1.

HIGH VOLTAGE INSULATION

1.1 Introduction
In recent times, high voltages have been applied several fields to sustain modern civilization.
High voltages are applied in laboratories in nuclear research, particle accelerators, and Van de
Graff generators. High voltages are indispensable for the transmission of large bulks of power
over long distances. Voltages up to 100kV are used in electrostatic precipitators in automobile
ignition coils. X-ray equipment for medical and industrial applications use high voltages. The
diverse conditions under which a high voltage apparatus is used necessitate carful design of its
insulation and electrostatic field profiles. The principal media of insulation used are gases,
vacuum, solid and liquid, or a combination of these. For achieving reliability and economy,
knowledge of the causes of deterioration is essential, and the tendency to increase the voltage
stress for optimum design calls for judicious selection of insulation in relation to the dielectric
strength and other relevant factors. In this chapter gives some insight into high voltage
insulation.

1.2 High voltage insulation materials

With respect to electric current and electric and magnetic fields, electrical materials possess
certain special properties which differ from those of other types of materials. Electrical materials
are described as insulating (dielectric), conducting (conductor) or magnetic materials. Conductor
and magnetic materials are frequently called active materials. Each of these materials must meet
the requirements stipulated either by the National or International Standards or by technical
specifications.

The basic insulation level of electrical equipment determines the principal dielectric qualities of
the apparatus. The amount of insulation provided constitutes quite an appreciable part of the cost.
The standardising bodies always have this in mind to fix the basic insulation level as low as is
commensurate with safety.

The main purpose of electrical insulating materials, as their name implies, is to reliably insulate
the live parts of electrical installations from one another and from earthed structural components.
Therefore these materials must possess not only certain electrical properties with respect to the
electric current it carries, but also non-electrical properties with respect to the medium or
environment in which they find themselves. The dielectrics may be gaseous/vacuum, liquid or
solid in form.

1.2 Electrical properties of insulating materials

The basic electrical properties of insulators include: Conductivity, Dielectric Loss, Permittivity
and Electric Field Strength

(a) Conductivity
In contrast to conducting materials, electrical insulating materials must poses very low
conductivity. The ability of dielectrics to conduct current is characterised by their volume and

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surface resistivities (or specific resistances). The higher the volume and surface resistivity of a
dielectric, the higher its quality.

In the manufacture and repair of electrical equipment like transformers, the quality of insulation
is practically evaluated for the entire equipment or for its individual parts, by applying a high
voltage. During this test, a current, though very small, flows through the insulation. This current
is termed leakage current. Its magnitude depends on the electrical resistance of the equipment or
the individual part insulation. The insulation resistance is measured by means of an insulation
resistance tester.

Insulation resistance depends on external factors, such as temperature, humidity, surface

contamination as well as on the properties of the insulating material itself. High temperature and
humidity sharply reduce insulation resistance, and consequently increase leakage current and
lower the quality of the insulation.

Most insulating materials used in the manufacture of transformers possess high hygroscopicity,
that is, ability to absorb moisture from air. Therefore after manufacture or repair, the equipment
must be dried out, in order to greatly improve the insulation resistance. Thus electrical insulation
must have a high resistance, and must be moisture- resistant. Insulation resistance is a very
important factor, and it is widely used when determining the moisture content of an insulation
material.

(b) Dielectric loss

A dielectric (insulation) subjected to a varying electric field produced by an alternating voltage
applied to it absorbs some of the electric energy which is transformed into heat in the dielectric.
This loss of energy is called dielectric loss.

The dielectric loss (in watts) can be measured directly or it may be calculated by the formula:

V
2
Pdiel = ωC tan δ Eqn 1.1

where Pdiel = power loss in the dielectric, (in watts W )

V = applied voltage, (in volts V )
ω = angular frequency = 2 πf , f is the frequency of the applied voltage
C = capacitance of the dielectric , (in Farads).
tan δ = dielectric or loss factor

From the above formula, it follows that, given the applied voltage, frequency, and capacitance of
the insulation, the power loss in the insulation is dependent on the dielectric factor. Therefore the
dielectric loss in insulation is customarily evaluated through the loss factor, which is one of the
chief insulation characteristics.

To obtain an idea of the loss factor, consider the simplified vector diagram of the current in a
dielectric shown in Fig below.

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 Fig1.1 Simplified vector diagram of currents in a dielectric

When the dielectric is subjected to an alternating voltage V , a current I flows through it. This
current consists of two components, a reactive (capacitive) component I c and an active (or real)
component I w. The angle between the vectors of currents I r and I w, which is complementary with
the phase angle ϕ , is called the dielectric loss angle .

As seen from the diagram, the tangent of the dielectric loss angle is the ratio of two currents,
namely, the active component of the current in the dielectric to the reactive component.

Eqn 1.2
In practice, the tangent is expressed not in absolute units, but as a percentage. The dielectric/loss
factor of a given insulation material is not constant, but a variable depending on the frequency of
the applied voltage and temperature. The greater the loss factor, all other factors being equal, the
higher the dielectric loss, that is, the poorer the quality of the dielectric. At a temperature of 20 0
C and frequency of 50 Hz, the loss factor of the insulating materials used in transformers range
from 0.005 to 0.02.

The moistening of insulation causes a sharp rise of the dielectric loss in it. Therefore the loss
factor is an important characteristic for determining the moisture content of the insulation. The
loss factor of the insulation material gets larger not only as a result of the moistening or
contamination of the insulation, but also because of the poor quality of the dielectric medium.

(c) Permittivity of a dielectric

If a voltage is applied to a dielectric, there develops an electric field, under the influence of
which the bound electric charges of the atoms and the molecules of the dielectric will be
displaced. The positive charges will be displaced in the direction of the field, and the negative
charges in the opposite direction. The atoms and molecules will have their centres of positive and
negative displaced in opposite directions, and thus will form electric doublets, i.e., separated
pairs of elastically bound equal and opposite charges.

If the voltage is removed, the opposite will take place and the displacement of the electric
charges in the dielectric will disappear. This phenomenon of the elastic displacement of electric
charges under the influence of electric field forces is called dielectric polarisation .

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Polarisation varies for different materials. The greater the polarisation, the higher the capacitance
of the dielectric, i.e., the greater its ability to store electric charges. The dielectric polarisation is
quantitatively evaluated in terms of the relative permittivity . If, for example, two capacitors
have exactly the same geometrical dimensions, but one of them uses air ( ε ≈ 1) as the dielectric,
and the other uses paper (  3) as dielectric, then the capacitance of the capacitor with paper as
dielectric will be approximately three times that of the capacitor with air.

Like the dielectric loss factor, the permittivity of a dielectric depends on temperature and
frequency of the applied voltage. At a temperature of 200 C and frequency of 50 Hz, the relative
permittivity of insulating materials used in transformers range from 2 to 8.

The electric field strength in a dielectric is inversely proportional to its permittivity. Therefore
when selecting insulating materials which are to operate in series, one tries to have their
permittivities as close as possible. This ensures a uniform distribution of the electric field in the
composite insulation, and thus improves its electric strength. With an improper choice of the
permittivities and thickness of the insulation components, the electric field strength may exceed
the electric strength of the insulation, and the insulation will fail.

(d) Electric field strength

If a voltage is applied to an insulating material and is increased gradually, an instant will be
reached when the quality of the insulation will sharply deteriorate and its electrical failure or
breakdown will ensue. As a result of the breakdown, the insulation resistance drops sharply,
which causes a short-circuit between current-carrying parts.

Insulation breakdown in high-capacity transformers results in heavy destructions accompanied

with arcing and fusion of metal structural components. The voltage at which breakdown of
insulation occurs is called breakdown voltage.

The property of an insulating material which enables it to withstand high voltages without injury,
is expressed in terms of the minimum electric field strength (or electric stress) which will cause
breakdown of the dielectric, i.e., in terms of the breakdown voltage per unit thickness of the
dielectric.
V
E br = h
br

Eqn 1.3
where Ebr = electric breakdown stress, (in kV/mm)
V br = electric breakdown voltage, (in kV )
h = thickness of the dielectric , (in mm)

The breakdown stress of a dielectric is referred to as the electric field strength (or dielectric
strength) of the material. It is one of the main insulation characteristics. The average electric
field strength of the insulating materials used in transformers range from 5 to 90 kV/mm at 200 C.

1.3 Types of insulators

The principal media of insulation used are gases, vacuum, solid, and liquid, or a combination of
these.

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(a) Gas/Vacuum as insulators
Air at atmospheric pressure is the most common gaseous insulation. High pressure gas provides
a flexible and reliable medium for high-voltage insulation. Using gases at high pressures, field
gradients up to 25MV/m have been realised. Nitrogen (N 2) was the gas first used at high
pressures because of its inertness and chemical stability, but its dielectric strength is the same as
that of air. Other important insulating gases are carbon dioxide (CO 2), dichlorodifluoromethane
(CCl2F2) (popularly known as Freon), and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). The breakdown voltage at
higher pressures in gases shows an increasing dependence on the nature and smoothness of the
electrode material.

Over the years, considerable amount of work has been done to adopt a specific gas for practical
use. Before adopting a particular gas or gas mixture for a practical purpose, it is useful to gain
knowledge of what the gas does, what its composition is, and what the factors are, that influence
its performance. The great versatility of the operating performance demanded from an insulating
gas or gas mixture, the more rigorous would be the requirements which it should meet. The
requirements needed by a good dielectric do not exist in a majority of the gases. Generally, the
preferred properties of a gaseous dielectric for high-voltage applications are:
(a) high dielectric strength,
(b) thermal stability and chemical inactivity towards other materials of construction,
(c) non-inflammability and physiological inertness, and environmentally non-hazardous,
(d) low temperature of condensation
(e) good heat transfer, and
(f) ready availability at moderate cost.

Of the above properties, high dielectric strength is the most important property required. It is
relevant to point out that, of the gases examined to date, SF6 is the most attractive over all other
gases. SF6 has high dielectric strength and low liquefaction temperature, and it can be used over a
wide range of operating conditions. It also has excellent arc-quenching properties. Therefore, it is
widely used as an insulant as well as arc-quenching medium in high-voltage apparatus such as
high voltage cables, current and voltage transformers, circuit-breakers and metal enclosed
substations.

However, in recent years, pure SF6 gas has been found to be a greenhouse gas causing
environmental hazards and therefore research efforts are presently focussed on finding a
replacement gas or gas mixture which is environmentally friendly. Pure nitrogen, air and SF 6/ N2
mixtures show good potential to replace gas SF6 in high voltage apparatus.

Ideally, vacuum is the best insulator with field strengths up to 10 7V/cm, limited only by
emissions from the electrode surfaces. This strength decrease to less than 10 5V/cm for gaps of
several centimetres. Under high vacuum conditions where the pressures are below 10-4 torr, the
breakdown cannot occur due to collisional processes like in particle accelerators, X-ray and field
emission tubes, electron microscopes, capacitors, and circuit breakers.

(b) Liquid dielectrics

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Liquids are used in high-voltage equipment to serve the dual purpose of insulation and heat
dissipation. They have the advantage that a puncture path is self-healing. Temporary failures due
to overvoltages are reinsulated quickly by liquid flow to the affected area. However, the products
of the discharges may be deposited on solid insulation supports and may lead to surface
breakdown over these solid supports. Highly purified liquids have dielectric strengths as high as
1MV/cm. under actual service conditions, the breakdown mechanism in the case of very pure
liquid is the same as gas breakdown, but in commercial liquids, the breakdown mechanisms are
significantly altered by the presence of solid impurities and dissolved gases.

Petroleum oils are the most common insulating liquids. However, fluoro-carbons, silicones, and
oganic esters including caster oil, are used in significant quantities. A number of considerations
are made in the selection of any dielectric liquid. The important electrical properties of a
dielectric liquid include dielectric field strength, conductivity, flash point, gas content, viscosity,
dielectric constant, dissipation factor and stability. Because of their low dissipation factor and
other excellent characteristics, polybutanes are being increasingly used in the electrical industry.
However, in the 1970s, it was found that Askarels which were extensively used, exhibit health
hazards and therefore most countries have banned their production and use. Many new liquids
have since been developed which have no adverse environmental hazards. These include silicone
oils, synthetic and fluorinated hydrocarbons.

(c) Solid dielectrics

A good solid dielectric should have some of the properties mentioned earlier for gases and
liquids. It should also possess good mechanical and bonding strengths. Many organic and
inorganic materials are used for high-voltage insulation purposes. Widely used inorganic
materials are ceramics and glass. The most widely used organic materials are thermosetting
epoxy resins such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene(PE) or cross-linked olythylene
(XLPE). Kraft paper, natural rubber, silicon rubber and polypropylene rubber are some of the
other materials widely used as insulants in electrical equipment.

If the solid insulating material is truly homogeneous and is free from imperfections, its
breakdown stress will be as high as 10MV/cm. this is the ‘intrinsic breakdown strength’, and can
be obtained only under carefully controlled laboratory conditions. However, in practice, the
breakdown fields obtained are very much lower than this value. The breakdown occurs due to
many mechanisms. In general, the breakdown occurs over the surface than in the solid itself, and
the surface insulation failure is the most frequent cause of trouble in practice.

(d) Composites
In many engineering applications, more than one type of insulation are used together, mainly in
parallel, giving rise to composite insulation systems. Examples of such systems are solid & gas
as transmission line insulators, solid & vacuum, and solid & liquid for transformer winding
insulation.

In the application of composites, it is important to make sure that both the components of the
composite should be chemically stable and will not react with each other under the application of
combined thermal, mechanical and electric stresses over the expected life of the equipment. They
should also have nearly equal dielectric constants. Further, the liquid insulant should not absorb

6
any impurities from the solid, which may adversely affect its resistivity, dielectric strength, loss
factor and other properties of the liquid dielectric.

1.4 Non-electrical properties of insulating materials

For a long and reliable operation, insulating materials must possess not only electrical properties,
but also other special non-electrical properties, chief among them being thermal stability,
mechanical strength, elasticity, flexibility, oil resistance, moisture resistance and chemical
resistance.
(a) Thermal stability
Many insulation applications require the material to be exposed to excessive temperatures for a
short period of overloads. Physical properties of materials generally drop off to lower values
with the rise in temperature. For example, tensile strength should not drop to the point where
excessive deformation and creep would occur.

When materials are exposed to temperature for longer periods of time, they change their
chemical composition, with resultant change of physical properties from permissible state to
non-permissible state, leading to ageing of the material. It is a well-established fact that for most
insulating materials, the service life can be related to temperature as an approximately linear plot
of log of life versus reciprocal of absolute temperature. For long and reliable operation,
insulating materials must possess high thermal stability.

(b) Mechanical strength

In general, toughness is the main requirement here. Stiffness modulus should be high for a rigid
structure or low for wire insulation. For instance, a slot liner sheet material has to be able to
withstand vibration, any chemical actions, effect of high temperatures, absorption of moisture,
etc. The mechanical requirements on insulation are different for each application.

(c) Chemical behaviour

Chemical behaviour relates to the effect of the environment on the insulating material. The most
common environment is air containing moisture. The oxygen in the air can oxidise the insulation
at a temperature until it loses its necessary physical properties detrimentally. The oxygen can
also hydrolyse and degrade some insulation. It can collect on the surface and give low insulation
resistance. Ultraviolet resistance is of importance in those applications where the material is
exposed to the radioactive elements. Resistance to corrosive atmospheres such as salt spray is
equally important. Effects of solvents can be disastrous.

1.4 Insulation breakdown

Electrical insulating materials (or dielectrics) are materials in which electrostatic fields can
remain almost indefinitely. These materials thus offer a very high resistance to the passage of
direct currents. However, they there are several factors such as heat, impurities and high voltage
which can adversely affect the properties on insulating materials leading to their destruction
(breakdown). These factors either introduce conductive substances in the insulator or ionise it.

1.4.1 Breakdown characteristic in gases

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Two mechanisms of breakdown in gasses are known. These are the avalanche and streamer
mechanisms.

(a) Electron avalanche mechanism (Townsend breakdown process)

The Townsend breakdown mechanism is based on the generation of successive secondary
avalanches to produce breakdown. Suppose a free electron exists (caused by some external effect
such as radio-activity or cosmic radiation) in a gas where an electric field exists. If the field
strength is sufficiently high, then it is likely to ionize a gas molecule by simple collision resulting
in 2 free electrons and a positive ion. These 2 electrons will be able to cause further ionization by
collision leading in general to 4 electrons and 3 positive ions. The process is cumulative, and the
number of free electrons will go on increasing as they continue to move under the action of the
electric field. The swarm of electrons and positive ions produced in this way is called an electron
avalanche. In the space of a few millimetres, it may grow until it contains many millions of
electrons.

Fig 1.1 Electron avalanche

(b) Streamer mechanism
Townsend mechanism when applied to breakdown at atmospheric pressure was found to have
certain drawbacks. Firstly, according to the Townsend theory, current growth occurs as a result
of ionization processes only. But in practice, breakdown voltages were found to depend on the
gas pressure and geometry of the gap. Secondly, the mechanism predicts time lags of the order of
10-5s, while in actual practice, breakdown is observed to occur at very short times of the order of
10-8s. Also, while the Townsend mechanism predicts a very diffused form of discharge, in actual
practice, discharges are found be filamentary and irregular. The Townsend mechanism failed to
explain all these observed phenomena and as a result, the Streamer theory was proposed
independently by Raether and, Meek and Loeb.

According to the streamer theory, breakdown in gases mainly arises due to the added effect of
the space-charge field of an avalanche and photo-electric ionization in the gas volume. While the
Townsend mechanism predicts a diffused form of discharge, in actual practice many discharges
are found to be filamentary and irregular. The Streamer theory predicts the development of a
spark discharge directly from a single avalanche. The space charge produced in the avalanche
causes sufficient distortion of the electric field that those free electrons move towards the
avalanche head, and in so doing generate further avalanches in a process that rapidly becomes
cumulative. As the electrons advance rapidly, the positive ions are left behind in a relatively
slow-moving tail. The field will be enhanced in front of the head. Just behind the head, the field
between the electrons and the positive ions is in the opposite direction to the applied field and
hence the resultant field strength is less. Again between the tail and the cathode the field is
enhanced. (Figure 1.2)

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 Fig 1.2 Streamer mechanism

Due to the enhanced field between the head and the anode, the space charge increases, causing a
further enhancement of the field around the anode. The process is very fast and the positive
space charge extends to the cathode very rapidly resulting in the formation of a streamer. Figure
1.3 shows the breakdown.

