54 Chapter 2 The two-body problem

(Example 2.3 On the other hand, the speed vGEO along its circular path is related to the absolute
continued) angular velocity wE of the earth by the kinematics formula
VGEO = WErGEO

Equating these two expressions and solving for rGEO yields

rGEO =

Substituting Equation 2.56, we get

398 600
rGEO = = 42 164 km (2.58)
V(72.9217 × 10-6)2
Therefore, the distance of the satellite above the earth's surface is
ZGEO = rGEO RE = 42 164 6378 = 35 786 km (22 241l mi)

Substituting Equation 2.58 into (a) yields the speed,

398 600
VGEO = 3.075 km/s (2.59)
42 164

EXAMPLE Calculate the maximum latitude and the percentage of the earth's surface visible from
2.4 GEO.
To find the maximum viewable latitude , use Figure 2.14, from which it is
apparent that
o= cos-l R (a)

Equator

Figure 2.14 Satellite in GEO.

 2.7 Elliptical orbits (0<e<1) 55

km. Therefore
where RE =6378 km and, according to Equation 2.57, r= 42 164
=cos-l 6378 = 81.30° Maximum visible north or south latitude. (b)
42 164

The surface area S visible from GEO is the shaded region illustrated in Figure 2.15. It
can be shown that the area S is given by

S= 2rR:(1 - cos ¢)
Therefore, the percentage of the hemisphere visible from GEO is
x 100 = (1- cos 81.30°) × 100 = 84.9%

which of course means that 42.4 percent of the total surface of the earth can be seen
from GEO.

N|

RE

Equator

Figure 2.15 Surface area S visible from GEO.

Figure 2.16 is a photograph taken from geosynchronous equatorial orbit by one of

the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administation's Geostationary Operational
Environmental Satellites (GOES).

Z./ ELLIPTICAL ORBITS (0 <e<l)

If 0<e<l, then the denominator of Equation 2.35 varies with the true anomaly
0, but it remains positive, never becoming zero. Therefore, the relative position
vector remains bounded, having its smallest magnitude at periapsis tp» given by
Equation 2.40. The maximum value of r is reached when the denominator of
r=(h/u)/(1+ecos 0) obtains its minimum value, which ocurs at 0 =180°. That
 problem
56 Chapter 2 The two-body

Flight Center, data from NOAA GOES.

Figure 2.16 The view from GEO. NASA-Goddard Space

P Apse
line

empty focus.
Figure 2.17 Elliptical orbit. mis at the focus F. F is the unoccupied

point is called the apoapsis, and its radial coordinate, denoted ra, is

(2.60)
ul-e

The curve defined by Equation 2.35 in this case is an ellipse.

Let 2a be the distance measured along the apse line from periapsis P to apoapsis
A, as illustrated in Figure 2.17. Then

2a = Tp + ra
 2.7 Elliptical orbits (0<e<l) 57

this expression we get

Substituting Equations2.40and 2.61 into
1 (2.61)

Solving Equation 2.61 for h/u and putting the

a is thesemimajor axis ofthe elipse. equation,
alternative form ofthe orbit
Equation 2.35 yields an
result into
1-e2 (2.62)
r=1+e cos 8
the
denote the location of the body m, which is the origin of
In Figure 2.17, let F center C of the ellipse is the point lying midway
r,o polar coordinate system. The
CF from C to F is
between the apoapsis and periapsis. The distance
CF = a- FP = a - fp

But from Equation 2.62,

(2.63)
Tp = a(1 -e)
Therefore, CF = ae, as indicated in Figure 2.17.
Let Bbe the point on the orbit which lies directly above C, on the perpendicular
semiminor axis. If the true anomaly
bisector of AP, The distance b from C to B is the
2.62, the radial coordinate ofB is
of point B is B, then according to Equation
1-e? (2.64)
TB 1 +e cos p

