HUMAN FACTORS IN ENGINEERING

UNIT 1
• Fundamentals of Human Factors Engineering: Human Biological,
Ergonomic and psychological capabilities and limitations, Concepts of
human factors engineering and Ergonomics, Man-Machine system and
Design philosophy.
• Physical work and energy expenditure: Manual lifting, Work posture,
Repetitive motion, Provision of energy for muscular work, Heat stress,
Role of oxygen physical exertion, Measurement of energy expenditure,
Respiration, Pulse rate and blood pressure during physical work, Physical
work capacity and its evaluation.
Fundamentals of Human Factors in Engineering
• Have you ever used a tool, device, appliance, or machine and said to
yourself, "What a dumb way to design this; it is so hard to use!

• If you have had such experiences, you have already begun to think in
terms of human factors considerations in the design of things people
use.
What a dumb designs these are !!!!!!!
HUMAN FACTORS AND ERGONOMICS
• Human factors and ergonomics (commonly referred to as human
factors) focuses on human beings and their interaction with
products, equipment, facilities, procedures, and environments used
in work and everyday living.

• The emphasis is on human beings and how the design of

things influences people

• Human factors seeks to change the design of things to better

match the capabilities, limitations, and needs of people.
OBJECTIVES OF HUMAN FACTORS
• The first objective is to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency with
which work and other activities are carried out.

• Included here would be such things as increased convenience of use,

reduced errors, and increased productivity.

• The second objective is to enhance certain desirable human values,

including improved safety, reduced fatigue and stress, increased
comfort, greater user acceptance, increased job satisfaction, and
improved quality of life
 APPROACH OF HUMAN FACTORS
• Commitment to the idea that things, machines, etc. are built to serve
humans and must be designed always with the user in mind

• Recognition of individual differences in human capabilities and

limitations and an appreciation for their design implications

• Conviction that the design of things, procedures, etc. influences

human behaviour and well-being.
 APPROACH OF HUMAN FACTORS
• Emphasis on empirical data and evaluation in the design process

• Reliance on the scientific method and the use of objective data to test
hypotheses and generate basic data about human behavior

• Commitment to a systems orientation and a recognition that things,

procedures, environments, and people do not exist in isolation
 INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN FACTORS
• Human factors is not just applying checklists and guidelines.

• Human factors is not using oneself as the model for designing things.

• Just because a set of instructions makes sense to an engineer, there is

no guarantee others will understand them.
 INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN FACTORS
• Just because a designer can reach all the controls on a machine, that
is no guarantee that everyone else will be able to do so.

• Human factors recognizes individual differences and the need to

consider the unique characteristics of user populations in
designing things for their use
Civil Engineer trying to explain the building
model
This is much better to understand !!!
Comfortable post box height
Is it comfortable Height !!!!!
A comfortable design of scissors
Not for me as I am a lefty
Design for human comfort
 ERGONOMICS
• Ergonomics is the science and art of
fitting the job and the workplace to
workers needs.

• It is a way to make jobs/tasks

fit the employees better

• It is a way to make work easier

HUMAN BIOLOGICAL CAPABILITIES AND LIMITATIONS
• The key aspects of human biology are those ways in which humans
are substantially different from other mammals.

• Humans have a very large brain in a head that is very large for the size of
the animal.

• This large brain has enabled a range of unique attributes including the
development of complex languages and the ability to make and use a
complex range of tools.

• The upright stance and bipedal locomotion is not unique to humans

but humans are the only species to rely almost exclusively on this
mode of locomotion.
• In comparison with most other mammals,
humans are very long lived.

• The human eye can see objects in colour but

is not well adapted to low light conditions.

• The sense of smell and of taste are present

but are relatively inferior to a wide range of
other mammals.
• Human hearing is efficient but lacks the acuity
of some other mammals.

• Similarly human sense of touch is well

developed especially in the hands where
dexterous tasks are performed but the
sensitivity is still significantly less than in
other animals, particularly those equipped
with sensory bristles such as cats.
 PHYSIOLOGY
• Physiology is the study of the functions of living
things at various levels of organization (such as
molecular level, cellular, tissue level etc).