Fig 1.3 Streamer breakdown

(c) Practical considerations in using gases and gas mixtures for insulation purposes

1.4.2 Breakdown in liquids

In highly purified liquid dielectrics, breakdown is controlled by a phenomenon similar to those
for gasses. Liquids have higher dielectric field strength than gases(of the order of 1MV/cm).
Unfortunately, liquids are easily contaminated, and may contain solids, other liquids in
suspension and dissolved gasses. The effect of these impurities is relatively small for short
duration pulses (10 μs).

However, if the voltage is applied continuously, the solid impurities line up at right angles to
equipotentials, and distort the field so that breakdown occurs at relatively low voltage. The line-
up of particles is a fairly slow process, and is unlikely to affect the strength on voltages lasting
for less than 1ms.

Under the action of the electric field, dissolved gasses may come out of solution, forming a
bubble. The gas in the bubble has a lower strength than the liquid, so that more gas is produced
and the bubble grows, ultimately causing breakdown. Because, of the tendency to become

9
contaminated, liquids are not usually used alone above 100kV/cm in continuously energised
equipment, however, they are used at much higher stresses (up to 1MV/cm) in conjunction with
solids, which can be made to act as barriers, preventing the line-up of solid impurities and
localising of any bubbles which may form. The main function of the liquid in such arrangements
is to fill up the voids.

(a) Breakdown of commercial liquids

When a difference of potential is applied to a pair of electrodes immersed in an insulating liquid,
a small conduction current is first observed. If the voltage is raised continuously, at a critical
voltage a spark passes between the electrodes. The passage of a spark through a liquid involves
the following.
(i) flow of a relatively large quantity of electricity, determined by the characteristics of the
circuit,
(ii) a bright luminous path from electrode to electrode,
(iii) the evolution of bubbles of gas and the formation of solid products of decomposition (if
the liquid is of requisite chemical nature),
(iv) formation of small pits on the electrodes,
(v) an impulsive pressure through the liquid with an accompanying explosive sound.

Tests on highly purified transformer oil show that

(i) breakdown strength has a small but definite dependence on electrode material,
(ii) breakdown strength decreases with increase in electrode spacing,
(iii) breakdown strength is independent of hydrostatic pressure for degassed oil, but increases
with pressure if oil contains gases like nitrogen or oxygen in solution.

In the case of commercial insulating liquid, which may not be subjected to very elaborate
purifying treatment, the breakdown strength will depend more upon the nature of impurities it
contains than upon the nature of the liquid itself. These impurities which lead to the breakdown
of commercial liquids below their intrinsic strength can be divided into the following 3
categories.
ε1
(i) Impurities which have breakdown strength lower than that of the liquid itself (eg: bubbles
of gas). Breakdown of the impurities may trigger off the total breakdown of the liquid.
Gas or vapour bubbles may exist in impure liquid dielectrics, either formed from
dissolved gasses, temperature and pressure variations, or other causes. The electric field
Eb in a gas bubble which is immersed in a liquid of permittivity The electric field Eb in a
gas bubble which is immersed in a liquid of permittivity ε 1 is given by is given by
3 ε1
Eb = E
2 ε 1+1 0
where E0 is the field in the liquid in the absence of the bubble.

The electrostatic forces on the bubble cause it to get elongated in the direction of the
electric field. The elongation continues, when sufficient electric field is applied, and at a
critical length the gas inside the bubble (which has a lower breakdown strength) breaks
down. This discharge causes decomposition of the liquid molecules and leads to total
breakdown.

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(ii) Impurities which are unstable in the electric field (eg: globules of water). Instability of
the impurity can result in a low resistance bridge across the electrodes and in total
breakdown. If an insulating liquid contains in suspension a globule of another liquid, then
breakdown can result from instability of the globule in the electric field.
Consider a spherical globule of liquid of permittivity ε 2 immersed in a liquid dielectric of
permittivityε 1. When it is subjected to an electric field between parallel electrodes, the
field inside the globule would be given by:
3 ε1
E= E
2 ε1 + ε2 0
where E0 is the field in the liquid in the absence of the globule.

The electrostatic forces cause the globule to elongate and take the shape of a prolate
spheroid (i.e. an elongated spheroid). As the field is increased, the globule elongates so
that the ratio γ of the longer to the shorter diameter of the spheroid increases. For the same
ε2
field E, the ratio γ is a function of .
ε1
(iii) Impurities which result in local enhancement of electric field in a liquid (eg: conducting
particles). The enhanced field may cause local breakdown and therefore initiate complete
breakdown.
In commercial liquids, solid impurities cannot be avoided and will be present as fibres or
as dispersed solid particles. If the impurity is considered to be a spherical particle of
permittivityε 2and is present in a liquid dielectric of permittivity ε 1, it will experience a
force
( ε 2−ε 1 ) 2
ΔE
ε 2+ 2 ε 1
where E = applied field.

Generally ε 2>ε 1, so that the force would move the particle towards the regions of stronger
field. Particles will continue to move in this way and will line up in the direction of the
field. A stable chain of particles would be produced, which at a critical length may cause
breakdown. Because of the tendency to become contaminated, liquids are seldom used
alone above 100 kV/cm in continuously energised equipment. However they may be used
up to 1 MV/cm in conjunction with solids which can be made to act as barriers,
preventing the line-up of solid impurities and localising bubbles which may form.

1.4.3 Breakdown of solid insulating materials

In solid dielectrics, highly purified and free of imperfections, the breakdown strength is high, of
the order of 10MV/cm. The highest breakdown strength obtained under carefully controlled
conditions is known as the "intrinsic strength" of the dielectric. Dielectrics usually fail at stresses
well below the intrinsic strength due usually to one of the following causes:

(a) Electro-mechanical breakdown

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 When an electric field is applied to a dielectric between two electrodes, a mechanical
force will be exerted on the dielectric due to the force of attraction between the surface
charges. This compression decreases the dielectric thickness thus increasing the effective
stress. This is shown in figure 1.4.

Fig 1.4 Process of breakdown

(b) Breakdown due to internal discharges

Solid insulating materials sometimes contain voids or cavities in the medium or
boundaries between the dielectric and the electrodes. These voids have a dielectric
constant of unity and a lower dielectric strength. Hence the electric field strength in the
voids is higher than that across the dielectric. Thus even under normal working voltages,
the field in the voids may exceed their breakdown value and breakdown may occur. The
mechanism can be explained by considering the following equivalent circuit of the
dielectric with the void, shown in figure 1.5.

Fig 1.5 Equivalent circuit of dielectric with void

When the voltage V across the void exceeds the critical voltage Vc, a discharge is
initiated and the voltage collapses. The discharge extinguishes very rapidly (say 0.1 μs).
The voltage across the void again builds up and the discharges recur. The number and
frequency of the discharges will depend on the applied voltage. The voltage and current
waveforms (exaggerated for clarity) are shown in figure 1.6.

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 Fig 1.6 Internal discharges

In each of the discharges, there will be heat dissipated in the voids which will cause
carbonization of the surface of the voids and erosion of the material. The gradual erosion
of the material and consequent reduction in the thickness of the insulating material
eventually leads to breakdown. Breakdown by this process is slow and may occur in a
few days or may take a few years.

(c) surface breakdown (tracking and erosion)

(i) Surface flashover:
Surface flashover is a breakdown of the medium in which the solid is immersed. The role
of the solid dielectric is only to distort the field so that the electric strength of the gas is
exceeded.

If a piece of solid insulation is inserted in a gas so that the solid surface is perpendicular
to the equipotentials at all points, then the voltage gradient is not affected by the solid
insulation. An example of this is a cylindrical insulator placed in the direction of a
uniform field. Field intensification results if solid insulation departs even in detail from
the cylindrical shape. In particular if the edges are chipped, or if the ends of the cylinder
are not quite perpendicular to the axis, then an air gap exists next to the electrode, and the
stress can reach up to ε rtimes the mean stress in the gap. [ε ris the dielectric constant of
1
the cylinder]. Discharge may therefore occur at a voltage approaching times the
εr
breakdown voltfirefoxage in the absence of the cylinder, and these discharges can
precipitate a breakdown.

The three essential components of the surface flashover phenomena are:

o the presence of a conducting film across the surface of the insulation

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 o a mechanism whereby the leakage current through the conducting film is interrupted
with the production of sparks,
o degradation of the insulation must be caused by the sparks.

The conducting film is usually moisture from the atmosphere absorbed by some form of
contamination. Moisture is not essential as a conducting path can also arise from metal
dust due to wear and tear of moving parts. Sparks are drawn between moisture films,
separated by drying of the surface due to heating effect of leakage current, which act as
extensions to the electrodes. For a discharge to occur there must be a voltage at least
equal to the Paschen minimum for the particular state of the gas. For example, Paschen
minimum in air at N.T.P it is 380V, whereas tracking can occur at well below 100V. It
does not depend on gaseous breakdown. Degradation of the insulation is almost
exclusively the result of heat from the sparks, and this heat either carbonises if tracking is
to occur, or volatilises if erosion is to occur. Carbonization results in a permanent
extension of the electrodes and usually takes the form of a dendritic growth. Increase of
creepage path during design will prevent tracking, but in most practical cases, moisture
films can eliminate the designed creepage path.

(ii) Tracking
Tracking is the formation of a permanent conducting path across a surface of the
insulation, and in most cases the conduction (carbon path) results from degradation of the
insulation itself leading to a bridge between the electrodes. The insulating material must
be organic in nature for tracking to occur.

(iii) Erosion
In a surface discharge, if the products of decomposition are volatile and there is no
residual conducting carbon on the surface, the process is simply one of pitting. This is
erosion, which again occurs in organic materials. If surface discharges are likely to occur,
it is preferable to use materials with erosion properties rather than tracking properties, as
tracking makes insulation immediately completely ineffective, whereas erosion only
weakens the material but allows operation until replacement can be made later.

(d) Thermal breakdown

Heat is generated continuously in electrically stressed insulation by dielectric losses,
which is transferred to the surrounding medium by conduction through the solid dielectric
and by radiation from its outer surfaces. If the heat generated exceeds the heat lost to the
surroundings, the temperature of the insulation increases.

In practice, although the heat lost may be considered somewhat linear, the heat generated
increases rapidly with temperature, and at certain values of electric field no stable state
exists where the heat lost is equal to the heat generated
so that the material breaks down thermally. The rapid increase is due to the fact that with
rise in temperature, the loss angle of the dielectric increases in accordance with an
−A
exponential law (loss ∝e T , where T is the absolute temperature).

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 Figure 1.7 shows the variation of heat generated by a device for 2 different applied fields
and the heat lost from the device with temperature. For the field E2, a stable temperature
θ A exists (provided the temperature is not allowed to reach θ B).

Fig 1.7 Thermal breakdown

For the field E1 , the heat generated is always greater than the heat lost so that the
temperature would keep increasing until breakdown occurs.

The maximum voltage a given insulating material can withstand cannot be increased
indefinitely simply by increasing its thickness. Owing to thermal effects, there is an upper
limit of voltageV θ , beyond which it is not possible to go without thermal instability. This
is because with thick insulation, the internal temperature is little affected by the surface
conditions. Usually, in the practical use of insulating materials,V θ is a limiting factor only
for high-temperature operation, or at high frequency failures.

(e) electro-chemical breakdown

Since no insulant is completely free of ions, a leakage current will flow when an electric
field is applied. The ions may arise from dissociation of impurities or from slight
ionisations of the insulating material itself. When these ions reach the electrodes,
reactions occur in accordance with Faraday's law of electrolysis, but on a much smaller
scale. The insulation and the electrode metal may be attacked, gas may be evolved or
substance may be deposited on the electrodes. The products of the electrode reaction may
be chemically or electrically harmful and in some cases can lead to rapid failure of the
insulation. The reactions are much slower than in normal electrolytic processes due to the
much smaller currents. The products of the reactions may be electrically and chemically
harmful because the insulation and electrodes may be attacked, and because harmful
gases may be evolved.

Typically a 1 μF paper capacitor operating at 1 kV at room temperature would require 2 to

3 years to generate 1 c m3 hydrogen. At elevated temperatures, the products of electrolysis
would be formed much more rapidly. Also since impurities give rise to an increase in the
ion concentration, care must be taken to prevent contamination during manufacture.

15
 The rate of electrolysis is much greater with direct stress than with alternating stress. This
is due to the fact that the reactions may be wholly or partially reversed when the polarity
changes and the extent of reaction depends on the reaction rate and the time for diffusion
of the reaction products away from the electrodes as well as on the nature of the reaction
products. However at power frequency, electrochemical effects can be serious and are
often responsible for long-term failure of insulation. The most frequent source of ions is
ionizable impurities in the insulation. Thus contamination of insulation during
manufacture and during assembly into equipment must be avoided with great care. Also,
contamination in polar insulating materials should be avoided with still greater care
because of the greater degree of dissociation of ionic substance in solution.

The long term lives of capacitors containing chlorinated impregnants under direct stress
may be greatly extended by adding small quantities of certain stabilizers, which are
hydrogen acceptors and act as depolarizers at the cathode. Hydrogen ions discharged at
the cathode readily react with the stabilizer rather than with the impregnant, a more
difficult chemical process. In the absence of the stabilizer, the hydrogen reacts with the
chlorine of the impregnant to produce hydrochloric acid, and rapid deterioration occurs
due to attack of the acid on the electrodes and cellulose. The extension of the life caused
by the stabilizers is proportional to the amount of stabilizer added. For example, with 2%
of the stabilizer Azobenzene, mean life may be extended 50 times.

(f) Chemical deterioration

Progressive chemical degradation of insulating materials can occur in the absence of
electric stress from a number of causes.

(i) chemical Instability

Many insulating materials, especially organic materials, show chemical instability. Such
chemical changes may result from spontaneous breakdown of the structure of the
material. Under normal operating conditions, this process is very slow, but the process is
strongly temperature dependant. The logarithm of the life t of paper insulation can be
expressed as an inverse function of the absolute temperatureθ .
A
log 10 t = + B where A & B are constants.
θ

In the presence of oxygen or moisture, the life of the insulation decreases much more
rapidly. With increase in amount of moisture present, B decreases so that the life of the
paper also decreases. With about 0.1% moisture present, B decreases by as much as 0.8,
so that t decreases by a factor of about 6. This means that presence of about 0.1%
moisture reduces the life of the insulation by as much as 6 times.

(ii) Oxidation
In the presence of air or oxygen, especially ozone, materials such as rubber and
polyethylene undergo oxidation giving rise to surface cracks, particularly if stretched and
exposed to light. Polythene also oxidises in strong day light unless protected by an
opaque filler.

16
 (iii) Hydrolysis
When moisture or water vapour is present on the surface of a solid dielectric, hydrolysis
occurs and the materials lose their electrical and mechanical properties. Electrical
properties of materials such as paper, cotton tape, and other cellulose materials
deteriorate very rapidly due to hydrolysis. Polyethylene film may lose its mechanical
strength in a few days if kept at 100% relative humidity.

(iv) Other processes

Progressive chemical degradation of insulating materials can also occur due to a variety
of processes such as, incompatibility of materials (eg: rubber ages more rapidly at
elevated temperatures in the presence of copper, and cellulose degrades much more
rapidly in the presence of traces of acidic substances), and leaching (washing out of a
soluble constituent) of chemically active substances (eg: glass fabrics made from glasses
of high sodium content lose their strength rapidly due to leaching of sodium to the
surface of the fibres and the subsequent chemical attack of the strong alkali on the glass
surface).

1.5 Application of insulating materials

There is no piece of electrical equipment that does not make use of electrical insulation. There
are four principal areas where insulation must be applied. They are between
(a) coils are earth (phase-earth),
(b) coils of different phases (phase-to-earth).
(c) turns in a coil (inter-turn), and
(d) the coils of the same phase.

1.5.1 Transformer insulation

Based on the insulation used, transformers may be classified into dry type, liquid filled and oil
filed.

Oil-filled transformers are essentially of the same construction with the dry type, except that the
core and coil assembly is placed in a tank and the tank is filled with high dielectric cooling oil.
The primary insulation system used in an oil-filled transformer paper, wood, porcelain and, of
course, oil. Modern units use paper that is chemically treated to improve its tensile strength
properties and resistance to decay caused by immersion in oil.

Dry-type transformers are mainly used in areas where use of oil-filled transformers in risky.
Such areas include apartment complexes, cinema halls and industrial enterprises. Insulation of
this type of transformers is nowadays done using pre-impregnated materials (prepregs). The
advantages of these materials are good dielectric strength, easy production methods and
elimination of expensive vacuum impregnation of low voltage coils. Prepregs are mainly
manufactured using the following baking materials: glass fibres, Nomex, aramid papers and
multi-layers made of non-woven polyester films. Esterimide resins and epoxy resins are used as
resin systems. It is important the prepregs are free from any cracks. Prepregs have excellent
adhesive capability, good ageing as well as good storage properties. However, change from

17
vacuum impregnation technology for low-voltage coils to prepreg technology is yet to become
popular because of its high cost.

Liquid-filled units are exactly the same as oil filled transformers except that they use a liquid
other than oil for cooling, such as Silicon, R-Temp and PCBs like Askeral or Inerteen. These
types of fluids are used because of their greater flashpoints (lowest temperature at which the
vapour it produces will burn in air), thus allowing large transformers to be installed in areas
where fire is a concern.

To prevent the breakdown of these insulators and the subsequent destruction of the transformer,
the insulators are subjection to a number of tests and purifications while in operation.

1.5.1.1 Testing of transformer oil

An assembled oil-filled transformer has its winding and iron core assembly usually contained in
a tank and immersed in transformer oil. Transformer oil is usually a highly refined mineral oil
that is stable at high temperatures and has excellent electrical insulating properties. Its functions
are to: insulate, suppress corona and arcing, and serve as a coolant

Insulation provided by the transformer oil is very necessary since there are very high voltage
differences between the different parts of the transformer. Secondly, it serves to suppress corona
and arcing produced due to exposure to thermal and electrical voltage stresses that generate
strong electric fields within the transformer. In addition, the conversion from one voltage to
another is not 100% efficient. There are losses caused by the transformer process which are
manifested as heat, and this calls for its cooling function.

There are basically four types of transformer oil in use. These are: Non-toxic silicon-based oil,
Mineral oil, Natural synthetic oil and Ester or vegetable oil, which is also non-toxic, readily
biodegradable, and has higher flashpoints than mineral oil.