The projection of rB onto the apse line is ae; i.e.,

ae = TB Cos(180 - B)=-rB Cos B=

Solving this expression for e, we obtain

e=-cos B (2.65)
the interesting fact that
Substituting this result into Equation 2.64 reveals

According to the Pythagorean theorem,

b =- (ae) =a'-a'e
in terms of the semimajor axis and the
which means the semiminor axis is found
eccentricity of the ellipse as
b= ay1-e (2.66)
centered at C, as shown in Figure 2.18.
Let an xy cartesian coordinate system be that the x coordinate of a point on
In terms of r and 0, we see from the figure
58 shapter 2 1He WU

de

Figure 2.18 Cartesian coordinate description of the orbit.

the orbit is
e+ cos
-e
X= ae +rcos = ae + o)cos 9= di+ecos8
From thiswe have
e t cos (2.67)
1+ecos 0
For the y coordinate we have, making use of Equation 2.66,
y=rsin 0 = sin = b1+e cos 0 Sin

Therefore,
V1-e2 (2.68)
sin
1+e cos

Using Equations 2.67 and 2.68, we find

[(e + cos )² + (1-e) sin ]
(1+ecos )2
1
+ sin e -e sin' l
(0+ecosA)2 le +2ecos + cos e
1
e+2e cos +1-e sin ]
(1+ecos 0)2
1 + 1|
cos 0)2
[e1- sin? 0) +2e cos
(1+e
1
A)2 Le cos 6 + 2ecos + 1]
(1+ecos
cose)?
(1+ecos 0)2+e
That is,
(2.69)
 <e<l) 59
2.7 Elliptical orbits (0

origin,
coordinate formula for an ellipse centered at the
This is the familiar cartesian intercepts at £b. If a =b, Equation 2.69 describes a
and y
with x intercepts at ta ellipse
circle, which is really an whose eccentricity is zero. substituting
specific energy of an elliptical orbit is negative, and it is found by
The eccentricity into Equation 2.50,
the specific angular momentum and

ua(l-e'), so that
However, according to Equation 2.61, h² =
(2.70)
8=
2a

shows that the specific energy is independent of the eccentricity and depends
This an elliptical orbit, the conservation of
only on the semimajor axis of the ellipse. For
energy (Equation 2.47) may therefore be written
(2.71)
2 2a

semimajor and semiminor axes by the

The area of an ellipse is found in terms of its area of acircle if a= b). To
formula A=nab (which reduces to the formula for the
second law, dA/dt = h/2,
find the period T of the elliptical orbit, we employ Kepler's
to obtain
h

Thus, Tab =(h/2)T, or

For one complete revolution, AA=Iab and At=T.
2rab
T=
h

Substituting Equations 2.61 and 2.66, we get

2

elliptical orbit, in terms of the orbital

so that the formula for the period of an
parameters h and e, becomes

T=
(2.72)

to substitute h= /ua(l -e?) into this

We can once again appeal to Equation 2.61expression
equation, thereby obtaining an alternative for the period,
2T (2.73)
T=

This expression, which is identical to that of a

circular orbit of radius a (Equa
elliptical orbit is independent
tion 2.54), reveals that, like the energy, the period of an
60 Chapter 2 The two-body problem

Figure 2.19 Since allfive ellipses have the same major axis, their periods and energies are identical.

of the eccentricity (see Figure 2.19). Equation 2.73 embodies Kepler's third law: the
period of a planet is proportional to the three-halves power of its semimajor axis.
Finally, observe that dividing Equation 2.40 by Equation 2.60yields
l-e
Ta 1+e

Solving this for e results in a useful formula for calculating the eccentricity of an
elliptical orbit, namely,
e=
Ta t p (2.74)

From Figure 2.17 it is apparent that ra-p=F'F, the distance between the
foci. As previously noted, ra + rp=2a. Thus, Equation 2.74 has the geometrical
interpretation,
distance between the foci
eccentricity
length of the major axis
What is the average distance of m2 from mË in the course of one
To answer this question, we divide the range of the true complete orbit?
segments A0, so that
anomaly (27) into n equal

