Indian Institute of Technology ,

Bombay
Summer of Science 2022
May - July 2022

Group Theory

Author : Tambade Atharv Rhushikesh

Department : Engineering Physics
Mentor : Prerna Dhanakar
 1

Acknowledgment
I have taken efforts in this project. However, it would not have been possible
without the kind support and help of my mentor Prerna Dhankhar and Maths
and Physics Club . I would like to extend my sincere thanks to them.

I am very grateful to Maths and Physics club for giving me this opportunity.
Also I like to thank to my mentor, her guidance and constant supervision was
very helpful for me throughout the journey.
Contents

1 Preliminaries 4
1.1 Theorem : Division Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Theorem : GCD Is a Linear Combination . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Euclid’s Lemma : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Theorem : Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Theorem : First Principle of Mathematical Induction . . . . . . . 5
1.6 Theorem : Second Principle of Mathematical Induction . . . . . 5
1.7 Theorem : Equivalence Classes Partition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.8 Properties of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 groups 6
2.1 Theorem : Uniqueness of the Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Theorem : Cancellation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Theorem : Uniqueness of Inverses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.4 Theorem : Socks-shoes property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3 Finite Groups;Subgroups 8
3.1 Theorem : One-step Subgroup Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.2 Theorem : Two-step Subgroup Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3 Theorem : Finite Subgroup Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.4 Theorem : ⟨a⟩ is a Subgroup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.5 Theorem : Center is a Subgroup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.6 Theorem : C(a) is a Subgroup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

4 Cyclic Groups 11
4.1 Theorem : criterion for ai = aj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.1.1 Corollary : |a| = |⟨a⟩| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.1.2 Corollary : ak = e Implies That |a| divides k . . . . . . . 11
4.2 Theorem : ⟨ak ⟩ = ⟨agcd(n,k) ⟩ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.2.1 Corollary : In a finite cyclic group, the order of an element
divides the order of the group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.2.2 Corollary : Let |a| = n. Then ⟨ai ⟩ = ⟨aj ⟩ if and only if
gcd(n, i) = gcd(n, j) and same condition for order. . . . . 12

2
CONTENTS 3

4.2.3 Corollary : Let |a| = n. Then ⟨a⟩ = ⟨ai ⟩ if and only if

gcd(n, i) = 1 and same condition for order. . . . . . . . . 12
4.2.4 Corollary : An integer k in Zn is a generator of Zn if and
only if gcd(n, i) = 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.3 Theorem : Fundamental Theorem of Cyclic Groups . . . . . . . . 12
4.3.1 Corollary : For each positive divisor k of n, the set ⟨n/k⟩
is the unique subgroup of Zn of order k; moreover, these
are the only subgroups of Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.4 Theorem : Number of Elements of Each Order in a Cyclic Group. 13
4.4.1 Corollary : In a finite group, the number of elements of
order d is divisible by ϕ(d). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

5 Permutation Groups 14
5.1 Theorem : Product of Disjoint Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.2 Disjoint Cycles Commute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.3 Theorem : Order of a Permutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.4 Theorem : Product of 2-Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.4.1 lemma :If ϵ = β1 β2 ...βr , where the β’s are 2 cycles, then
r is even . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.5 Theorem : Always Even or Always Odd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.6 Theorem : Even Permutations Form a Group . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.7 Theorem : Order of Alternating Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

6 Isomorphisms 18
6.1 Theorem : Cayley’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

7 Cosets and Lagrange’s Theorem 21

7.1 Theorem : Lagrange’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
7.1.1 Corollary : |G : H| = |G|/|H|(|G : H| is number of dis-
tinct cosets) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
7.1.2 Corollary : |a| Divides |G| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
7.1.3 Corollary : Groups of Prime Order Are Cyclic . . . . . . 22
7.1.4 Corollary : a|G| = e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
7.1.5 Fermat’s Little Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

8 External Direct products 23

8.1 Theorem : Order of an Element
L in a Direct Product . . . . . . . 23
8.2 Theorem : Criterion for G H to L be Cyclic
L .L . . . . . . . . . . . 24
8.2.1 corollary : Criterion for G1 G2 ... LGn toL Be Cyclic
L 24
8.2.2 Corollary :Criterion for Zn1 n2 ...nk ≈ Zn1 Zn2 ... Znk 24
8.3 Theorem : U (n) as an External Direct Product . . . . . . . . . . 24
8.3.1 Corollary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
*
Chapter 1

Preliminaries

In this chapter I will discus some prerequisite Theorems or rules to start learning
Group Theory.