The insulation and cooling properties of the transformer oil are effected by the quality of the oil
which is in turn determined by its chemical properties such as its interfacial tension (IFT), its
acid number or acidity, its resistance to oxygen and deposit formation and its power factor, and
also by its dielectric strength.

(a) Causes of oil degradation

The major cause of oil degradation are: Heat, Air contamination, Moisture absorption,
Solid contamination.

(i) Heat
The main sources of heat in transformers are from copper and iron losses. With iron losses
assumed constant, any temperature change in a transformer is due to copper losses which in turn
depend on the level of loading. Overloading gives rise to higher current, high copper loss and
high temperature. Heat causes the physical strength of oil to decay over a long period of time.

18
This will be accelerated when the core and coil assembly expands and contracts through normal
temperature variations or from the inherent vibration found in a transformer. Once a void is
created, it will eventually expose an energized conductor. If the conductor is exposed in a critical
area, an electrical arc will be created and a winding failure will result.

(ii) Air(oxygen)
Some of the ways in which air bubbles get into the transformer oil are as follows:
o On pumping oil into the transformer tank, the oil, on striking the open oil surface, or a
hard surface, captures air bubbles.
o The presence of leaks in the negative pressure side of the pumping system will pull in air.
o Warming up of the core during transformer operation

Oxidation results in the formation of acid in oil due to the reaction of unstable hydrocarbons with
oxygen. This acid will form sludge (fatty acid compounds) which will settle on the transformer
radiator fins, tank floors and also on the windings of the transformer, reducing the heat
dissipation from the transformer. The heat transfer from the windings to the coil is limited thus
causing the winding to run hotter. The high acid content together with the excessive temperatures
will cause the deterioration of the transformer insulation to be accelerated and if left untreated, it
will fail.

(iii) Moisture
Sources of moisture in transformer oil are:
o Residual moisture of new transformer oil
o Residual moisture in solid insulation
o Moisture adsorbed from surrounding atmosphere
o Moisture as a by-product of oxidation

Moisture entering the transformer during its normal breathing process as the oil expands and
contracts will contaminate the cooling fluid and, eventually, the insulation (eg paper). Excessive
build up of moisture will saturate the insulation and allow it to become conductive. In addition,
the water, which is a product of the decomposition of the cellulose insulation under thermal
stress, is also a factor in accelerated ageing of the insulation paper.

(iv) Solid contamination

The two main sources of solid contamination are:
o Dissolved metals
o Dust during transformer manufacture

Transformer faults cause metals to be dissolved in the oil. Dirt will contaminate insulation
surfaces allowing the formation of conductive paths along the surfaces and eventually to ground.
A transformer is also at risk from dirt due to contamination on exterior bushing surfaces and
contamination of the internal systems resulting from the build-up of sludge. It is important to
note that the presence of solid particle contamination in transformer oil reduces the dielectric
strength.

19
Apart from the above factors which electrically deplete transformer insulation, PCBs are major
contaminants in transformer oil which need to be removed. PCBs are a group of halogenated
aromatic hydrocarbons characterized by the biphenyl structure and at least one chlorine atom
substituted for hydrogen. Fire resistance, stability, insulation, and low volatility are the good
properties possessed by the PCB.

It was however found to be toxic, together with its by products which were found to be fatal,
after which the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued a report stating that PCB
contamination was ubiquitous and that PCBs represented an unquantified threat to the
environment, hence, the need for its removal from the transformer oil.

(b) Tests performed on transformer oil

There are four basic tests carried out on insulating oil which give a reasonably accurate diagnosis
with respect to the serviceability of the insulation oil. These are: Dielectric test, Acidity test,
Power factor test, and interfacial tension test.

(i) Dielectric test

The dielectric test measures the voltage at which the oil breaks down. The breakdown voltage is
indicative of the amount of contaminants (usually moisture) in the oil. The voltage should be
checked frequently. The generally accepted minimum dielectric strength is 30kV and above and
25kV for transformers with a high voltage rating 287.5kV. New oil should test at least 35kV. Oil
is not necessarily in good condition even when the dielectric strength is adequate because this
tells nothing about the presence of acids and sludge.

(ii) Acidity test

New transformer oils contain practically no acids if properly refined. The acidity test measures
the content of acids formed by oxidation. The oxidation products polymerize to form sludge
which then precipitates out. Acids react with metal on the surfaces inside the tank to form
metallic soaps. Sludging has been found to begin when the acid number reaches or exceeds 0.4,
and 0.4 is considered to be the normal service limit. New oil has an acid number of less than
0.05. The acid number (formerly referred to as neutralization number) equals the milligrams of
potassium hydroxide (KOH) required to neutralize the acid in 1 gram(gm) of transformer oil.
The higher the acid number, the more acid that exists in the oil. It is obvious that the oil should
be reclaimed before it reaches 0.40. It is recommended that the oil be reclaimed when it reaches
0.20 mg KOH/gm. Different types of transformers, however, would take different time periods
before sludge would appear.

(iii) Power factor test

The power factor of insulating oil equals the cosine of the phase angle between an AC voltage
applied to oil and the resulting current. Power factor indicates the dielectric loss of oil and, thus,
its dielectric heating. The power factor test is widely used as an acceptance and preventive
maintenance test for insulation oil. Oil power factor testing in the field is usually done with
double type MH or M2H test set in conjunction with power factor tests of oil-filled equipment.
The power factor of new oil should not exceed 0.05 percent at 25° C . A high power factor in
used oil indicates deterioration, contamination, or both with moisture, carbon, varnish, glyptal,

20
sodium soaps, or deterioration products. Used oil power factor in excess of 2.0 percent may be
an operational hazard. It should be investigated and either reconditioned or replaced.

(iv) Interfacial tension (IFT) Test

It should be recognized that the acidity test alone determines conditions under which sludge may
be formed but does not necessarily indicate what actual sludging conditions exist. The IFT test is
employed as an indication of the sludging characteristics of power transformer insulating oil. It is
a test of IFT of water against oil, which is different from surface tension in that the surface of
water is in contact with oil instead of air. The attraction between the water molecules at the
interface is influenced by the presence of polar molecules in the oil in such a way that the
presence of more polar compounds lowers IFT. The test measures the concentration of polar
molecules in suspension and in solution in the oil and thus gives an accurate measurement of
dissolved sludge precursor in the oil long before any sludge is precipitate. It has been established
that an IFT of less the 0.015N/m almost invariably shows sludging. Transformer oil with an IFT
value of more than 0.022N/m is generally indicative of no sludging.

(c) Transformer oil treatment

Since the internal workings of an oil filled transformer are not exposed for easy inspection as is
the case with a dry type transformer, the warning signs and symptoms are harder to detect. All of
the risk factors will cause damage that, in many cases, is slow acting to the point of failure. This
means oil-filled transformers operating in a high risk environment can be a ticking time bomb
unless predictive and preventive actions are taken. There is therefore the need for transformer oil
treatment.

The treatment of the transformer oil is done either on-line or off-line, and there are two main
approaches to treating the oil. These are:
o The corrective (restorative) approach
o The preventive approach

Whereas the former is based on periodic oil reclamation, the latter is based on a continuous oil
reclamation process which could provide real advantages over the periodic oil reclamation as
stated below:
o Oil and paper degradation products are removed as they are formed, preventing their
accumulation to harmful levels.
o The overall concentration of moisture and oxygen in oil is maintained at low levels, thus
retarding the aging process in the paper and oil.
o Auto catalytic oxidation and hydrolysis reactions are reduced.
o The migration of adsorbed products from the paper to the oil is promoted by the dynamic
equilibrium maintained between the two phases (oil and paper).

However, it has major drawbacks. In particular;

o There is increase in overall power consumption due to continuous running of the
purification systems.
o It is relatively expensive.
o It requires more monitoring to be done on the system.

21
The off-line treatment of transformer oil is strictly a corrective measure for restoring the oil to
near original quality, while the on-line treatment of the transformer oil can be approached
correctively or preventively. In addition, for the on-line treatment, it would take an average of
over fifteen years before another treatment is done when using the corrective approach. It could
therefore be concluded that the corrective approach serves better for on-line transformer oil
treatment.

(i) Off-line treatment methods

Correcting the problems of oil oxidation can be accomplished in several ways with varying
degrees of success. These include:
o Retrofilling (Changing the oil)
o Filter-pressing the oil
o Untanking a unit, flushing the tank, radiators, and core and coil with solvents, then
refilling the unit with new oil

Retrofills are defined as the complete replacement of the insulating liquid in a liquid filled piece
of electrical equipment. Changing the oil will result in clean oil, yielding two main benefits:
o Reduction of the PCB concentration in the unit
o Improvement of the overall quality of the insulating fluid.

This will however do little to remove sludge adhering to the radiators, tank walls, and core and
coil. Within a year of changing the oil, oxidation products not removed will be redissolved into
the new oil resulting in acidity and polar compound levels appreciably above those of new oil.
Subsequent oil changes may be required to remove these redissolved products of oxidation. Each
time this is done, the transformer must be de-energized.

Most engineers are interested in retrofills primarily for the purpose of reducing PCB levels in
their equipment due to the expensive and encumbering rules placed on material with PCB levels
above 49ppm. This helps to reduce the liability and environmental impact should a spill occur in
the future.

The only thing accomplished by filter pressing is the removal of solid particles that have been in
suspension and free water. This process does not significantly change the acid or polar
compound levels, or remove dissolved water. Oxidation and sludge formation will continue as
soon as filtering is stopped. Very little is gained from this method.

The third method which is to untank a unit, flush the tank, radiators, and core and coil with
solvents, then refill the unit with new oil, can result in a successful stabilization of the oil, but
there are several major drawbacks. The units must be de-energized and sent to a service shop.
This means days or weeks without the use of the unit, plus expensive handling, transportation,
and service charges.

The off-line oil treatment often fails in removing residual moisture from the paper insulation.
This, however, is achieved in the on-line treatment of the oil which employs a procedure that
involves high heat and high vacuum oil filtration conditions as well as hot oil spraying.

22
(ii) On-line transformer oil treatment
Unlike the off-line treatment methods, on-line is carried out while the transformer is energized.
This method of treatment is:
o economically justifiable and attractive because it is less affected by increasing prices for
both mineral and synthetic transformer oils.
o cost effective due to the absence of additional labour charges.
o environmentally sound, having all impurities held within the treatment plant for proper
disposal after treatment.

1.5.2 Dry-type transformer insulators

For power levels up to 24 MVA with a maximum voltage up to 36kV, besides paper-oil insulated
transformers, dry-type transformers usually insulated by epoxy-resin are also used.

In the medium-voltage distribution networks, dry-type transformers have become increasingly

popular due to their reduced maintenance expenditures and improved environmental
compatibility. A disadvantage, however, of these dry-type epoxy-resin insulated transformers is
that they are especially sensitive to partial discharges (PD), often resulting in irreversible
degradation and destruction of the insulation, and thus finally leading to unavoidable breakdown
of the whole system. Partial discharges can simply be defined as localised breakdown in an
insulator, example, breakdown of a void in a solid insulator.

Therefore PD monitoring systems must be put in place to enable not only the timely detection of
the insulation defects and discharges, but also the localisation of the PD-origin, and thereby
improve the reliability and dependability of the transformer.

(a) Damaging effects of partial discharges on insulation

PD activity causes inter-turn short-circuits, because of the disintegration of the winding
insulation material. Thus local overheating arises, which has an appreciable influence on the PD
behaviour due to the rising operating temperature. When this chain reaction is initiated, a
breakdown of the whole system is unavoidable, and in some cases fire hazards, which can entail
dreadful damages often more expensive than the cost of purchase of the transformer itself may
result.

In order to prevent such a scenario, it is necessary to keep the transformer under observation
during operation, which may be performed using overheating monitoring systems. Many dry-
type transformers are equipped with Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) fuse integrated in
the low voltage coils for signalling a temperature rise due to an excessive current. As explained,
overheating can also occur at the high-voltage coils due to an inter-turn short-circuit caused by
destruction of the solid insulation by partial discharge.

These local heatings, which cannot be detected by the PTC systems, represent a pre-stage of an
insulation breakdown, resulting possibly in burn outs. Thus it is useful to monitor the
temperature distribution at the high voltage phases, an effort which offers possibility to
disconnect the transformer in time and thereby avoid subsequent damages.

23
Portable partial discharge locators have been developed to assist in the early detection of partial
discharges.

24
 2. POWER SYSTEM DISTURBANCES

2.1 Introduction
Over the last thirty years or so, the amount of equipment containing electronics has increased
dramatically. Such equipment can both cause and be affected by electromagnetic disturbances. A
disturbance that affects a process control computer in a large industrial complex could easily
result in shutdown of the process. The lost of production and product loss/recycling during start-
up represents a large cost to the business. Similarly, a protection relay affected by a disturbance
through conduction or radiation from nearby conductors could trip a feeder or substation, causing
loss of supply to a large number of consumers. At the other end of the scale, a domestic user of a
PC has to re-boot the PC due to a transient voltage dip, causing annoyance to that and other
similarly affected users. Therefore, transporters and users of electrical energy have become much
more interested in the nature and frequency of disturbances in the power supply.

2.2 Classification of power system disturbances

To make the study of power quality problems useful, the various types of disturbances need to be
classified by magnitude and duration. This is especially important for manufacturers and users of
equipment that may be at risk. Manufacturers need to know what is expected of their equipment,
and users, through monitoring, can determine if an equipment malfunction is due to a disturbance
or problems within the equipment itself. Not surprisingly, standards have been introduced to
cover this field. They define the types and sizes of disturbance, and the tolerance of various types
of equipment to the possible disturbances that may be encountered.

Table 2.1 provides a broad classification of the disturbances that may occur on a power system,
some typical causes of them and the potential impact on equipment. From this table, it will be
evident that the electricity supply waveform, often thought of as composed of pure sinusoidal
quantities, can suffer a wide variety of disturbances.

Table 2.1 Classification of power system disturbances

Category Causes Impacts
1 Voltage dips Local and remote faults Tripping of sensitive
Inductive loading equipment
Switch on of large loads Resetting of control
systems
Motor stalling/tripping
2 Voltage surges Capacitor switching Tripping of sensitive
Switch off of large loads equipment
Phase faults Damage to insulation
and windings
Damage to power
supplies for electronic
equipment
3 Overvoltage Load switching Problems with equipment
Capacitor switching that requires constant
System voltage regulation steady-state voltage

25
4 Harmonics Industrial furnaces Mal-operation of sensitive
Non-linear loads equipment and relays
Transformers/generators Capacitor fuse or
Rectifier equipment capacitor failures
Telephone interference
5 Power frequency variation Loss of generation Motors run slower
Extreme loading De-tuning of harmonic
Conditions filters

6 Voltage fluctuation AC motor drives Flicker in:

Inter-harmonic current Fluorescent lamps
components Incandescent lamps
Welding and arc furnaces
7 Rapid voltage change Motor starting Light flicker
Transformer tap Tripping of
Changing Equipment
8 Voltage imbalance Unbalanced loads Overheating in
Unbalanced motors/generators
Impedances Interruption of 3-phase
Operation
9 Short and long voltage Power system faults Loss of supply
interruptions Equipment failures to customer equipment
Control malfunctions Computer shutdowns
CB tripping Motor tripping
10 Undervoltage Heavy network loading All equipment
Loss of generation without backup
Poor power factor supply facilities
Lack of var support
11 Transients Lightning Control system resetting
Capacitive switching Damage to sensitive
Non –linear switching loads electronic components
System voltage regulation Damage to insulation

26
Table 2.2 Lists the limits given in Standard EN 50160 and notes where other standards have
similar limits.

Table 2.2 Tolerance levels for power system disturbances

2.3 Voltage Dips

Voltage dips are momentary reduction in the rms values of voltages. Figure 2.1 shows the profile
of a voltage dip, together with the associated definitions. The major cause of voltage dips on a
supply system is a fault on the system, that is sufficiently remote electrically that a voltage
interruption does not occur. Other sources are the starting of large loads (especially common in
industrial systems), and, occasionally, the supply of large inductive loads.

27
 Fig 2.1 Profile of a single voltage dip

Voltage dips due to the latter are usually due to poor design of the network feeding the
consumer. A voltage dip is the most common supply disturbance causing interruption of
production in an industrial plant. Faults on a supply network will always occur, and in industrial
systems, it is often practice to specify equipment to ride-through voltage dips of up to 0.2s. The
most common exception is contactors, which may well drop out if the voltage dips below 80% of
rated voltage for more than 50-100ms. Motor protection relays that have an undervoltage
element setting that is too sensitive is another cause. Since contactors are commonly used in
circuits supplying motors, the impact of voltage dips on motor drives, and hence the process
concerned, requires consideration.

Fig 2.2 Profile of multiple voltage dips

Other network-related fault causes are weather–related (such as snow, ice, wind, salt spray, dust)
causing insulator flashover, collisions due to birds, and excavations damaging cables. Multiple
voltage dips, as illustrated in figure 2.3 cause more problems for equipment than a single isolated
dip. The impact on consumers may range from the annoying (non-periodic light flicker) to the
serious (tripping of sensitive loads and stalling of motors). Where repeated dips occur over a
period of several hours, the repeated shutdowns of equipment can give rise to serious production
problems. Figure 2.3 shows an actual voltage dip, as captured by a power quality recorder.

28
 Fig 2.3 An actual voltage dip captured by a power quality recorder

2.4 Voltage Surges/Spikes

Voltage surges/spikes are the opposite of dips – a rise that may be nearly instantaneous (spike) or
takes place over a longer duration (surge). These are most often caused by lightning strikes and
arcing during switching operations on circuit breakers/contactors (fault clearance, circuit
switching, especially switch-off of inductive loads). Figure 2.4 shows the profile of a voltage
surge.

Fig 2.4 Profile of a voltage surge

Equipment may suffer serious damage from these causes, ranging from insulation damage to
destruction of sensitive electronic devices. The damage may be immediate and obvious by the
fact that equipment stops working, through to failure at a much later date from deterioration
initiated from a surge or spike of voltage. These latter failures are very difficult to distinguish
from random failures due to age, minor manufacturing defects, etc.