2r
n=

We then use r = (h/u)/(1+e cos )to evaluate r(0) at the n

of true anomaly, starting at periapsis: equally spaced values
8 =0, = A8, 3 =2A0,...,0, =
(n-1)A0
 2.7 Elliptical orbits(0 <e<l) 61

given by
The average of this set of n values of r is
(2.75)
27T j=l
i=1

becomes very small. In the limit as n ’ o0,

Nowletnbecome very large, so that A0
Equation 2.75 becomes
r(0)de (2.76)
27 Jo
Substituting Equation 2.62 into the integrand yields
21
1 de
27 1+e cos
Beyer, 1991), from
The integral in this expression can be found in integral tables (e.g.,
which we obtain
1 27 (2.77)

Comparing this result with Equation 2.66, we see that the true-anomaly-averaged
ellipse. Thus, the
orbital radius equals the length of the semiminor axis b of the distances from
minimum
semimajor axis, which is the average of the maximum and
the focus, is not the mean distance. Since, from Equation 2.62,
rp=a(1 -e) and
Ta= a(l +e), Equation 2.77 also implies that
TÍ =pa (2.78)
of the maximum and mini
The mean distance is the one-half power of the product
their sum.
mum distances from the focus and not one-half

km and an eccentricity
EXAMPLE An earth satellite is in an orbit with perigee altitude z, = 400
Ta; (c) the semimajor
2.5 e=0.6. Find (a) the perigee velocity, v; (b) the apogee radius,velocity; (f) the period
axis, a; (d) the true-anomaly-averaged radius Te; (e)(h)thetheapogee
satellite speed when r=e:
of the orbit; (g) the true anomaly when r=Ta;
flight path angle Ymax and
(i)the flight path angle y when r = Te; () the maximum
the true anomaly at which it occurs.
parameters, eccentricity and
The strategy is always to go after the primaryweorbital
are given the eccentricity, so we
angular momentum, first. In this problem
600 km/s and also that
will first seek h. Recall from Bquation 2.56 that u=398
R[ =6378 km.

(a) The perigee radius is

6778 km
Tp = RE+zp =6378 +400 =
Evaluating the orbit formula, Equation 2.35, at = 0 (perigee), we get
62 Chapter 2 The two-body problem
momentum
We use this to evaluate the angular
(Example 2.5 1
continued) 6778 =
398600 1+0.6
h= 65750 km²/s
momentum formula,
Now we can find the perigee velocity using the angular
Equation 2.21:
65750
p =V1)perigee = =9.700 km/s
p 6778

equation at 0 = 180° (apogee):

(b) The apogee radius is found by evaluating the orbit
65 7502 1
fa =
=27 110 km
ul-e 398 60010.6

radii:
(c) The semimajor axis is the average of the perigee and apogee
6778+ 27 110
a= = 16 940km
2

(d) The azimuth-averaged radius is given by Equation 2.78:

Ta = pla = V6778- 27 110
13 560 km

obtained from the angular momentum

(e) The apogee velocity, like that at perigee, is
formula,
65 750
Va = VI)apogee = 2.425 km/s
27 110

(f) To find the orbit period, use Equation 2.73 3

3
2 65750 = 21950 s = 6.098 hr
398 60021-0.62

we again use the orbit formula

(g) To find the true anomaly when r= Te,
Te = u 1+e cos

65 7502 1
13 560 =
398 6001+0.6cos
cos = -0.3333

This means

=109.5, where the satellite passes through YÍ on its

way from perigee

and
its way towards perigee
0= 250.5°, where the satellite passes through YÍ on
 (0<e<1) 63
2.7 Ellipticalorbits

