— Two Dimensional M ly accelerated motion. g the a ne Se en ema Bes orin a vo dimen, 8 : s"cangular Cocedinate au Co-ordinate © Time tt) a i is, then it i = 2 : Sat motion, rojectile ents called two dimensi T% examples of two qi et Motion of a cancnicil| — the gr ‘0 dimensional motion. lotion jy ‘escribes jj ” tt iy eae called circular me its motion on a circular ta ™Mgential at ‘otion. In circular motion, g “very Point of the track, its direct Scanned by CamScannerWww vWisionias-net Phyntew 9 ervwhere. This shows. that maynitudte of the velocity remains cons 4 velocity doesn't remain constant (as its dinection changes) so the motion iv accelerated, Thus motion of a body on a circular path with a cunstant speed is called Unitorm circular motion. Let Pand Qareany two instantaneous positions WwequiiPles of a body describing, a uniform circular motion with linear velocity », Here the tant (speed tions Os the centre of the circular track and r is its radius. ae It a body describes an angular displacement in t sec and its position on the circular track changes from P to Q then the angular velocity of the body is defined as angular displacement per unit time. Thus angular @Qn 1) velocity «= # (expressed in rad/see.) Ifa body moves on a circular track and completes one revolution, then the time required for it is called Time period. The inverse of this time period is called angular frequency. Thus w= =2an Here, n is called angular frequency and T is time Q period. Thus 4 Also the linear velocity (y) = Circumference of the circular track_ p ” Time elapsed all on, v= 2A. (28, ser ¢- 2 = w = angular velocity) 7 TAT T » —.x Thus, linear velocity (») = angular velocity (w) x radius (r) — (ii) Projectile Motion : If a body is projected upward with a certain initial velocity « making an angle 6 with horizontal direction, then the body describes a two dimensional motion whose path (trajectory) is parabolic and such a body is called projectile. Here a unique physical phenomenon occurs. As the body starts its motion there is no acceleration in its horizontal direction, but the vertical direction there is a constant acceleration (acceleration due to =e gravity). Thus, in the projectile motion the body describes its horizontal motion with constant velocity and its vertical motion with constant acceleration. Terms and Expressions associated with projectile motion. Time of Ascent (!,): Itis the time taken by a body (projectile) to reach the maximum height (H). It is given by ~X t usind > ee nal Time of Descent (/,) : It is the time taken by a body (projectile) to reach cal the ground at P trom the maximum height (H). It is given by t, =! a ck UThus t, = ¢, =H sind 7 (Here air resistance is assumed to be negligible) ——— Scanned by CamScannerWww vWisionias-net ~~ inane mote d the ime of ascent an F jethe sum total of _ ane OP (Hori cf igh taken 5 eae ie) . the 1018s Horizontal Range OFS" ing of descent I pody called Hi sind , «sind - 22S : ue distance bY thus yatta g § rtical distance travelleg 2 fee he eae ee Zero at glance Ire Maximum 0 Ken its velocity becomes Biande. Ie is (projectile) a! by a body . distance (OP) travelled ; total horizontal oe ee aaa tal time of flight (¢). It is given by Re sect R Id be maximum if sin 20 be maximum. But woul ‘Obviously range max.value ofsin20=1 0g ase a if 6 (angle of projection) Thus any projectile would have max. range cage lec ne 245" and it would BeR yyy = “Sg = ig A= il jections are @ and (90° — ®) then horizontal a re fad eee poe cases, whatever be the initial velocity of | projection, max. height attained, time of flight, etc. tion of the trajectory of the projectile _ Fath overall equation of the trajectory of any projectile, whatever be the individual parameter, is given by 2 y= (tan 6) x - 5 sec%9, ~ (tan 0) x~ —& 5 | 2u 2(ucos0) Obviously, itis the equation of a parabola. That's why every projectile traces out a parabolic trajectory (path). ; ~diewton’s Laws of Motion : Firstly in 1687 Sir Isaac Newton, is great mathematician of his timé, propounded the laws of motion in his Book Principia. There are three laws of motion. First Law (Law of In uniform motion ina straight li force is applied to it. This is Newton’ lled ines. tein in the original initial state ON. Alsen Wella: Mettia is of two types (i) Inertia of to change the state of the bo. ies pretesexternal force which is accountable Examples of inertia :() rf nee ts the definition of force. position of rest then a pas. ‘ suddenh in motion tays at rest. Th tion whereas the u due to Parts of the body of vee there is a relat; fen) MEPS! Part, duc opposite dioenent Passenger and conse tv’ displacement of the two ke Sequently the naccans-= fe Scanned by CamScanner-_ Www vWisionias-net Physics n (ii) To remove ire fom soe we hit it with a stick, On being hit the jat_comes into motion but the dirt, due to its inerti i co gets detached from the coat and falls off. errors state (iii) Before taking a long jump an athlete runs for a while and then jakes a leap. By running for a while he gains inertia of motion which helps pim take a longer jump. (iv) While alighting from a slowly moving train one must run for a short while in the direction of the moving train and then let off the train. When you set your foot on the ground, the lower part of your body comes to rest instantaneously but the upper part of the body continues to move an the direction of the train. Due to relative displacement you are liable to fall forward and hurt yourself. If you ran for a short while all the parts ‘of the body will be in the same state and hence there will be no relative Gisplacement of the different parts of the body. Second Law (Law of Measurement of Force) : The rate of change of inear momentum (p = mv) of a body is proportional to the force applied and it takes place in the direction of the force. ie] F « dp _ ,d(mv) D on, Fake) — on A rene mass m is 6 nt) Where, k = proportionality constant = ka (as a ~ 4 ~ acceleration) If the proportionality constant k =1 then F = ma. =» Force = mass x acceleration. IfF =ma=m e =0, then no acceleration would be produced. If the acceleration of the body is zero (a = @ = 0) then the body will move either with a constant velocity or be in a position of rest. This implies that in the absence of an external force the body either moves with constant velocity or comes to rest. This also concludes that in the absence of an external force the inertia of a body is conserved. ‘Third Law (Law of Action and Reaction): To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. Action and reaction act on different bodies. Stace their les of action are different, the resultant force is not zero, This is Newton's Third law of motion. Examples : (i) A rocket whose mass decreases continuously due to ejected mass in the form of gases during its forward motion. Gi) During firing of a bullet the gun recoils back with a great force. (iii) To drive water boat forward the bamboo stick is pressed into the land of water. (iv) During pulling water from the wel the man falls behind the well. Units of Force : The S.1. Unit of force is Newton. Forces are defined by Newton’s first law of motion and measured by ‘Newton’s second law of motion. 