• Physiology tests how organs and systems

within the body work, how they communicate,
and how they combine their efforts to make
conditions favorable for survival.
1. The sensory systems (vision, hearing, position, touch, taste, and smell)
are stimulated by energy sources (e.g., light, sound, or heat) or materials
(e.g., airborne chemicals, acid on skin, salt on tongue) in the outside
environment.

2. The central information processor (brain and nervous system)

processes information acquired from the sensory systems.

3. The effector systems (arms, hands, eyes, legs, etc.) are consciously
controlled to modify the environment and acquire information.

4. The support systems (circulatory, digestive, metabolic, heat-

regulatory, etc.) act in various ways to keep the other systems
functioning.
 Human eye
• Almost 180 degree horizontal filed of view
• Stereoscopic view allows for depth perception
• High resolution image reception in direct field
• Peripheral vision – low resolution but excellent motion detection
• Visible spectrum only
 Human ear
• The commonly stated range of human hearing is 20
to 20,000 Hz

• Under ideal laboratory conditions, humans can

hear sound as low as 12 Hz, and as high as 28 kHz

• The human auditory system is most sensitive

to frequencies between 2,000 and 5,000 Hz

• The range shrinks during life, usually beginning at

around the age of eight with the upper frequency
limit being reduced
 Human nose
• The human nose can distinguish at least 1 trillion
different odours
• A human nose has around 400 scent receptors

Human skin
• Our sense of touch is controlled by a huge network of nerve
endings and touch receptors in the skin known as the
somatosensory system.
• Skin is capable of sensing various levels of contact force,
temperature etc
Human tongue
• The tongue is a true all-rounder. It is not only very movable,
which allows us to speak, suck or swallow in a coordinated way.

• It helps us to recognize the taste of the food that is essential for us

to remember the taste

• we know that different regions of the tongue can detect sweet, sour,
bitter and salty.
 BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Our nervous system is your body's command center.
Originating from your brain, it controls your
movements, thoughts and automatic responses.

• The brain is a complex organ that controls thought,

memory, emotion, touch, motor skills, vision,
breathing, temperature, hunger and every process
that regulates our body.

• Peripheral nervous system (PNS) is that part of your

nervous system that lies outside your brain and
spinal cord. It plays key role in both sending
information from different areas of your body back
to your brain, as well as carrying out commands
from your brain to various parts of your body
 Musculoskeletal system
• Musculoskeletal system includes your
bones, cartilage, ligaments, tendons
and connective tissues.

• Skeleton provides a framework for your

muscles and other soft tissues.

• Together, they support your body's

weight, maintain your posture and help
you move.
 Support Sub systems
Circulatory System Respiratory System
• The blood circulatory system is a • The respiratory system is the
system of organs that includes network of organs and tissues
the heart, blood vessels, and that help you breathe.
blood which is circulated • It includes your airways, lungs
throughout the entire body of a and blood vessels. The muscles
human or other vertebrate. that power your lungs are also
part of the respiratory system.
 PHYSIOLOGICAL LIMITATIONS
Human physical and physiological limitations can alter throughout working
life, and refer to, for example:

• Poorer eyesight and / or hearing.

• Reduction in memory capacity.
• Reduced strength.
• Increased fatigue.

These factors should be monitored to ensure staff remains fit for work.
 HUMAN PSYCHOLOGICAL CAPABILITIES AND LIMITATIONS:
Human psychological capabilities and limitations refer to the range of mental
abilities and constraints that are inherent to the human mind.