radial and
when r=Fe, we first calculate the
(h) To find the speed of the satellite
transverse components of velocity:
h 65 750
= 4.850 km/s
VI= 13 560
For the radial velocity component, use Equation 2.38,
398 600
0.6· sin(109.5°) ==3.430 km/s
Uy =esin 0= 65 750
or
398 600
v, = esin = 0.6 · sin(250.5°) =-3.430 km/s
h 65 750
The magnitude of the velocity can now be found as

v=2+ =V3.4302 +4.8502 =5.940km/s

We could have obtained the speed v more directly by using conservation of
energy (Equation 2.71), since the semimajor axis is available from part (c) above.
However, we would still need to compute v, and vi in order to solve the next
part of this problem.
(i) Use Equation 2.39 to calculate the flight path angle at r=Te,
3.430
= tan-1 35.26° at = 109.5°
4.850

yis positive, meaning the velocity vector is above the local horizon, indicating the
spacecraft is flying away from the attracting force. At @= 250.5°, wherethe space
craft is flying towards perigee, y =-35.26°. Since the satellite is approaching the
attracting body, the velocity vector lies below the local horizon, as indicated by
the minus sign.
(G) Equation 2.42 gives the flight path angle in terms of the true anomaly,
e sin
Y=tan-1 (a)
1+e cos

To findwhere y is a maximum, we must take the derivative of this expression

with respect to and set the result equal to zero. Using the rules of calculus,

dy 1 esin e(e + cos 0)

e esin do1+e cos (1+ e cos 0)2 + e sin
1+
\1+e cos
For e < 1, the denominator is positive for all values of 0. Therefore, dylde =0
only if the numerator vanishes, that is, if cos @= -e. Recall from Equation 2.65
that this true anomaly locates the end-point of the minor axis of the ellipse. The
maximum positive light path angle therefore occurs at the true anomaly,
e= cos(-0.6) =126.9°
64 Chapter 2 The two-body problem

(Example2.5 Substituting this into (a), we find the value of the flight path angle to be
continued) 0.6 sin 126.90
Ymax = tan-l = 36.87°
140.6 cos 126.90

the flight path angle starts to decrease

After attaining this greatest magnitude,
(zero).
steadily towards its value at apogee

geocentric orbit the altitude and true anomaly are z =

EXAMPLE At two points on a Find (a) the eccentricity;
1545 km, 0 = 126° andz, =852 km, o, =58°, respectively.
2.6 semimajor axis; and (d) the period.
(b)the altitude of perigee; (c) the
(a) The radii of the two points are
1545 = 7923 km
TË = RE +z = 6378 +
km
2 = RE+ = 6378 + 852 = 7230
yields two
2.35, to both of these points
Applying the orbit formula, Equation parameters, angular momentum h and
equations for the two primary orbital
eccentricity e:
1

u l+e cos O,
1
7923 = 398 600 1+e cos 126°
10'e (a)
h= 3.158 x 10- 1.856 >x

1
u l+e cos e
1
7230 = 398 6001+e cos 58°
1.527 x 10e (b)
h= 2.882 x 10
expressions for h, yields a single equation for the
Equating (a) and (b), the two
eccentricity e,
’ 3.384 x 10e
2.882 >x 10 + 1.527 x 10e
3.158 x 10 - 1.856 x 10e=
= 276.2 x106

Therefore, (c)
e= 0.08164 (an ellipse)
we find the angular
eccentricity back into (a) [or (b)]
(b) By substituting the
momentum,
10.0.08164 ’ h= 54830km/s (d)
h'= 3.158 x 10 - 1.856 x
 99

= 1) 65
2.8 Parabolic trajectories (e

to obtain the perigee radius

Now we can use the orbit equation
1 54 8302 1 = 6974 km
p = ul+ecos(0) 398 6001+0.08164

and perigee altitude

Zp =p - Rg = 6974 6378 = 595.5 km
apogee radius by means
(c) The semimajor axis can be found after we calculate the
of the orbit equation, just as we did for perigee radius:
1 54 8302 = 8213 km
Ta = 398 600 1-0.08164
u 1+e cos(180°)
Hence
Tp +ra 8213 + 6974
a= = 7593 km
2 2
(d) Since the semimajor axis is available, it is convenient to use Equation 2.74 to find
the period:
2T 2T
T= -7593 = 6585 s = 1829 hr
J398 600

