A PRINCIPLES OF MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE 1

Lecture Session 1 (midterm) October 20, 2021

MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY/  The fourth year level is the internship program

CLINICAL LABORATORY of one (1) year in a CHED-accredited training
SCIENCE EDUCATION laboratory with rotational duties in different
sections such as Clinical Chemistry,
Definition of CURRICULUM Hematology, Microbiology,
• Latin word currere – “to run” Immunohematology (Blood Banking),
• Refers to the means and materials with which Immunology and Serology, Urinalysis
students interact  and other body fluids (Clinical
for the purpose of achieving identified educational Microscopy),Parasitology, Histopathologic/
outcomes.  Cytologic techniques, and other emergent
•Systematic and organize technologies. 
• According to John Dewey: “continuous
reconstruction, moving  GENERAL EDUCATION COURSES
from the child’s present experience out into that  Aims to develop foundational knowledge,
represented  skills, values, and habits necessary for
by the organized bodies of truth that we call students to succeed in life, to positively
studies.. The various studies…are themselves contribute to society, to understand the
experience – they are that of the race.  diversity of cultures, to gain a bigger
perspective and understanding of living
with others, to respect differences in opinions,
Medical Technology Curriculum to realize and accept their weakness and
improve on them, and to further hone their
COMMISSION ON HIGHER EDUCATION strengths.
(CHED)
 Established on May 18, 1994 through the
passage of RA 7722, the Higher Education
Act of 1992.
 Government agency under the Office of the
President of the Philippines that covers
institutions of Higher education both public
and private.
 Technical Committee for Medical Technology
Education (TCMTE) –composed of leading
academicians and practitioners responsible
for assisting the commission in setting
standards among institutions
offering Bachelor of Science in Medical
Technology / Medical Laboratory Science
program and in monitoring institutions.
 The commission issued the CHED
Memorandum Order or the CMO No. 13
series of 2017 or the policies standard
guidelines for the Bachelor of Science in
Medical Technology as a guide for institutions
offering the program RESEARCH COURSES
 The CMO contains the goals, program
outcomes, performance indicators and to
minimum course offerings both general
educational courses professional courses with
their alated units
 Four-year program consisting of general
education and professional courses
 A PRINCIPLES OF MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE 1
Lecture Session 1 (midterm) October 20, 2021

PROFESSIONAL COURSES  Other requirements of colleges and

 Taken for learners to develop the universities prior to internship shall
knowledge, technical competence, be observed.
professional attitude, and values necessary to  The intern should render 32 internship duty
practice and meet the demands of the hours per week completing a total of 1664
profession. hours the whole year which can be broken
down as follows: 

LICENSURE EXAMINATION

PROFESSIONAL REGULATION COMMISSION

(PRC)
 Government agency, under the Office of the
President of the Philippines, tasked to
CLINICAL INTERNSHIP TRAINING administer licensure examinations to different
 fourth year level of Bachelor of Science in professionals
Medical Technology/ Medical Laboratory  PROFESSIONAL REGULATORY BOARD
Science course. (PRB) – tasked to prepare and administer
 It is an intensive practical and theoretical written licensure examinations for graduates
training in the different sections in the clinical qualified to take the examination.
laboratory  Composed of a Chairperson – duly
 It also emphasizes the development of proper licensed pathologist
value system.   Two members – Registered Medical
 Only those who completed all the course Technologists
requirements for the first three and one half
years shall be qualified for internship. LICENSURE EXAMINATION
 Applicants shall undergo physical and  Given twice a year (March and August)
laboratory examinations which will include  Courses included:
complete blood count (CBC), urinalysis,  Clinical Chemistry 20%
fecalysis, drug tests (metamphetamines and  Microbiology and Parasitology 20%
canabinoids), HbsAg, anti-HBs and chest X-  Hematology 20%
ray and/or Sputum Microscopy. They are also  Blood Banking, Immunology and Serology
required to present proof of vaccination 20%
against hepatitis B. 
 Clinical Microscopy 10%
 Any applicant found positive for infectious
 Histopathologic techniques, MT Laws and
diseases (like hepatitis, tuberculosis, etc.)
Bioethics, Laboratory Management 10%
shall be temporarily suspended to undergo
training unless proof of adequate/complete
treatment is submitted. 
 A PRINCIPLES OF MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE 1
Lecture Session 1 (midterm) October 20, 2021

LICENSURE EXAMINATION
 If an examinee passed the examination and is
21 years old and above, he or she will be
issued a certificate of registration and a PRC
card as a licensed medical technologist.
 If an examinee failed to pass the examination
three times, he or she needs to enroll in a
refresher course before retaking the
examination
 If an examinee failed to pass the examination
but garnered a general weighted average of
70%-74%, he or she may apply for
certification as a medical
laboratory technician.