2.5 Overvoltages
Overvoltage is an increase in rms voltage value for several seconds. Sustained overvoltages are
not common. The most likely causes are maladjusted voltage regulators on generators or on-load
tap changers, or incorrectly set taps on fixed-tap transformers. The consequences of
overvoltages vary according to the period of occurrence, magnitude, mode and frequency. Some
of these include:

29
(a) Dielectric breakdown – This can significant permanent damage to equipment (electronic
components, etc).
(b) Degradation of equipment – This could be due to repetitive but not destructive overvoltages.
(c) Long interruptions – caused by the destruction of equipment.
(d) Disturbances in control systems and low current communication circuits
(e) Electrodynamic and thermal stress.
(f) Some equipment that is particularly sensitive to overvoltages may have to be shut down by
protective devices.

2.6 Harmonics
One of the objectives of an electricity provider is to deliver sinusoidal voltage at fairly constant
magnitude throughout the system. The attainment of this objective is made difficult by the fact
that there are loads on the system that produce harmonic currents. These currents result in
distorted voltages and currents that can adversely impact the system performance. Figure 2.5
illustrates a supply waveform that is distorted due to the presence of harmonics. Harmonics exist
in power systems due to non-linear loads.

Fig 2.5 A distorted supply waveform due to harmonics

A harmonic is a component of a periodic wave having a frequency that is an integral multiple of

the fundamental power line frequency. Harmonics are the multiple of the fundamental frequency
(50Hz in Ghana), as shown in the table below. Total harmonic distortion is the contribution of all
the harmonic frequency currents to the fundamental.
Frequency(Hz) 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Harmonic 2 nd
3 rd
4 th
5 th
6 th
7 th
8th

2.6.1 Linear and Non-linear loads

A linear element or load in a power system in a component in which the current is proportional
to the voltage. In general, this means that the current wave shape will be the same as the voltage
(see figure 2.6). Typical examples of linear loads include motors, heaters and incandescent
lamps.

30
 Fig 2.6 Voltage and current waveforms of a linear load

On the other hand, the current wave shape for a non-linear load is not the same as the voltage
(see figure 2.7).

Fig 2.7 Voltage and current waveforms of a non-linear load

The current drawn by a non-linear load is not sinusoidal but it is periodic, meaning the current
wave looks the same from cycle to cycle. Periodic waveforms can be described mathematically
as a series of sinusoidal waveforms that have been summed together (see figure 2.8).

Fig 2.8 A distorted periodic waveform

Typical examples of non-linear loads include personal computers, electronic ballasts, rectifiers
(power supplies, UPS units, discharge lighting), adjustable speed motor drives, ferromagnetic
devices, Dc motor drives, electric discharge lamps and arcing equipment, e.g. arc furnace and arc
welders.

31
2.6.2 Harmonic current flow
When a non-linear load draws current, that current passes through all the impedance that is
between the load and the system source (see figure 2.9). As a result of the current flow, harmonic
voltages are produce by the impedance in the system for each harmonic.

Figure 2.9 Flow of harmonic current

These voltages sum, and when added to the nominal voltage, produce voltage distortion. The
magnitude of the voltage distortion depends on the source impedance and the harmonic voltages
produced. If the source impedance is low, the voltage distortion will be low. If a significant
portion of the load becomes non-linear (harmonic currents increase) and/or when a resonant
condition prevails (system impedance increases), the voltage can increase dramatically.

2.6.3 Effects of harmonics

Power systems are able to absorb a considerable amount of current distortions without problems
and the distortion produced by a facility may be below levels recommended in IEEE 519.
However, the collective effect of many industrial customers, taken together, may have an impact
on a distribution system. When problems arise, they are usually associated with resonant
conditions. The following are a number of problems associated with voltage and current
harmonics:
(a) Increased losses in customer and utility power system components.
(b) Transformers may have to be derated to as much as 50% capacity when feeding loads
with extremely distorted current waveforms. This is due to increases in hysteresis and
eddy current losses which cause heating.
(c) Loads with highly distorted current waveforms also have a very poor power factor;
because of this, they consume excessive power and could be a cause of overloading.
(d) Overheating and mechanical oscillations in motor-load systems due to the production of
fields which rotate in directions opposite to the fundamental magnetic field.
(e) Increased current, increased heating, dielectric stress and potential failure of capacitor
banks.
(f) False or spurious operations and trips, damaging or blowing of components in fuses and
circuit breakers.
(g) Utility meters may record measurements incorrectly resulting in higher billings to
consumers.
(h) Computers and communication equipment may experience interferences and failures.
(i) Conductor overheating.

32
(j) Excessive harmonic voltage distortion causes multiple zero crossings of the current
waveform in generators. Multiple zero crossings affect the timing of the voltage
regulator, causing interference and operational instability.

2.7 Frequency Variations

Frequency variations that are large enough to cause problems are most often encountered in
small isolated networks, due to faulty or maladjusted governors. Other causes are serious
overloads on a network, or governor failures, though on an interconnected network, a single
governor failure will not cause widespread disturbances of this nature. Network overloads are
most common in areas with a developing electrical infrastructure, where a reduction in frequency
may be a deliberate policy to alleviate overloading. Serious network faults leading to islanding of
part of an interconnected network can also lead to frequency problems. Few problems are
normally caused by this problem. Processes where product quality depends on motor speed
control may be at risk but such processes will normally have closed-loop speed controllers.
Motor drives will suffer output changes, but process control mechanisms will normally take care
of this. Extreme under- or overfrequency may require the tripping of generators, leading to the
possibility of progressive network collapse through network overloading/underfrequency causes.

2.8 Voltage fluctuations

These are mainly caused by load variations, especially large rapid ones such as are likely to
occur in arc and induction heating furnaces, rolling mills, mine winders, and resistance welders.
Flicker in incandescent lamps is the most usual effect of voltage fluctuations. It is a serious
problem, with the human eye being particularly sensitive to light flicker in the frequency range
of 5-15Hz. Because of the wide use of such lamps, the effects are widespread and inevitably give
rise to a large number of complaints. Fluorescent lamps are also affected, though to a lesser
extent.

2.9 Voltage unbalance

Unbalanced loading of the network normally causes voltage unbalance. However, parts of the
supply network with unbalanced impedances (such as untransposed overhead transmission lines)
will also cause voltage unbalance, though the effect of this is normally small. Overheating of
rotating equipment results from voltage unbalance. In serious cases, tripping of the equipment
occurs to protect it from damage, leading to generation/load imbalance or loss of production.

2.10 Supply interruptions

Faults on the power system are the most common cause, irrespective of duration. Other causes
are failures in equipment, and control and protection malfunctions. Electrical equipment ceases
to function under such conditions, with undervoltage protection devices leading to tripping of
some loads. Short interruptions may be no more than an inconvenience to some consumers (e.g.
domestic consumers), but for commercial and industrial consumers (e.g. semiconductor
manufacture) may lead to lengthy serious production losses with large financial impact. Longer
interruptions will cause production loss in most industries, as induction and synchronous motors
cannot tolerate more than 1-2 seconds interruption without having to be tripped, if only to
prevent excessive current surges and resulting large voltage dips on supply restoration. On the
other hand, vital computer systems are often fed via a UPS supply that may be capable of
supplying power from batteries for several hours in the event of a mains supply failure. More

33
modern devices such as dynamic voltage restorers can also be used to provide continuity of
supply due to a supply interruption. For interruptions lasting some time, a standby generator can
be used to provide a limited supply to essential loads, but cannot be started in time to prevent an
interruption from occurring.

2.11 Undervoltage
An undervoltage is a reduction in the rms voltage value which last for several minutes. Excessive
network loading, loss of generation, incorrectly set transformer taps and voltage regulator
malfunctions, cause undervoltage. Loads with a poor power factor or a general lack of reactive
power support on a network also contribute to undervoltage. The location of power factor
correction devices is often important, incorrect location results in little or no improvement. The
symptoms of undervoltage problems are tripping of equipment through undervoltage trips.
Lighting will run at reduced output. Undervoltage can also indirectly lead to overloading
problems as equipment takes an increased current to maintain power output (e.g. motor loads).
Such loads may then trip on overcurrent or thermal protection.

2.12 Transients
Transients are subcycle disturbances with a very fast voltage change. They typically have
frequencies ranging from tens to hundreds of kilohertz, with some even into megahertz. The
voltage excursions range from hundreds to thousands of volts. Transients are also called spikes,
impulses and surges.

Transients on the supply network are due to faults, control and protection malfunctions, lightning
strikes, etc. Voltage-sensitive devices and insulation of electrical equipment may be damaged.
Control systems may reset. Semiconductor manufacture can be seriously affected unless supplies
to critical process plant are suitably protected.

2.12.1 Switching-caused transients

In power systems operations, it often becomes necessary to intentionally perform switching
operations on different components (like transmission lines, transformers, generators) to suit the
demands for power from time to time, like maintenance. Besides such intentional switching
operations, there are other unintentional or automatic switching operations during ground faults,
short circuits, breaking of conductor, lightning strokes, which is governed by the magnitude of
the disturbance caused by the switching processes.

The switching of power-factor-correction capacitor banks on the utility grid generates a

transient. This transient, although less powerful than a lightning strike, still transmits enough
energy to cause problems. It must be borne in mind that the larger the power facility, the more
likely capacitor banks would be installed.

The same is true when load transfer switching is done by the utility or by the customer. Adding
or removing a large bulk of load will often create significant transients. Generally, whenever
large reactive loads (whether these loads are heavy motors or copy machines) are switched on
and off, they generate spikes. Basically, any piece of equipment can cause impulses. The
compressor motor in a vending machine is an example. Computers and their peripherals is
another. HVAC and refrigeration equipment can also be culprits.

34
2.12.2 Lightning-caused transients
Lightning is a discharge of stored electricity in clouds. This discharge may occur between two
points in the clouds, or between a cloud and the earth. Quite often, lightning strikes something
projecting up form the earth such as a telephone pole. If this happens, the lightning’s energy is
dumped into the power lines. Transients generated from direct strikes have the greatest potential
for damaging equipment – both for the utility and the customer.

But lightning does not have to strike the power lines to cause spikes. A strike in the vicinity of
the lines can induce enough energy in them to cause a significant transient with a lot of punch.
Such strikes are called indirect strikes.

2.13 Remedial measures

A number of methods are available for overcoming power system disturbances. The most
common ones are given in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3 Methods of controlling power system disturbances

Equipment Application
Uninterruptible power supply(UPS) Voltage variations
Supply interruptions
Frequency variations
Filters(Passive and Active) Harmonics
Dynamic voltage restorer Voltage variations
Supply interruptions
Static Var Compensator Voltage dips and Voltage surges
Ferro-resonant transformer Voltage dips and voltage surges
Lightning arrestor Transient due to lightning

2.13.1 UPS system

A UPS system consists of the following:
(a) an energy storage device – normally a battery
(b) a rectifier and inverter
(c) transfer switches

The UPS may be on-line (continuously in operation) or offline (switched in when a disturbance
occurs). The former eliminates all problems due to voltage surges/spikes/dips and interruptions
(within the capacity of the storage device) while the latter passes some of the disturbance
through, until the supply is transferred from the normal source to the UPS. Harmonics
originating in the source may be reduced, but not eliminated in the load, because the UPS itself is
a source of harmonics, as it contains power electronic devices. Thus it may increase harmonic
distortion on the source side.

35
 Fig 2.10 UPS system

The main disadvantages of UPS systems are cost and efficiency. An on-line UPS incurs
continuous losses, while both types require energy storage devices that can be expensive. Fast-
acting switches to transfer load to the energy storage device are required for offline devices,
while transfer switches to bypass the rectifier/inverter when these are undergoing maintenance
may also be required. Figure 2.10 illustrates conceptually both types of UPS.

2.13.2 Filters
These are shunt-connected devices used to eliminate harmonics. Either passive (LC or RLC)
networks or active (voltage source converter) technologies are possible. Passive filters may take
up significant space, depending on the harmonics being filtered and the connection voltage. A
voltage source converter may be used instead to provide a reduced footprint. It can filter several
frequencies simultaneously and track changes in the frequencies of the harmonics as the
fundamental frequency changes. It can be expensive when used solely as an active filter, but be
viable where space is at a premium. Figure 2.11 shows the concept of an active harmonic filter.
A danger with filters is the possibility of resonance with part of the power system at some
frequency, giving rise to problems that would not otherwise occur.

Fig 2.11 Active harmonic filter concepts

2.13.3 Static var compensator

This is a shunt-connected assembly of capacitors, and possibly reactors, which provides reactive
power to a network during disturbances to minimise them. It is normally applied to transmission
networks to counter voltage dips/surges during faults and enhance power transmission capacity

36
on long transmission circuits. The devices are switched either in discrete steps or made
continuously variable through the use of PED’s. It works by providing reactive power
(leading/lagging as required) to assist in keeping the voltage at the point of connection constant.
Voltage variations at that point are reflected in var variations, so provision of reactive power of
appropriate sign can reduce the voltage fluctuations.

2.13.4 Dynamic voltage restorer

This is a voltage source converter and energy store; connected in series (either directly or via an
injection transformer) that controls the voltage downstream directly by injection of suitable
voltage in series with the source. Ratings of up to several MW are possible at voltages up to
11kV. Figure 23.13 illustrates the concept.

Fig 2.12 Dynamic voltage restorer concept

2.13.5 Ferro-resonant transformer

This is a transformer that is designed to run highly saturated. Thus, input voltage dips and surges
have little effect on the output voltage. Voltage interruptions of very short duration result in the
magnetic stored energy being used up in maintaining output voltage and current. The transformer
is normally of 1:1 ratio, although taps may be provided for fine adjustment of output voltage.
Appropriate shielding of the windings enables the impact of voltage spikes to be reduced. It is
used in LV systems, with a power output of up to a few tens of kVA.

2.13.6 Lightning arrestor

This has been dealt with in section 3.5.2.

37
 2. SURGES IN TRANSMISSION LINES DUE TO LIGHTNING

3.1 Introduction
Lightning is typically an electrostatic discharge ESD; a discharge of stored electricity in clouds.
This discharge may occur between two points in the clouds, or between a cloud (ionosphere) and
the surface of the earth. Lightning repeatedly selects targets which possess ingredients that have
natural affinity for electric discharges.

Some of the favourable ingredients that aid the striking of lightning in a particular place are
magnetic objects, radioactive substances, high mountains, tall buildings and pointed church
spires, etc.

It has been established that certain places have been frequently struck by lightning, whilst other
places, which may have been adjacent and of higher elevation have escaped the onslaught of
lightning strikes. The location of places which are vulnerable to lightning strikes when a storm
develops in the area is determined by the nature of the soil and subsoil. At lightning-prone
places, these soils may contain elements which are magnetic, conductive or radioactive, the most
vulnerable is when all three element types occur closely together. The magnetic elements attract
electrons in the earth’s lower atmosphere to a particular place around them. The conductive
subsoil then assists these electrons to arrive in high concentrations.

At every point in the atmosphere, there exists a certain potential gradient and a current density.
The electrical field of the atmosphere has spherical symmetry. On account of the concentration
of the positive charges on the upper portion of the atmosphere and the concentration of the
negative charges at its bottom, the breakdown of the gaseous dielectric of the atmosphere takes
place. This explains how lightning can occur.

It may be noted that the cloud potentials are of the order of 20MV. For electrical discharges in air
to be initiated, a local field intensity of 30kV/cm is required, but in the presence of moisture, etc.,
the field intensity may be reduced to 10kV/cm. For a lightning flash to be initiated, such field
strength must occur in the cloud. As storm gathers and clouds pile up in the sky, the electric field
intensity between the clouds and ground increases, and at some particular instant, it will be
sufficient to stimulate a rapid succession of lightning discharges.

It has been observed that lightning flashes travel along a route formed by gaseous ions in the
atmosphere through which the high-voltage energy is discharged. The lightning discharges
towards earth proceed in steps. The first of such discharge is called stepped leader stroke. It is
faintly visible and contains heat which assists to ionize the gaseous molecules of the atmosphere
as it speeds along its path. When this discharge comes into contact with the earth’s surface, a
much faster and more luminous discharge known as the return stroke travels upwards along the
original channel. The process may end at this stage, but more often, a second leader stroke
known as the dart leader stroke may come into the picture.

The dart stroke is faster than the stepped stroke, and may follow after an appreciable interval of
time. Several such stepped leader strokes, dart strokes and return strokes constitute the complete
lightning flash.

38
There are two main ways in which lightning affects the transmission line:
(a) By direct stroke, when the lightning discharges come in direct contact with the line and
(b) By indirect stroke or electrostatic induction, when the lightning does not strike any part of
the line, but rather strikes near to the line. A charged cloud near the surface of the earth
induces a charge of opposite sign on all tall objects. The electrostatic stress at the upper
end of these objects is very great. The surrounding air gets ionised and charged particles
get repelled from sharp edges and corners. This produces a gradual reduction of the
resistance between the cloud and the tall structures. Finally, a disruptive discharge
occurs. The important characteristic of indirect stroke is the length of time taken to
produce the discharge and it is usually directed towards the highest and most sharply
pointed objects in the surrounding.

3.2 Lightning Surges

During lightning discharges, a positively charged cloud would induce negative charges on the
line. The additional negative charges would finally result in the overvoltage surge on the
transmission line. The surge propagates in both directions as shown.

Fig 3.1 Propagation of lightning surge on a transmission line

The surge voltage may cause the shattering of line insulators or only the flashover(an unintended
high voltage electric discharge over or around an insulator) across them. From experimental
observations, it is known that the lightning surge overvoltages have the shape of a damped
aperiodic wave similar to that obtained when discharging a capacitor into a circuit having self-
inductance and enough resistance to prevent an oscillatory discharge. This is the method of
representing lightning artificially and is usually done by an impulse generator.

When it is propagated along the line, the wave is rapidly damped due to the skin effect (the
tendency of an ac to distribute itself within a conductor so that the current density near the
surface of the conductor is greater than that at its core, i.e. the electric current tends to flow at the
“skin” of the conductor) of the conductor and the ground, its front gets flattened, its tail
lengthens and its amplitude gets decreased.

39
 Fig 3.2 Typical lightning wave
t 1 = time for the front to rise to its peak value
t 2= time for the tail to attain 50% of its peak value

The wave is often called a t 1 /t 2 wave. A typical wave is 1.2/50 μsec wave. For EHV lines,
lightning surges are not so dangerous as for medium voltage lines, because for such EHV
systems, the insulation level of the lines, transformers, switchgear, etc., are very high. For system
voltages of 400 kV, it is possible to ignore most entirely this kind of overvoltage.

However, as the operating voltage is increased, the power transmitted also increases and
therefore it is more essential to avoid interruptions to the supply and damage to equipment due to
lightning. To sum up, lightning surges are characterised by a very steep increase in voltage, the
crest value is reached in about 1.2 sec after the lightning discharge.

