THE URINARY SYSTEM

The Urinary System:

• Humans have several organ systems that rid the
body of wastes; one of the most important is the
urinary system.
• In humans, excretion of wastes occurs in the
lungs, the skin, the liver, the kidneys, and even
the intestines. These organs are consequently
classified as excretory organs.
• Skin; who help in get rid of sweat, and has
respiratory activity in some Amphibia.
• Lungs; who play a role in get rid of water vapor
and CO2 in expiration.
• Liver; that help in change toxic substances as
benzoic acid to non toxic hippuric acid.
• Inorganic ions are removed from the body by
various excretory organs such as the skin and
the kidneys. This is essential to maintain optimal
levels in the blood, tissue fluids, and the
cytoplasm of cells vital for homeostasis.
• Of all the organs that participate in removing
waste, however, the kidneys rank as one of the
most important, for they rid the body of the
greatest variety of dissolved wastes. In the
process, the kidneys also play a key role in
regulating the chemical constancy of the blood.
Functions of the kidneys:
1. It regulates the volume of body fluids, as the
volume of urine is adjusted according to the
need of water balance.
2. It is important in elimination of inorganic ions
to keep the total crystalloid osmotic of
extracellular fluid and plasma within normal
value.
3. The kidney helps to preserve a normal plasma
concentration of non-electrolytes as glucose
and urea.
4. It is important in regulation of pH through:
5. Elimination of non-volatile acids and basic
radicals in urine.
6. Formation of ammonia which neutralize acid
radicals of blood. And the resulting ammonium
salts is excreted in urine.
7. It helps to get red of wastes product as
nitrogen and sulfer containing substances
derived from metabolic processes of the
protein.
8. It carries out detoxicating reaction, when
benzoic acid combine with glycine to form the
hippuric acid, it pass acid, it pass out through
the kidneys.
9. It helps in maintainance of normal arterial
blood pressure.
• As figure shows, humans come equipped with
two kidneys. They are part of the urinary system,
one of the body’s most important excretory
systems. The kidneys don’t work alone, however,
they’re aided by the ureters, the urinary bladder,
and the urethra.
Juxta-glomerular apparatus:
• A group of spindle shaped cells in the media of
afferent glomerular arterioles. It has no definite
function but it may acts for:
1. Secretion of rennin to increase the renal blood
flow when it is less than normal.
2. Secretion of erythropoietine, a hormonal agent
necessary for production of red blood cells by
bone marrow.
3. Secretion of chemical factor which regulate the
output of aldosterone from the cortex.
The Nephron:
• Nephrons consist of two parts, a glomerulus and
a renal tubule:
• Each kidney contains 1-2 million nephrons,
visible only through a microscope. One of the
marvels of evolution, each nephron consists of a
tuft of capillaries, the glomerulus, and along,
twisted tube, the renal tubule .
The renal tubule consists of four
segments:
1. Bowman’s capsule.
2. The proximal convoluted tubule.
3. The loop of Henle.
4. The distal convoluted tubule.
Component Function

Glomerulus Mechanically filters the blood.

Bowman’s capsule Mechanically filters the blood.

Proximal convoluted tubule Reabsorbs 75% of the water,

salts, glucose and amino acids.

Loop of Henle Participates in countercurrent

exchange, which maintains the
concentration gradient.

Distal convoluted tubule Site of tubular secretion of H+,

potassium, and certain drugs.