1.1 Theorem : Division Algorithm

Let a and b be integers with b > 0. Then there exists unique integers p and r
with the property that a = bq + r, where 0 <= r < b.

1.2 Theorem : GCD Is a Linear Combination

For any nonzero integers a and b, there exist integers s and t such that gcd(a,
b) = as + bt. Moreover, gcd(a, b) is the smallest positive integer of the form
as + bt

1.3 Euclid’s Lemma :

If p is a prime that divides ab, then p divides a or p divides b

1.4 Theorem : Fundamental Theorem of Arith-

metic
Every integer greater than 1 is a prime or a product of primes. This product is
unique, except for the order in which the factors appear.That is, if n = p1 p2 ....pr
and n = q1 q2 ....qr where the p’s and q’s are primes, then r = s and, after
renumbering the p’s, we have pi = qi for all i.

4
CHAPTER 1. PRELIMINARIES 5

1.5 Theorem : First Principle of Mathematical

Induction
Let S be a set of integers containing a. Suppose S has the property that
whenever some integer n >= a belongs to S , then the integer n + 1 also belongs
to S. Then, S contains every integer greater than or equal to a.

1.6 Theorem : Second Principle of Mathemati-

cal Induction
Let S be a set of integers containing a. Suppose S has the property that n
belongs to S whenever every integer less than n and greater than or equal to a
belongs to S. Then, S contains every integer greater than or equal to a.

1.7 Theorem : Equivalence Classes Partition

The equivalence classes of an equivalence relation on a set S constitute a parti-
tion of S. Conversely, for any partition P of S, there is an equivalence relation
on S whose equivalence classes are the elements of P

1.8 Properties of Functions

Given functions a : A → B, b : B → C and g : C → D then

1. γ(βα) = (γβ)α (associativity).

2. If α and β are one-to-one, then βα is one-to-one.
3. If α and β are onto, then iβα onto.
4. If α is one-to-one and onto, then there is a function α−1 from β onto A
such that (α−1 α)(a) = a for all a in A and (αα−1 )(b) = b for all b in B
Chapter 2

groups

definition : Binary Operation

Let G be a set. binary operation on G is a function that assigns each
ordered pair of elements of G an element of G.
It is simply a method by which the members of an ordered pair from G combine
to yield a new member of G. This condition is called ’closure’. The most
familiar binary operations are ordinary addition, subtraction, and multiplication
of integers. Division of integers is not a binary operation.

definition : Groups
Let G be a set together with a binary operation (usually called mul-
tiplication) that assigns to each ordered pair (a, b) of elements of G an
element in G denoted by ab. We say G is a group under this operation
if the following three properties are satisfied.
1. Associativity - The operation is associative; that is, (ab)c = a(bc)
for all a, b, c in G.
2. Identity - There is an element e (called the identity) in G such
that ae = ea = a for all a in G.
3. Inverses- For each element a in G, there is an element b in G
(called an inverse of a) such that ab = ba = e

Along with all these conditions group is called Abelian if it has property
ab = ba for every pair, but being Abelian or Non-Abelian doesn’t affect integrity
of group.

6
CHAPTER 2. GROUPS 7

2.1 Theorem : Uniqueness of the Identity

In a group G, there is only one identity element.
Proof:
Let e and e′ be identity elements of group G.
1. ae = a for all a in G, and
2. e′ a = a for all a in G.
Now replace a by e′ in 1st and a by e in 2nd . It will give us e′ = e
Therefore, identity is unique.

2.2 Theorem : Cancellation

In a group G, right and left cancellation laws hold.
Proof:
Suppose ba = ca. Let a′ be the inverse ofa.now multiply on the right by a′ it
gives us (ba)a′ = (ca)a′ . Using associativity b(aa′ ) = c(aa′ ). We know that
aa′ = e and using the property of identity we can convert our equation to b = c.
similarly we can do this from left hand side also.

2.3 Theorem : Uniqueness of Inverses

For each element a in a group G, there is a unique element b in G
such that ab = ba = e.
Proof:
Suppose b and c are both inverses of a. Then ab = e and ac = e, so that ab = ac.
Canceling the a on both sides gives b = c.