3.3 Surges on transmission lines

Due to a variety of reasons, such as a direct stroke of lightning on the line, or by indirect strokes,
or by switching operations or by faults, high voltage surges are induced on the transmission line.
The surge can be shown to travel along the overhead line at approximately the speed of light(3 x
108 m/sec). These waves, as they reach the end of the line or a junction of transmission lines, are
partly reflected and partly transmitted. It must however be noted that due to corona and skin
effect, the waves get attenuated and distorted. The analysis can be done in the following manner:

Consider below a transmission line represented by the -model.

Fig 3.3 -model of a transmission line

40
The equations for voltage and current wave propagating along the transmission line are those of
the known general equations:
v= A e−γx + B e γx Eqn. 3.1
−γx γx
i=C e + D e Eqn. 3.2
where  = propagation constant
γ= √( R+ pL ) (G+ pC ) Eqn. 3.3

Assuming a lossless line, that is, G=0 , R=0

γ= p √ LC Eqn. 3.4
d
where p=
dt
R = series resistance per unit length of line
L = series inductance per unit length of line
C = shunt capacitance per unit length of line
G = leakage conductance of shunt paths (such as insulators) per unit length of line

From the electromagnetic theory, it is known that the velocity of propagation v of the
electromagnetic wave in a lossless medium is
1
v= Eqn. 3.5
√ LC
Therefore from equations 3.4 and 3.5,
γ= p / v Eqn. 3.6

We define Z=R+ pL = operational impedance

Y =G+ pC = operational admittance

Thus from equation 3.3

γ= √ ZY Eqn. 3.7

The relation between the current and voltage of propagating wave is given as

V (x , t)
I ( x , t )= Eqn. 3.8
Z0
where Z 0 = surge impedance of the line.

The surge impedance is related to the line parameters as

Z 0=
√ R+ Lp
G+Cp
Eqn. 3.9

For a lossless line, i.e., G  0 , R  0

Z 0=
√ L
C
Eqn. 3.10

For a transmission line with solid conductors,

41
 L=2 ⋅1 0−7 ln ( )
D
r
H/m
−7
10
C=
18 ln ( Dr ) F/m
Where D and r are conductor spacing and radius respectively.

With the velocity of propagation, v=3 ×1 08 m/s, the surge impedance is

Z =60ln ( Dr ) /m
0

For practical power lines, Z 0 varies between 400 and 600. The fact that the surge impedance is
a constant relating voltage and current during surges proves that the waves of potential and
current are of identical shapes on loss-free line.

3.3.1 Reflection of traveling waves at a junction

When a traveling wave on a transmission line reaches a junction with another line, or a
termination such as an underground cable or equipment such as transformer or busbar, then part
of the incident wave is reflected back, and a part of it is transmitted beyond the junction or
termination. The incident wave, the reflected wave and the transmitted wave are formed in
accordance with Kirchhoff's laws. They must also satisfy the differential equation of the line.

Consider the figure below, where a line is connected to another line (or cable) at the point (or
junction) P.

Fig 3.4 Wave reflection or transmission at a junction

Let Zi = surge impedance of line on which wave is incident

Zt = surge impedance of line to which wave is transmitted
V i = incident component of voltage wave
V r = reflected component of voltage wave
V t = transmitted component of voltage wave
I i= incident component of current wave
I r= reflected component of current wave

42
 I t = transmitted component of current wave

From Kirchoff’s current and voltage laws, noting the direction of the reflected current wave
I i+ I r =I t Eqn.3.11
V i +V r =V t
Eqn.3.12
Also from Ohm’s Law of current conduction in metal conductors

Vi Vt
I =Zi
i
, I =− VZ
r
r
, I =Z
t
t
i Eqn.313

From equations 3.11 and 3.13,

V −V = V
i r t

Z Z Z
i i t Eqn.3.14

Dividing both sides of equation 3.14 by Zi , we obtain

V + V =V
i r t

Z Z Z
i i i Eqn.3.15

Adding equations 3.14 and 3.15, we get

V V
(Z ) ( )
i Vt Vt 1 1 Zi + Z t
2 = + = t + =V t
Z i
Zt Zi
i Z t
Z i Zt

Hence the transmitted voltage wave is given as

V Z ⋅V 2 t
t= i

Z +Z t i Eqn.3.16

From equation 3.12, the reflected voltage wave is given as

V =V −V r t i

=
Z − Z ⋅V
Z +Z ( t

t
i

i
) i

Eqn.3.17

Putting
2 Zt
k = Z +Z
t
t i
= transmission coefficient
Eqn.3.18

43
 Z t −Z i
k = Z +Z
r
t i
= reflection coefficient
Eqn.3.19
 V t =k t V i and V r=k r V i
Eqn.3.20

The transmission and reflection coefficients may be real numbers for constant values of Zi and Zt
. But for operational surge impedances Zi ( p) and Zt ( p), the coefficients are functions of s
(complex frequency used in Laplace Transforms).

( )
V 1 2Z
I= =
t
× ¿V
t

Z Z Z +Z
t i
t t t i

Upon simplification, the transmitted current wave is given as

I= 2
V
Z +Z
t i
t i Eqn.3.21
The reflected current wave is given by the equation

I r =−
Vr
Zi
=−
1
Zi
×
( ZZ t−

t
Z ⋅V
+Z i
i
i
)
Upon simplification, the reflected current wave is given as
I r=
(ZZ ZZ ) i−

t+ i
t V
⋅ i
Zi

=
Z −Z i t
×I i
Z +Z i t Eqn.3.22

3.3.1.1 Special cases of line terminations

Depending on the surge impedances of the terminations, different reflected and transmitted
current and voltage waves will be obtained. The following cases are considered:

(a) Line terminated in open circuit ( Zt =∞)

For such a case, the equipment at the terminal of the line has either been disconnected or no
equipment has been connected at all. In such an instance, the surge impedance of the terminal
equipment is infinity, thus Zt =∞. Thus substituting this value in the general reflected and
transmitted current and voltage wave equations,
V =2 Vt i , V =V
r i

I =0
t , I =− I r i Eqn.3.23

It is seen from these values in equation 3.23 that for terminations in open circuit (such as
transformer or measuring equipment on no-load), the transmitted component of the voltage is
doubled, but the transmitted component of the current is reduced to zero. Moreover, the
reflected component of current has the same magnitude as that of the incident component of the
current but of opposite sign.

44
(b) Terminated in short circuit ( Zt =0 )
For such a case, the surge impedance of the terminal equipment is zero, i.e. Zt =0 . Thus
substituting this value in the general reflected and transmitted current and voltage wave
equations,
V =0 t , V r =−V i

I =2 I
t i , I =I r i Eqn.3.24

Thus for line termination with a short, the transmitted component of the voltage is reduced to
zero. In other words, no component of the incident voltage is transmitted, and the entire incident
voltage wave is reflected, but of opposite sign.

Furthermore, the transmitted component of the current is doubled, but the reflected component
of current has the same magnitude as that of the incident component of the current.

(c) Line terminated with impedance equal to its own surge or characteristic impedance
( Zt =Z i)
For such a case, Zt =Z i. Thus substituting this value in the general reflected and transmitted
current and voltage wave equations,

V =V t i , V r =0

It =
V i
, I =0r
Zi Eqn.3.25

Thus for line termination with impedance equal to its own surge impedance, the voltage and
current waves are transmitted (propagated) unchanged and without reflection, as if the second
line is an extension of the first line.

(d) Line Terminated by a Cable

The surge impedance of a cable is a fraction m of the line surge impedance. Let the surge
Z
impedance of the cable be Z oc= i , so that the surge impedance presented to the transmitted
m
Zi Z
wave along the cable is Zt = , where m is a positive real number. When Zt is substituted by i
m m
the transmitted and reflected voltage and current waves along the cable are given by.

45
 V 2Z t 2
t= ⋅V = ⋅V
Z t + Zi i m+ 1 i Eqn.3.26

V = ZZ +−Z
r
Z
⋅V =
1−m
m+ 1
t
⋅V
i
i i
t i

Vt
I = Z = Z +2 Z ⋅V = m2+1
t
t
m V
Z
2m
⋅ = m +1 I i
i
i
Eqn.3.27 t i i

Eqn.3.28

I =− VZ r
=−
1
×
Z
t −Z i
⋅V i =
m−1 V i m−1
⋅ = I
r
i Zi Zt+ Zi m+ 1 Zi m +1 i Eqn.3.29

From the equations 3.26 to 3.29, the following practical deductions may be made about surge
characteristics in cables in contrast with overhead lines:
o Since the surge impedance of the cable is about one-fifth that of overhead line ( m=5 ), some
relief to the terminal equipment is obtained when overhead lines are connected to substations
by a length of cable.
o Equipment at the end of the line is exposed to greater risk than equipment at intermediate
positions. This is because at intermediate positions, the effective value of Zt is less (the
terminal equipment in parallel with remaining portion of the line), whilst at the end, the
effective Zt is the surge impedance Z 0 of the equipment alone.

Example 3.1
A transmission line which comprises an overhead line and an underground cable is subjected to a
voltage surge of 4000kV. Calculate the following:
(a) the current surge in the overhead line.
(b) the voltage and current surges in the cable.
(c) the reflected and transmitted components of current and voltage.

Solution
V i 4000 ×1 03
(a) ii= = =10 kA
ZL 400
2 ZC 2× 50 3
(b) V c= V i= × 4000× 10 =888.89 kV
ZC + Z L 50+400
2 V C 888.89 kV
ic = V i= = =17.78 kA
ZC + ZL ZC 50
Z −Z
(c) i r= L C × i i=i c −i i=17.78 kA−10 kA=7.78 kA
Z L+ Z C
V r +V i=V c ⇒V r=V c −V i=888.89 kV −4000 kV =−3111.11 kV

46
Example 3.2
A lightning surge with a peak value of 3000kV strikes a transmission line at the point A. Find the
maximum value of the voltage surge that will be experienced by an equipment connected to
point C.

Solution
2 Zb 2 ×100 3
V b= V a= ×3000 × 10 =1000 kV
Z b +Z a 100+500
2 Zc 2× 600 3
V c= V b= ×1000 ×1 0 =1714.29 kV
Zc + Z b 600+100
Hence equipment at C will experience a voltage surge of 1714.29kV

3.4 Shielding of power lines by overhead ground wires

Overhead ground wires are provided on transmission lines to intercept direct strokes of lightning
and thus keep it off the phase conductor, and to reduce the surge current and hence the
overvoltage on a phase conductor by having currents induced in it.

The proportion of lightning flashes capable of causing sparkover of line insulation decreases as
the system voltage increases. This is due to the fact that the magnitude of the overvoltage caused
by lightning strokes are almost independent of the system voltage. Of course there is a slight
dependence as the height of the towers also increase with the increase in voltage and a taller
tower is more liable to a lightning strike. For a given magnitude of lightning overvoltage, the per
unit value based on system voltage decreases as the system voltage increases. Thus as the system
voltage increases, there are lesser number of flashovers caused by lightning.

Tall towers attract more lightning strokes, and therefore require a much better earth-wire
coverage for a given degree of protection.

The earth wires are placed over the overhead lines in such a way that they interrupt the lightning
strokes and drain them to earth. The protective angle of the earth wire is defined as the normal
through the earth wire and a slanting line connecting the earth wire and the phase conductor.

47
 Fig 3.5 Protective angle of earth wire

The protective angle should not be more than 300 for sufficiently good shielding of the line
conductor. In such a case, it is assumed that the possibility of direct stroke to the line is remote.

In instances where the earth wire is directly connected to the tower, a low tower footing
resistance helps reduce the probability of a back flashover. The low footing resistance depends
on the local condition of the soil. A high degree of protection can be provided by an overhead
earth wire if the tower footing resistance for each individual tower is below 0.02/kV of
minimum impulse flashover voltage (or 0.2/kV of line voltage).

If the earthing electrode for a given tower is concentrated, e.g., of the rod or plate type, the
effective resistance of a tower footing or other earthing device are d.c. resistances obtained from
an earth test set. When lightning current is discharged, the surrounding soil breaks down and the
effective resistance may be much less than the earth test set value.

3.5 Protection of station equipment from travelling surges

As discussed, the earth wire over towers provides protection against lightning and also reduces
induced electrostatic or electromagnetic voltage. But such a shield is inadequate to provide
protection against travelling waves or surges caused by lightning and which reach the terminals
of the electrical equipment. The protective devices against travelling surges are the Surge
Modifiers and Surge Diverters (Lightning Arresters).

3.5.1 Surge modifiers

Surge modifiers are connected in series with the line at the substation terminals. The probable
damage to equipment by a travelling surge depends not only on the magnitude of the surge, but
also on the steepness of its wavefront. The equipment can thus be protected if the wavefront is
flattened, i.e., the steepness of the wave is reduced. Surge modifiers do absorb some of the surge
energy and flattens the wavefront of the incoming wave.

The surge modifiers often used in power system practice are surge absorbers, arcing ground
suppressers, earthing coils (Peterson coils) and water-jet resistances. Cables also act as surge
modifiers. When a cable terminates a line, the transmitted component of the surge voltage
according to equation 3.26 is given as:

48
 V 2 Z ⋅V
t 2
t= i = ⋅V
Z t + Zi m+1 i
Since m is usually of the order of 5, the transmitted voltage would be appreciably reduced.
Besides, if a cable is treated as a lumped capacitance C terminating the overhead line, the
transmitted component of voltage would be given as:
V t =2 V i (1−e−t /CZ ) 0
Eqn. 3.30

This shows that the voltage would be built up at the junction (i.e. at the termination)
exponentially. The wavefront would be flattened and such a wave would be less harmful to the
equipment at the junction.

Thus a piece of cable between an overhead line and the substation is very effective in both
reducing the amplitude of the surge voltage and flattening of the wavefront.

3.5.2 Surge diverters

Surge diverters are connected between the line terminal and earth at the substation, and always
act in parallel with the equipment which they are expected to protect. They simply divert the
surge to earth. The principal forms of surge diverters used in practice are lightning arresters such
as horn-gap arresters, sphere-gap arresters, rod-gap arresters, etc.

Fig 3.6 Lightning Arrestor

A lightning arrestor is equipped with an arc gap, which serves as an automatic switch. The gap
is of such length that during normal line voltage, no arc occurs, and thus the arrestor is
disconnected from the line. When a high voltage surge takes place, it establishes an arc in the
gap, which like a switch connects the arrestor to the line, forming a path to pass the charge to
ground. After the surge diversion, the electromagnetic action in the gap helps extinguish the arc,
thereby disconnecting the arrestor.

It is important that the arc extinguishes immediately after the surge stops, otherwise the line
voltage will supply a heavy current, called the follow current, through the arrestor to ground.
Care should be taken not to use an arrestor with a voltage rating lower than that of the system. If
this precaution is not taken, it is likely that an arc will persist in the gap and a heavy follow
current will flow. If the arrestor, on the other hand, has a very much higher voltage rating than
that of the line, it is likely that the gap will not arc over when a lightning surge comes. As a
result, the surge be transmitted along and enter the equipment to cause serious damage.

49
Some arrestors also have choke coils, which are connected between arrestors and equipment to
be protected. Choke coils between arrestors and equipment offer high impedance to the surge
and practically none to the 50 Hz current. Thus little of the surge is able to get to the equipment,
because the charge finds a much easier path through the arrestor to ground.

The lightning arrestor may be replaced by a resistance arrestor that will reduce the follow
current to a value that can be interrupted by the arc gap. The disadvantage of this arrestor is that
if the resistance is high enough to reduce the arc-gap voltage sufficiently, it will be too high to
limit the surge voltage to any great extent. This arrestor is not as effective as the pellet or thyrite
type.

The pellet arrestor consists of a sealed case that contains pellets of brown lead (lead peroxide) at
the bottom and an arc gap at the top. Leads are brought out at the two ends, forming a series
circuit. The arc gap is sealed in the casing so that it will function independently of weather
conditions. The brown lead pellets are good conductors, and are coated with litharge (lead
monoxide), a poor conductor. The pellet arrestor functions as follows: When the voltage is
normal, the litharge provides insulation between the pellets. But when a voltage surge occurs, the
litharge is punctured or electrically broken down. Because of this, the pellets offer a low
resistance and the lightning arrestor readily discharges the surge. A very high current density
which exists at where the litharge is punctured change the brown lead (good conductor) into
litharge (poor conductor). Thus the formed litharge heals the punctures, and within about two
cycles after the surge, the current is reduced sufficiently to cause the arc in the gap to extinguish.

The thyrite arrestor consists of a stack of disks and an air gap, which are sealed in a porcelain
casing. The disks are made of a material with remarkable property of having a low resistance
when subjected to a high voltage, and a high resistance when subjected to a low voltage. Suppose
that an electric surge occurs on a line to which a thyrite arrestor is connected. This subjects the
arrestor to a high voltage and lowers its resistance; this lowering of resistance readily permits the
surge to go to ground. Immediately after the surge has been discharged, the voltage across the
arrestor again becomes low; the resistance of the arrestor becomes high, reducing the arc-gap
current to a low value. Thus the arc will immediately extinguish.

The electrical characteristics of an ideal surge diverter or lightning arrester can thus be
summarised as follows:
 It should not absorb any current during normal operation or should possess very high
impedance. The breakdown voltage must be quite above the normal or even abnormal
fundamental frequency voltage.
 During overvoltage surges, it should break down easily to provide low resistance path to
earth. In other words, at power frequencies, it must not function and it should function
without any doubt when abnormal frequencies are applied to it.
 The discharge current during breakdown should not be excessive so as not to damage the
surge diverter.
 The normal frequency current after the breakdown should be interrupted as soon as the
transient voltage has fallen below the breakdown value.

50
 Unit 4
UNBALANCE

Introduction
Unbalance is a serious power quality problem, mainly affecting low-voltage distribution systems,
as for instance encountered in office buildings with abundant PCs and lighting. However, it can
be quantified in a relatively simple manner resulting in parameters that can be compared to
standardized values. This unit explains the main causes of unbalance and elaborates on the most
important consequences. Mitigation techniques for this problem are also explained

Learning Objectives
After reading this unit you should be able to:
1. Explain what unbalance loading is
2. List the causes of unbalance
3. Explain the consequences of unbalance
4. Explain mitigation techniques for unbalance

4.1 Definition of unbalance

A three-phase power system is called balanced or symmetrical if the three-phase voltages and
currents have the same amplitude and are phase shifted by 120° with respect to each other. If
either or both of these conditions are not met, the system is called unbalanced or asymmetrical.

