number percentage
of population with accesses to safe drinking water in Nigeria, the greater the decline in
economic growth of the country.
Percentage of Access to Basic Sanitation – Proxy for Access to Sanitation (SDG 6)

Table 4.9 indicates that that the long run coefficient of percentage of population with access
to basic sanitation is (-5.860103). Thus, a 1% percent increase in percentage of population
with access to basic sanitation leads on average to about 6% decrease in real gross domestic
product (a proxy for economic growth). There exists a negative relationship between real
gross domestic product (a proxy for economic growth) and percentage of population with
access to basic sanitation ( a proxy for basic sanitation). The foregoing result implies that the
lower the number percentage of population with accesses to basic sanitation in Nigeria, the
greater the decline in economic growth of the country.
Residual Diagnostic Tests:
Table 4.10: Correlogram Q Statistic
Autocorrelation Partial Correlation AC PAC Q-Stat Prob*
. *| . | . *| . | 1 -0.095 -0.095 0.2106 0.646

***| . | ***| . | 2 -0.403 -0.416 4.1868 0.123
. | . | . *| . | 3 0.025 -0.084 4.2034 0.240
. | . | .**| . | 4 -0.031 -0.254 4.2296 0.376
. | . | . *| . | 5 -0.038 -0.139 4.2719 0.511
. |* . | . *| . | 6 0.096 -0.068 4.5637 0.601
. | . | . | . | 7 0.035 -0.043 4.6047 0.708
. | . | . | . | 8 -0.058 -0.060 4.7300 0.786
. | . | . | . | 9 -0.030 -0.061 4.7649 0.854
. | . | . *| . | 10 -0.037 -0.111 4.8265 0.902
. *| . | .**| . | 11 -0.132 -0.262 5.6765 0.894
. | . | .**| . | 12 -0.039 -0.303 5.7619 0.928
Table 4.10 shows the correlograms of Q statistic which can be used to check autoregressive
conditional heteroskedasticity (ARCH) in the residuals. We confirmed that in the estimated
equation/model there is ARCH in the residuals, the autocorrelations and partial
autocorrelations are not zero at all lags and the Q-statistics are significant.
Table 4.11: Correlogram of Residual Squared
Autocorrelation Partial Correlation AC PAC Q-Stat Prob*
. | . | . | . | 1 0.005 0.005 0.0005 0.981

. |* . | . |* . | 2 0.176 0.176 0.7559 0.685
. | . | . *| . | 3 -0.062 -0.066 0.8555 0.836
. | . | . *| . | 4 -0.035 -0.066 0.8883 0.926
. | . | . | . | 5 -0.064 -0.042 1.0070 0.962
. | . | . | . | 6 -0.010 0.005 1.0104 0.985
. | . | . | . | 7 -0.050 -0.039 1.0967 0.993
. *| . | . *| . | 8 -0.075 -0.086 1.3053 0.995
. *| . | . *| . | 9 -0.084 -0.076 1.5858 0.996
. *| . | . | . | 10 -0.078 -0.060 1.8524 0.997
. | . | . | . | 11 -0.048 -0.036 1.9633 0.999
. *| . | . *| . | 12 -0.092 -0.096 2.4245 0.998
Table 4.11 indicates the correlogram of the residual squared and we confirmed that in the
estimated equation/model there is ARCH in the residuals, the autocorrelations and partial
autocorrelations are not zero at all lags and the Q-statistics are significant.
7
Series: Residuals
6 Sample 2001 2020
Observations 20
5
Mean 6.22e-14
4 Median -0.207938
Maximum 13.97257
3 Minimum -7.102686
Std. Dev. 4.410533
2 Skewness 1.509789
Kurtosis 6.275984
1
Jarque-Bera 16.54160
0 Probability 0.000256
-7.5 -5.0 -2.5 0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0
Figure 4.2: Histogram Normality Test