2.4 Theorem : Socks-shoes property

For group elements a and b, (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1 .
Proof:

(ab)(ab)−1 = e (2.1)
Multiply (1) by a−1 from left.

b(ab)−1 = a−1 (2.2)

Multiply (2) by b−1 from left.

(ab)−1 = b−1 a−1 (2.3)

Chapter 3

Finite Groups;Subgroups

definition : Order of a Group

The number of elements of a group (finite or infinite) is called its
order. We will use |G| to denote the order of G.

definition : Order of an Element

The order of an element g in a group G is the smallest positive integer
n such that g n = e. (In additive notation, this would be ng = 0.) If no
such integer exists, we say that g has infinite order. The order of an
element g is denoted by |g|.

definition : Subgroup
If a subset H of a group G is itself a group under the operation of G,
we say that H is a subgroup of G.

3.1 Theorem : One-step Subgroup Test.

Let G be a group and H a nonempty subset of G. If ab−1 is in H
whenever a and b are in H, then H is a subgroup of G. (In additive
notation, if a − b is in H whenever a and b are in H, then H is a
subgroup of G.
Proof :
To prove that H is subgroup of G. we have to show that is follows properties
like associativity,inverse,identity and closure.Since operation on H is same as g
therefore associativity comes naturally. Consider element x which is in H. Let
x = a = b.Then xx−1 = e therefore, it contains identity. If we take a = e and

8
CHAPTER 3. FINITE GROUPS;SUBGROUPS 9

b = x then inverse also exists in H. let a = x and b = y −1 then xy is also in H.

This closes the group.

3.2 Theorem : Two-step Subgroup Test

Let G be a group and let H be a nonempty subset of G. If ab is in H
whenever a and b are in H (H is closed under the operation), and a−1
is in H whenever a is in H (H is closed under taking inverses), then
H is a subgroup of G
Proof :
Suppose a, b ∈ H.Since H is closed under taking inverses, we also have b−1 ∈ H.
Thus, ab−1 ∈ H by closure under multiplication. By using one step subgroup
test we can prove this theorem.

3.3 Theorem : Finite Subgroup Test

Let H be a nonempty finite subset of a group G. If H is closed under
the operation of G, then H is a subgroup of G.
Proof :
In the view of Two step test we have to just prove that inverse of element belongs
to H. The case where element is identity is trivial. Let a ∈ H and a ̸= e. By
closure a, a2 ... belongs to H. But H is finite set then for some i, j. ai = aj
where (i > j).Then ai−j = e.Since a ̸= e,i − j > 1. Thus, aai−j−1 = a therefore
ai−j−1 = a−1 . This implies that a−1 ∈ H.

3.4 Theorem : ⟨a⟩ is a Subgroup

Let G be a group, and let a be any element of G. Then, ⟨a⟩ is a
subgroup of G.(⟨a⟩ denote the set an |n ∈ Z)
Proof :
Let an , am ∈ ⟨a⟩.Then an (am )−1 = an−m ∈ ⟨a⟩ hence, by one-step test ⟨a⟩ is
subgroup of G.

Definition : Centre of a Group

The center, Z(G), of a group G is the subset of elements in G that
commute with every element of G. In symbols
Z(G) = {a ∈ G|ax = xa for all x in G}

3.5 Theorem : Center is a Subgroup

The center of a group G is a subgroup of G.
Proof :
CHAPTER 3. FINITE GROUPS;SUBGROUPS 10

We will try to prove it by two-step test.Clearly e ∈ Z(G). Let a, b ∈ Z(G) then

[(ab)x = a(bx) = a(xb) = (ax)b = (xa)b = x(ab)].Next we assume thata ∈ Z(G)
ax = xa
a−1 (ax)a−1 = a−1 (xa)a−1
(a−1 a)(xa−1 ) = (a−1 x)(aa−1 )
xa−1 = a−1 x
This shows a−1 ∈ Z(G) whenever a ∈ Z(G).

Definition : Centralizer of a in G
Let a be a fixed element of a group G. The centralizer of a in G, C(a),
is the set of all elements in G that commute with a. In symbols
C(a) = {g ∈ G|ga = ag}.

3.6 Theorem : C(a) is a Subgroup

For each a in a group G, the centralizer of a is a subgroup of G
We can prove it by similar method as we used in proving centre is Subgroup.
Chapter 4

Cyclic Groups

definition : Cyclic Group

A group G is called cyclic if there is an element a in G such that
G = {an |n ∈ Z}. Such an element a is called a generator of G.