11 sometimes the rope breaks and Scanned by CamScannerwisionias.net ~~ if m=1kg anda =1 ton’s second law F = ma, Here if m = 1 kg mae weer en F =1N. Thus 1 Newton is the force required to Produce ¥ acceleration of 1 ms” ina body, of mo a ke O ayne CGS unit of force is Dyne and 1N = / aa uunit of force is kg-wt which is also used for Gravitation, kg-wt is the force required resulting from the acceleration of Btavity on the body of 1 kg mass. Thus by Newton's second law, Force due to Bravity — ' mass * acceleration due to gravity. The force of gravity acting ona body ig the weight of the pelo weight (W) = mg. . . } tee the value of g (acceleration due to gravity) = 9.8 ms-2 Thus, 1 kg.weight = 1 kg * 9.8 ms?=9.8 kg.ms?=9.8 NN. Linear Momentum and Impulse: The product of the mass of a movin, object or body with its velocity (constant) is called Linear M. itis a vector quantity. . Thus momentum (p) = mass x velocity = ne. The S.1. unit of the linear momentum is kg.ms* Ifany external force is operative on an object ora body for, a very short span of time, then the product of this external force and the time is called Impulse and the force is called Impulsive Force. Thus Impulse (J) = Force x time interval lomentum and a > IHF Atm Fate ap => J =Ap=change in linear momentum. Thus impulseis also defined as change in the Jinear momentum of the body for a short Span of time. The s. Unit of the impulse is that of linear momentum and given by kg.mst > Examples of the linear momentum and the impulse (i) Cricket players while taking a catch move their hands in the direction of the motion of the ball t avait maximum injuries and for minimum hurt. Gi) In heavy and light vehicles springs and shock observers are installed to avoid exertion and for comfertal Gi) To hit nail in depth, a heavy hammer is used, Law of conservation of linear momentum The linear momentum fonservationis the outcome ot and third Jaw ef motion. Unde: r the mutual more bodies, free from external forces, thi f Newton's second action and reaction of two or '¢ algebraic sum of the linear jnomenta of the bodies in any assigned direction remains conserved. Thus, in general, if no external force is cperative ona system of particles or bodies under the mutual action and. feaclion of the particles, the Momentum of the system in any direction remains conserved. This is the law of conservation Of linear momentum, ple (i) When a shot is fired, the cannon recoils. ‘This is an example of the law of conservation of momentum, Here the system (Shot + Cannon) is at rest with respect to reference frame fixed to the earth When a shot is Scanned by CamScanner_ Www vWisionias-net fired with a velocity say v, it gains-a certain vel ' locity, say V and by the conservation law the cannon must also acquire Mateos velocity the opposite direction so that the algebraic sum of the momenta becomes zero. iim and M be the masses of shot and cannon, then by conservation law of linear Momentum; mv+MV=0 on V=— M —ve sign indicates that V must be necessarily 0} ite to v. This velocity of the cannon is called the velocity of recoil. Eis ¥ Gi) In the process of collisions, elastic or inelastic the total linear momentum before collision is equal to the total linear momentum after collision. Thus, total linear momentum of the system of colliding particles is conserved. If m, and m, the two masses of colliding particles, u, and u, are the velocities of the respective particles before collision and v, and v, are the velocities of the particles after collision. ‘Then by the law of conservation of linear momentum Total linear momenta before collision =m, u,+ tty My Total linear momenta after collision = m, v,+ ni, V, Thus m, 0, +m, u. ny Dy +m, Dy Elastic and Inelastic collision : When two particles or bodies directly strike (collide) in such a way that the total kinetic energy and the total near momentum of the colliding particles during the collisions remain ‘constant (conserved) then itis called elasticcollision. If the relative velocity oF separation and approach is equal for the two colliding particles, then the collision is said to be perfectly elasticand the particles of equal masses mutually exchange their velocities to each other after the collision, But when two particles or bodies collide in such a way that the total linear momenta of the colliding particles or bodies remain constant or conserved but the total kinetic energy of the colliding particles system is not constant (conserved) then itis called inelastic collision. Rocket Motion (A system of variable mass) : The basic principle on which Rocket motion occurs or a Rocket is propelled is the Newton's third Jaw of motion and the law of conservation of linear momentum. A typical example of variable mass system is that of a rocket motion from which hot gases keep on escaping, thereby continuously decreasing its mass. A rocket may use either a liquid or a solid fuel. In the former case the fuel (like liquid H, or liquid paraffin) and a suitable oxidizer (like O,, H,O, or HNO,), stored up in separate chamber are injected into a combustion chamber where the fuel is burnt. In the latter case, the fuel itself carries its own oxidizer and hence a separate chamber is not needed. In both cases large quantity of the heat of combustion is produced, which largely raises the internal pressure