Source: Author Computation from E-View 10 Software
Figure 4.2 displays a histogram and descriptive statistics of the residuals, including the
Jarque-Bera statistic for testing normality. If the residuals are normally distributed, the
histogram should be bell-shaped and the Jarque-Bera statistic should not be significant. Thus,
the residuals of this model are neither bell-shaped nor normally distributed since the
probability of Jarque-Bera statistic is significant at 1% level of probability.
Table 4.12: Serial Correlation LM Test:Breusch-Godfrey Serial Correlation LM Test:
F-statistic 1.696018 Prob. F(2,12) 0.2245

Obs*R-squared 4.407521 Prob. Chi-Square(2) 0.1104
Table 4.12 indicates that serial correlation LM test has no evidence of the presence of serial
correlation since p-value of F-statistic is considerably in excess of 0.05 (i.e. 5%). Table 4.11:
Heteroskedasticity – Breuch-Godfery Serial Correlation LM Test
Table 4.13: Heteroskedasticity Test: Breusch-Pagan-Godfrey
F-statistic 2.780060 Prob. F(5,14) 0.0601

Obs*R-squared 9.964266 Prob. Chi-Square(5) 0.0763
Scaled explained SS 12.87997 Prob. Chi-Square(5) 0.0245
Table 4.13 shows the heteroskedasticity and that there is no evidence of the presence of
heteroscedacity since the p-values of F-statistics are considerably in excess of 0.05 (i.e. 5%).
Stability Test:
12
-4
-8
-12
07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
CUSUM 5% Significance
Figure 4.3: Cusum Test after recursive estimate

Figure 4.3 shows that the plot of CUSUM stays within the critical 5% bounds, which
confirms the long-run relationships among variables and thus shows the stability of
coefficients.
1.6
1.2
0.8
0.4
0.0
-0.4
07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
CUSUM of Squares 5% Significance
Figure 4.4: Cusum of Square Test after recursive estimate

Figure 4.4 shows that the plot of CUSUM of square stays within the critical 5% bounds,
which confirms the long-run relationships among variables and thus shows the stability of
coefficients.
5.0 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND POLICY

RECOMMENDATION
Summary of findings
In line with the objectives of this study, the following findings were recorded.
- There exists a negative relationship between real gross domestic product (a proxy for
economic growth) and poverty headcount ratio (a proxy for poverty).
economic growth) and gross national income per capita (a proxy for hunger).
economic growth) and infant mortality rate (a proxy for good health).
- There exists a positive relationship between real gross domestic product (a proxy for
economic growth) and secondary school enrolment (a proxy for quality education).
economic growth) and female labour force participation rate (a proxy for gender
equality).
economic growth and percentage of population with access to safe and drinking water
(a proxy for access to water).
economic growth) and percentage of population with access to basic sanitation ( a
proxy for basic sanitation).
Discussion
The negative relationship between real gross domestic product (a proxy for economic
growth) and poverty headcount ratio (a proxy for poverty), found in this study is conform
to the work of Yu et al. (2022), which posited a negative impact of poverty on economic
growth while measure the effect of inequality and poverty on economic development
during 1990 to 2016 in Vietnam. Also, in support of the foregoing result, the work of
Fosu (2017), found that the significant factor driving the increase and decline in poverty
is the average income growth.
growth) and gross national income per capita (a proxy for hunger). The foregoing result
conform to the work of Fadi et al. (2014), who studied the relationship between economic
growth and income inequality in developing economics and found a strong evidence of a
negative relationship between income inequality and economic growth.
growth) and infant mortality rate (a proxy for good health) agreed with the work of Mayer
(2004) while examined intergenerational impact of health on economic growth and found
that early child nutrition and health as having indirect effects on adult income through
education which explain a large portion of the long-term impact of nutrition and health on
economic growth. The foregoing result is in contrary to the work of Onisanwa (2014,
which posited that GDP is positively influenced by health indicators in the long run.
The positive relationship between real gross domestic product (a proxy for economic
growth) and secondary school enrolment (a proxy for quality education) agreed with the
work of Babatunde and Adefade (2016), which stated that a well-educated labour force
possessed a positive and significant impact on economic growth and development
through factor accumulation and the evolution of total factor productivity. In the same
vein, the foregoing result support the work of Aigbedion, Iyakwari and Kyang (2017),
which revealed that the education sector has a positive impact on economic growth in
Nigeria..
growth) and female labour force participation rate (a proxy for gender equality) agreed
with the work of Anyanwu et al (2021), which shows an inverse relationship between
Female labour force participation and economic growth.
growth and percentage of population with access to safe and drinking water (a proxy for
access to water) conform to the work of Bala and Fibha (2021), which posited that poor
policy making in Nigeria is compounding the difficulties connected with hygiene, water
insecurity, wellbeing and security, prompting potential issues like hunger, illness, mis-
governance and conflict.
growth) and percentage of population with access to basic sanitation (a proxy for basic
sanitation) conform to the work of Ugwu et al. (2022), which shows that show that
expenditure on social and community service leads to an increase in the use of unsafe
sanitation facilities in the country.
Conclusion
In an attempt to investigate the impact of sustainable development goals on economic