4.1 Theorem : criterion for ai = aj

Let G be a group, and let a belong to G. If a has infinite order,
then ai = aj if and only ifi = j . If a has finite order, say, n, then
⟨a⟩ = {e, a, a2 , ..., an–1 } and ai = aj if and only if n divides i–j
Proof :
WLG let i ≥ j then ai−j = e in case of infinite order it is only true when i = j
and in case of finite order n it is only possible when ndivides(i − j).

4.1.1 Corollary : |a| = |⟨a⟩|

4.1.2 Corollary : ak = e Implies That |a| divides k

4.2 Theorem : ⟨ak ⟩ = ⟨agcd(n,k) ⟩

Let a be an element of order n in a group and let k be a positive
integer. Then ⟨ak ⟩ = ⟨agcd(n,k) ⟩ and |ak | = n/gcd(n, k).
Proof :
Let d be the gcd of n and k. Then k = dr. Since ak = ad(r) then by closure
⟨ak ⟩ ⊆ ⟨ad ⟩. By gcd theorem we know that there are s and t such that d =
ns + kt. Then ad = ans+kt = ans akt = akt by closure⟨ad ⟩ ⊆ ⟨ak ⟩. Therefore
⟨ak ⟩ = ⟨agcd(n,k) ⟩
Let’s consider the case when d divides n then |ad | = n/d because ad(n/d) = an =
e. Apply this fact to ak . |ak | = ⟨ak ⟩ = ⟨agcd(n,k) ⟩ = |agcd(n,k) | = n/gcd(n, k).

11
CHAPTER 4. CYCLIC GROUPS 12

4.2.1 Corollary : In a finite cyclic group, the order of an

element divides the order of the group
4.2.2 Corollary : Let |a| = n. Then ⟨ai ⟩ = ⟨aj ⟩ if and only
if gcd(n, i) = gcd(n, j) and same condition for order.
4.2.3 Corollary : Let |a| = n. Then ⟨a⟩ = ⟨ai ⟩ if and only if
gcd(n, i) = 1 and same condition for order.
4.2.4 Corollary : An integer k in Zn is a generator of Zn
if and only if gcd(n, i) = 1.

4.3 Theorem : Fundamental Theorem of Cyclic

Groups
Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic. Moreover, if |⟨a⟩| = n,then
the order of any subgroup of ⟨a⟩ is a divisor of n; and, for each pos-
itive divisor k of n, the group ⟨a⟩ has exactly one subgroup of order
k|namely, ⟨an/k ⟩
Proof :
Let G = ⟨a⟩ and suppose that H is a subgroup of G. We must show that H is
cyclic. If it consists of the identity alone, then clearly H is cyclic. So we may
assume that H ̸= {e}. We now claim that H contains an element of the form
at , where t is positive. Since G = ⟨a⟩, every element of H has the form at ;
and when at belongs to H with t < 0, then a−t belongs to H also and −t is
positive. Thus, our claim is verified. Now let m be the least positive integer
such that am ∈ H. By closure, ⟨am ⟩ ⊆ H. We next claim that H = ⟨am ⟩. To
prove this claim, it suffices to let b be an arbitrary member of H and show that
b is in ⟨am ⟩. Since b ∈ G = ⟨a⟩, we have b = ak for some k. Now, apply the
division algorithm to k and m to obtain integers q and r such that k = mq + r
where 0 ≤ r < m. Then ak = amq+r = amq ar , so that ar = a−mq ak . Since
ak = b ∈ H and a−mq = (am )−q is in H also, ar ∈ H. But, m is the least
positive integer such that am ∈ H, and 0 ≤ r < m, so r must be 0. Therefore,
b = ak = amq = (am )q ∈ ⟨am ⟩. This proves the assertion of the theorem that
every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.
To prove the next portion of the theorem, suppose that |⟨a⟩| = n and H is
any subgroup of ⟨a⟩. We have already shown that H = ⟨am ⟩, where mis the
least positive integer such that am ∈ H. Using e = b = an as in the preceding
paragraph, we have n = mq.
Finally, let k be any positive divisor of n. We will show that ⟨an/K ⟩ is the one
and only subgroup of ⟨a⟩ of order k. From Theorem 4.2, we see that ⟨an/k ⟩
has order n/gcd(n, n/k) = n/(n/k) = k. Now let H be any subgroup of ⟨a⟩ of
orderk. We have already shown above that H = ⟨am ⟩, where m is a divisor of
n. Then m = gcd(n, m) and k = |am | = |agcd(n,m) | = n/gcd(n, m) = n/m.
Thus, m = n/k and H = ⟨an/k ⟩
CHAPTER 4. CYCLIC GROUPS 13

4.3.1 Corollary : For each positive divisor k of n, the set

⟨n/k⟩ is the unique subgroup of Zn of order k; more-
over, these are the only subgroups of Zn .