and temperature of the chamber and burnt up gases (like CO, steam etc) are pumped out from an orifice at the back or the tail end of the rocket in the form of a high velocity stream called the jet. Consequently the rocket is propelled forward (opposite to the direction of the jet). Here the momentum lost by the jet of the fuel gases must be equal to the momentum gained by the rocket. Scanned by CamScannerWww vWisionias-net - Gene 5 ber of rockets ej ie just a combination of or or with the reac ae “Armultistage rocket is just Se inside the oe Oe nner je consecutively Mie of the other. In all ee eee le the angie of one inside the norm and in weight and ne a A Pn its fuel ina js the largest in Se stage rocket is ust jad and discarded, with the andl a ne its job, it gets detached Orr acceleration. This vane Se eng cover the task of procuas varithe third stape-rocker on ens Steached when its fuel is kcal ing at each stage by the same ‘ ity thus goes on inc I consumption and thrust takes over The velo ge stage rocket. The fuel consumption and thrust for the first stage are about 100 times mo! d by the third stage. Be yi 60 times that carrie x fuel stock carried by it eee) can attain the paxil elo of Any rocket (Single Sons of conventional chemical fuels, ooking 3.5 kg/sec due. to ae incapable to put space satellites problems etc. Thus a le stage rocket is inc to putspace retells the earth’s gravitatiol . Th in he orbits or ape te fabricated fo enhance and achieve a m greater velocit) “4 . The yencen weight of a body in a lift or elevator. | Lift or Elevator 4 Lift or Elevator sciigupvenls (Decreasiny (Increasing, a Appatent 5 weight) The lift or elevator is a simple machine installed in various multiplexes through which people are transported in multi storied buildings for the business and other officials purposes. 1fM be the mass of aman elevated on the lift and F be the apparent weight of the man, then for the lift going upwards : F-Mg=Ma = F=Mg+Ma =M(a+g) [larger wt.] Here a = acceleration of the lift by which it goes up or down and 8 = acceleration due to gravity Now for the lift coming downwards F + Mg = Ma => F=M(a~g) (Lesser wt.) __ Thus, the man elevated on the lift ex, own in going up and experiences lesser weight ‘Types of Forces or Interaction, four types of forces— coming downwards Periences larger weight of its in coming down, + Everywhere in our nature there are Feehan islds are contined and responcter ne Of the bodies where The Gravitational foree 1. ‘pondent to each other, its negligible for all lighter gens veaKest among all existing forces and Il lighter and smaller bodies but becomes significant canned by CamScannerrds lexes > the rent its SS www -wisionias.net —_ Physics 18 and considerable in all celestial bodies. Since the value of Gravitational 3) measured in Torsion balance by Cavendish was very smallonly Nov.kg, gravitational force for smaller bodies is negligible and can not be realized Weak Force : The concept of weak force came into existence firstly in Yukawa’s meson theory when explanation of f|—decay was propounded. In the atomic nucleus, electron emission (f — particle decay) takes place spontaneously during the conversion of neutron into a proton by ejecting ammeson. This x meson decays almost instantly into an electron (e-) and an anti neutrino (¥). Thus: n (neutron) + p (proton) + x! (n-meson) -* p (proton) + © (electron) decay + ¥ (anti neutrino) Here neutron is converted into proton by the exchange of x-meson and consequently interaction between electron (f-decay) and antineutrino is due to weak interaction. (iii) Electromagnetic Force : Electromagnetic force operates on all charged particles and provides atomic and molecular binding forces. Thus electromagnetic interactions are charge-dependent (attractive as well as repulsive). The electric and magnetic forces compose the electromagnetic force which acts by means of photon or quanta. If both el. etic forces exist, then it is called Lorentz’s force given by |F = qE + quB sint Where, Charge of the particle Ic = Electric field strength gas denege! Velocity of the charged particle B = Magnetic field intensity 0 = Angle between velocity and magnetic field (iv) Nuclear Force (Strong Force): Among all the forces found in nature, nuclear force is the Strongest force which basically exists within atomic fiaeleus between proton-proton, proton-neutron, and neutron-neutron within the range up to 10-™ meter. Experimental evidences OF the nuclear Phyeies observe that nuclear forces are primarily attractive, non-electrical, non-gravitational (not central forces), extremely strong but spin dependent and the magnitude of the force is same for proton-proton, proton-neutron and neutron-neutron. Explanation of the nuclear forces was given in detail by Yukawa’s Menson’s theory. Some scientists also assume that the nuclear forces originate through the mutual interaction of two quarks. Comparison among four types of Interactions : Interaction Relative Carrier particle Characteristic magnitude Time Nuclear (strong) 1 x —meson 10sec interaction Electromagnetic 10 photon 10"sec interaction Weak interaction 104 Intermediate Bosons 10sec Gravitational 10” Graviton 10sec Scanned by CamScannerWww vWisionias-net gece ~ ous forces act ces is ZETO vari "fi 9 or more forces operate in.» from comin d post Ifon. ae ve towards any force, then the sting fet ance’ star : Lael Unbalee ly cts ‘inbalanced force. sence thor whan wie way that te pody is calles ammon experi a bog] s yng on the BOdY T°" is our © it eventually comes to rest. This Meany whereas it Frictional Trotion on the oor jon and thie force is called finn avai ly) is set in force retards is ; ae that an opposite ational nor elastic in nature. This force aig] heels w force, is neither gravital lides over another body, yx This (ore 4 Ceualy, Shenever a body Sides patties op oe eee occur rts a frictional fore ty acs ina direction OPPOSILEO its motion, A Fhe tional force on each OGY TC. "ine force of friction acting on it akg endeel fitne motion of a body . 