It may be recalled that in normal operation of a transformer, the flux in the core is due to the
small magnetising current and is approximately constant. The constancy of this flux necessitates
that the primary ampere-turns should balance the secondary ampere-turns on each limb of the
transformer core, i.e., I 1 N 1=−I 2 N 2. (The negative sign implies that the primary and secondary

51
currents are 18 00 out of phase or opposed to each other, i.e., they have opposite directions). Thus
the output voltage remains constant, and the primary current in any line will be a reflection of the
secondary current in the same line. But the situation is different for an unbalanced loading.

The single-phase load between line-to-neutral or between two lines causes the most unbalanced
conditions in 3-phase transformers. An unbalanced polyphase load is equivalent to a polyphase
balanced load plus a single-phase load between line-to-neutral or between two lines. In view of
this, it is important to investigate the behaviour of 3-phase transformers for single-phase loading.

For simplicity, consider the behaviour of a unity turns ( N 1=N 2 ) ratio 3-wire (no neutral
connection) star-star 3-phase transformer that has only one of its secondary phases loaded with a
single-phase load as shown in figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1: Single-phase loading of a three-phase transformer

Let the current through the 1-phase load in ‘a’ phase of the secondary be I a=I L . For mmf
balance, this secondary or load current causes a corresponding current I A=I a=I L (assuming
unity turns ratio) in phase A of the primary, opposed in direction to I a. This current in phase A of
1
the primary divides equally in phases B and C, that is, I B=I C = I a .
2
1
The currents I B=I C = I a in phases B and C of the primary will then set up fluxes in phases b
2
and c of the secondary. These fluxes linking the phase windings of b and c will unbalance the
phase emfs with the result that the voltage across the loaded phase will tend to fall, whilst the
voltage across the two unloaded phases will tend to rise.

Under balanced conditions, the neutral of the primary is at the centre of the voltage triangle.
However, under such unbalanced loading condition where only phase a of the secondary was
loaded, the corresponding current which appears in phase A of the primary has no other return
path to the source than through the phases B and C. However, as the secondary currents in phases
b and c are zero (because they are on open circuit), the current in the corresponding primary
windings can only be magnetising currents.

52
 1
These primary currents I B=I C = I a in B and C being magnetising currents, the corresponding
2
phase-to-neutral voltages are increased. The neutral is no longer at the centre and the voltages to
neutral are different, resulting in a decrease in the phase voltage of A. This condition is termed
neutral instability or neutral displacement.

4.2 Quantification and limits set for unbalance

To quantify an unbalance in voltage or current of a three-phase system, the so-called Fortescue
components or symmetrical components are used. The three-phase system is decomposed into a
so-called direct or positive-sequence, inverse or negative-sequence and homopolar or zero
sequence system, indicated by subscripts 1, 2, 0 (in some texts the subscripts d, i, h are used).
They are calculated using matrix transformations of the three-phase voltage or current phasors.
The subscripts a, b and c indicate the different phases. (Sometimes the subscripts u, v and w are
used.) The expressions here are formulated for the voltage V, but this variable can be replaced by
the current I without any problem:

[ ] [ ][ ]
V0 1 1 1 Va
1
V1 = 1 h h2 V b (4.1)
3 2
V2 1 h h Vc
where the rotation operator h is given by:
0
j 12 0
h=e =1∠ 120=−0.5+ j 0.866 (4.2)
These transformations are energy-invariant, so any power quantity calculated with the original or
transformed values will result in the same value.
The inverse transformation is:

[ ] [ ][ ]
Va 1 1 1 V0
Vb = 1 h h V1
2
(4.3)
2
Vc 1 h h V2

The direct system is associated with a positively rotating field whereas the inverse system yields
a negative rotating field figure 4.2. In the case of AC electrical machines, this is a physically
correct interpretation for the rotating magnetic field. Homopolar components have identical
phase angles and only oscillate. In systems without neutral conductors homopolar currents
obviously cannot flow, but significant voltage differences between the ‘zero voltages’ at the
neutral points of the Y-connections in the supply system and the loads may arise.

Figure 4.2: Graphical representation of symmetrical components

53
Measurement of these components is not straightforward in practice - especially for the positive
and negative sequence components. A digital measurement device performing the above-
mentioned mathematical operation on the sampled voltages and currents leads to a simpler
implementation than is possible with classical analogue equipment. The ratios uV (voltage) and
u I (current) between the magnitudes of negative and positive sequence components of voltage
and current respectively are a measure of the unbalance (in %):
V2
uV = ×100 % (4.4)
V1

I2
uI= × 100 % (4.5)
I1
Such ratios are for instance used in standards dealing with power quality issues, such as EN-
50160 or the IEC 1000-3-x series. A similar ratio is sometimes defined for the homopolar versus
direct magnitude ratio as well, when appropriate. An easier, approximate, way to calculate the
voltage ratio is:
S
uV ≈ L 100 % (4.6)
S SC
This ratio only uses the apparent power of the load SL and the short-circuit power SSC of the
supply circuit.

International standards (e.g. EN-50160 or the IEC 1000-3-x series) give limits for the unbalance
ratio defined by equation 4.4 of < 2 % for LV and MV systems and <1 % for HV systems,
measured as 10-minute values, with an instantaneous maximum of 4 %. The reason for the
tighter limits on high-voltage systems is that they are designed to be used to their maximum
capacity with a balanced three-phase load. Any unbalance causes inefficient operation of the
often highly loaded transmission systems. In the design of distribution systems (lower voltages),
the supply of single-phase loads is one of the key purposes, so the system and the connected
loads must be designed and implemented to be more tolerant of unbalance.

4.3 Causes of unbalance

The system operator tries to provide a balanced system voltage at the point of common coupling
(PCC) between the distribution grid and the customer’s internal network. Under normal
conditions, these voltages are determined by the:
 terminal voltages of the generators
 impedance of electricity system
 currents drawn by the loads throughout the transmission and distribution grid.

The system voltages at a generation site are generally highly symmetrical due to the construction
and operation of synchronous generators used in large centralised power plants. Therefore, the
central generation does not in general contribute to unbalance. Even with induction
(asynchronous) generators, as used for instance in some types of wind turbines, a balanced three-
phase set of voltages is obtained.

However, where small-scale distributed or embedded generation, installed at the customer’s site,
has become more popular and taken up a significant share of the electricity production, the

54
situation is different. Many of these relatively small units, such as photovoltaic installations, are
connected to the grid at LV by means of single-phase power electronic inverter units. The
connection point has a relatively high impedance (the short-circuit power is relatively low),
leading to a potentially larger unbalance of the voltage (equation 4.6) than is the case for
connections at higher voltage level.

The impedance of electricity system components is not exactly the same for each phase. The
geometrical configuration of overhead lines, asymmetric with respect to the ground for instance,
causes a difference in the electrical parameters of the line. Generally, these differences are very
small and their effect can be neglected when sufficient precautions, such as the transposition of
lines, are taken. In most practical cases, the asymmetry of the loads is the main cause of
unbalance. At high and medium voltage level, the loads are usually three-phase and balanced,
although large single- or dual-phase loads can be connected, such as AC rail traction (e.g. high-
speed railways) or induction furnaces (large metal melting systems employing highly irregular
powerful arcs to generate heat).

Low voltage loads are usually single-phase, e.g. PCs or lighting systems, and the balance
between phases is therefore difficult to guarantee. In the layout of an electrical wiring system
feeding these loads, the load circuits are distributed amongst the three-phase systems, for
instance one phase per floor of an apartment or office building or alternating connections in rows
of houses. Still, the balance of the equivalent load at the central transformer fluctuates because of
the statistical spread of the duty cycles of the different individual loads.

Abnormal system conditions also cause phase unbalance. Phase-to-ground, phase-to-phase and
open-conductor faults are typical examples. These faults cause voltage dips in one or more of the
phases involved and may even indirectly cause overvoltages on the other phases. The system
behaviour is then unbalanced by definition, but such phenomena are usually classified under
voltage disturbances.

4.4 Effects of unbalance

The sensitivity of electrical equipment to unbalance differs from one appliance to another. A
short overview of the most common problems is given below:

(a) Induction machines

These are AC asynchronous machines with internally induced rotating magnetic fields. The
magnitude is proportional to the amplitude of the direct and/or inverse components. The
rotational sense of the field of the inverse component is opposite to the field of the direct
component. Hence, in the case of an unbalanced supply, the total rotating magnetic field
becomes ‘elliptical’ instead of circular. Induction machines face three kinds of problems due to
unbalance. First, the machine cannot produce its full torque as the inversely rotating magnetic
field of the negative-sequence system causes a negative braking torque that has to be subtracted
from the base torque linked to the normal rotating magnetic field. Figure 4.3 shows the different
torque-speed characteristics of an induction machine under unbalanced supply. The actual
steady-state curve is the weighted sum of these curves with the squared unbalance ratios as
weights as the torque scales with the square of the load. It can be seen that in the normal
operating region, being the almost straight line section of Td (the part starting at the top of the

55
curve, eventually crossing the horizontal axis at synchronous speed), Ti and Th are both negative.
These characteristics can be measured with the motor connected as shown in Figure 4.4.

Secondly, the bearings may suffer mechanical damage because of induced torque components at
double system frequency.

Finally, the stator and, especially, the rotor are heated excessively, possibly leading to faster
thermal ageing. This heat is caused by induction of significant currents by the fast rotating (in the
relative sense) inverse magnetic field, as seen by the rotor. To be able to deal with this extra
heating, the motor must be derated, which may require a machine of a larger power rating to be
installed.

Figure 4.3: Torque-speed (slip) characteristics of an induction machine under

unbalanced supply conditions

Figure 4.4: Supply schemes to feed an induction motor with a certain unbalance
component

(b) Synchronous generators

Synchronous generators exhibit phenomena similar to those described for induction machines,
but mainly suffer from excess heating. Special care must be devoted to the design of stabilising
damper windings on the rotor, where the currents are induced by the indirect and homopolar
components.

56
(c) Capacity of transformers, cables and lines.
The capacity of transformers, cables and lines is reduced due to negative sequence components.
The operational limit is in fact determined by the RMS rating of the total current, being partially
made up of ‘useless’ non-direct sequence currents as well. This has to be considered when
setting trigger points of protection devices, operating on the total current. The maximum capacity
can be expressed by a derating factor, to be supplied by the manufacturer, which can be used to
select a larger system, capable of handling the load.

(d) Transformers
Transformers subject to negative sequence voltages transform them in the same way as positive-
sequence voltages. The behaviour with respect to homopolar voltages depends on the primary
and secondary connections and, more particularly, the presence of a neutral conductor. If, for
instance, one side has a three-phase four-wire connection, neutral currents can flow. If at the
other side the winding is delta-connected, the homopolar current is transformed into a circulating
(and heat-causing) current in the delta. The associated homopolar magnetic flux passes through
constructional parts of the transformer causing parasitic losses in parts such as the tank,
sometimes requiring an additional derating.

(e) Electronic power converters

These are present in many devices such as adjustable speed drives, PC power supplies, efficient
lighting and so on. They can be faced with additional, uncharacteristic, harmonics although, in
general, the total harmonic distortion remains more or less constant. The design of passive filter
banks dealing with these harmonics must take this phenomenon into account.

4.5 MITIGATING THE EFFECTS OF UNBALANCE

(a) Three-winding transformers
Many power transformers have three windings per phase, the third winding being the tertiary.
The tertiary winding does not usually feed any load. Its purposes are:
(i) To limit the voltage imbalance when the main load is unsymmetrical.
(ii) To supply phase-compensating devices (like static capacitors or synchronous condensers)
that may be connected for purposes of power factor correction or voltage regulation.
(iii) To provide voltage for auxiliary power purposes in a substation or to supply a local
distribution system.
(iv)In a star-star or star-zigzag transformer, a delta connected tertiary winding reduces the zero-
phase sequence impedance and allows adequate earth fault current to flow for the operation
of protective gear.
(v) Sometimes delta-connected tertiary windings are put on 3-phase banks to provide a circuit
for the third harmonic of the exciting current.
(vi)To supply split-winding generators.
(vii) To reduce third-harmonic voltage components.

57
Consider the 3-winding HV transformer with a delta-connected tertiary winding as shown in
figure 4.5.

Figure 4.3: Three-winding transformer with tertiary winding

Tertiary windings are usually delta connected. In the event of the secondary load being
unbalanced (due to fault or short circuit, etc.), considerable imbalance of phase voltages may be
produced, leading to out-of-balance flux. This out-of-balance flux will give rise to a circulating
current in the closed tertiary winding, whose mmf or ampere-turns will then cancel out the
unbalanced ampere-turns due to the load imbalance. The phase voltages will then tend to remain
balanced.

Consider again the 3-wire (no neutral connection) star-star 3-phase transformer that has only one
of its secondary phases loaded with a single-phase load as shown in the figure above.

Current I 1 in phase A of the primary opposes I 2 in phase a of the secondary, and this divides
1 1
equally in phases B and C, namely, I B=I C = I 1. The current I 1 in phase B of the primary
2 2
causes the appearance of circulating current I 3 in the tertiary (since phase b of secondary cannot
carry current because it is open), so that mmf balance is achieved. It must be noted that that I 3 in
1
the tertiary must oppose I 1 in phase B of the primary.
2

For unity turns ratio and mmf balance,

Primary mmf + Tertiary mmf = Secondary mmf
I 1+ I 3=I 2=I L (4.7)
1 1
For phase B, I 1 =I 3 . For phase C, I 1 =I 3
2 2

58
Thus I 1=2 I 3 (4.8)

From equations 4.7 and 4.8,

1 2
2 I 3 + I 3=I L ⇒ I 3= I L and I 1= I L
3 3
Since there is complete mmf balance, the single phase load between the line and neutral of star-
star transformers can be supplied without neutral instability, provided the delta-connected
tertiary winding is used having separate magnetic circuits. For a single-phase line-to-neutral
short circuit, the tertiary winding permits the flow of large fault currents as explained and the
protective devices can operate. Since the tertiary winding currents due to short-circuit may be
high, the reactance of the tertiary windings must be such as to limit these currents to values
which can be carried without getting overheated.

(b) Scott-transformers
The scott-transformer consists of two single-phase transformers, with special winding ratios,
hooked up to a three-phase system. They are connected in such a way that at the output, a two-
phase orthogonal voltage system is generated allowing the connection of two single-phase
systems. This set-up presents a balanced three-phase power to the grid. The easiest way to
transform three-phase voltages into two-phase voltages is with two conventional single-phase
transformers. The first transformer is connected phase-to-neutral on the primary (three-phase)
side and the second transformer is connected between the other two phases on the primary side.

(c) Steinmetz transformers

A Steinmetz-transformer is in fact a three-phase transformer with an extra power balancing load,
consisting of a capacitor and an inductor rated proportional to the single-phase load to be
connected. When the reactive power rating of the inductor and the capacitor equals the active
power rating of the load, divided by √3, the three-phase grid sees a balanced load. The three-
phase rated power of the transformer equals the single-phase load’s active power. Balancing is
only perfect for loads with an active power equal to the value used to design the system.

(d) Power electronic devices

Special fast-acting power electronic circuits, such as Static Var Compensators can be configured
to limit the unbalance. These behave as if they were rapidly changing complementary
impedances, compensating for changes in impedance of the loads on each phase. Also, they are
capable of compensating unwanted reactive power. However, these are expensive devices, and
are only used for large loads (e.g. arc furnaces) when other solutions are insufficient. Other types
of power conditioners that can deal with unbalanced systems as well as other power quality
problems are in development but are not yet ready for general application.

59
 Unit 5
HIGH VOLTAGE TEST SYSTEMS

5.1 INTRODUCTION
A HV test system is the complete set of apparatus and devices necessary for performing a HV
test. Generally, a HV test system comprises a HV generator, power supply unit, HV voltage
measuring system, control system and some additional measuring equipment. In all cases, the
test object cannot be neglected, because it is a part of the HV test circuit. A HV test system
consists of the following components:

(a) HV generator (HVG) - This converts the supplied low or medium voltage into the
high test voltage. The type generator used is determined by the required test voltage.
A cascade arrangement of transformers (Fig. 5.1) or a resonant transformer (Fig. 5.2) is used
when a high voltage at power frequency is required.

Fig. 5.1: Cascade arrangement of transformers

Fig. 5.2: Resonant transformer

For the generation of high direct test voltages (HVDC) the HVG is a special circuit of rectifiers
and capacitors are used. See Figs. 5.3 and 5.4. When more than doubling of the voltage is
required, the Cockroft-Waton voltage multiplier circuit is commonly used.

60
 Figure 5.3: Half-wave and full-wave rectifier circuits

Figure 5.4: Voltage doubler circuit

Figure 5.6: Cockroft-Waton circuits

For the generation of high lightning or switching impulse voltages, it is a special circuit of
capacitors, resistors and switches (sphere gaps) that are used. See Fig. 5.7, 5.8 and 5.9.

61
 Fig. 5.7: Impulse voltage generator circuit

Fig. 5.8: Circuit for uncontrolled operation

Fig. 5.9: Circuit for controlled operation

The voltage at the test object may be different from that at the generator because of voltage drop
at the HV lead between generator and test object or even a voltage increase because of resonance
effects. This means the voltage must be measured directly at the test object and not at the
generator. Consequently, a voltage measurement sub-system—usually called HV measuring
system—is connected to the test object.

62
This circuit for a HV test system should be of lowest possible impedance. This means, it
should be as compact as possible. All connections, the HV leads and the ground
connections should be straight, short and of low inductance, e.g., by copper foil (width
10–25 cm, thickness depending on current).

5.2 INSULATION RESISTANCE TESTING

Measurement of insulation resistance is critical. About 80% of electrical maintenance and

testing involves evaluating insulation integrity. Insulation testing components
Let's approach the subject by component.
The megohmmeter
A basic megohmmeter hook-up schematic is shown in Fig. 1 (above). The
megohmmeter is
similar to a multimeter, when the latter is in its ohmmeter function. There are
differences,
however.