2.8 PARABOLIC TRAJECTORIES (e=1)

If the eccentricity equals 1, then the orbit equation (Equation 2.35) becomes
1
r= (2.79)
ul+cos

As the true anomaly approaches 180°, the denominator approaches zero, so that
E quaiou as0 which
rtendse=l
towards infinity. Acording to Equation 2.50, the energy of atrajectory for
is zero, so that for a parabolic trajectory the conservation of energy,
Equation 2.47,is

7-=0
In other words, the speed anywhere on a parabolic path is

V= (2.80)

If the body m, is launched on a parabolic trajectory, it will coast to infinity, arriving

there with zero velocity relative to m. It will not return. Parabolic paths are therefore
66 Chapter 2 The two-body problem

called escape trajectories. At a given distance r from m1, the escape velocity is given
by Equation 2.80,

Vesc = (2.81)
Let v, be the speed of a satellite in a circular orbit of radius r. Then from Equations
2.53 and 2.81we have

Vaihcela Vesc =2u, Nesc= aijsda82)

That is, to escape from a circular orbit requires a velocity boost of 41.4 percent.
However, remember our assumption is that mË and m are the only objects in the
universe. Aspacecraft launched from earth with velocity Vese (relative to the earth) will
not coast to infinity (i.e., leave the solar system) because it will eventually succumb to
the gravitational influence of the sun and, in fact, end up in the same orbit as earth.
This will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 8.
For the parabola, Equation 2.42 for the flight path angle takes the form
esine sin
tan y =F
I+ecose 1+ cos

Using the trigonometric identities

sin 9 = 2sin COS

2 2

cos = cos? sin? =2cos². -1

2 2 2

we can write

2sin co2 sin

tan y = =tan
2cos² 2
COS
2

It follows that

(2.83)

That is, on parabolic trajectories the flight path angle is one-half the true anomaly.
Recall that the parameterp of an orbit is given by Equation 2.43. Let us substitute
that expression into Equation 2.79 and then plot r= 2a/(1 + cos e) in a cartesian
coordinate system centered at the focus, as illustrated in Figure 2.21. From the figure
it is clear that

cos 0
x=rcos t = P1 (2.84a)
+ cos

sin
(2.84b)
r=h 1 V=rsin 6= P
cos
1-+cos6
 2.8 Parabolic trajectories (e = 1) 67

The
euatiom of panabo
Apse
line

(b, E)domotes vantex (hyt)

tae vemtex

Figure 2.20 Parabolic trajectory around the focus F.

(x, y)

pl2
(0
-PP Cose
Latuy Reetum
L 4a
Dinetoix
coso+sinto
)' )
=4a>
þ= 4a.q
244
Figure 2.21 Parabola with focus at the origin of the cartesian coordinate system.
68
Chapter 2 Thetwo-body problem

Therefore
Cos sin' 0
(1+ cos 0)?
Working to simplify the right-hand side, we get
2cos (1 t cos 0) + sin' 2cos 8+ 2 cos + (1 - cos? e)
+
p/2 (1+ cos )2 (1+ cos e)²
1+2 cos 0+ cos? 0 (1+ cos e)? =1
(1+ cos )2 (1+ cos 0)2

Itfollows that
(2.85)
2p
This is the equation of a parabola in a cartesian coordinate system whose origin serves
as the focus.

EXAMPLE The perigee of a satellite in a parabolic geocentric trajectory is 7000 km. Find the
2.7 distance d between points P and P on the orbit which are 8000 km and 16 000 km,
respectively, from the center of the earth.
the orbit
First, let us calculate the angular momentum of the satellite by evaluating
equation at perigee,

Tp = u1+ cos(0) 2u

P P
d

16 000 km 80 km
Earth

7000 km

Figure 2.22 Parabolic geocentric trajectory.