5 1 to its normal reactioy (i) incre once of friction (Fis directly proportional te natch Fy R or, Fp= R= Wms: Sa distort: Ty tlifea .d called coefficient of friction. Ce isa constant anc Lat id Frictional AR ath o m= mass of the sliding body m —> Direction ° acceleration due to gravity force otmoes | vir ac ‘Typeset eatigaal forces vis accele (i) Static frictional force — (ii) Kinetic or sliding frictional force ne Ta feta (iii) Rolling frictional force ving, pl (i Static frictional force : If a body Kept on any surface tries to move fend by any force applied on itbut doesn’t move, then the force operative within ‘ the surfaces of both is called static force of friction which is equal to the applied force but in opposite direction. said Kinetic or sliding frictional force : If a body on any surface is sliding or moving uniformly, then the force acting within the surfaces of | both sale kinetic or sliding frictional force. Gii) Rolling Frictional force : - to surface), then force acting a + Ifa body rolls on another body (or Pa frictional force. '8 within the surfaces of both is called rolling, Static force of fricti neil . force of fiction ie. > > ye ne O Sliding force of friction > Rolling 4 kinetic and rolling friction oH ere; MW, and it, are called coeff. of static, a es of frictional forces tb ¢ fictional forces acti ithi a tel depend on their contact nies yn the two surfaces of the bodies do a meh “1atNer they depend upon the nature of a Scanned by CamScanner- Www wisionias.net Mhysien qi) the static force of friction j = fens is the spenenis te least or the smatce he largest and 4 fii) To reduce friction between t jeane called lubricant is used whe el , ich is "7 Ne Polling: force of ini ball-Bearings intervenes between i im coming into direct contact 3 10am prriction and that is why foree of ne hinetie fret © it prevents them ‘Bit is also observed that fone ce fiction, diminishes ton, "2 Mt Shel that force of friction be inishes too, 0 wotid-solid is the largest while in liguid-liguid “tween the surfaces of Shereas itis least in solid-gas surfaces, 74 '*'8 Fess than the formes advantages er (i) If the force of friction doesn’t exist o1 wheels will start to slip and would ultimately aoe Rete Vehicles ran, y derail. . (ji) Due to the forces of friction ma pisadvantages in stands and moves. (i) Due to the forces of friction, i and tools and ultimately the machinesaredeeege” mmusehin snaehitss (i) Due to the forces of friction the inner es machines generate tremendous amount of heat (th Tistorts the machines. = Centripetal Force (Real Force) : When : arce (R a bod: i path of radius r with uniform speed o, then an acceleration of magnitude rh acts towards the radius and it is called Centripetal. acceletaticn (Cent S seeking) or radial acceleration. But by Newton's second law of motion, this acceleration is produced by a corresponding force (every accelerated body has a force) called Centripetal Force directed inwardly towards the radius ie. in the direction of acceleration. Thus a body of mass m moving with a constant speed 2 (uniform circular motion) on a circular path of radius r has a magnitude of the centripetal force. 6 But F = mass * acceleration si ponents (parts) of tmal energy) which v my? m w? 2» (o* MOT” _ mor (ov =r) oc r= = where, w = angular velocity of the body. Thus centripetal force is a real force acting on the body ® to maintain a circular motion or to remain on a circular track. Without it circular motion is not possible. The centripetal acceleration always acts ra velocity (linear) acts tangentially outwards. Thus the centripetal — acceleration and linear velocity of the v dially inwards, while bodydescribing a circular motion are perpendicular to each other throughout the motion. Also at each and every instant the centripetal acceleration (radially inward) outward) change regularly. direction of and its velocity (tangentially “adwwwy wisionias.net . Geessoo + jon the body moves on a jrcular MONON nd variable velocity ( ange direction Diform circular motion Wot aise body descr, of acceleration-one cen, nth two ty simultancousl? 7 experiences ( yand another tangential acceleragig, : erations, th, 7 y ‘i d tangential accel , then fing tangentia’? etal and ti i , ne eed ae te eta ody in uniform circular motion wou, ‘i ation 2 accel cise, = a Resultant accelerat teagan ial = [centripetal ace nt (avi is not different from other ordi i jpetal force is ni ‘ eg Te nature ofthe CTP tional forces, Electrostatical Columbian forces like Grav ie'simply a way of describing the behaviour of a force es etc, bu : ie ible for the maintenance of the circular motion Examples : (i) In the planetary motions of sun and planets and also in i th natural and artificial) orbital motions of planets and satellites (both nz the cae sor Pounterbalanced by Gravitational forces. thus, ME = SMe mo'R (2 v= aR) (ii) The centripetal force is necessarily equal to the force of friction of the wheels of the vehicle acting on the contact surfaces at the overturning of the road. Thus; =uF=ymg where y= coeff. of friction. (iii) An orbiting electron experiences a centripetal for: obi ‘ce abouta massi nucleus which is equal to the electrostatical forces of attraction. masse , mo 1 (Ze) Thus: MP a gel eh not the rea : imagi Why itis also called ay force that a ictiona; “y force of the centripetal nature i ‘ars 3 “rtial force, ¥ the virtue of inertia, That's Scanned by CamScannerWww vWisionias-net - , “Physics a se “xample : (i) If a man is travelling in a car ina straight line path and the car suddenly turns right, then the man realises a severe shock (push) towards the left. This happens because as the car turns, a centripetal force around the radius of curvature of the path is generated which is counter- batanced by the force of friction of the wheels of the car. But this centripetal force is not balanced by the man, so a shock is felt by the man which comes through the virtue of inertia. This is the required centrifugal force which acts outwardly. Gi) The person sitting in a merry-go-round realises an outer push tangentially due to the appearance of a centrifugal force. In the study of any physical phenomenon, the position of a system or body is made to be fixed and the distances of other bodies are measured called reference frames. It is of two types (i) Inertial (Non-accelerating) and (ii) Non-inertial (accelerating). Inertial frames are those in which inertia of any body remains conserved. Thus this frame