CAPABILITIES:

Perception: Humans have the ability to perceive their environment through their senses,
including vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch.
Attention: Humans can focus their attention on specific things or tasks, allowing them to
filter out distractions and concentrate on what is important.
Memory: Humans can store and retrieve information in their memory, allowing them to
learn from past experiences and make better decisions in the future.
Language: Humans have the ability to use language to communicate with others,
expressing their thoughts and ideas, and understanding others.
Creativity: Humans have the ability to think creatively, coming up with new ideas and
solutions to problems.
LIMITATIONS:

Cognitive biases: Humans are prone to cognitive biases, which can lead to errors in
thinking and decision-making.
Limited attention span: Humans have a limited capacity for sustained attention, making
it difficult to focus on complex or lengthy tasks for extended periods.
Limited memory capacity: Humans have a limited capacity for storing and retrieving
information, which can make it difficult to recall details from the past or remember
important information.
Emotional biases: Humans are influenced by their emotions, which can lead to biased
thinking and decision-making.
Limited processing speed: Humans have a finite processing speed, which can make it
difficult to process large amounts of information quickly.

Understanding these capabilities and limitations can help us better understand how the
human mind works and develop strategies to overcome its limitations and maximize its
potential.
THE MAN-MACHINE SYSTEM
• The man-machine system consists of the man, the machine and
system environment
• A man machine system can be as simple as a person working with a
small tool like hammer and it can go up to any level of complexity.
Types of man machine systems

• Manual System

• Mechanical System

• Automated system
Manual System
• A manual system consists of hand tools and other aids which are
coupled by a human operator who controls the operation.

• Operators of such systems use their own physical energy as the power
source.
MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
• These systems (also referred to as semiautomatic systems) consist of
well-integrated physical parts, such as various types of powered
machine tools.

• The power typically is provided by the machine, and are generally

designed to perform their functions with little variation.
AUTOMATED SYSTEMS
• When a system is fully automated, it performs all operational functions
with little or no human intervention.

• Robots are a good example of an automated system.

• All automated systems require humans to install, program, reprogram,

and maintain them.
PHYSICAL WORK AND ENERGY EXPENDITURE
 PHYSICAL WORK AND ENERGY EXPENDITURE
• Physical work or activity is defined as any bodily
movement produced by skeletal muscles that results in
energy expenditure.

• Total daily energy expenditure (TDEE) is the number

of calories you burn throughout a 24-hour period.
 PHYSICAL WORK AND ENERGY EXPENDITURE
• TDEE is determined by body movement and body
size.

• It requires more energy to move a large body than a

small body, one of the reasons why obese people
generally move less than lean people
ENERGY EXPENDITURE
Energy expenditure is simply the number of calories the body uses.
There are 3 main components that make up your energy expenditure.

1. Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR): Energy needed to maintain essential

physiological functions including growth, pregnancy, lactation etc.
ENERGY EXPENDITURE
2. The thermic effect of food (TEF) : Thermogenesis necessary for
digestive and metabolic utilization of nutrients

3. Physical activity: Energy for muscle contraction and movement

Example : Climb Stairs = 0.254 X 70 Kg X 60mins = 1066.8 kcals per hour
 WAYS TO INCREASE DAILY ENERGY EXPENDITURE
•Cleaning your home or a particular room
•Taking a walk around the block, or walking
a pet
•Setting a timer (or watch) for movement
breaks throughout the day
•Taking the stairs (instead of an elevator or
escalator)
•Choosing a parking spot further away
from your destination
•Scheduling a walking meeting
•Using a standing desk
Understanding Manual Handling Hazards
Understanding Manual Handling Hazards
 MANUAL LIFTING
• This picture gives the idea
how much weight men and
women can carry in the office
with out causing injuries

• Each box in Figure contains a

filter value for lifting and
lowering in that zone.
Work techniques to prevent Manual Lifting
Injuries
Proper Lifting Technique
 WORK POSTURE
• Work posture is the position and condition of the body or body
parts during the performance of work.

• Good work posture is as important for the performance of tasks as it

promotes health and minimizes stress and discomfort during work.
 Key points for ideal sitting position
• Keep your back straight, in particular:
• Avoid rounding your shoulders forward (for this, you must have your screen at
your eye level)
• Avoid rounding (or arching) your lower back
• Keep your shoulders relaxed and back
• Place your elbows so that they form an angle of 90-100 degrees (never
less)
• Keep your knees at a height of your hips (the thighs should form an
angle of 90-100 degrees with the torso)
• Leave your legs relaxed, bent at about 90-100 degrees, leave your feet
resting on the ground and do not cross your legs.
 REPETITIVE MOTION
• Doing the same motion over and over or using certain types
of positions or grips can cause pain and inflammation

• Examples can include bending, twisting, grasping and reaching.