Program Goals:
For the graduates to:
 develop the knowledge, attitudes and
skills in the performance of clinical
laboratory procedures needed to help the
physician in the proper diagnosis,
treatment, prognosis and prevention of
diseases; 
 develop skills in critical and analytical
thinking to advance knowledge in Medical
Technology/Clinical Laboratory Science
and contribute to the challenges of the
profession; 
 develop leadership skills and to promote
competence and excellence
 uphold moral and ethical values in the
service of society and in the practice of
the profession.
 A PRINCIPLES OF MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE 1
Lecture Session 1 (midterm) October 20, 2021

CONTINUING Benefits of CPD

PROFESSIONAL
DEVELOPMENT Benefits to the Individual
 Builds confidence and credibility
Most people associating learning with formal  Showcases achievements, useful for
education. Aspiring professionals view the appraisals
attainment of quality education as a very  Achieving career goals by focusing on training
important goal. However, the end of compulsory and development
education should not be viewed as freedom from  Cope positively with changes by constantly
obligational education. updating knowledge and skill
Learning happens through the course of lifetime.  Improves productivity and efficiency by
It does not stop once graduation togas are done reflecting learning and highlighting the gaps in
and diplomas are conferred. knowledge and experience

Continuing Professional  Benefits to the Organization

Development and its Legal Basis  Maximizes staff potential
 Continuing Professional Development  Helps employees to set SMART (specific,
(CPD) is important to ensure the measurable, realistic, and time-bound)
competency of professionals.  objectives
 It is the maintenance, enhancement, and  Promotes staff development
extension of knowledge, expertise, and  Adds value for reflecting: helps staff to
competence of professionals after consciously apply learning to ther role and for
attaining a bachelor's degree. the organization's development
 It’s provide a structure framework to  Linking to appraisals, helps employees focus
ensure improvement, progression and their achievements throughout the years
career growth that benefits both
professionals and their respective CPD (Continuing Professional Development)
organizations. and CPE (Continuing Professional Education)
 Under taking CPD, facility is continued  Training objectives in CPE are usually
competence, personal and professional focused on learning a particular skill or set of
development which in turn translate skills to improve professional competence. 
increase career work that facilitates the  CPD, on the other hand, refers to the
advancement of the professions. development of one's knowledge, skills, and
 Professionals should be lifelong learners attitude significantly relevant to capability and
 A country full of professionals with up-to- competency in his or her profession.
date knowledge and skills translate to  (Fidel V. Ramos) July 25, 1995- Executive
public good. Order No. 266-"Institutionalization of the
 In the health care industry, for example, Continuing Professional Education (CPE)
research suggests that higher level of Programs of the Various Professional
education among health care providers Regulatory Boards (PRB) 
lead to a better health care delivery and  November 13, 1995- PRC Resolution No.
improve patients’ outcome 381, Series of 1995 - "Standardized
 Aside from public accountability, the Guidelines and Procedures for the
importance of lifelong learning is Implementation of the Continuing Professional
magnified by the dynamite flow Education (CPE) Programs for all
information in the present time Professions“
 Longest phase of professional education  Operation of CPE Councils were further
and is essential to the provision of strengthened by administrative order No.
evidence-based health care in 260 series of 1996
the contemporary health care setting.   executive order no. 266 required the
completion of 60 CPE units as a condition for
the renewal of licenses of professionals in the
country (repelled)
 A PRINCIPLES OF MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE 1
Lecture Session 1 (midterm) October 20, 2021