is either in rest or in a uniform motion ina straight line i.e. no force, no acceleration concept exists. But if the force or the acceleration exists in a particular frame it is called non-inertial. Newton's laws of motion are applicable only in inertial frame of reference. Application Centrifuge : A device by means of which light particles and heavy particles are separated to each other. () Cream Separator : In a cream separator, a vessel containing milk is rotated fast. Being lighter the cream collects in a cylindrical layer around the axis, whence it is drawn off and the skimmed milk is drained through an outlet fitted on the wall of the vessel. The particles, whose density is less than that of the liquid, are driven towards the axis of rotation and those whose density is greater than that of the liquid are driven away from the axis. Cream is lighter than milk, so it is separated from milk and collected at the axis. (i) The Centrifugal Drier : In laundries wet clothes are dried by packing them in a cylindrical vessel with perforated walls which rotated with a very high speed. Water particles stick to the cloths with a certain force which is called adhesive force. The water particles are not sufficient to keep them moving uniformly in a circle. Torque or Moment of a force : The turning effect of a force about a point or a line is called the moment of force about that point or line which is called the axis of rotation. The turning effect of a force is dependent on the magnitude of the force and the perpendicular F distance of its line of action from the axis of rotation. heen thee Scanned by CamScannerwww -visionias.net General Science the body either in of em of the moment of force ig fixeg ‘or tends to turn the body. General dered 0 2 postive (ive) dine iarger magnitude of the force, there Fotis moment of force. Thus turning effect it ‘and its 1 of force and its perpen re i ora larger momen ula Th a s of rotation. os feo me tom the + Tonee is defined 35 the product ofthe force and ing BE e moment of the e axis of rotation. , a wipe jeular distance from the oyce x its perpendicular distance s ‘Thus, moment of force = FORE rotation, et <> The moment of the foree oF torque there il ; @-7 « F =rFsin6 ; = Frsin® inde where; _ @=angle between the force and the position vector. ist uantity and its $.1. unitis Nom = ina : Examples : (i) For the equal forces as far as [J] Hinge larger distance from the hinges of any door it will be needed to apply some more moment of force and a correspondingly the tendency of more turning will be appeared. That's why handles are installed and fixed ata langer distance from the hinges of the door. (i) The handle of a quern is kept distant from its pivot because through a smaller force (effort) the Ey Hinge q handle can be easily turned out (rotated). 5 Bs } (ii) Hand pumps of water have larger handles, D Couple: Two equal and opposite forces form as the product of the force and the couple arm, | Thus; couple = force x couple arm The couple is at ; 18 also a vector quanti i Sppears Mes torque and its $1 nie is N. a a YING a torque or coy bee ple ona body is VF @ couple and it is defined F f the vehicle. (iii) To open the water-pump etc. hines operate on the principle of t point a force is applied and from Scanned by CamScanneryr Www vWisionias-net Physics en eight is carried a \ another point we Fried out. The Lever, p } Sfrow Jack are the examples of Simple Machin Inelined Planes and Machines are equipments through carried By applying a lesser force." WhICh more heavy objects. are ‘The efticie of machine is given by- of a machine - ze Work done by the machine nput energy provided by the ne 100 jaleniey: ; fed by the e The efficiency of any machine can never be 100 ap etnaching Lever: Lever is a simple machine in which a steaga js made to turn oF rotate at a point Fre jhere are three points namely — Fulen nw hich a straight or an inclined rod ly or independently. In every lever um, Effort and Load. Examples : Tongs, Nut Cracker, Scissors etc Joram : The fixed point a the fed point abi which the rod of the lever moves Effort : To use (operate) lover the Effort. Load : The weight carried by the lever is called Load. Theory of Lever: The basic physical principle on which a lever operates is that the product of cffort and effort-arm is equal to the product of the joad and load-arm Thus; Effort x Effort-arm = Load « Load-arm Mechanical Advantage of Lever: The ratio of the load carried by the lever to the effort applied is called the mechanical advantage of the lever. Load or weight (W) Effort (E) pes of Levers : On the basis of the relative positions of fulcrum, effort and load there are three types of Lever. () First Type of Lever : In this type of lever the Fulcrum (F) is at midway between Effort (£) and Load or Weight (W). Load or weight (W) Mechanical advantage = —_— force applied externally is called ‘Thus mechanical advantage = Effort (E) _ AF _ Effort arm “BF ~ Load arm Example : Scissors, Brakes of a bicycle, balance etc. A F B i Gi) Second Type of Lever : In this type of lever the load (W) i at midway between the fulcrum (F) and the Effort (E). Load(W) _ AF Mechanical advantage Scanned by CamScanner, Www wisionias.net . General Science ~ Such levers provide more than one mechanical advantages since AF > BF Example : Nut cracker, Lemon squeezer, movable door on hinges, tobaco cutting machines etc. Gil) Third Type of Lever: In this type of lever the Effort (E) is located at midway between the Ful cram (F) and the Load or Weight (W). Mechanical advantage - Load(W) __ AF — Effortarm eset advange = Fie (E) AF ee ide mechanical advantages of less than 1, ‘ers are used and utilized to enhance the Such type of levers provi since AF < BF. Such lev slow motion. Example: Tongs, plough of the farmers, hands of a man ete, E B, F Ww Centre of mass: Every with a certain point whe ame external s called centre of mass of the system. Thus centre of mass of a body (system of particles) is a point where the whole (entire) mass of the body may be supposed to be concentrated so far the action of a system of parallel forces acting on the elementary masses ig concerned. If a body (system of particles) is composed through a numbe; Of particles, say n of masses my, iy, my