Table a- Components of Nephron and Their Function

• As illustrated in figure, the glomerulus is
surrounded by a saclike portion of the renal
tubule, called Bowman’s capsule). It is a double-
walled structure; the inner wall fits closely over
the glomerular capillaries and is separated from
the outer wall by a small space, Bowman’s space.
• To understand the relationship between the
glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule, imagine that
your fist is a glomerulus. Then imagine that you
are holding a balloon in your other hand. If you
push your fist (glomerulus) into the balloon, the
layer immediately surrounding your fist would
be the inner layer of Bowman’s capsule. It is
separated from the outer layer of the capsule by
Bowman’s space.
• The outer wall of Bowman’s capsule is
continuous with the proximal convoluted tubule
(PCT), a contorted section of the renal tubule.
The PTC soon straightens, then descends a bit,
makes a sharp hairpin turn, and ascends. In the
process, it forms a thin, U-shaped structure
known as the Loop of Henle. The loops of Henle
of some nephrons extend into the medulla.
• The loop of Henle drains into the fourth and
final portion of the renal tubule, the distal
convoluted tubule (DCT), another contorted
segment. This DCT empties into a straight duct
called a collecting tubule. The collecting tubules,
in turn, merge to form larger ducts. They course
through the cone-shaped renal pyramids and
empty into the renal pelvis.
Function of the Urinary System:
• With the basic anatomy of the kidney and
urinary system in mind, let us turn our attention
to the function of the urinary system, focusing
first on the nephron.
Blood Filtration In The Kidney:
• Blood filtration in nephrons involves
three processes:
• The nephrons filter enormous amounts of blood
and produce from 1 to 3 liters of urine per day,
depending on how much fluid a person ingests.
Glomerular Filtration:
• Glomerular filtration is a physical
filtration process:
• The first step in the purification of the blood is
glomerular filtration. As blood flows through the
glomerular capillaries, water and dissolved
materials are forced through the walls of these
tiny vessels. This liquid, called the glomerular
filtrate, travels through the inner layer of
Bowman’s capsule.
• Red blood cells and large proteins in the blood
can’t escape because of the barrier formed by the
inner layer of Bowman’s capsule. From here, the
filtrate passes into the proximal convoluted
tubule, then into the loop of Henle, and finally
out the distal convoluted tubule.
• The fluid which passes to the Bowman’s capsule
is known as the glomerular filterate, its rate is
about 170-180 L/day. Its content resembles
blood plasma except the absence of plasma
protein. There are 3 forces help the
filtration process:
1. The blood pressure in the glomerular
capillaries is higher (65-80 mmHg) than the
pressure in capillaries elsewhere (30 mmHg).
2. The osmotic pressure of plasma protein in the
glomeruli is higher (28 mmHg) than that in the
normal capillaries (25 mmHg).
3. The filtrate pressure in Bowman’s capsule is
low (10-15 mmHg). The first force acts against
the other 2 forces where the net result allow
passing of the filtrate down as follow: Normal
filtration pressure = 80-(28+10) = 42 mmHg.
Functions of the Tubules:
a) Reabsorption of water and solutes.
b) Secretion of some substances to concentrate
the filtrate.
Tubular Reabsorption:
• Tubular reabsorption helps conserve valuable
nutrients and ions:
• Each day approximately 180 liters (45 gallons) of
filtrate is produced in the glomeruli. However,
the kidneys produce only about 1 to 3 liters of
urine each day. Thus, only about 1% of the
filtrate actually leaves the kidneys as urine.
What happens to the rest of the fluid
filtered by the glomerulus?
• Most of the fluid filtered by the glomeruli is
reabsorbed it passes from the renal tubule back
into the bloodstream. The movement of water,
ions, and molecules from the renal tubule to the
bloodstream is referred to as tubular
reabsorption. Most tubular reabsorption occurs
in the proximal convoluted tubule.
• During tubular reabsorption, water containing
valuable nutrients and ions leaves the renal
tubule and enters the networks of capillaries that
surround the nephrons. As shown in figures,
these capillaries are branches of the efferent
arterioles. They will eventually empty into the
renal veins, returning nutrients to the body.
 Table b:
Fate of Various Substances Filtered by Kidneys
Filtered Substance (Average %)