 December 05, 2000 - PRC Modernization

Act of 2000 (R.A. 8981)
 2004 – PRC orders the resolution no. 179, The CPD Process
mandating the implementation of a voluntary  CPD providers need to apply their respective
CPE program for professionals programs to the CPD Council at least 45 days
prior to the conduct of the CPD activity. The
Republic Act 10912 (July 21, 2016) CPD Council will then evaluate the proposed
Took effect: August 16, 2016 activity and designate the number of units to
“Continuing Professional Development Act of be assigned to it. 
2016”  CPD is a mandatory requirement in the
 AN ACT MANDATING AND renewal of the professional identification card
STRENGTHENING THE CONTINUING (PIC) of all registered and licensed
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT professionals under the regulation of PRC.
PROGRAM FOR ALL REGULATED Even professionals working abroad and senior
PROFESSIONS, CREATING THE citizens are covered by the said requirement.
CONTINUINGPROFESSIONAL DEVELOPM  Every 3 years
ENT COUNCIL, AND APPROPRIATING
FUNDS THEREFORE, AND FOR OTHER
RELATED PURPOSES Required Number of CPD Units during the
 Aims to continuously improve the competence Transition Period
of professionals in accordance with
PIC Renewal Minimum CPD Units
international standards of practice towards the
afflicting of the general welfare, economic Period Required for the
growth and development of the nation Profession
 Implementation started on March 15, 2017 January to June 0%
upon the effectivity of the PRC resolution no. 2017
1032 “implementing rules and regulations July to December 30%
(R.A. 10912) 2017
2018 60%
The CPD Process 2019 onwards 100%
 Each profession has its own CPD council
which is composed of   CPD programs consist of structured to
1. a member from the Professional unstructured activities with definite learning
Regulatory Board (PRB) as chair,  processes and outcomes.
2. the president or officer of an  45-50units
Accredited Professional Organization
(APO) as first member
3. the president or officer of the Examples of CPD Activities:
national organization of deans or  Formal Learning
department chairpersons of schools,  Non-Formal Learning
colleges, or universities offering the  Informal Learning
course requiring the licensure examination  Self-directed Leaning
as second member  Online Learning Activities
 In the case of the medical technology  Professional Work Experience
profession,
First member: President of the Philippine
Association of Medical Technologist (PAMET)
Second Member: President of the Philippine
Association of Schools of Medical Technology
and Public Health (PASMETH)
 CPD council are generally task to oversee the
implementation of the CPD program of the
profession including the evaluation and
monitoring of CPD program
 A PRINCIPLES OF MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE 1
Lecture Session 1 (midterm) October 20, 2021

Therapeutic Drugs
Non-hospital Based
NATURE OF CLINICAL LABORATORY Hospital-Based (HB)
(NHB)
- Laboratory that - Laboratory that
CLINICAL LABORATORY operates within a operates on its own
 Refers to a facility subdivided into different hospital - Also known as
sections where common diagnostic procedures - Also known as FREE-STANDING
are done by specialized health professionals. INSTITUTION-BASED LABORATORY
 MAIN TASK: to provide accurate and reliable
information to medical doctors for the diagnosis,
prognosis, treatment, and management of Government-Owned Privately-Owned
diseases
- Owned, stablish and
 The regulation of Clinical Laboratories in the
- Owned by operated by an
Philippines is governed by Republic Act 4688.
national or local individual operator,
government corporation,
Republic Act 4688
units institution, association
 An act regulating the operation and maintenance
or an organization
of clinical laboratories and requiring the
registration of the same with the department of
health, providing penalty for the violation thereof,
ACCORDING TO SERVICE CAPABILITY (Examination
and for other purposes
Performed)
 Approved: June 18, 1966.
Primary Secondary Tertiary
Administrative Order No. 59 s. 2001 1. Routine 1. Primary 1. Secondary
Rules & Regulation Governing the Establishment, Hematology laboratory laboratory
Operation & Maintenance of Clinical Laboratories in 2. Routine examinatio examinatio
the Philippines urinalysis n n
 This Administrative Order shall be known as the 3. Routine 2. Routine 2. Special
"Rules and Regulations Governing the fecalysis chemistry chemistry
Establishment, Operation and Maintenance of 4. Blood 3. Blood 3. Special
Clinical Laboratories in the Philippines. “ typing- HB typing and hematolog
 These rules and regulations are promulgated to 5. Quantitativ crossmatchi y
protect and promote the health of the people by e platelet ng - HB 4. Immunolog
ensuring availability of clinical laboratories that determinati y/ Serology
are properly managed with adequate resources, on - HB 5. Microbiolo
with effective and efficient performance through gy
compliance with quality standards.