m, located at the distance (position veetor) ry, ry 7.07, then the position of the position vector r., is defined as ty _ My Nt my Fy +m Tom = m, + my 4m, Centre of Gravity : The centre of gravity of a body (system - rigidly connected together at a point where the whole mace of the icles) or the system may be supposed to be concentrated so far as gravity (ody of attraction due to the earth) on the constituent particles of the pce or the system is concerned. Also according to the Principle of the lang | gravitation every particle of a body near or upon the surfece Of the ev Ff i is attracted towards the centre of the earth. The vectorial stun, of ath Scanned by CamScannerWww vwisionias.net Physics 2B attractive forces on the particles is the total force with which the body is attracted towards the centre of the earth, This force is called the weight of the body and the point of application of this force is called the centre of the gravity of the body or th ora larger body centre of gravity and centre of mass are two different points but tor a smaller body these two are a coincident point. Centre of gra’ of some rigid bodies Bodies ion of the centre of gravity (C.G.) Unitorm bar (rod) Mid-point of the axis passing through the bar or rod. Tnangular solid body The intersection point of the medians. Rectangular or Square Solid The intersections points of the diagonals. Circular Lamina Centre of the circle. Conical Solid " At Ts height on the axis of the cone from its base. Hollow Cone mney At }* height on the axis of the cone from its base. Solid Spherical body Centre of the sphere Equilibrium of Bodies : When a body under the action of several forces neither moves in a straight line nor rotates around a point then it is said to be in equilibrium. Conditions for equilibrium ; (i) The vector sum of all forces acting on a body along any assigned direction for translational equilibrium must be zero. Thus no linear motion occurs. (ii) The algebraic sum of moments (torques) of all the forces acting on a body about any assigned point or line for rotational equilibrium must vanish (being zero). Thus no angular acceleration must exist. If three forces acting on a particle as shown in the figure are capable of being represented in magnitude and direction by the three sides of a triangle taken in order, they (force) produce an equilibrium. ‘Types of Equilibrium : There are three types of equilibrium (i) Stable equilibrium (ii) Unstable equilibrium (iii) Neutral equilibrium. (i) Stable equilibrium : When a body is in equilibrium in such a way that a slight displacement from this position produces a restoring force tending to return the body to the previous equilibrium, then body is said to be in stable equilibrium. In stable equilibrium the body possesses minimum potential energy. (ii) Unstable equilibrium : When a body is in an equilibrium in such a way that any displacement from this position produces a force tending to push the body farther from the equilibrium position, then it is said to be in unstable equilibrium. In this equilibrium position the body possesses maximum energy. Scanned by CamScannerWww vWisionias-net — a Nf dy isin such a state o} . jam: When a body © (body) experien, : jequlibrinen hat position i ia said oboe jatly from then body inn, alip forte the potential energy of they asitic . Neutral Unsiable equilibrium equilibrium Siable — al field a body is said to be in stable equilibrium i eravity (C.C-) lies as below as possible. een oa tie eior the stability of equilibrium — Universal conditions for the stal aS komt b) The vertica Examples : (i) The tall Tower of Pisa is extremely inclined for an observer and it appears that it may fall down at any moment, but it never alls. In fact it has been surviving (existing) since centuries. The reason for its stability is that the vertical line passing through the centre of Btavity (cg.) lies within the base of the tower (ii) A double-decker bus is found to be in danger of overturning if mom passengersare seatecton the upper deck. If there are more passengers on the upper deck, the cg. of the system (bus+ passenger) will be shifted upward and the stability of equilibrium will be reduced, (iii) A man carrying a bucket completely filled of water leans forward. The man leans outward to attain an e wilibrium position, forward the vertical line through the | Position. When he Jeans ©g. of the system (man + bucket passes through the base of the system (space between his feet). : In the gravitation Thus the work (W) = fy the Particle moves, However a force acti ictin; 7 Which the part '§ ON a particle may not act in the direction in icle moves, Here th zm ne Component of the yon’ “one by the force is defined as the product of th a "oF the force along the line of nome ihe Scanned by CamScanneryr Www vWisionias-net Physics 25 » the angle made by F with the line of motion of th i wer on of work; W = (F cos 0): x= F-(xcos 8) ee then 19 the ork done by a force = force x displacement along the force Work ts 4 scalar quantity and the SI unit of Work is N-m which is called juke . “jhe value of the work will be maximum at 0 = 0° and minimum at @ = 90° > Wry =F W, power: The power of an agent is defined as the rate at which work is ne. The average power delivered by an agent is the total work done by dm ent divided by the total time interval, thea = work done (W)_ Thus power (P) = Ti terval @ min = ‘The instantaneous power of an agent is P= the St unit of power is watt; 1 watt = Usule _, N-m sec sec The power of Machines are expressed in Horse Power (H.P.) and 1 HLP. = 746 watt. Watt-second (Ws) - Itis a unit of work. Watt-hour (Wh) ~ It is also another unit of work, = 1Wh = 3600 Joule. Kilo Watt-hour (kWh) - It is also the unit of work (energy) 1kWh = 1000 watt hour = 1000 watt = 1 hr. 1000 watt x 3600 see 3.6 x 10° watt sec = 3.6 x 10° Joule Thus, W, kW, MW, and LP. ete. are the units of power; while Ws, Wh, kWh, etc. are the units of work (energy). " If the force applied on a body is not constant, rather varies with distance, then the total work done by the force = work (W) = JF cos 8 dx The work done in stretching a spring through a distance x= 4 kx’, where k = a spring constant Energy : Energy of a body is its capacity of doing work. In