Substance Reabsorbed Excreted

Water 99 1

Sodium 99.5 0.5

Glucose 100 0

Waste products
Urea 50 50
Phenol 0 100
• Tubular reabsorption is valuable because it
conserves both water and important ions and
nutrients that are indiscriminately filtered out in
the glomerulus. Waste products like urea and
uric acid, however, remain in the glomerular
filtrate and will eventually be excreted in the
urine. Tubular reabsorption also helps to control
blood pH. Table 9-4 shows the reabsorption
rates of various molecules.
Tubular Secretion:
• Tubular secretion is the transport of waste
products form the peritubular capillaries into
the renal tubule. Waste disposal is supplemented
by a third process, tubular secretion. This
process eliminated from the blood wastes that
were not filtered out by the glomerulus. It
therefore removes wastes that might otherwise
escape filtration. (You can follow the steps in
figures)
• As blood passes through the glomerular
capillaries, much of it is filtered. The blood that
isn’t filtered passes from the efferent arterioles
into the peritubular capillaries surrounding the
nephron. Some of the wastes pass through the
capillary walls into the nephron. This is called
tubular secretion. Tubular secretion not only
rids the blood of wastes, it helps regulate the H+
ions are transported from the blood into the
urine to reduce its acidity. Tubular secretion
occurs in the distal convoluted tubule.
• Blood draining from the capillaries surrounding
the nephrons is fairly well cleansed by the time it
empties into the nearby veins. These veins
converge to form the renal vein which transports
the filtered blood out of the kidney and into the
inferior vena cava, which carries it to the heart.
• Urine produced by the nephrons flows out of the
nephron into the collecting tubules. The urine
leaving the nephron consists mostly of water and
a variety of dissolved waste products. The
collecting tubules descend through the medulla
and converge to form larger ducts that empty
their contents into the renal pelvis. As the
collecting tubules descend through the medulla,
much of the remaining water escapes by
osmosis, further concentrating the urine and
conserving body water.
Controlling Kidney Function and
Maintaining Homeostasis:
• Concentrations of ions and other substances are
controlled by regulating water levels:
• The kidneys help the body control the chemical
composition of the blood and maintain
homeostasis. This section briefly describes the
kidney’s role in maintaining water balance (that
is, proper levels of water).
• As noted earlier, much of the water filtered out
of the blood by the glomeruli is reabsorbed by
the renal tubules and returned to the
bloodstream. The rate of water reabsorption can
be increased or decreased to alter urine
production. The ability to adjust water
reabsorption and urine output allows the body
either to rid itself ox excess water when a person
is overhydrated or to conserve water when an
individual is dehydrated. These functions help
control the concentration of the blood, too. Two
hormones play a major role in this important
homeostatic process.
ADH:
• The hormone ADH increases water reabsorption
and conserves body water:
• Water reabsorption is controlled in part by
antidiuretic hormone (ANN-tie-DIE-yur-eh-tick)
or ADH. ADH is released by an endocrine gland
at the base of the brain known as the pituitary.
ADH secretion is regulated by two receptors, one
in the brain and one in the heart.
• ADH secretion is under the control of the
hypothalamus. When the osmotic concentration
of the blood rises, receptors in the hypothalamus
detect the change and trigger the release of ADH
from the posterior lobe of the pituitary.
Detectors in the heart also respond to changes in
blood volume. When it droops, they send signals
to the brain, causing the release of ADH.
• The first sensor is a group of nerve cells in a
region of the brain called the hypothalamus. It is
located just above the pituitary gland. The cells
that regulate ADH monitor the osmotic
concentration of the blood. The second sensor,
as noted above, is located in the heart. It detects
changes in blood volume, which reflect water
levels.
• To understand how ADH secretion is controlled,
lets imagine that you’re out in the hot sun. your
body’s sweating and you haven’t got a thing to
drink. Under these conditions, the body begins
to lose water. As a result, the blood volume
decreases and the osmotic concentration (the
concentration of dissolved substances)
increases. The decrease in blood volume is
detected by the heart receptors. The rise in
osmotic concentration is detected by sensors in
the brain. Both of these stimuli trigger the
release of ADH from the pituitary gland.
• ADH circulates in the blood. In the kidney, this
hormone stimulates tubular reabsorption of
water. In other words, it stimulates the passage
of water from the nephron into the peritubular
capillaries. This reduces urinary output and
restores the volume and osmotic concentration
of the blood-if you are not too dehydrated.
• Excess water intake, on the other hand, has the
opposite effect. As you can imagine, drinking
excess water will increase the blood volume and
decrease its osmotic concentration. The sensors
in the brain and heart note these changes and
cause a reduction in ADH secretion. As ADH
levels in the blood fall, tubular reabsorption
decreases and more water is lost in the urine. As
a consequence, blood volume and osmotic
concentration are restored.
Aldosterone:

• The hormone aldosterone stimulates water

reabsorption in the kidney:
• Water balance is also regulated by the hormone
aldosterone. Aldosterone is a steroid hormone
produced by the adrenal glands.
Aldosterone levels in the blood are
controlled by three factors:
1. blood pressure.
2. blood volume.
3. osmotic concentration.
• When blood pressure and the volume of filtrate
in the nephrons decline, certain cells in the
kidney produce an enzyme called rennin . In the
blood, rennin slices a segment off a large plasma
protein called angiotensinogen. The result is a
small peptide molecule called angiotensin I.
angiotensin I is inactive. It must be converted
into the active form, angiotensin II, by enzymes
it encounters as blood flows through the lungs.
• Angiotensin II stimulates aldosterone secretion
by the adrenal glands. Aldosterone released from
the adrenal glands circulates in the blood. In the
kidney, it stimulates cells of the nephron to
increase the amount of sodium they reabsorb. In
other words, it increases tubular reabsroption of
sodium. Water follows sodium ions out of the
nephron into the peritubular capillaries. This, in
turn, increases blood volume and blood
pressure, shutting down this feedback loop.
• Water balance is also affected by several
chemical in many people’s daily diet, two of the
most influential being caffeine and alcohol.