CLASSIFICATION OF CLINICAL LABORATORIES

(Based on AO 59 s. 2001)

ACCORDING TO FUNCTION:
Sections of the Clinical Laboratory
Clinical Pathology Anatomic Pathology
Hematology Clinical Surgical Pathology • Clinical Chemistry
Chemistry Microbiology Immunohistopathology • Hematology
Parasitology Mycology Cytology Autopsy • Immunohematology/Blood Bank
Clinical Microscopy Forensic Pathology • Immunology/Serology
Immunohematology • Medical Microbiology
Blood Banking • Analysis of Urine and Blood Fluids (Clinical
Laboratory Microscopy)
Endocrinology • Histopathology
Toxicology and
 A PRINCIPLES OF MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE 1
Lecture Session 1 (midterm) October 20, 2021

profiles
Na+, K+, Cl-, HCO3-, PO4-
Clinical Chemistry Renal 3, Urea Nitrogen,
 This section is intended for the testing of blood
(Kidney) Creatinine, Uric acid,
and other body fluids to quantify essential
soluble chemicals including waste products useful
albumin
for the diagnosis of certain diseases.
 Test procedures are usually performed on serum Total bilirubin, Direct
Plain/red tube – Tubes that no anti-coagulant Hepatic bilirubin, AST, ALT, ALP,
Anti-coagulant – Chemicals that prevents (liver) Cholesterol, Total protein,
coagulation/clotting albumin, globulin

Cardiac CPK, LDH, Troponin I,

(Heart) Myoglobin

Hypertensiv Cholesterol, HDL, LDL,

e VLDL, Triglycerides

Thyroxin, Free thyroxin,

Thyroid
TSH

Hematology and Coagulation Studies

- Cholesterol
 This section deals with the enumeration or
- Glucose
counting of cells in the blood and other body
fluids (e.g., CSF, pleural fluid, etc.).
 Coagulation studies focus on blood testing for the
determination of various coagulation factors.
 Whole blood is used for the majority of test
Clinical procedures.
Chemistry Clinical Significance Lavender tube
Services
Electrolyte Na+, K+, Cl-, HCO3, PO4-3,
s Ca+2, Mg+2, etc.

Alkaline phosphatase, acid

phosphatase, Creatine
phosphokinase, Lactic acid
Enzymes
dehydrogenase, Glutamic-
Oxalacetic Transaminase,
Amylase, etc.

Total protein, Albumin,

Globulin, Pre-albumin, Alpha
Proteins
globulins, Beta-globulins,
Immunoglobulins, etc.

Organics Glucose, Urea, Uric acid,

Creatinine, Cholesterol, etc.

Profile Type Composition of example

 A PRINCIPLES OF MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE 1
Lecture Session 1 (midterm) October 20, 2021

- Jelly like consistency

- Nutrients

Zone of inhibition

Immunology/ Serology
 Immunology is defined as the study of all the
aspects of the immune system, including its
structure and function.
 Deals with the response of an organism to
Blood Bank antigenic challenge and its recognition of what is
 Deals with the uses of immunologic principles to self and non self.
study and identify the different blood groups  Serology is a division of immunology that deals
 Separate area in a clinical laboratory where blood with the specializes in the laboratory detection
is collected from donors. and measurement of antigens and antibodies.
 Prepares blood and blood components for  Serological tests may be performed for
transfusion diagnostic purposes when an infection is
 Cross-matching suspected and helps to diagnose patients with
immunodeficiencies associated with the lack of
antibodies. (HEPA-B, DENGUE, MALARIA)
(COVID-ANTIGEN)
 Cells, barriers, skin, tears, nose’ hair, tonsils
 Antigen and antibody

Clinical Microscopy
 Performs scientific analysis of non-blood body
fluids such as urine, semen, and stool.