• Many occupations involve repetitive movements, which can cause

injuries such as tendinitis, bursitis, and nerve entrapment
syndromes.
Tendinitis
• Tendinitis is inflammation of the thick fibrous cords that attach
muscle to bone
 Bursitis
• Bursitis (bur-SY-tis) is a painful condition that affects the small, fluid-
filled sacs — called bursae (bur-SEE) — that cushion the bones,
tendons and muscles near your joints.
• Bursitis occurs when bursae become inflamed.
• The most common locations for bursitis are in the shoulder, elbow
and hip
Nerve entrapment
• Nerve Entrapment is a condition in which a nerve becomes
compressed, or entrapped, between two other structures in the
body.
• Usually, the nerve is compressed between a ligament and a bone.
• Repetitive motion can cause the ligament and bone to press or rub
against the nerve.
Repetitive motion injury prevention
• Pacing - reducing the number of repetitions per hour.

• Breaks - providing short rest periods to relieve fatigue.

• Job rotation - rotate periodically to a different task involving different

movements.

• Exercise – Exercise keeps people fit and Fit people are less likely to
experience physical problems and are more likely to recover quickly
when they do.
PROVISION OF ENERGY FOR MUSCULAR WORK
• Energy is required for a muscle to contract and stretch

• Energy for muscle action is provided by the foods we eat and

digest, primarily the carbohydrates and fats.

• Proteins are used principally to maintain tissues.

• Glucose is readily available source of energy

• Glucose gets converted to ATP in mitochondria of the cell

• ATP gets converted into ADP with release of energy which can be
readily used by the cells.
 • ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate, and is
the energy used by an organism in its daily
operations.
• It consists of an adenosine molecule and three
inorganic phosphates.
• After a simple reaction breaking down ATP
to ADP, the energy released from the breaking of
a molecular bond is the energy we use to keep
ourselves alive.
7.3 cal /mole • ADP again absorbs energy by digesting food

and reforms ATP

• This cycle continues and keeps the body
functioning
1 mole = 6.02214076×1023 elementary entities.
 HEAT STRESS
• The term ‘heat stress’ refers to the body suffering adverse side effects
from not being able to cool itself enough to maintain a healthy
temperature.

• In hot environments, the body produces heat and must dissipate it by

convection, conduction, radiation and evaporation.

• Heat stress occurs when the body cannot get rid of excess heat. When
this happens, the body's core temperature rises and the heart rate
increases
• Heat stress refers to the net heat load that workers sustain under the
combined effect of metabolic heat production, environmental factors
(ie. air temperature, humidity, air flow and heat radiation) and
clothing requirements.
Sources of heat in industry
Conditions caused by heat stress
• Heat cramps – painful cramps in muscles, caused by heavy sweating that
uses up the body’s supply of salt and water.

• Heat exhaustion – weakness, fatigue, dizziness, visual disturbance,

feeling of intense thirst and heat, nausea, vomiting, palpitations,
tingling and numbness of fingers and/ or toes.
• Heat rash – an itchy rash of small raised red spots on the face, neck,
back, chest and thighs.

• Heat stroke – a life threatening condition that requires immediate first

aid and medical attention, caused by overexposure to heat and often
dehydration.

Symptoms are dry, hot skin, high body temperature (possibly

over 41°C) and may include mental confusion which can result in collapse.
Reactions of the Body to Hot Environments
Redistribution of Blood:
• The body directs blood flow to the skin.
• The skin vessels are dilated and the superficial veins fully opened.

• This can enlarge the blood flow fourfold above the resting level.