 2.9 Hyperbolic trajectories (e > 1) 69

from which
74700 km²/s (a)
h=2u = 2398600· 7000=
the law of cosines from trigonometry,
To find the length of the chord PP2, we must use
A0
d= 8000 + 16000 -2. 8000· 16 000 cos (b)

orbit equation:
The true anomalies of points P and P, are found using the
74 7002 1 , =41.41°
8000 == ’ cos 0 = 0.75 ’
398 600 1+ cos 1

74 7002 1
16 000= cos 02 -0.125 , =97.18°
398 600 1+ cos 2
Therefore, A0=97. 18° - 41.41° =55.78°, so that (b) yields

d= 13 270 km (c)

2.9 HYPERBOLIC TRAJECTORIES (e > l)

Ife> 1, theorbit formula,
1
T=
u 1+e cos
(2.86)

describes the geometry of the hyperbola shown in Figure 2.23. The system consists of
two symmetric curves. One of them is occupied by the orbiting body, the other one
is its empty, mathematical image. Clearly, the denominator of Equation 2.86 goes to
zero when cos = -1/e. We denote this value of true anomaly
oo = cos(-1/e) (2.87)

since the radial distance approaches infinity as the true anomaly approaches loo. Ooo
is known as the true anomaly of the asymptote. Observe that oo lies between 90° and
180°. From trigonometry it follows that

e-1
sin oo = (2.88)

For -o <0<Boo,the physical trajectory isthe occupied hyperbola Ishown on the

left in Figure 2.23. For o <o< (360° - oo), hyperbola II - the vacant orbit around
the empty focus F - is traced out. (The vacant orbit is physically impossible, because
it would require arepulsive gravitational force.) Periapsis Plies on the apse line on the
physical hyperbola I, whereas apoapsis Alies on the apse line on the vacant orbit.
The point halfway between periapsis and apoapsis is the center Cof the hyperbola.
The asymptotes of the hyperbola are the straight lines towards which the curves tend
 problem
70 Chapter 2 The two-body

Asymptoe NduAsy
Vacant
orbit

C
Apse
line Empty focus

Figure 2.23 Hyperbolic trajectory.

angle B
approach infinity. The asymptotes intersect at C, making an acute
as they Therefore, cos B=-cos boos which means
with the apse line, where B=180° - oo.
B= cos(1/e) (2.89)

between the asymptotes is called the turn angle. This is the angle through
The angle & body is rotated as it rounds the attracting
which the velocity vector of the orbiting From the figure we see that 8 = 180° - 28,
body at F and heads back towards infnity.
so that
'180° - P=sin(90°
E, 2.89 1
sin 2 = sin
S
2
6) = cos f e

8= 2sin(1/e) (2.90)
periapsis is given by Equation 2.40,
The distance rp from the focus F to the
(2.91)

= 180°
coordinate ra of apoapsis is found by setting 8
Just as for an ellipse, the radial
in Equation 2.35,
h 1 (2.92)
lies
that r, is negative, since e> 1for the hyperbola. That means the apoapse
periapse
Observe Figure 2.23 we see that the distance 2a
from
tothe right of the focus F. From
 trajectories (e > 1) 71
Hyperbolic
2.9

P to apoapse A is |ral-p =-Ta-p

2a
Substituting Equations 2.91 and 2.92 yields

byy an
semimajor axis of the hyperbola, is given
From this it follows that a, the for an ellipse (Equation 2.62),
expression which is nearly identical to that
1 (2.93)
a=ee-1
hyperbola
Therefore, Equation 2.86 may be written for the
e-1 (2.94)
r="1+e cos
formula is analogous to Equation 2.63for the elliptical orbit. Furthermore, from
This
Equation 2.94 it follows that
(2.95a)
Tp = ale - 1)
(2.95b)
Ta =-ale + 1)
measured perpendicular to the apse
The distance b from periapsis to an asymptote, Figure 2.23, we see that the length
line, is the semiminor axis of the hyperbola. From
b of the semiminor axis PM is
We-1
sin ß sin (180 -oo) sin Ooo
b=atan ß= a = 0
cos (180oo) -cos oo
cos ß