Histopathology
 Refers to the microscopic examination of tissue in
Microbiology order to study the manifestations of disease.
 Study of microorganisms too small to be seen by  Examination of a biopsy or surgical specimen by a
unaided eye. pathologist, after the specimen has been
 A broad term which includes virology, mycology, processed and histological sections have been
parasitology, bacteriology. placed onto glass slides.
 Responsible for growing and identifying the Two sources of specimens:
organisms obtained from patient’s blood, urine, 1. Autopsy specimen - Dead
or other body fluids, sputum, or wound. 2. Biopsy specimen - Living
 After the organism is grown out (culture),
susceptibility testing can be performed.
Cycle of Clinical Laboratory Testing
 A PRINCIPLES OF MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE 1
Lecture Session 1 (midterm) October 20, 2021

Pre-analytic Phase
 Patient registration 
 Laboratory test ordering 
 Phlebotomy draw lists 
 Bar-coded labels (collection tube / aliquot
labels) 
 Specimen Racking System
Analytic Phase
 Quality Control 
 Instrument worklist 
 Manual worklist 
 Manual results entry 
 Automated results entry via interface 
 Validation of results 
 Release of results
Post-Analytic Phase
 Cumulative patient reports 
 Corrected report 
 Results inquiry 
 Electronic reporting (billing) 
 Pending List
 A PRINCIPLES OF MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE 1
Lecture Session 1 (midterm) October 20, 2021

Quality Assurance in the Clinical Laboratory

 encompasses all activities performed by
laboratory personnel ensure reliability of test
results.
 It is organized, systematic, well-planned, and
regularly done with the results properly
documented and consistently reviewed.
TWO MAJOR COMPONENTS:
1. Internal Quality Assurance System (IQAS)
 includes day-to-day activities that are
undertaken in order to control factors or
variables that may affect test results.
 Regular review and audit of results are
done in order to identify weaknesses and
consequently perform corrective actions.
2. External Quality Assurance System (EQAS)
 a system for checking performance
among clinical laboratories and is
facilitated by designated external
agencies.
 The National Reference Laboratories
(NRL) is the DOH designated EQAS.

 At present, the designated NRL-EQAS are the

following:
1. National Kidney and Transplant Institute (NKTI) -
Hematology and Coagulation

2. Research Institute of Tropical Medicine (RITM) –

Microbiology (identification and antibiotic
susceptibility testing) and Parasitology
(identification of ova and quantitation of malaria)

3. Lung Center of the Philippines (LCP) - Clinical

Chemistry (for testing 10 analytes, namely
glucose, creatinine, total protein, albumin, blood
urea nitrogen, uric acid, cholesterol, sodium,
potassium, and chloride)

4. East Avenue Medical Center (EAMC) - Drugs of

abuse (methamphetamine and cannabinoids)

5. San Lazaro Hospital STD-AIDS Cooperative Center

Laboratory (SACCL) - Infectious immunology
hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), human
immunodeficiencyvirus (HIV), hepatitis C virus
(HCV)

ETHICS
 A PRINCIPLES OF MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE 1
Lecture Session 1 (midterm) October 20, 2021

 Derived from Ancient Greek word “ethos”  Ethics deals with a diverse prescription of
means the “theory of things” or “way of living”  universal concepts and principles that serve
 Study of universal values, existing individual as foundation of moral beliefs. 
and societal norms and values, equality  Ethics can be connected to morality. 
between men and women, human or natural  In which ethics has been referred to as “what
rights, legal rights as mandated by has been known as the standard behavior or
fundamental laws, balance of nature, and conduct in a particular place”
concern and compassion for health and  While morality, it refers to “any behavior or
safety.  practice common to all groups”, “real world
 Also called as moral philosophy - the beliefs and practices about proper human
disciplined concerned on what is morally good conduct.”
or bad and morally right or wrong 
 The term is also applied to any system or ETHICS 
theory of moral values or principle Theoretical prescriptions/ critiques 
 Its subject consists of fundamental issues of • The nature of the good 
practical decision making and its major • The nature of human person 
concerns into the nature of ultimate value and • Criteria of judgment
the standards which human actions can be MORALITY 
judged right or wrong. Based on principles practiced by a particular
 Also derived from old French word “ethique”, community 
late latin “ethica” which means “ of or for • Fundamental convictions of human agent 
morals, moral, or expressing character” and • Character of moral agent 
modern latin “mores” means “customs”  • Use of norms 
 Theory of good or evil and right and wrong • Situational analysis