63
Power systems engineers are interested in high voltages primarily for power transmission, and
for testing of equipment used in power transmission. With regards to testing of equipment, the
high voltages must be generated at the laboratory. In many testing laboratories, the primary
source of power is at low voltage (415V three-phase or 240V single phase, at 50 Hz). Thus a
number of techniques are employed to obtain the high voltages from the low voltages. Since
insulation is usually being tested, the impedances involved are extremely high (order of mega
ohms) and the currents small (less than 1 ampere). Therefore high voltage testing does not
usually require high power. Thus special methods may be used which are not applicable when
generating high voltage in high power applications. This unit presents some schemes for
generating such high voltages for testing

Learning Objectives
After reading this unit you should be able to:
1. Explain various methods of generating high
voltages for testing.

5.1 Power frequency high alternating voltage generators

(a) Cascade arrangement of transformers
Single transformer test units are made for high alternating voltages up to about 1000kV.
However, to reduce cost (insulation cost increases rapidly with voltage) and make transportation
easier, a cascade arrangement of several transformers is used.

64
 Figure 5.1: Cascade arrangement of transformers

Figure 5.1 shows a typical cascade arrangement of transformers used to obtain up to 300kV from
three units each rated at 100kV insulation. The low voltage winding is connected to the primary
of the first transformer, and this is connected to the transformer tank which is earthed. One end
of the high voltage winding is also earthed through the tank. The high voltage end and a tapping
near this end is taken out at the top of the transformer through a bushing, and forms the primary
of the second transformer. One end of this winding is connected to the tank of the second
transformer to maintain the tank at high voltage. The secondary of this transformer too has one
end connected to the tank and at the other end the next cascaded transformer is fed. This cascade
arrangement can be continued further if a still higher voltage is required.

In the cascade arrangement shown, each transformer needs only to be insulated for 100kV, and
hence the transformer can be relatively small. If a 300kV transformer had to be used instead, the
size would be massive. High voltage transformers for testing purposes are designed purposely to
have a poor regulation. This is to ensure that when the secondary of the transformer is short
circuited (as will commonly happen in flash-over tests of insulation), the current would not
increase to too high a value and to reduce the cost. In practice, an additional series resistance
(commonly a water resistance) is also used in such cases to limit the current and prevent possible
damage to the transformer. What is shown in the cascade transformer arrangement is the basic
principle involved. The actual arrangement could be different for practical reasons.

(b) Resonant transformers

The resonant principle in series tuned L-C circuits can be made use of to obtain higher voltages
with a given transformer.

Figure 5.2: Resonant transformer

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5.2 High frequency high alternating voltage generators
High frequency (few kHz to MHz) high voltages are required in testing apparatus for behaviour
with switching surges, insulation flashover etc. The importance of testing with high frequency is
that high frequency oscillations cause failure of insulator at comparatively low voltage due to
high dielectric loss and consequent heating. Thus, it is necessary to produce damped high
frequency voltages. High-frequency voltage source is realised from a Tesla coil as shown in
figure 5.3.

The Tesla Coil is one notable example of air-core transformer, named after the Serbian electrical
genius Nikola Tesla, who was also the inventor of the rotating magnetic field AC motor,
polyphase AC power systems, and many elements of radio technology. The Tesla Coil is a
resonant, high-frequency step-up transformer used to produce extremely high voltages. One of
Tesla's dreams was to employ his coil technology to distribute electric power without the need
for wires, simply broadcasting it in the form of radio waves which could be received and
conducted to loads by means of antennas.

Figure 5.3: High-frequency high-voltage test source

The capacitor, in conjunction with the transformer's primary winding, forms a tank circuit. The
secondary winding is wound in close proximity to the primary, usually around the same
nonmagnetic form. Several options exist for "exciting" the primary circuit, the simplest being a
high-voltage, low-frequency AC source and spark gap:

The purpose of the high-voltage, low-frequency AC power source is to "charge" the primary tank
circuit. When the spark gap fires, its low impedance acts to complete the capacitor/primary coil
tank circuit, allowing it to oscillate at its resonant frequency. The "RFC" inductors are "Radio
Frequency Chokes," which act as high impedances to prevent the AC source from interfering
with the oscillating tank circuit.

The secondary side of the Tesla coil transformer is also a tank circuit, relying on the parasitic
(stray) capacitance existing between the discharge terminal and earth ground to complement the
secondary winding's inductance. For optimum operation, this secondary tank circuit is tuned to
the same resonant frequency as the primary circuit, with energy exchanged not only between
capacitors and inductors during resonant oscillation, but also back-and-forth between primary
and secondary windings. The visual results are spectacular.

66
5.3 High direct voltage generators
Generation of high direct voltages are required in the testing of high voltage direct current
apparatus as well as in testing the insulation of cables and capacitors where the use of alternating
voltage test sets becomes impractical due to the steady high charging currents. Impulse generator
charging units also require high direct voltages as their input.

(a) Rectifier circuits

One of the simplest methods of producing high direct voltages for testing is to use either a half-
wave or full-wave rectifier circuit with a high alternating voltage source. The rectifiers used must
be high voltage rectifiers with a peak inverse voltage of at least twice the peak value of the
alternating voltage supply. In theory, a low pass filter may be used to smooth the output,
however when the test device is highly capacitive, no smoothing is required. Even otherwise,
only a capacitor may be used across the test device for smoothing. Figure 5.4 shows the half-
wave and the full wave arrangements.

Figure 5.4: Half-wave and full-wave rectifier circuits

In testing with high voltage direct current, care must be taken to discharge any capacitor that
may be present before changing connections. In certain test sets, automatic discharging is
provided which discharges the capacitors to earth.

(b) Voltage multiplier circuits

Both full-wave as well as half-wave circuits can produce a maximum direct voltage
corresponding to the peak value of the alternating voltage. When higher voltages are required
voltage multiplier circuits are used. The common circuits are the voltage doubler circuit and the
Cockroft-Walton Circuit.

(i) Voltage doubler circuit

The voltage doubler circuit makes use of the positive and the negative half cycles to charge two
different capacitors. These are then connected in series aiding to obtain double the direct voltage
output. Figure 5.5 shows a voltage doubler circuit.

67
 Figure 5.5: Voltage doubler circuit

(ii) Cockroft-Walton Circuit

When more than doubling of the voltage is required, the Cockroft-Waton voltage multiplier
circuit is commonly used. The circuit is shown below.

Figure 5.6: Cockroft-Waton circuits

(c) Electrostatic generators

Electrostatic generators using the principle of charge transfer can give very high direct voltages.
The basic principle involved is that the charge is placed on a carrier, either insulating or an
isolated conductor, and raised to the required potential by being mechanically moved through the
electrostatic field. Examples of electrostatic generators are: Van de Graeff generator and Sames
generator.

5.4 Generation of impulse voltage

In order that equipment designed to be used on high voltage lines, and others, be able to
withstand surges caused in them during operation, it is necessary to test these equipment with
voltages of the form likely to be met in service. An impulse voltage is a unidirectional voltage,
which without appreciable oscillations, rises rapidly to a maximum (peak) value and falls more
or less rapidly to zero. Lightning surge voltages are represented artificially by impulse
waveforms.

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The apparatus which produces the required voltages is the impulse generator. An impulse
generator consists essentially of a capacitor which is discharged through a circuit, the constants
of which can be adjusted to obtain an impulse voltage of required shape. The basic circuit of a
single-stage impulse generator is shown below:

Figure 5.7: Impulse voltage generator circuit

The capacitor C 1 is charged from a dc source until the spark gap G breaks down. A voltage is
then impressed upon the object under test of capacitance C 2. The wave-shaping resistors R1 and
R2 control respectively the front and tail of the impulse voltage available across the test
specimen.

(a) Uncontrolled operation of impulse generators

In the simplest form of the single stage impulse generator, shown in figure 5.8, the high direct
voltage required is obtained from a high voltage transformer through a high voltage rectifier. The
direct voltage need not be smooth as it only has to charge the first capacitor to peak value. A
sphere gap is used as the switch, and as the charge on the capacitor builds up, so does the voltage
across the sphere gap.

Figure 5.8: Circuit for uncontrolled operation

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 Figure 5.9: Impulse generator waveforms for uncontrolled operation

In the uncontrolled operation, the break down voltage of the sphere gap is less than the peak
value of the supply, so that it effectively closes when the voltage across the gap builds up above
its breakdown value. The capacitor would then discharge through the impulse generator circuit
producing an impulse waveform. The impedance of the impulse generator charging circuit is
much higher than that of the impulse generator circuit so that during the impulse the rectifier and
other related components can be disregarded. Subsequently, the capacitor would charge up again
and the process would be repetitive. However, as the breakdown of a sphere gap is not exactly a
constant but statistical, the time of occurrence of neither the impulse nor the exact magnitude are
controllable. The waveforms of the voltage of the charging capacitor and of the impulse
generator output are shown in figure 5.9.

(b) Controlled operation of impulse generators

In the controlled mode of operation, the same basic circuit is used, but the capacitor is allowed to
reach the full charging voltage without the sphere gap breaking down. The spark over voltage is
set at slightly higher than the charging voltage. In this case, at the sphere gap we need a special
arrangement, such as a third sphere between the other two, to be able to initiate breakdown of the
gap. The modified circuit is shown in figure 5.10

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 Figure 5.10: Circuit for controlled operation

The potential across the main gap is divided into two by means of 2 equal resistors R, each of
about 100MΩ. By this means, half the applied voltage V appears across each of the two auxiliary
gaps.

Once the capacitor C1 has charged up to the full value, a small pulse voltage v is applied (about
20 %) at the third electrode (also known as the trigger electrode). This pulse raises the voltage
across one of the auxiliary gaps to more than half the charging voltage (½V + v) so that it would
be just sufficient to breakdown the gap. As this auxiliary gap breaks down, the full voltage would
be applied across the remaining auxiliary gap causing it also to breakdown.

Once both auxiliary gaps have broken down, the ionisation present in the region would cause the
main gap also to breakdown almost simultaneously and thus the impulse voltage would be
applied. The waveforms for the controlled operation are shown in figure 5.11.

Figure 5.11: Impulse generator waveforms for controlled operation

(c) Multi-stage impulse generators

To obtain large impulse voltages, a multistage impulse generator is used so that the relative size
of the high voltage transformer can be kept small, and the costs small. The basic idea is to charge
a number of capacitors in parallel through a rectifier from a high voltage transformer and then to
discharge them in series, giving the nominal output voltage equal to the charging voltage
multiplied by the number of stages in the impulse generator.

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In the practical circuit, the capacitors are not all charged to the same voltage, due to the
resistances that come in series during charging being not negligible compared to the leakage
resistances of the capacitors (especially when the number of stages are large). In theory, the
number of gaps and the capacitors may be increased to give almost any desired multiple of the
charging voltage and it has been found feasible in practice to operate a 50 stage impulse
generator. The number which can be used successfully is limited to some extent, however, by the
fact that the high resistance between the supply and the distant capacitors reduce the impulse
voltage obtainable.

Unit 6
HIGH VOLTAGE TESTING

Introduction
Electrical equipment must be capable of withstanding overvoltages during operation. This is
ensured by suitable testing procedure. High voltage testing can be broadly classified into testing
of insulating materials (samples of dielectrics) and tests on completed equipment. The tests
carried out on samples of dielectric consist generally of the measurement of permittivity,
dielectric loss per unit volume, and the dielectric strength of the material. The tests carried out on
completed equipment are the measurement of capacitance, the power factor or the total dielectric
loss, the ultimate breakdown voltage and the flash-over voltage. This unit describes a number of
high voltage tests.

Learning Objective
After reading this unit you should be able to:
1. Explain a number of tests carried out on high
voltage insulation and equipment

6.1 Insulation resistance tests

The insulation resistance test is an electrical test which uses a certain type and level of voltage
(500V d.c. for low voltage installations i.e.: 230V) to measure insulation resistance in Ohm`s.
The measured resistance indicates the condition of the insulation between two conductive parts.
An infinite resistance would be the perfect result, but no insulator is perfect, so the higher the
reading the better.

Carrying out an insulation resistance test gives an indication of the condition of the insulation of
conductors and any equipment to which they are connected. Effective insulation is necessary to
provide basic protection and to prevent short-circuits and earth faults. An insulator should have

72
high insulation resistance, typically many megohms. The insulation resistance of a conductor is
inversely proportional to its length – that is, its insulation resistance decreases as the conductor’s
length increases and vice versa. It follows that the insulation resistance of a complete electrical
installation, or a section of it, will be less than that of a single circuit of that installation

BS 7671, Regulation 612.3.2 indicates that the minimum acceptable value of insulation
resistance for a distribution circuit with a distribution board or consumer unit and all its final
circuits connected is 1megohm. Although values of this order particularly in a new installation,
would warrant further investigation.

Prior to carrying out an insulation resistance test, any equipment likely to influence the test
results obtained, or be damaged by the test voltage, such as surge protective devices, dimmers,
electronic switches and high frequency luminaires, should be disconnected. Where it is not
reasonably practicable to disconnect such equipment, or where doubt exists as to whether all
such equipment has been disconnected, the following options are available:
 Insulation resistance may be measured between live conductors and protective conductor(s)
with all live (line and neutral) conductors connected (Regulations 612.3.1 and 612.3.3 refer).
Where this method is used, there is no potential difference between the line and neutral
terminals of connected equipment that could adversely affect the internal components.
 The test voltage applied may be reduced to 250 V d.c. but the minimum acceptable value of
insulation resistance remains 1megohms (see Regulation 612.3.2). 

RCDs may also affect insulation resistance test results. It may therefore be necessary to
disconnect RCDs while the tests are performed and/or to test the wiring on the load side of RCDs
separately, to ensure the wiring is included in the testing. 
The procedure for performing insulation resistance testing as part of the initial verification of a
single-phase low voltage (230 V) is as follows: 
 Temporarily disconnect or isolate equipment likely to be damaged by the test voltage or
influence the test results. Place all switches in the ON position. Two-way and, where
fitted, intermediate, switches will need to be operated during the test procedure to ensure
that all live conductors are subjected to the testing. 

The table below shows the required test voltage and the minimum required resistance in
accordance with BS 7671.

To perform the tests needed, one requires an Insulation Resistance Tester. The test procedure is
presented below:

Step 1. Select the required circuit and disconnect its live conductors from the distribution board
(the earth conductor can stay)

73
Step 2. Connect one of the test leads of the Insulation Tester to the Line conductor and the other
one to the Neutral conductor. Set the tester to the required voltage and press and hold the TEST
button – the tester will display a value in Ohm`s or if it is out of its range then something like
this: >299 MΩ is seen.

Step 3. Repeat the test process with one of the test leads on the Line conductor and the other one
on the Earth conductor

Step 4. Repeat the test process with one of the test leads on the Neutral conductor and the other
one on the Earth conductor

Step 5. Compare all test results to the minimum allowed value in BS7671. If any of the recorded
values are lower, then further investigation is needed.

Every circuit within the distribution board must be tested one by one.

However, where the consumer unit has been connected to the meter, the test must be carried out
on the load side of the main switch (in the OFF/isolation position, but with all the circuit
protective devices in the ON position).
It is essential that, when performing an insulation resistance test between live and protective
conductors, the protective conductors are connected to the earthing arrangement – that is, to the
general mass of the Earth (Regulation 612.3.1 refers). 
The connection to Earth is typically achieved by the protective conductor being connected to the
main earthing terminal (MET) of the installation, to which the earthing and main protective
bonding conductors are also connected, with the MET connected to the earthing arrangement
(the distributor’s earthing facility (TN system) or the installation earth electrode (TT system), as
applicable). 
Having the protective conductors connected to Earth during the test has the advantage that the
test might detect any contact between a live conductor and any ‘unearthed’ metalwork (such as a
concealed part of the building fabric or an isolated section of pipework). If the unearthed
metalwork has some relatively low resistance contact with Earth (even hundreds of thousands of
ohms), the defect can be identified by the person using the insulation test instrument. Such a
dangerous defect might be caused by the penetration of a nail, screw or similar making contact
with a live conductor and the unearthed metalwork. If not corrected, the defect would create a
risk of electric shock. 
In many cases there will be a significant time interval between the initial placement of
conductors (sometimes referred to as ‘first fixing’) and the final handover of the installation. It is
possible for damage to have occurred during this time when, for example, cables were plastered
over and flooring and ceilings were installed. 
It is essential therefore that all the relevant inspection and tests are performed as part of the
initial verification of the electrical installation. In many cases, this will require inspections and
tests carried out earlier to be repeated. It may not be safe to rely on inspection and test results
obtained at an early stage of the installation process. 

74
6.2 Sustained low frequency tests
Sustained low frequency tests are done at power frequency (50Hz), and are the commonest of all
tests. These tests are performed on specimens of insulation materials for the determination of
dielectric strength and dielectric loss, for routine testing of supply mains, and for work tests on
high voltage transformers, porcelain insulators and other apparatus. Since the dielectric loss is
sensitive to electric stress, the tests are carried out at the highest ultimate stress possible. For
testing of porcelain insulators and in high tension cables, voltages as high as 2000kV may be
used. High voltage ac tests at 50 Hz are carried out as routine tests on low voltage (240 or 415V)
equipment. Each one of these devices is subjected to a high voltage of about 1kV + 2 × (working
voltage). A 240V piece of equipment may thus be subjected to about 1.5 to 2kV. These tests are
generally carried out after manufacture and before installation.

6.3 High voltage direct current tests

These tests are done on apparatus expected to operate under direct voltage conditions, and also
where, due to the inconvenience of the use of high capacity transformers required for extra high
tension alternating voltage tests and due to transport difficulties, alternating voltage tests cannot
be performed after installation.

A special feature of importance of the dc test is the testing of cables which are expected to
operate under ac conditions. If the tests are done under ac conditions, a high charging current
would be drawn and the transformer used would have to have a high current rating. It is thus
normal to subject the cable (soon after laying it, but before energising it) to carry out a high
voltage test under dc conditions. The test voltage would be about 2× (working voltage) and the
voltage is maintained from 15mins to 1.5hrs. This dc test is not a complete equivalent of the
corresponding ac conditions, it is the leakage resistance which would determine the voltage
distribution, while in ac conditions, it is the layers of different dielectrics that determine the
voltage distribution in the cable. Although the electric field differs in the 2 cases, it is likely that
the cable will stand up to the required ac voltage.

6.4 High frequency tests

High frequency tests at frequencies varying from several kHz are important where there is a
possibility of high frequency in the lines etc., and in insulators which are expected to carry high
frequency such as radio transmitting stations. Also in the case of porcelain insulators, breakdown
or flashover occurs in most cases as a result of high frequency disturbances in the line, these
being due to either switching operations or external causes. It is also found that high frequency
oscillations cause failure of insulation at a comparatively low voltage due to high dielectric loss
and heating. High voltage tests at high frequency are made at the manufacturing works so as to
obtain a design of insulator which will satisfactorily withstand all conditions of service.