so that for the hyperbola,

b= aye?1 (2.96)
semiminor axis of an ellipse.
This relation is analogous to Equation 2.67 for the through the focus is
The distance A between the asymptote and a parallel line that figure we see
called the aiming radius, which is illustrated in Figure 2.23. From
that
A = (rp + a) sin ß
ae sin B (Equation 2.95a)
Ve-1 (Equation 2.89)
ae
e

= ae sin oo (Equation 2.88)

= aey1 -cos² Ooo (trig identity)
(Equation 2.87)
72 Chapter 2 The two-body problem

+F x

Figure 2.24 Plot of Equation 2.93 in a cartesian coordinate systenm with origin O midway between the
two foci.

A = aye? -1 (2.97)
Comparing this result with Equation 2.96, it is clear that the aiming radius equals the
length of the semiminor axis of the hyperbola.
As with the ellipse and the parabola, we can express the polar form of the equation
of the hyperbola in a cartesian coordinate system whose origin is in this case midway
between the two foci, as illustrated in Figure 2.24. From the figure it is apparent that
x=-a - p +r cos (2.98a)
y=rsin 0 (2.98b)
Using Equations 2.94 and 2.95a in 2.98a, we obtain
e'-1
x=-a- ale- 1) + a
1+ecos
cos = -a e t cos
1+ecos
Substituting Equations2.94 and 2.96 into 2.98b yields
y=
e'-1 sin hVe- 1sin e
Se'11+e cos 1+ecos
It follows that
2
Ve-I sin
a2 -
e'+ 2e cos +
(
cos-(e-
1+ecos
1)(1 cos² 0)
(1+e cos )2
1+ 2e cos + e cos² (1+ e cos 0)2
(1+e cos 0)2 (1+e cos 0)2
 1) 73
2.9 Hyperbolic trajectories (e >

That is,
(2.99)

symmetric about the x and y

This is the familiar equation of a hyperbola which is
axes, with intercepts on the x axis. given by Equation 2.50.
The specific energy of the hyperbolic trajectory is
Substituting Equation 2.93 into that expression yields
(2.100)
2=-(-e), 8=
2a

The specific energy of a hyperbolicorbit is clearly positive and independent of the

eccentricity. The conservation of energy for a hyperbolic trajectory is
q= (2.101)
2 2a

Let Voo denote the speed at which a body on a hyperbolic path arrives at infinity.
According to Equation 2.101
Voo = (2.102)
Va
Voo is called the hyperbolic excess speed. In terms of Voo We may write Equa
tion 2.101 as

2 2
Substituting the expression for escape speed, Vesc =2u/r (Equation 2.81), we obtain
for a hyperbolic trajectory
(2.103)
This equation clearly shows that the hyperbolic excess speed Voo represents the
excess kinetic energy over that which is required to simply escape from the center
of attraction. The square of voo is denoted C3, and is known as the characteristic
energy,
(2.104)
C is a measure of the energy required for an interplanetary mission and C3 is also
a measure of the maximum energy a launch vehicle can impart to a spacecraft of a
given mass. Obviously, to match a launch vehicle with a mission, C)aunchvehicle >
C3) mission
Note that the hyperbolic excess speed can also be obtained from Equations 2.39
and 2.88,
(2.105)

Finally, for purposes of comparison, Figure 2.25 shows a range of trajectories, from
a circle through hyperbolas, all having a common focus and periapsis. The parabola
is the demarcation between the closed, negative energy orbits (ellipses) and open,
positive energy orbits (hyperbolas).
 problem
74 Chapter 2 The two-body

1.1 1.3 1.5

e= 1.0 2.5

0.9 0.85 0.8 0.7 0.5 (03/ o

Figure 2.25 Orbits of various eccentricities, having a common focus F and periapsis P.