ETHICS RELATIVISM 
HUMAN EXISTENCE AND ETHICS  Also known as moral relativism 
 is the moral code that guides how an  a school of ethics anchored on the principle
individual should behave.  that morality is relative to the norms of a
 As a branch of knowledge, it deals with moral particular culture. 
principles   it is a theory based on norms relative to a
 Ethics is also a philosophy because it particular culture or society.
matches the principles of righteousness and  eg. Some cultures may accept certain acts
goodness and behaviors that are unacceptable to other
 It is also a science because it gives the cultures
attaining systematize knowledge and  Ethical relativism acknowledges societal
experience diversity that every society has a unique moral
 It cannot considered as an ART as it does not design and culture and people’s beliefs are
teach an individual how to live a moral live but greatly influenced by culture 
rather justified the rightness or goodness of  The challenge to it society is the preservation
life  of its cultural uniqueness and
 Also about the individual’s search for meaning acknowledgement to cultural differences
while dealing with human problems which
may be logical (problems of reasoning), ETHICAL PRAGMATISM 
epistemological (problems of the truth),  it is more of a theory on knowledge, truth,
cosmological (problems of universe), ethical and meaning rather than morality. 
(problems of morality), aesthetical (problems  It is the view that we can and we should carry
of art and beauty), or scientific problems on our practice of moral deliberation without
(problems of science). (Timbreza, 1993) reference to moral truths or metaethics 
o is a philosophical approach or movement that
began in the 1870s 
o the term was coined by Charles Sanders
Peirce and further developed by William
James. 

SCHOOLS OF ETHICS 
 A PRINCIPLES OF MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE 1
Lecture Session 1 (midterm) October 20, 2021

o It is considered as America’s most distinctive 2. EUTHANASIA (MERCY KILLING) 

and major contribution to the field of Example of applied ethics 
philosophy.   Practice of ending a life intentionally, usually
o Although the language of moral interest may in situations when the individual is terminally
appear in many of the writings of Peirce and ill, to relieve him or her of pain and suffering.
James, it is interesting that a pragmatic  Regarded as a merciful release of an
conception of good and truth can be applied individual from an incurable sickness.
in the medical context especially in terms of
decision making and moral reasoning. A. Voluntary euthanasia • is when an individual
gives consent to subject himself/herself to a
ETHICAL UTILITARIANISM  painless death. 
 Ethical theory that determines right from B. Non-voluntary euthanasia • conducted when
wrong by focusing on outcome  the permission of the patient to perform the
 It is a form of consequentialism process is unavailable, like in the case of a
 This school of ethics states that the rightness patient in deep comatose, or neonates born
or wrongness of actions is determined by their with significant and major birth defects. 
consequences.  C. Involuntary euthanasia • individual does not
 The principle of utility formulated by Mill states give his/her consent. 
that “actions are good insofar as they tend to
promote happiness, bad as they tend to 3. GENETIC ENGINEERING 
produce unhappiness”. 
 a controversial ethical issue because it
 The utility or usefulness of an action is
involves genetic manipulations that are
determined by the extent to which it promotes
perceived to be against moral standards set
happiness rather than its reverse.
by the society. 
 Founded by two English philosophers Jeremy
Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill  humans are seen to be acting as their own
(1806-1873)  gods because of procedures that enable them
to manipulate genetic make-up of organism. 
MORAL ISSUES 
 Diversity, decision-making, compliance, and 1) Genetic screening 
governance are some of the concerns that  a procedure whose aim purpose is to
need to be considered when doing an ethical screen, choose, and select the genes for
review context of the health care profession.  proper detection of any genetic disease
 Various views formulated by many and other chromosomal malformations
philosophers, theologians, and moralists (Ciabal, 2003). 
provide people with difficult decisions as to  usually done for the early diagnosis of
whether an action is acceptable or not  diseases. 
2) Genetic interventions 
The following ethical issues are those that  techniques such as genetic control,
continue to be talked about and debated because therapy, and surgery. 
of their controversial nature:   According to Ciabal (2003), people can
1) Abortion  now “intervene” in the biological process
2) Euthanasia (Mercy killing)  and “control” bad or defective genes. 
3) Genetic Engineering 3) Stem cell therapy 
 form of genetic engineering that makes
1. ABORTION  use of stem cells to treat or prevent
 can be direct, induced, or even caused by diseases. 
natural cases or accidents.  4) In vitro fertilization (IVF)
 abortion becomes necessary when life of the  is popularly known as laboratory
mother is at stake.  fertilization
 A PRINCIPLES OF MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE 1
Lecture Session 1 (midterm) October 20, 2021