growth in Nigeria, this study examined the extent of achievement of the first six goals of
SDGs namely: No poverty, zero hunger, good health and well-being, quality education,
gender equality, and clean water and sanitation from 1990 to 2020 in Nigeria. However,
the study concluded that sustainable development goal one (No poverty), goal two (zero
hunger), goal three (good health and well-being), goal five (gender equality), and goal six
(clean water and sanitation) have negative impacts on the economic growth in Nigeria,
while goal four (quality education) only has positive impacts on the economic growth in
Nigeria.
Policy Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are suggested:
1. Government should improve the economic growth by embarking on multipurpose

policies that will reduce poverty in Nigeria.
2. Government should ensure reduction in income inequality and increase per capita
income of the citizens so as improve their standard of living and eventually
eliminate hunger.
3. Government should refocus on spending on health care facilities so as to maintain
healthy citizens whom positive contributions to gross domestic products will
eventually leads to economy growth of the country.
4. Government should continuously improve on the education sector through
provision of required facilities and necessary funds so as to drive an inclusive
growth of the economy.
5. Government should create equal jobs opportunities for all genders so as to
guarantee sustainable development of the citizens and country at large.
6. Government should make necessary provision for safe and drinking water as well
as building public toilets through adequate budget appropriations. The foregoing
efforts will eventually increase the numbers of citizen with access to safe and
drinking water as well as basic sanitation.
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APPENDIX
ECONOMIC GROWTH AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT VARIABLES
YEAR RGDPG SSE IMR GNIPC PASCW PABS FLFPR PHCR
2000 5.318093 20509658 182.9 46.266 16.77415 36.14097 55.97 64.9
2001 4.411065 21565076 177.3 46.509 17.3274 35.83045 55.73 64.9
2002 3.784648 22514034 171.5 46.834 17.63784 35.52884 55.46 64.9
2003 10.35418 23414862 165.9 47.24 17.92962 35.23624 55.14 55.9
2004 33.73578 24323690 160.3 47.717 18.20297 34.95261 54.77 55.9
2005 3.444667 25104240 155 48.246 18.45797 34.67813 54.91 55.9
2006 8.210965 26735518 150.1 48.802 18.6952 34.4129 55.05 55.9
2007 6.828398 27774496 145.6 49.356 18.91508 34.15702 55.2 55.9
2008 6.270264 28089940 141.7 49.887 19.10844 33.91025 55.35 55.9
2009 6.934416 28260082 138.3 50.385 19.21797 33.67292 55.5 56.4
2010 7.839739 28462570 135.5 50.847 19.30548 33.44354 55.65 56.4
2011 4.887387 29042674 133.1 51.279 19.3697 33.22197 55.79 56.4
2012 4.279277 29641856 131.1 51.699 19.41112 33.00784 55.93 56.4
2013 5.394416 30151640 129.4 52.121 19.43004 32.80098 56.06 56.4
2014 6.309719 31239992 127.9 52.549 19.42696 32.60096 56.18 56.4
2015 2.652693 31752780 126.4 52.985 19.40221 32.80326 56.31 56.4
2016 4.204831 31156808 124.7 53.428 19.3919 32.73506 56.42 56.4
2017 2.284193 31300009 122.5 53.866 19.37196 33.60096 56.54 56.4
2018 1.23175 31258417 119.9 54.306 19.35443 33.04643 56.66 39.1
2019 2.573591 31238411 116.9 53.86667 19.37276 33.12748 56.54 50.63333
2020 2.029845 31265612 113.8 54.01289 19.36638 33.25829 56.58 48.71111
Source: World development indication (WDI). Note: All mixing data computed by moving average.