• The increased conductance of surface tissues facilitates energy loss

through convection, conduction, and radiation because all are
proportional to the temperature differential between skin and
environment.
Reactions of the Body to Hot Environments
• If not enough heat can be transferred via a temperature differential,
the body’s sudomotor system activates sweat glands so that
evaporation of the produced sweat may cool the skin
 Reduction of Muscle Activities
• If heat transfer by blood distribution and sweat evaporation remains
insufficient to keep the body cool enough in a hot environment, the body
must reduce its muscular activities in order to lower the amount of energy
generated through metabolic processes.

• This is the final and necessary action of the body if otherwise the core
temperature would exceed a tolerable limit.
 Reduction of Muscle Activities
• If the body has to choose between unacceptable overheating and
continuing to perform physical work, the choice will be in favor of core
temperature maintenance, which means reduction or cessation of work
or exercise.
 ROLE OF OXYGEN PHYSICAL EXERTION
Oxygen plays a critical role in physical exertion, as it is required to produce the
energy needed for muscular activity. During physical activity, the body's
demand for oxygen increases as the muscles require more energy to contract
and perform work.

The body's ability to deliver oxygen to the muscles, and the muscles' ability to
use that oxygen, determine how much work can be performed and for how
long.

During exercise, the lungs take in more oxygen from the air, which is then
transported to the muscles via the bloodstream. The muscles use this oxygen
to produce energy in a process called aerobic metabolism.

The more oxygen that is available, the more energy that can be produced,
allowing the muscles to contract more forcefully and for longer periods of time.
If the demand for oxygen exceeds the body's ability to deliver it, the muscles
may switch to anaerobic metabolism, which does not require oxygen but
produces lactic acid as a by product. This can cause fatigue, muscle soreness,
and decreased performance.

Therefore, maintaining an adequate oxygen supply during physical exertion is

essential for optimal performance and avoiding fatigue.

This can be achieved through regular cardiovascular exercise, which can

improve the body's ability to transport and use oxygen, as well as by ensuring
adequate rest and nutrition to support muscle recovery and growth.
RESPIRATION
“Respiration is defined as a metabolic process wherein, the living cells of
an organism obtains energy (in the form of ATP) by taking in oxygen and
liberating carbon dioxide from the oxidation of complex organic
substances.”

Respiration consists of 4 distinct processes:

• Pulmonary Ventilation: moving air into and out of the lungs. ...
• External Respiration
• Transport: transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the lungs
and tissues.
• Internal Respiration: diffusion of gases between the blood of the
systemic capillaries and cells.
 MEASUREMENT OF ENERGY EXPENDITURE
• Energy expenditure can be estimated by measuring macronutrient or oxygen
consumption, or heat production or carbon dioxide production.

• Energy expenditure is maeasured by

1. Direct calorimetry

2. Indirect calorimetry

3. Doubly Labelled water Technique

4. Computerized Instrumentation
• Direct calorimetry obtains a direct Direct calorimetry
measurement of the amount of heat
generated by the body within a
structure large enough to permit
moderate amounts of activity.

• These structures are called

whole-room calorimeters.

• Direct calorimetry provides a

measure of energy expended in the
form of heat.
•A calorimeter is an insulated, • Calorimeters are extremely
airtight chamber. expensive to construct and are

• A subject exercises in this slow to generate results.

chamber and the heat • The measurements are extremely

generated is transferred to accurate for total energy
the air and walls of the expenditure; however, direct
chamber. calorimetry cannot follow rapid

• This change in temperature is changes in energy usage.

measured and metabolic rate can

be calculated.
 Indirect calorimetry
• Indirect calorimetry involves the spirometry using relatively small gas
measurement of respiratory gas analysis equipment
exchange (oxygen consumption and • By measuring gas exchange (thus
carbon dioxide production) during a energy expenditure) during specified
variety of controlled physical modes of physical activity, the
activities (cycle and treadmill average energy costs can be obtained
exercise is common). for these activities.
• This is accomplished via open-circuit
 Doubly labeled water
• The doubly labeled water • These are both naturally occurring
method can be used to stable isotopes that have background
measure total energy levels of around 150 ppm for
expenditure in unrestrained deuterium and around 2000 ppm for
subjects for 1-4 weeks. 18O.