PROFESSIONAL ETHICS  and in a spirit of personal helpfulness and

 Professional ethics covers the morally fraternity toward other members of the
accepted behavior of individuals in the profession; 
workplace.  • I shall use only honourable means of
 The code of ethics of a particular profession competition for professional employment or
serves as the guiding principle in the ethical services and shall refrain from unfairly
practice of a profession  injuring, directly or indirectly, the professional
 Ethics covers the philosophy of doing what is reputation, projects or business of a fellow
right.  medical technologist;
 Professionalism in the workplace is necessary • I shall accept employment from more than
in maintaining a healthy and productive work one employer only when there is no conflict of
environment.  interest; 
 Professional ethics guide individuals in • I shall perform professional work in a manner
dealing with issues and conflicts in the that merits full confidence and trust carried out
workplace  with absolute reliability, accuracy, fairness
and honesty; 
Examples as a Registered Medical • I shall review the professional work of other
Technologist: medical technologists, when requested, fairly
1. Impartiality and objectivity - Whatever and in confidence whether they are
the medical technology examines, must subordinates or employees, authors of
be identified and released. proposals for grants or contracts, authors of
2. Openness and full disclosure - should technical papers or other publications or
release the medical laboratory results as involved in litigation; 
what is expected of the profession.  • I shall advance the profession by exchanging
3. Due diligence - every laboratory general information and experience with
examination must be carried out with due fellow medical technologists and other
care and diligence  professionals and by contributing to the work
4. Confidentiality - It controls the release of of professional organizations;
medical records, limits the ability of person • I shall restrict my praises, criticisms, views
to testify in court based on information and opinions within constructive limits and
obtained when providing professional shall not use the knowledge I know for selfish
services or prohibit disclosure of ends; 
information regarding specific diseases • I shall treat any information I acquired about
such as HIV and drug use individuals in the course of my work as strictly
5. Fidelity to professional responsibilities confidential, and may be divulged only to
- A RMT should perform his job to the best authorized persons or entities or with consent
of his abilities  of the individual when necessary; 
6. Reliability at work - A RMT must be • I shall report any infractions of these
reliable and credible, he should have a principles of professional conduct to the
basis in releasing the laboratory results. authorities responsible of enforcement of
7. Avoidance of conflicts of interest  applicable laws or regulations, or to the Ethics
Committee of the Philippine Association of
Medical Technologists as may be
CODE OF ETHICS OF MEDICAL appropriate. 
TECHNOLOGY 
As I enter into the practice of Medical To these principles, I hereby subscribe and
Technology,  pledge to conduct myself at all times in a manner
befitting the dignity of my profession
• I shall accept the responsibilities inherent to
being a professional; 
• I shall uphold the law and shall not engage in
illegal work nor cooperate with anyone so
engaged; 
• I shall avoid associating or being identified
with any enterprise of questionable character; 
• I shall work and act in a strict spirit of fairness
to employer, clients, contractors, employees
 A PRINCIPLES OF MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE 1
Lecture Session 1 (midterm) October 20, 2021

MICROSCOPE
 Fluorescence Microscope
Microscope • an optical instrument that is used – Fluorescent dye attached to organism 
to observe tiny objects, often objects that cannot – Primarily an immunodiagnostic technique
be seen at all with the unaided human eye (the (immunofluorescence) 
“naked eye”)  – Used to detect microbes in cells, tissues,
Anthony Van Leeuwenhoek - invented and clinical specimens

Types of Microscope
 Brightfield Microscope
– Used to observe morphology (size or shape)
of microorganisms such as bacteria, protozoa,
fungi, and algae in living (unstained) and
nonliving (stained) state
 Transmission-Electron Microscope (TEM)
– Cannot observe microbes less than 0.2 um
– Specimen is viewed on a screen 
in diameter or thickness, such as spirochetes
– Excellent resolution 
and viruses 
– Allows examination of cellular and viral
ultrastructure 
– Specimen is nonliving
– Reveals internal features of thin specimens