In the case of power line suspension insulators, it is possible that breakdown or flash over would
occur due to high frequency over voltages produced by faults or switching operations in the line.
Sudden interruptions in the line would give rise to resonant effects in the line which would give
rise to high frequency voltage waves in the line. These might cause flashover of the insulators.

75
The behaviour of insulating materials at high frequencies is quite different from that at ordinary
power frequency. The dielectric loss per cycle is very nearly constant so that at high frequencies
the dielectric loss is much higher and the higher loss causes heating effects. The movements of
charge carriers would be different.

At high frequency, the polarity of electrodes might have changed before the charge carriers have
travelled from one electrode to the other, so that they may go about half-way and turn back
(figure 6.1).

Two kinds of high frequency tests are carried out. These are:
(a) Tests with apparatus which produces undamped high-frequency oscillations.
Undamped oscillations do not occur in power systems, but are useful for insulation testing
purposes especially for insulation to be in radio work.

(b) Tests with apparatus producing damped high-frequency oscillations.

When faults to earth or sudden switching of transmission lines occur, high frequency transients
occur whose frequencies depend on the capacitances and inductances of the lines, and will be
about 50kHz to 200kHz. These are damped out with time.

Figure 6.2: Movement of charge carriers

6.5 Surge or Impulse tests

These tests are carried out in order to investigate the influence of surges in transmission lines,
breakdown of insulators and of the end turns of transformer connections to lines. In impulse
testing, to represent surges generated due to lightning, the IEC (International Electrotechnical
Commission) Standard impulse wave of 1.2/50 μs wave is generally used. By the use of spark
gaps, conditions occurring on the flashover to line are simulated. The total duration of a single
lightning strike is about100 μs, although the total duration of the lightning stroke may be a few
seconds.

Overvoltages of much higher duration also arise due to line faults, switching operations, etc, for
which impulse waves such as 100/ 5000 μs duration may be used.

In surge tests, it is required to apply to the circuit or apparatus under test, a high direct voltage
whose value rises from zero to maximum in a very short time and dies away again comparatively
slowly.

While impulse and high frequency tests are carried out by manufacturers, in order to ensure that
their finished products will give satisfactory performance in service, the most general tests upon
insulating materials are carried out at power frequencies.

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(a) Flash-over tests
Porcelain insulators are designed so that spark over rather than puncture occurs at a lower
voltage, thus safeguarding the insulator in service against destruction in the case of line
disturbances. Flash-over tests are very importance in this case. The flash-over is due to a
breakdown of air at the insulator surface, and is independent of the material of the insulator. As
the flash-over under wet conditions and dry conditions differ, tests such as the one minute dry
flash-over test and the one minute wet flash-over test are performed.
(i) 50 percent dry impulse flash-over test, using an impulse generator delivering a positive
150 μs impulse wave. The voltage is increased to the 50 percent impulse flash-over voltage
(the voltage at which approximately half of the impulses applied cause flash-over of the
insulator).
(ii) Dry flashover and dry one-minute test
In this test, voltage (given in the BSS (British Standard Specifications)) is applied. The
voltage is raised to this value in approximately 10 seconds and shall be maintained for one
minute. The voltage shall then be increased gradually until flash- over occurs.

(iii) Wet flashover and one minute rain test

In this, the insulator is sprayed throughout the test with artificial rain drawn from source of
supply at a temperature within 10 degrees centigrade of the ambient temperature in the
neighborhood of the insulator. The resistivity of the water is to be between 9,000 and
11,000ohm cm .

In the case of the testing of insulating materials, it is not the voltage which produces spark-over
breakdown which is important, but rather the voltage for puncture of a given thickness (ie.
dielectric strength). The measurements made on insulating materials are usually, therefore, those
of dielectric strength and of dielectric loss and power factor, the latter been intimately connected
with the dielectric strength of the material.

6.6 Tests on insulators

The tests on insulators can be divided into three groups. These are the type tests, sample tests and
the routing tests.

(a) `Type tests

These tests are done to determine whether the particular design is suitable for the purpose.

(i) Withstand Test

1
The insulator should be mounted so as to simulate practical conditions. A wave of the
50 μs
specified voltage (corrected for humidity, air density etc.,) is applied. Flashover or puncture
should not occur. [If puncture occurs, the insulator is permanently damaged]. The test is repeated
five times for each polarity.

(ii) Flash-over test

77
 1
A wave is applied. The voltage is gradually increased to the 50% impulse flashover
50 μs
voltage. The test is done for both polarities. There should be no puncture of insulation during
these tests.

(iii) Dry One-minute test

The insulator, clean and dry, shall be mounted as specified and the prescribed voltage (corrected
for ambient conditions) should be gradually brought up (at power frequency) and maintained for
one minute. There shall not be puncture or flash-over during the test.

(iv)Dry flash-over test

The voltage shall then be increased gradually until flash-over occurs. This is repeated ten times.
There shall be no damage to the insulator.

(v) One-minute Rain test

The insulator is sprayed throughout the test with artificial rain drawn from a source of supply at a
temperature within 10oC of the ambient temperature of the neighbourhood of the insulator. The
rain is sprayed at an angle of 45 o on the insulator at the prescribed rate of 3 mm/minute. The
resistivity of the water should be 100ohm-m ± 10%. The prescribed voltage is maintained for
one minute.

(vi)Wet flash-over test

The voltage shall then be increased gradually until flash-over occurs. This is repeated ten times.
There shall be no damage to the insulator.

(vii) Visible discharge test

This states that after the room has been darkened and the specified test voltage applied, after five
minutes, there should be no visible signs of corona.

(b) Sample Tests

The sample is tested fully, up to and including the point of breakdown. This is done only on a
few samples of the insulator.

(i) Temperature cycle test

The complete test shall consist of five transfers (hot-cold-hot-....), each transfer not exceeding
30s.

(ii) Mechanical loading test

The insulator shall be mechanically loaded up to the point of failure. When failure occurs, the
load should not be less than 2000lbf.

(iii) Electro-mechanical test

The insulator is simultaneously subjected to electrical and mechanical stress. (i.e. it shall be
subjected to a power frequency voltage and a tensile force simultaneously. The voltage shall be
75% of dry flash-over voltage of the unit. There should be no damage caused.

78
(iv)Overvoltage test
The insulator shall be completely immersed in an insulating medium (oil), to prevent external
flashover occurring. The specified overvoltage must be reached without puncture. The voltage is
then gradually increased until puncture occurs.

(v) Porosity test

Freshly broken pieces of porcelain shall show no dye penetration after having been immersed for
24 hours in an alcoholic mixture of fushing at a pressure of 2000p.s.i.

(c) Routine Tests

These are to be applied to all insulators and shall be commenced at a low voltage and shall be
increased rapidly until flash-over occurs every few seconds. The voltage shall be maintained at
this value for a minimum of five minutes, or if failures occur, for five minutes after the last
punctured piece has been removed. At the conclusion of the test the voltage shall be reduced to
about one-third of the test voltage before switching off.

Mechanical Routine Test

A mechanical load of 20% in excess of the maximum working load of the insulator is applied
after suspending the insulator for one minute. There should be no mechanical failure of the
insulator.

6.7 Impulse tests on transformers

The following sequence of tests is generally adopted for transformers.
(a) Apply full wave impulse at 75% I.E.C. withstand value. Since the transformer should be able
to withstand the I.E.C.voltage, there should be no damage to the transformer. The values of R
and C in the impulse generator are adjusted after deriving to get the required waveform.
(b) Apply full wave at 100% I.E.C. withstand value and observe whether there is any
breakdown. The waveform observed should be identical to applied waveform (other than for
amplitude) : then the device has passed the test.
(c) Chopped wave test at 115% full-wave amplitude: For this kind of test, the impulse generator
would have to be fitted with a rod gap or controlled trigatron type gap. Since there is no
voltage across insulator after chopping takes place, from the waveform it is not possible to
say whether any damage has taken place.
(d) Therefore apply full wave test again and compare the wave and at 100% of I.E.C. voltage
and see whether there is any distortion in the waveform indicating damage.(same as test b)

Table 6.1: System voltages and corresponding Impulse test voltages

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 Figure 6.3: Test waveforms

Since the chopped wave test exerts considerable stress on the winding, there is some controversy
on the requirement of this test. Thus the chopped wave requirement is not universal. In the
American industry, the chopped wave is conducted at 150% full wave and such that the chopping
is done at less than the peak value. In this case the stress might in fact be very much more than in
the British method. Table 6.1 shows system voltages and corresponding impulse test voltages,
figure 6.3 shows various test waveforms while figure 6.5 shows a chopped waveform at 150%
voltage.

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Figure 6.5: Chopped waveform at 150% voltage

81
 Chapter 7
APPLICATION OF HIGH VOLTAGE IN BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Biomedical Engineering plays a crucial role in understanding the fundamental principles of
human life sciences, especially those related to health care and clinical medicine. The focus is on
the application of the principles of electrical engineering particularly high voltage engineering to
both biology and medicine in clinical and research settings. Biomedical engineering can be
defined as the application of engineering principles and techniques to the medical field. It
combines the design and problem solving skills of engineering with the medical and biological
science to help improve patient health care and the quality of life of healthy individuals.
Biomedical engineering is widely considered an interdisciplinary field, resulting from a broad
spectrum of disciplines that draw influence from various fields and sources.

Accidental contact of a person with high voltage will usually result in severe injury or death.
This can occur as a person's body provides a path for current flow causing tissue damage and
heart failure. Other injuries can include burns from the arc generated by the accidental contact.
These can be especially dangerous if the victim’s airways are affected. Injuries may also be
suffered as a result of the physical forces exerted as people may fall from height or be thrown
considerable distance. Conversely, various equipment have been designed using high voltage as
input but offering medical diagnosis and treatment to humans. These do not present danger to
patients. High voltage finds application in Fluoroscopy, Electron Microscope, Ultrasound and
Artificial Pacemaker.

7.2 FLUOROSCOPY
Imaging technologies are often essential to medical diagnosis and are typically the most complex
equipment found in a hospital. Medical imaging refers to the techniques and processes used to
create images of the human body (or parts thereof) for clinical purposes (medical
procedures seeking to reveal, diagnose or examine disease) or medical science (including the
study of normal anatomy and function). Fluoroscopy is an imaging technique commonly used
by physicians to obtain real-time images of the internal structures of a patient through the use of
a fluoroscope. In its simplest form, a fluoroscope consists of an x-ray source and fluorescent
screen between which a patient is placed. The fluorescent screen receives its power from the
normal 240V socket outlet. However, modern fluoroscopes couple the screen to an x-ray image
intensifier and CCD video camera allowing the images to be played and recorded on a monitor.
The use of x-rays, a form of ionizing radiation, requires that the potential risks from a procedure
be carefully balanced with the benefits of the procedure to the patient. The x-ray source should
not be more than 420 kV, x-ray photons are produced by an electron beam striking a target.
While physicians always try to use low dose rates during fluoroscopy procedures, the length of a
typical procedure often results in a relatively high absorbed dose to the patient. Recent advances
include the digitization of the images captured and flat-panel detector systems which reduce the
radiation.

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 Fig. 1 A Modern Fluoroscope

Because fluoroscopy involves the use of x-rays, a form of ionizing radiation, all fluoroscopic
procedures pose a potential health risk to the patient. Radiation doses to the patient depend
greatly on the size of the patient as well as length of the procedure, with typical skin dose rates
quoted as 20-50 mGy/min. Exposure times vary depending on the procedure being performed,
but procedure times up to 75 minutes have been documented. Because of the long length of some
procedures, in addition to standard cancer-inducing stochastic radiation effects, deterministic
radiation effects have also been observed ranging from mild erythema, equivalent of a sun burn,
to more serious burns.  Where adequate electrical protection is not ensured, the event of short
circuit or over voltage from the fluorescent or x-ray source can increase the intensity of the
radiation and can even increase the risk of shock. A study has been performed by the Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) entitled Radiation-induced Skin Injuries from Fluoroscopy with an
additional publication to minimize further fluoroscopy-induced injuries, Public Health Advisory
on Avoidance of  Serious X-Ray-Induced skin Injuries to Patients During Fluoroscopically-
Guided Procedures. While deterministic radiation effects are a possibility, radiation burns are
not typical of standard fluoroscopic procedures. Most procedures sufficiently long in length to
produce radiation burns are part of necessary life-saving operations.

7.2 ELECTRON MICROSCOPE:

An electron microscope is a type of microscope that uses electrons to illuminate a specimen and
create an enlarged image. Electron microscopes have much greater resolving power than light
microscopes and can obtain much higher magnifications. Some electron microscopes can
magnify specimens up to 2 million times, while the best light microscopes are limited to
magnifications of 2000 times. Both electron and light microscopes create images
with electromagnetic radiation, with their resolving power and magnification limited by the
wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation being used to obtain the image. The greater
resolution and magnification of the electron microscope is due to the wavelength of
an electron being much smaller than that of a light photon. The electron microscope

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uses electrostatic and electromagnetic lenses in forming the image by controlling the electron
beam to focus it at a specific plane relative to the specimen in a manner similar to how a light
microscope uses glass lenses to focus light on or through a specimen to form an image. The
following are the types of electron microscopes:

(a) Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

The original form of electron microscopy, Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) involves a
high voltage electron beam emitted by a cathode, usually a tungsten filament and focused by
electrostatic and electromagnetic lenses. The electron beam that has been transmitted through a
specimen that is in part transparent to electrons carries information about the inner structure of
the specimen in the electron beam that reaches the imaging system of the microscope. The spatial
variation in this information (the "image") is then magnified by a series of electromagnetic lenses
until it is recorded by hitting a fluorescent screen, photographic plate, or light sensitive sensor
such as a CCD (charge-coupled device) camera. The image detected by the CCD may be
displayed in real time on a monitor or computer.

(b) Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

Unlike the TEM, where electrons of the high voltage beam form the image of the specimen,
the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) produces images by detecting low energy secondary
electrons which are emitted from the surface of the specimen due to excitation by the primary
electron beam. In the SEM, the electron beam is rastered across the sample, with detectors
building up an image by mapping the detected signals with beam position.
Generally, the TEM resolution is about an order of magnitude greater than the SEM resolution,
however, because the SEM image relies on surface processes rather than transmission it is able to
image bulk samples and has a much greater depth of view, and so can produce images that are a
good representation of the 3D structure of the sample.

(c) Reflection Electron Microscope (REM)

Like TEM, this technique involves electron beams incident on a surface, but instead of using the
transmission (TEM) or secondary electrons (SEM), the reflected beam is detected. This
technique is typically coupled with Reflection High Energy Electron Diffraction and Reflection
high-energy loss spectrum (RHELS). Another variation is Spin-Polarized Low-Energy Electron
Microscopy (SPLEEM), which is used for looking at the microstructure of magnetic domains.

7.3 ULTRASOUND
This is another imaging technique. It is a cyclic sound pressure with a frequency greater than the
upper limit of human hearing. Although this limit varies from person to person, it is
approximately 20 kilohertz (20,000 hertz) in healthy, young adults and thus, 20 kHz serves as a
useful lower limit in describing ultrasound. Ultrasound is manually produced in many different
fields, typically to penetrate a medium and measure the reflection signature or supply focused
energy. The reflection signature can reveal details about the inner structure of the medium. The
most well known application of this technique is its use in sonography to produce pictures of
fetuses in the human womb. There are a vast number of other applications as well.

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 Fig. 2 Ultrasound Machine

7.4 ARTIFICIAL PACEMAKER

An artificial pacemaker is a medical device which uses electrical impulses, delivered
by electrodes contacting the heart muscles, to regulate the beating of the heart. The primary
purpose of a pacemaker is to maintain an adequate heart rate, either because the heart's native
pacemaker is not fast enough, or there is a block in the heart's electrical conduction system.
Modern pacemakers are externally programmable and allow the cardiologist to select the
optimum pacing modes for individual patients. Some combine a pacemaker and
implantable defibrillator in a single implantable device. Others have multiple electrodes
stimulating differing positions within the heart to improve synchronization of the lower
chambers of the heart.

Fig. 3  A pacemaker, scale in centimeters

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Modern pacemakers usually have multiple functions. The most basic form monitors the heart's
native electrical rhythm. When the pacemaker doesn't sense a heartbeat within a normal beat-to-
beat time period, it will stimulate the ventricle of the heart with a short low voltage pulse. This
sensing and stimulating activity continues on a beat by beat basis. The more complex forms
include the ability to sense and/or stimulate both the atrial and ventricular chambers. The act of
putting a pacemaker in use can be termed pacing. Two methods of pacing include; temporary or
transvenous pacing and permanent pacing.

(a) Transvenous pacing (temporary):

In this method, a pacemaker wire is placed into a vein, under sterile conditions, and then passed
into either the right atrium or right ventricle. The pacing wire is then connected to an external
pacemaker outside the body. Transvenous pacing is often used as a bridge to permanent
pacemaker placement. It can be kept in place until a permanent pacemaker is implanted or until
there is no longer a need for a pacemaker and then it is removed.

(b) Permanent pacing

Permanent pacing with an implantable pacemaker involves transvenous placement of one or
more pacing electrodes within a chamber, or chambers, of the heart. The procedure is performed
by incision of a suitable vein into which the electrode lead is inserted and passed along the vein,
through the valve of the heart, until positioned in the chamber. The procedure is facilitated
by fluoroscopy which enables the physician or cardiologist to view the passage of the electrode
lead.

7.4.1 Power source for the pace maker

After satisfactory lodgment of the electrode is confirmed the opposite end of the electrode lead is
connected to the pacemaker generator. The pacemaker generator is an hermetically sealed device
containing a power source, usually a lithium battery, a sensing amplifier which processes the
electrical manifestation of naturally occurring heart beats as sensed by the heart electrodes,
the computer logic for the pacemaker and the output circuitry which delivers the pacing impulse
to the electrodes. Most commonly, the generator is placed below the subcutaneous fat of the
chest wall, above the muscles and bones of the chest. However, the placement may vary on a
case by case basis. The outer casing of pacemakers is so designed that it will rarely be rejected
by the body's immune system. It is usually made of titanium, which is inert in the body. The
body of the device is about 4 centimeters long, the electrode measures between 50 and 60
centimeters.

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