Definition : Euler Phi Function

ϕ(1) = 1 and for every n > 1 ϕ(n) is denote the number of positive
integers less than n and relatively prime to n.

4.4 Theorem : Number of Elements of Each Or-

der in a Cyclic Group.
If d is a positive divisor of n, the number of elements of order d in a
cyclic group of order n is ϕ(d) Proof : By Fundamental Theorem, the group
has exactly one subgroup of order d—call it ⟨a. Then every element of order d
also generates the subgroup ⟨a and, we know that, an element ak generates ⟨a
if and only if gcd(k, d) = 1. The number of such elements is precisely ϕ(d).

4.4.1 Corollary : In a finite group, the number of elements

of order d is divisible by ϕ(d).
Chapter 5

Permutation Groups

Definition : Permutation and permutation group

of A
A permutation of a set A is a function from A to A that is both
one-to-one and onto. A permutation group of a set A is a set of
permutations of A that forms a group under function composition.

Notation:
 
1 2 3 4
α = This is the way we can write permutations here α(j) is
2 3 1 4
directly placed below j for every j. We can also write this in cyclic notation
where we write α = (123)(4). It means that 1 goes to 2 then 2 goes to 3 and
3 goes to 1. In case of 4 it points to itself.We can also ignore 4 in it because it
points to itself we can ignore this while writing then α = (123).

5.1 Theorem : Product of Disjoint Cycles

Every permutation of a finite set can be written as a cycle or as a
product of disjoint cycles.
Proof :
Let α be permutation of some set A = {1, 2, .., n}. Now we can take any element
ofA say a1 and apply α on it we get a2 this process can go on till we reach some
m for which αm (a1 ) = a1 . We know that such finite m exists because our set
on which we are working has finite no of n elements. This is one cycle but m
can be less that n then we will have more that 1 cycle for getting select any
element which was not in previous cycle and apply same process. New cycle
won’t have any common element with previous cycle. Therefore, we can write
any permutation of a finite set in product of disjoint cycles.

14
CHAPTER 5. PERMUTATION GROUPS 15

5.2 Disjoint Cycles Commute

If the pair of cycles a = (a1 , a2 , ..., am ) and β = (b1 , b2 , ..., bn ) have no
entries in common, then αβ = βα
Proof : Let us say α and β be permutations of set S = {a1 , a2 , .., am , b1 , b2 , .., bn , c1 , c2 , .., cl }.To
prove αβ = βα we have to show that αβ(x) = βα(x) where x is any element of
S.
Let’s consider first case where element is of the form ai then,

(αβ)(ai ) = α(β(ai )) = α(ai ) = ai+1

here β fixes all ai elements

(βα)(ai ) = β(α(ai )) = β(ai+1 ) = ai+1

Similarly we can do this in case of bi and in case of ci both α and β fix it

therefore no change takes place in it with change in sequence of α and β

5.3 Theorem : Order of a Permutation

The order of a permutation of a finite set written in disjoint cycle
form is the least common multiple of the lengths of the cycles.
Proof :
First of all cycle of length n has order n. suppose that α and β are disjoint
cycles of lengths m and n, and let k be the least common multiple of m and
n. Then both αk and β k are identity permutation ϵ. Let order of αβ be t then
(αβ)t = ϵ we know that α and β commute then αt β t = ϵ form this we get that
αt = β −t and we know that α and β don’t have any common element therefore
both must be equal to ϵ then m and n must divide t therefore least common
multiple also divide t therefore t = k.