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IMPACTS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS ON NIGERIA ECONOMY

AYANO, DAVID AYANNIYI (PhD)

Deputy Director, Management Consultant and Senior Research Fellow, Economic

Being a Submission at 2nd International Conference on Research in Management and

Sustainable development aims at the creation of sustainable improvements in the quality of

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Goal 1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere.

1.3.1 Proportion of population covered by social protection floors/systems, by sex,

1.4.1 Proportion of population living in households with access to basic services

2.1.1 Prevalence of undernourishment

2.2.3 Prevalence of anaemia in women aged 15 to 49 years, by pregnancy status (percentage).

2.3.1 Volume of production per labour unit by classes of farming/pastoral/forestry enterprise

2.4.1 Proportion of agricultural area under productive and sustainable agriculture.

2.5.2 Proportion of local breeds classified as being at risk of extinction.

2.a Increase investment, including through enhanced international cooperation, in rural

2.a.1 The agriculture orientation index for government expenditures.

2.b.1 Agricultural export subsidies.

2.c.1 Indicator of food price anomalies.

3.1.1 Maternal mortality ratio.

3.1.2 Proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel.

3.2.2 Neonatal mortality rate.

3.3.3 Malaria incidence per 1,000 population.

3.3.4 Hepatitis B incidence per 100,000 population.

3.3.5 Number of people requiring interventions against neglected tropical diseases.

3.4.1 Mortality rate attributed to cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes or chronic

3.4.2 Suicide mortality rate.

3.5.1 Coverage of treatment interventions (pharmacological, psychosocial and rehabilitation

3.6.1 Death rate due to road traffic injuries

3.8.1 Coverage of essential health services.

3.9.1 Mortality rate attributed to household and ambient air pollution

3.9.3 Mortality rate attributed to unintentional poisoning

3.c.1 Health worker density and distribution

3.d.2 Percentage of bloodstream infections due to selected antimicrobial-resistant organisms.

4.a.1 Proportion of schools offering basic services, by type of service.

4.b By 2020, substantially expand globally the number of scholarships available to

5.5.2 Proportion of women in managerial positions.

5.b.1 Proportion of individuals who own a mobile telephone, by sex.

6.1.1 Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services.

6.3.1 Proportion of domestic and industrial wastewater flows safely treated.

6.3.2 Proportion of bodies of water with good ambient water quality.

6.4.1 Change in water-use efficiency over time.

6.4.2 Level of water stress: freshwater withdrawal as a proportion of available freshwater

6.5.1 Degree of integrated water resources management.

6.6.1 Change in the extent of water-related ecosystems over time

6.a By 2030, expand international cooperation and capacity-building support to developing

Null Hypothesis, H0:

PASB = Percentage of population that have access to basic sanitation

Change in Real Gross Domestic Product (proxy for economic growth)

Gross National Income per capital (proxy for standard of living/hunger)

Female Labour Force Participation Rate (proxy for gender)

4.0 DATA ANALYIS, RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION

Table 4.1: Descriptive statistic and interpretation

RGDPG PHCR IMR GNIPC SSE FLFPR PASCW PABS

Jarque-Bera 165.8395 11.08348 1.839993 1.683517 2.290422 1.290949 5.921694 2.152804

Sum 132.9799 1176.144 2969.800 1062.202 5.85E+08 1171.740 395.4696 712.1671

Table 4.2: Augmented Dickey-Fuller Test @ 5% critical value

Johansen Co-integration Test

Trend assumption: Linear deterministic trend (restricted)

Unrestricted Cointegration Rank Test (Trace)

EC = RGDPG - (-16.9615FLFPR -13.0721PASCW -5.8601*PABS

. | . | . | . | 1 -0.095 -0.095 0.2106 0.646