Mechanics (General Physics) a body is capable of doing work under two ‘circumstances— t is in motion and (ii) When itis situated (located) ina field strained. Thus two types of energy usually coexist— one due to the motion and the another due to the field or position. Scanned by CamScannerWww wisionias.net General Science ping motion acquires a linear describi@nich is called kinetic energy ing wor! velocity % then kinetic energy ge (: p=linear momentum ~ j,,) 2m then its kineti ce = hme mn double ¢ ic eng Gmndle REKD « of the body is ae or linear momentum of «2 Thurs 1 the ra hile if either vec on aeet of the original, it become double, whit Tene four times a8 Ul aa cmt Me double, its KE. _ dy develops & eee due te Flectss : is dou Ifa ial energy h Heat Potent grits caled the Pade height or position of thy body i Pose mane ofthe peep wperative, then potential energy of ye a due to gravity i ation due to gravity, where acer ee meh. where; ¢ = accelera! through the target ang_ S ao i aie allt strikes (hits) a target it penetrates re of tt When a bullet force offered by the target. This is the KB. o¢ ig fo 3 . (attra res i being brought to rest corks against the resis! Se ina a the body and is es - Lt jt works due to its postion in the ft New When the body is ke unit of energy is obviously the same as that “8 Thisis obviously PE. Thus the a of work fs 7 ative forces : A force is said to be cerita hasnt gab Keon ary partici iat inoves between nee depandsoniy upon these two points and not on the path followed. A teres nencemsetvative if ihe rworke done ky the force ‘ona particle that moves between two points depends on the path taken between those points. Thus a force is said to be conservative if the work done by the force 6n a particle in a round trip is zero. A force is said to be non-conservative if work done by the Torce a @ particle in a round trip is not zero, Examples: The Gravitational force, Electrostatical force, Adhesive and Cohesive forces ete. are conservative forces, Viscous force, frictional farce, damping force etc. are non-conservative forces, Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy may be transformed from one form to another but it can’t be Created or destroyed and the total energy of any body or system i 0 ® Constant. Also whenever any energy in any form ‘ same amount of energy appears i This iscalled the law of conservation ofenerpy” Spas Re Transformation of Energy eereme ny Snes / Instruments Transformation of Energy ai hoe energy into Electrical energy Hactis inn ne rise energy into Electrical energy Soman Snergy into Mechanical energy s : ound energy into Electrical energy Scanned by CamScannerWww vWisionias-net Physics - . a 7 a {Instruments Transformation of Energy oudspeal Electrical energy into Sound energy Musical Instruments Mechinical exerey i . ‘anical energy into Sound energy Bulb/Tul Electrical energy into Light energy Heater Electrical energy into Thermal energy Candle Chemical energy into Light energy al ‘Thermal enemy eh and Coal ; Chemical energy into Thermal energy Electric Cen Chemical energy into Electrical energy Heat Engine Thermal energy (Heat energy) into Mechanical energy 4. Gravitation Gravitation is the weakest interaction or force among all the four types of interactions existing in our Universe. Each and every body interacts (attracts) each other by virtue of its mass. This is called Gravitation. Newton's Law of Gravitation In our universe the force of interaction acting among any two bodies is directly proportional to the masses of the bodies and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the bodies. If m,, m, be the masses of two bodies at r distance then according, to “he Newton's law of gravitation Fam,m, Fat r - Pagal r where G is called Universal Gravitational Constant = 6.67 x 10°" Nm?kg? Gravity : As in Newton’s law of gravitation the forces of interaction exist among any two bodies, but if in these two bodies one body is the Earth, then this gravitation is called gravity and by this force of gravity the Earth attracts everybody towards its centre. If a body is projected upwards freely, then due to the force of gravity it falls back. Acceleration due to gravity (g) : If a body is dropped freely and it executes a free falling motion, then as the body comes near the Earth’s surface then its velocity increases and the acceleration produced is called acceleration due to gravity. If m be the mass of any body describing a free falling motion then due to the presence of force of gravity the weight of the bo . where g = 9.8 ms or 32 ft = acceleration due to gravity (Near the earth’s surface) In SI unit ‘g’ is expressed in ms? or N. kg. Scanned by CamScannerWisionias-net ~~ General Seience ravitational Constant (G)_ _ Universal G? — 5 E gravity ("a homogeneous solid sphere of , pose betws tion due to he due posed jal mase m be (located) on the Surface gp of i is su if the earth is M, and another body a ~ i on on the body of mass m= , the force of interacti reer ap, sadius of the earth — ener Newton's second law of Now, by fon = mg Force = inertial mass * accelerati GM,m ‘Thus —j- =m R on g=—3 & 5 (Here, we senicne that the inertial mass is equal to the Bravitationay mass) ion due to gravit = acceleration Bravity (g = 99 OC eS ee oe nee ie Goeeek inadseh (if air resistance is to be negligible) fall freely and th (both) have the same value of g near the earth's surface. This shows that if two bodies of different masses, shapes and sizes are dropped ina vacuum from the same height, then both will reach the ground (surface) simultaneously. In the presence of air, the viscous drag, buoyancy ete. the motion (free falling) of the bodies are affected and thus the heavy body comes down earlier than lighter body. Variation in acceleration due to gravity (¢): At atthe sea-level the standard value of gis 9.8 m/s? But the value of g is not the latitude of 45° ang 0r 32 ft/sec constant and varies from place to place. {9) Due to the spheroidal (Oblate Spheroid) shape of the earth . GM, As derived above g = —>* and since the equatorial diameter is larger than the polar diameter, the vak i ial region i tone eee Value of g in the equatorial region is less wTbG: 9 = max. (At poles) =min. (At equator) @ Due “othe axial rotation of the