EXAMPLE At a given point of a spacecraft's geocentric trajectory, the radius is 14600 km, the
2.8 speed is 8.6 km/s, and the flight path angle is 50°. Show that the path is a hyper
bola and calculate the following: (a) C3, (b) angular momentumn, (c) true anomaly,
(d) eccentricity, (e) radius of perigee, (f) turn angle, (g) semimajor axis, and (h)
aiming radius.
To determine the type of the trajectory, calculate the escape speed at the given
radius:
l2.398 600

Since the escape speed

--
Vesc =

is less than the

14 600 =7.389 km/s
spacecraft's speed of 8.6 km/s, the path is a
hyperbola.
(a) The hyperbolic excess velocity Voo is found from
Equation 2.103,
uo=-v=8.6-7.389 = 19.36 km/s
From Equation 2.104 it follows that

C= 19.36 km²/s?
(b) Knowing the speed and the flight path
angle, we can obtain both v, and v:
U, =vsin y = 8.6 sin 50° = 6.588 km/s
(a)
 > 1) 75
2.9 Hyperbolic trajectories (e

5.528km/s (b)
cos 50°
VI =Vcos y= 8.6
the angular momentum,
Then Equation 2.21provides us with
80710 km'/s (c)
h=rvi = 14600.5.528 =
we get
the given location on the trajectory,
(c) Evaluating the orbit equation at
807102 1
14 600 = 398 6001+e cos

from which
=0.1193
(d)
e cos
by Equation 2.39, v, = ue sin 0/h, so
The radial component of velocity is given
that with (a) and (c), we obtain
398 600
6.588 = -e sin
80 170
Or

esin = l.334 (e)

Computing the ratio of (e) to (d) yields

1.334 =11.18 ’ 0=84.89°
tan
0.1193
either (d) or (e) to find the eccentricity,
(d) We substitute the true anomaly back into
e= 1.339

from the orbit equation,

(e) The radius of perigee can now be found
807102 1
= 6986 km
Pu 1+e cos(0) 398 6001+1.339

fronm which
() The formula for turn angle is Equation 2.90,
1
8=2sin-(:)=2sin=
36.60
Equation 2.93,
(g) The semimajor axis of the hyperbola is found in
807102 = 20590 km
a= 398 600 1.3392 1

radius is
(h) According to Equations 2.96 and 2.97, the aiming
A=avee-l= 20 5901.3392 l= 18340km
 2.9 Hyperbolic trajectories (e > 1) 75

VI = Vcos y = 8.6" cos 50° = 5.528 km/s (b)

Then Equation 2.21 provides us with the angular momentum,

h=rvL=14600 5.528 = 80710 km/s (c)

trajectory, we get
(c) Evaluating the orbit equation at the given location on the
807102
14600 == 398 600 1+e cos

from which
e cos =0.1193 (d)
Equation 2.39, v, = ue sin 0/h, so
The radial component of velocity is given by
that with (a) and (c), we obtain
398 600
6.588 = e sin
80 170

or
esin = 1.334 (e)

Computing the ratio of (e) to (d) yields

1.334 0= 84.89°
tan = = l1.18 ’
0.1193

into either (d) or (e) to find the eccentricity,

(d) We substitute the true anomaly back
e= 1.339

found from the orbit equation,

(e) The radius of perigee can now be
1 807102 1
= 6986 km
Tp = u1+ecos(0) 398 6001+1.339

Equation 2.90, from which

(f) The formula for turn angle is

8=2sin(:)=2sin(139) 96.60°

found in Equation 2.93,

(g) The semimajor axis of the hyperbola is
807102
=20590 km
a=
ue?-1 398 600 1.3392 - 1

2.97, the aiming radius is

(h) According to Equations 2.96 and
A= ave-|=20 590/1.3392 l= 18340km