5.4 Theorem : Product of 2-Cycles

Every permutation in Sn ,n > 1, is a product of 2-cycles
Proof:
By theorem 5.1 we know that every permutation can be written in the form

(a1 , a2 , .., al )(b1 , b2 , .., bm )...(c1 , c2 , .., cn )

a direct computation shows that it is of the form

(a1 , al )(a1 , al−1 )..(a1 , a2 )(b1 , bm )(b1 , bm−1 )..(b1 , b2 )...(c1 , cn )(c1 , cn−1 )..(c1 , c2 )

Hence proved.
CHAPTER 5. PERMUTATION GROUPS 16

5.4.1 lemma :If ϵ = β1 β2 ...βr , where the β’s are 2 cycles,

then r is even

5.5 Theorem : Always Even or Always Odd

If a permutation α can be expressed as a product of an even (odd)
number of 2-cycles, then every decomposition of α into a product of
2-cycles must have an even (odd) number of 2-cycles. In symbols, if

α = β1 β2 ...βr and α = γ1 γ2 ...γs

where the β’s and the γ’s are 2-cycles, then r and s are both even or
both odd
Proof:
β1 β2 ...βr = γ1 γ2 ...γs this implies

ϵ = γ1 γ2 ...γs βr −1 ...β2 −1 β1 −1 = γ1 γ2 ...γs βr ...β2 β1

since a 2-cycle is its own inverse. Thus, the lemma 5.4.1 guarantees that s + r
is even. It follows that r and s are both even or both odd

Definition : Even and Odd Permutations

A permutation that can be expressed as a product of an even number
of 2-cycles is called an even permutation. A permutation that can be
expressed as a product of an odd number of 2-cycles is called an odd
permutation.

5.6 Theorem : Even Permutations Form a Group

The set of even permutations in Sn forms a subgroup of Sn .
Proof:
Let H be set of even permutations. Let it have 2 members α and β then αβ −1
will also be there because it also has even permutations therefore by one-step
test H is a subgroup of Sn .

Definition : Alternating Group of Degree n

The group of even permutations of n symbols is denoted by An and
is called the alternating group of degree n.
CHAPTER 5. PERMUTATION GROUPS 17

5.7 Theorem : Order of Alternating Group

For n > 1, An has order n!/2.
Proof :
For each odd permutation α, the permutation (12)α is even and (12)α ̸= (12)β
when α ̸= β.We cam use similar argument for even thus there are as many even
permutations as there are odd ones. |An | = |Sn |/2. Therefore |An | = n!/2.
Chapter 6

Isomorphisms

Definition : Group Isomorphism

An isomorphism ϕ from a group G to a group Gis a one-to-one map-
ping (or function) from G onto G that preserves the group operation.
That is,
ϕ(ab) = ϕ(a)ϕ(b)f orall1, binG
If there is an isomorphism from G onto G , we say that G and G are
isomorphic and write G ≈ G It is implicit in the definition of isomorphism
that isomorphic groups have the same order. It is also implicit in the definition
of isomorphism that the operation on the left side of the equal sign is that of
G, whereas the operation on the right side is that of G.
There are four separate steps involved in proving that a group G is isomorphic
to a group G.
Step 1 Define a candidate for the isomorphism; that is, define a function ϕ
from G to G.
Step 2 Prove that ϕ is one-to-one; that is, assume that ϕ(a) = ϕ(b) and prove
that a = b.
Step 3Prove that ϕ is onto; that is, for any element g in G ,find an element g
in G such that ϕ(g) = g.
Step 4 Prove that ϕ is operation-preserving; that is, show that ϕ(ab) = ϕ(a)ϕ(b)
for all a and b in G.

6.1 Theorem : Cayley’s Theorem

Every group is isomorphic to a group of permutations.
Proof
To prove this, let G be any group. We must find a group of permutations that
we believe is isomorphic to G. Since G is all we have to work with, we will have
to use it to construct G . For any g in G, define a function Tg from G to G by

18
CHAPTER 6. ISOMORPHISMS 19

Tg (x) = gx for all x in G.

Now let G = {Tg |g ∈ G}. We can test all the steps for isomorphisms.

Properties of Isomorphisms Acting on Elements

Suppose that ϕ is an isomorphism from a group G onto a group G.Then
1. ϕ carries the identity of G to the identity of G.
2. For every integer n and for every group element a in G, ϕ(an ) =
[ϕ(a)]n .
3. For any elements a and b in G, a and b commute if and only if
ϕ(a) and ϕ(b) commute.
4. G = ⟨a⟩ if and only if G = ⟨ϕ(a)⟩.
5. |a| = |ϕ(a)| for all a in G (isomorphisms preserve orders).
6. For a fixed integer k and a fixed group element b in G, the equa-
tion xk = b has the same number of solutions in G as does the
equation xk = ϕ(b) in G.
7. If G is finite, then G and G have exactly the same number of
elements of every order.