 Darkfield Microscope
– Unstained organisms are observed against
a dark background
 Scanning Electron Microscope
– Useful for examining thin spirochetes
– Specimen is viewed on a screen 
– Slightly more difficult to operate than
– Gives the illusion of depth (three-
brightfield
dimensions) 
– Useful for examining surface features of
cells and viruses 
– Specimen is nonliving 
– Resolution is less than that of TEM

 Phase-Contrast Microscope
– Can be used to observe unstained living
microorganisms
 A PRINCIPLES OF MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE 1
Lecture Session 1 (midterm) October 20, 2021

COMPOUND MICROSCOPE • a microscope that

COMPONENT  LOCATION  FUNCTION 
contains more than one magnifying lens
A. Ocular At the top of The ocular
lens/eyepiec the lens is an x10
e microscope  magnifying
- monocular lens 
microscope
has 1 
- binocular
microscope
has 2 

B. Revolving Above the Holds the

nosepiece  stage  objective
lenses 

C. Objective Held in Used to

lenses  place above magnify
the stage by objects
the placed on the
revolving stage 
nosepiece 

D. Stage  Directly Flat surface

beneath the on which the
Objectives:  nosepiece specimen is
1. Scanner (red) - 4x and placed
2. Low power objective (yellow) - 10x  objective
3. High power objective (blue) - 40x  lenses 
4. Oil immersion objective - 100x 
Stage Beneath the Used to move
adjustment stage  the stage and
Eyepiece - 10x 
knobs  microscope
Total Magnification = eyepiece x objectives 
slide
Scanner - 10 x 4 = 40x E. Iris On the Used to
Low power objective - 10 x 10 = 100x  diaphragm condenser adjest the
High power objective - 10 x 40 = 400x  control arm  amount of
Oil immersion objective - 10 x 100 = 1000x  light passing
through the
condenser 
PARTS OF MICROSCOPE 
• MECHANICAL SYSTEM– Base, Arm, Stage, F. Condenser  Beneath the Controls the
Substage, Mechanical Stage  stage  amount of
• LENS SYSTEM – Nosepiece, Objectives, light entering
Eyepiece, Focal Length  the
• OTHER parts - On/OFF switch, Fine/course condenser 
adjustment Knob, Iris Diaphragm, condenser,
Light source G. Collector Beneath the Controls the
lens with condenser  amount of
field light entering
diaphragm  the
condenser

H. Rheostat Front side Controls the

control knob  of the base  amount of
 A PRINCIPLES OF MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE 1
Lecture Session 1 (midterm) October 20, 2021

Care of Microscope
light emitted
• The microscope paper should be cleaned with
from the light
lens paper before and after each use 
source 
• Other material such as laboratory tissue may
I. Field Attached to Used to scratch the lenses 
diaphragm the field adjust the • It is especially important that lenses never be
lever diaphragm  amount of left with oil on them
light passing
through the Transporting the Microscope
collector lens  • A microscope should be left in a permanent
position on a study laboratory table in an area
J. On/off On the side Turns the where it will not get jammed. 
switch  of the base  light source • If the microscope must be moved, it should be
on and off  held securely with one hand supporting the
base and the other hand holding the arm. 
K. Base  Contains the • The microscope should be placed gently on
light source  tabletops, to avoid jarring

L. Condenser Beneath Used to Storage of Microscope

control knob  and behind adjust the • When the microscope is not being used, it
the height of the should be left with the low power objective in
condenser  condenser position 
• The stage should be centered so that it does
M. Fine and On the arm Used to focus not project from either side of the microscope 
N. Coarse of the the objective • The microscope should be stored in a plastic
adjustment microscope lenses  dust cover.
knobs  near the
base  Precautions:
• Use the coarse adjustment only with the low
O. Arm  Supports the
power objective 
binocular
• Use oil each time the oil immersion lens is
body and the
used 
revolving
• Use oil immersion oil with the oil immersion
nosepiece;
objective only 
held with one
• Clean all oculars and objectives with lens
hand when
paper after each use 
carrying the
• Move or transport the microscope with one
microscope,
hand under the base and the other hand
with the other
gripping the arm. Avoid jarring or bumping the
hand beneath
microscope 
the base to
• Store the microscope covered in a protected
support the
area.
weight of the
microscope

P. Binocular Holds the

body  ocular lenses
in their proper
locations