• The method involves dosing • When individuals drink a dose of

subjects with water that contains doubly labelled water the levels of
artificially elevated levels of two these isotopes in their bodies rise
isotopic tracers, deuterium (2H) and to about 225 ppm and 2150 ppm
oxygen (18O), hence doubly labeled. respectively.
• If a dose of heavy oxygen is ingested, it is
primarily eliminated by the flow of both
water and CO2 through the body.

• On the other hand, a dose of deuterium will be

primarily eliminated only by the flow of water.

• Therefore, the difference in the elimination of

the two isotopes provides a measure of CO2
production.

• Doubly labeled water is currently the most

accurate way to measure total energy
expenditure and is considered the gold
standard.
 PHYSICAL WORK CAPACITY
• The Physical Work Capacity component evaluates the capacity of an
individual to perform physically demanding work tasks.

• Physical work capacity is the ability to perform maximal physical work.

• As it is a function of the intensity and duration of work, each individual

has many different capacities such as anaerobic, aerobic and endurance
capacity, each with its own limiting factors.

• In practice, aerobic work capacity (VO2 max) is the capacity most often
considered.
PHYSICAL WORK CAPACITY
PHYSICAL WORK CAPACITY
VO₂ max is the maximum (max) rate (V) of oxygen (O₂) your body is able to
use during exercise.

Oxygen is a critical ingredient in the respiratory process that’s involved in

breathing. As you breathe in oxygen, your lungs absorb and turn it into
energy called adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

ATP powers your cells and helps release the carbon dioxide (CO₂) that’s
created during your respiratory process when you exhale.
• Accurately measuring V̇O2 max involves a physical
Measurement of
effort sufficient in duration and intensity to fully VO2
tax the aerobic energy system.

In general clinical and athletic testing, this usually

involves a graded exercise test (either on a treadmill
or on a cycle ergometer) in which exercise intensity
is progressively increased while measuring
ventilation and oxygen and carbon dioxide
concentration of the inhaled and exhaled air.
How to determine VO₂ max METS

The methodology for figuring out what your VO₂ max is as a figure called
metabolic equivalents (METS).

That’s the official term for how much energy your body uses when it’s
resting.

Basically, 1 MET equals about 3.5 milliliters (mL) of oxygen (O₂) divided by
how much you weigh times a single minute.

That looks like this: 1 MET = 3.5 mL O₂ / kilograms (kg) x minute.

There’s no one “good” VO₂ max that every single person should shoot for,
but everyone should aim for a good or higher fitness score (60 and higher
percentile).

Typical VO₂ max for people born male measured in METS:

Age 20–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 60–69 70–79

Superior 55.4 54 52.5 48.9 45.7 42.1
Excellent 51.1 48.3 46.4 43.4 39.5 36.7
Good 45.4 44 42.4 39.2 35.5 32.3
Fair 41.7 40.5 38.5 35.6 32.3 29.4
Poor <41.7 <40.5 <38.5 <35.6 <32.3 <29.4
Typical VO₂ max for people born female measured in METS:

Age 20–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 60–69 70–79

Superior 49.6 47.4 45.3 41.1 37.8 36.7
Excellent 43.9 42.4 39.7 36.7 33 30.9
Good 39.5 37.8 36.3 33 30 28.1
Fair 36.1 34.4 33 30.1 27.5 25.9
Poor <36.1 <34.4 <33 <30.1 <27.5 <25.9
How can you increase your VO₂ max?

Increasing your VO₂ max can improve the delivery and use of oxygen by
your body, maintaining your health and physical fitness well into your
later years.

Here are some suggestions:

Perform high intensity interval training (HIIT): This consists of doing

several minutes of intense aerobic exercises, like cycling on a stationary
bike, reducing the intensity for a few minutes, and increasing the intensity
again.
Switch up aerobic activities in a single workout:
Start with cycling, then swimming, then running, and so on. Rest in
between each activity.

Perform any cardio activity:

While intensity is what improves VO₂ max levels the most, any cardio
exercise that is not a stroll should improve cardio respitory fitness and VO₂
max in sedentary people.