Properties of Isomorphisms Acting on Groups

Suppose that ϕ is an isomorphism from a group G onto a group G.
Then
1. ϕ−1 is an isomorphism from G onto G.
2. G is Abelian if and only if G is Abelian.
3. G is cyclic if and only if G is cyclic.
4. If K is a subgroup of G, then ϕ(K) = {ϕ(k)|k ∈ K} is a subgroup
of G.

Definitions Related to Automorphism

⋆ Definition : Automorphism
An isomorphism from a group G onto itself is called an automorphism of G.
⋆ Definition : Inner Automorphism Induced by a
Let G be a group, and let a ∈ G. The function ϕa defined by ϕa (x) = axa−1
for all x in G is called the inner automorphism of G induced by a. ⋆ Notation
: Aut(G)
CHAPTER 6. ISOMORPHISMS 20

Aut(G) denote the set of all automorphisms of G.

⋆ Notation : Inn(G)
Inn(G) denote the set of all inner automorphisms of G.
Chapter 7

Cosets and Lagrange’s

Theorem

Definition : Coset of subgroup

Let G be a group and let H be a subset of G. For any a ∈ G, the
set {ah|h ∈ H} is denoted by aH. Analogously, Ha = {ha|h ∈ H} and
aHa−1 = {aha−1 |h ∈ H}. When H is a subgroup of G, the set aH is
called the left coset of H in G containing a, whereas Ha is called the
right coset of H in G containing a. In this case, the element a is called
the coset representative of aH (or Ha). We use |aH| to denote the
number of elements in the set aH, and |Ha| to denote the number of
elements in Ha.

Properties of Cosets
Let H be a subgroup of G, and let a and b belong to G. Then,
1. a ∈ aH.
2. aH = H if and only if a ∈ H.

3. aH = bH if and only if a ∈ bH.

4. aH = bH or aH ∩ bH = ϕ.
5. aH = bH if and only if a−1 b ∈ H.
6. |aH| = |bH|.

7. aH = Ha if and only if H = aHa−1 .

8. aH is a subgroup of G if and only if a ∈ H.

21
CHAPTER 7. COSETS AND LAGRANGE’S THEOREM 22

7.1 Theorem : Lagrange’s Theorem

If G is a finite group and H is a subgroup of G, then |H| divides
|G|. Moreover, the number of distinct left (right) cosets of H in G is
|G|/|H|.
Proof :
Let a1 H, a2 H, ..., ar H denote the distinct left cosets of H in G. Then, for each
a in G, we have aH = ai H for some i. Also, by property 1 of cosets, a ∈ aH.
Thus, each member of G belongs to one of the cosets ai H. In symbols,

G = a1 H ∪ ... ∪ ar H.
Now, property 4 of the cosets shows that this union is disjoint, so that

|G| = |a1 H| + |a2 H| + ... + |ar H|.

Finally, since |ai H| = |H| for each i, we have |G| = r|H|.

7.1.1 Corollary : |G : H| = |G|/|H|(|G : H| is number of

distinct cosets)
If G is a finite group and H is a subgroup of G, then |G : H| = |G|/|H|.

7.1.2 Corollary : |a| Divides |G|

In a finite group, the order of each element of the group divides the
order of the group.

7.1.3 Corollary : Groups of Prime Order Are Cyclic

A group of prime order is cyclic.

7.1.4 Corollary : a|G| = e

Let G be a finite group, and let a ∈ G. Then, a|G| = e.

7.1.5 Fermat’s Little Theorem

For every integer a and every prime p, ap mod p = a mod p.
Chapter 8

External Direct products

Definition : External Direct Product

Let G1 , G2 , ..., Gn be a finite collection L
of groups.
L LThe external direct
product of G1 , G2 , ..., Gn written as G1 G2 ... Gn is the set of all
n-tuples for which the ith component is an element of Gi and the
operation
L Lis componentwise.In
L symbols,
G1 G2 ... Gn = {(g1 , g2 , ..., gn )|gi ∈ Gi }

Example
L
U (8) U (10) = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (1, 7), (1, 9), (3, 1), (3, 3), (3, 7), (3, 9), (5, 1), (5, 3),
(5, 7), (5, 9), (7, 1), (7, 3), (7, 7), (7, 9)}.
The product (3, 7)(7, 9) = (5, 3) since the first components are combined by
multiplication modulo 8, whereas the second components are combined by mul-
tiplication modulo 10.