earth epton ¥ : make miate ae ay Place whose latitude is. then due to changed wer ¥ is observed t i changed wei isthe appatoe) oe eve changed. This lee tnt appeared due to Variation j Sto: Obvicuely an i fact the body describes (traces) nee n Tf a body of mass m is a circle of tadius r = R, cos i due to Scanned by CamScanneral wwwvisionias-net en. = - ‘The expression of the apparent weight ts of red derived as— pe “Apparent wt (mg/) = mg ma? r cos? = Fee ED an \ =3'=g—w' rcosth But at the pole A= 90° = x =g (max. atthe poles) At the equator 2 - 0° = g'=g-c!r (At the equator) Obviously, if the earth stops to rotate then =O and here g’= £ the earth’s rotation increased 17 times of the present value, then the ‘weight (apparent wt.) at the equator will be zero. tal Obviously, the value of g increases on decreasing the value of angular velocity of the earth and vice-versa. (@) With distance from the Centre of the Earth Here the graphical representation of the variation of g with distance has been displayed— The value offg = Oat the centre of the earth. It increases linearly with distance up to the surface of the earth and then decreases rapidly and again becomes zero at infinity. The acceleration due to ——_————— gravity g is maximum on the surface of the earth. (a) Variation in goin from the earth’s surface. (i) The value of g decreases in going up. If any body goes ht height from the earth’s surface, then the value of g decreases and say g’ which is given by & ‘es(t = z) r=Re cosh @ =angular velocity = latitude of the place © (centre of the earth) cs “Vr uesy 1g up from the earth’s surface and coming down creases in coming down. If any body comes (ii) The value of g also d eases and we down to height from the earth’s surface, the value of g decre say itg’ whichis given by ginal iE ) a Remark : The value of g from going up OF coming down inside the earth decreases but decreases more in going uP than in coming down. Applications of the variation of g (i) [a llift or an elevator goes up wil sitting in it experiences a larger weight than thal Thus, apparent weight = (mig + ma) (increased wt.) where; m= mass of the man. i Scanned by CamScanner th any acceleration a, then the man t of his original.Www vwisionias.net seal Science down with any acee, tor comes italift ora eeriences lesser weight than that Siri tin a thon the man 8 original (ngs) (decreased end 7 . tvelocity (noacceleray eee Tevatormoves withacOnsia°e Te A SD acceleration) (2) Ianto tang cuange ii Ne ee ore upor down then there i 10 TT the Ae econ 1) ana lng motion ores an NE SINE MAM Peri broken, weight lessness. ‘ 7" . ee during free callings = 8° Thus apparent == MS =mg—mg- ‘eration aof the lift or elevator during comin malt tie vate ofthe scones then the sitting man on the floor of the 1 lownward becam would escape on the roof of the lift. ‘Asifa>g then apparent wl. = mg —ma <0 = —ve Thus apparent wt.(-ce) physically activates the man upwardly ang man comes on the roof of the lift (elevator). Planets and Satellites : Planets are the celestial bodies revolving around the elliptical orbits of the sun in our solar system. But the heavenly. bodies revolving around the planets are called satellites. The Earth is the planet of the sun and the moon is a satellite (natural) of the Earth. The planets and satellites draw their light and energy from the sun because the have no energy of their own, There are so many artificial satellites like. Geostationary satellites, Sputnik-l, Aryabhatta, Rohini and Apple which have been launched in various orbits of the earth. Various communica, satellites are orbiting around the Earth, oe ;{patnilc1 was the first artificial satellite launched in 1957 by Russian Orbital Velocity : If a bod it ly (say, te gevlee around another body (say, the Earth) thee ¢ velocit i i orbital vel age olution of the frst body is called Let m be the mass of a. satel i lite orbiti fe carl of fie pase M, with velocity oe Corbi ct : x) be the radius of the ext Centripetal 1 weight Belg Nees Scanned by CamScanner Obs the valv depend lesser ¥ the san Th 7.993 Pi satelli 1 neWww vwisionias.net Physics 5 Le er im Tmussey ayy =e eG (: Now, if =0, Then v, will become the orbital velocity of the earth. Tho (een Bal eg VR Obviously from the expression of the orbital velocity of the satellite, the value of vg doesn’t depend upon the mass (m) of the satellite rather it depends on the height (h) of the satellite, and the larger the value of h the lesser would be the value of vg, But satellites having various masses with the same orbital radius have the same orbital velocity. The value of orbital velocity of the earth and a geostationary satellite is, 7.99 km/sec. (approx. 8 km/sec.) Period of revolution of a satellite : The time required in which the satellite completes one rotation is called the period of revolution (T). Thus the period of revolution (T) = Orbital velocity 3 2e(R +h) 2n(R,+h) Rok — 2n (K+)? % Rvs Rg 3 2n(R, +h)? g - Ra (* -84/xsi) Obviously, the period of revolution (1) of the satellite is independent of the mass of the satellite. Rather it depends on the height of the satellite from. the surface, and the more the height (h) the larger the period of revolution (1). The period of the revolution of the earth or a geostationary satellite is 84 minutes. Geostationary Satellite : A geostationary satellite is a communication satellite which revolves from west to east and whose period of revolution is 24 hrs equal to that of axial rotation of the earth (earth’s spin). Such satellites are stationary and are located at 36,000 km height from the earth’s surface. Geostationary satellites (Communication Satellites) transmit signals across larger distances by receiving these signals from one point on earth’s surface and reflecting them down to the another point. In order to provide a stationary target for the transmitted signals, these satellites must remain stationary at a point above the earth. Utilities :(i) The electromagnetic radio-waves are reflected and transmitted and various programmes on the television are displayed. Itis utilised in radio transmission and telecommunication. The Meteorological Department uses it in weather broadcasting, and in earlier predictions of the floods and droughts. Scanned by CamScanner