8.1 Theorem : Order of an Element in a Direct

Product
The order of an element in a direct product of a finite number of finite
groups is the least common multiple of the orders of the components
of the element. In symbols,
|(g1 , g2 , ..., gn )| = lcm(|g1 |, |g2 |, ..., |gn |).
Proof :
Denote the identity of Gi by ei . Let s = lcm(|g1 |, |g2 |, ..., |gn |) and
t = |(g1 , g2 , ..., gn )|. Because s is a multiple of each |gi | implies that
(g1, g2, ..., gn)s = (g1s , g2s , ..., gns ) = (e1 , e2 , ..., en ), we know that t ≤ s. On
the other hand, from (g1t , g2t , ..., gnt ) = (g1 , g2 , ..., gn )t = (e1 , e2 , ..., en ) we
see that t is a common multiple of |g1 |, |g2 |, ..., |gn |. Thus, s ≤ t.

23
CHAPTER 8. EXTERNAL DIRECT PRODUCTS 24

Example
L
We determine the number of elements of order 5 inL Z25 Z5 . By Theorem 8.1,
we may count the number of elements (a, b) in Z25 Z5 with the property that
5 = |(a, b)| =lcm(|a|, |b|).Clearly this requires that either |a| = 5 and |b| = 1 or
5, or |b| = 5 and |a| = 1 or 5. We consider two mutually exclusive cases.
Case 1 |a| = 5 and |b| = 1 or 5. Here there are four choices for a (namely,
5, 10, 15, and 20) and five choices for b. This gives 20 elements of order 5.
Case 2 |a| = 1 and |b| = 5. This time there is one choice for a and four choices
for b, so weLobtain four more elements of order 5.
Thus, Z25 Z5 has 24 elements of order 5.

L
8.2 Theorem : Criterion for G H to be Cyclic
L
Let G and H be finite cyclic groups. Then G H is cyclic if and only
if |G| and |H| are relatively prime.
Proof : L
Let |G| = m and |H| = n,L so that |G H| = mn. To prove the first half of
the theorem, we assume G H is cyclic and show that m and n are L relatively
prime. Suppose that gcd(m, n) = d and (g, h) is a generator of G H. Since
(g, h)mn/d = ((g m )n/d , (hn )m/d ) = (e, e), we have mn = |(g, h)| ≤ mn/d. Thus,
d = 1.
To prove the other half of the theorem, let G = ⟨g⟩ and L H = ⟨h⟩ and suppose
gcd(m, n) = 1. LThen, |(g, h)| =lcm(m, n) = mn = |G H|, so that (g, h) is a
generator of G H.
L L L
8.2.1 corollary : Criterion for G1 G2 ... Gn to Be
Cyclic
L L L
An external direct product G1 G2 ... Gn of a finite number of
finite cyclic groups is cyclic if and only if |Gi | and |Gj | are relatively
prime when i ̸= j.

L L L
8.2.2 Corollary :Criterion for Zn1 n2 ...nk ≈ Zn1 Zn2 ... Znk
L L L
Let m = n1 n2 ...nk . Then Zm is isomorphic to Zn1 Zn2 ... Znk if
and only if ni and nj are relatively prime when i ̸= j.

8.3 Theorem : U (n) as an External Direct Prod-

uct
U (n) is the set of numbers less than n and relatively prime to n under the op-
eration multiplication modulo n.
CHAPTER 8. EXTERNAL DIRECT PRODUCTS 25

Suppose s and t are relatively prime. Then U (st) is isomorphic to the

external direct
L product of U (s) and U (t). In short,
U (st) ≈ U (s) U (t)
Moreover, Us (st) is isomorphic to U (t) and Ut (st) is isomorphic to U (s).
Uk (n) = {x ∈ U (n)|xmodk = 1}
Proof : L
An isomorphism from U (st) to U (s) U (t) is x → (xmods, xmodt); an isomor-
phism from Us (st) to U (t) is x → x mod t; an isomorphism from Ut (st) to U (s)
is x → x mod s.

8.3.1 Corollary
Let m = n1 n2 ...n
L k , where L i , nj ) = 1 for i ̸= j. Then,
L gcd(n
U (m) ≈ U (n1 ) U (n2) ... U (nk ).