Basic Electronics Notes Ver 0.

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1. Basic Electronics
1.1 Semiconductor Theory
1. Electron Theory
 Molecules made of atoms
 Bohr’s Atomic Model
o Atom has positively charged nucleus
o Electrons revolve in circular orbits
o Definite discrete orbits
o In these orbits no radiation of electromagnetic energy
o When electron jumps between orbits, atom radiates out energy

2. What is Semiconductor?
 Type of materials

o Insulators
 No free charge carriers (for example wood)
 Valence electrons bound very tightly to their parent atoms
 Very large amount of energy required to make them free to move them
away from nuclei
 Full valence band, empty conduction band, large energy gap between 2
bands

o Conductors
 Plenty of free electrons
 Overlapping conduction and valence bands
 Total current is only due to electron flow, no holes unlike
semiconductors
 o Semiconductors
 Electrical property (conduction) lies in between conductors and
insulators ( for example, Germanium and Silicon)
 Small energy gap between conduction band and valence band
 At 0 degree Kelvin temperature, all electrons in valence band, none in
conduction band
 At higher temperatures, gap between 2 bands reduces, liberating more
electrons
 Conductivity increases with temperature
 Departing electrons leave behind holes (absence of electrons)
 Total current is due to both electron and hole flow in opposite directions

3. Crystal structure of semiconductor

 Atoms arranged in 3 dimensional periodic pattern (called lattice)
 Atoms vibrate about a central position due to thermal effect
 Different types of crystal lattice structures exist
 Simple cubic(SC)
 Base Centred Cubic (BCC)
 Face Centred Cubic (FCC)

 Germanium (Ge) and Silicon(Si) have diamond crystal structure(cubic crystal

family)
 Each atom has 4 neighbour atoms

4. Bonds in Semiconductor
  Ge and Si are tetra valent ( 4 electrons in outer most shell)
 Neighbouring atoms form Covalent bonds by sharing 4 electrons with each other
to achieve inert gas structure( 8 electrons in outermost shell)
 Bonds can be broken by increasing temperature

5. Commonly used Semiconductors

 Si
 Ge

6. Energy band description

 1.1 eV for Si
 0.7 ev for Ge

7. Effect of Temperature on Semiconductors

 Conductivity increases with increase in temperature

8. Hole current
 Direction opposite to electron current

9. Intrinsic semiconductor
 Pure semiconductor
10. Extrinsic semiconductor
 Semiconductor doped with an impurity
11. P-type semiconductor
 Dope with Trivalent (example: Gallium, Boron)
 These acceptor impurities give P-type semiconductor
 As a whole electrically neutral
12. N-type semiconductor
 Dope with pentavalent atoms (example: Arsenic. antimony)
 These doNor impurities give N-type semiconductor
 As a whole, electrically neutral
13. Charges on p-type and n-type semiconductor
 P-type : large no. of holes, very less no. of electrons
 N-type: large no. of electrons, very less no. of holes
14. Majority and minority carriers
 In P-type : holes are majority carriers, electrons are minority carriers
 In N-type : electrons are majority carriers, holes are minority carriers
 Minority carriers are very small in numbers
15. Diffusion and drift current
 Drift current is due to charge drift under influence of applied electric field
 With no electric field only random motion of charge carriers, no current
 With applied electric filed, directed movement of charge carriers, but
essentially majority carrier flow (as its is extrinsic)
  Diffusion current is due to flow of charge from high charge density region to low
density region
 Force-free process based on non-uniform distribution of charge carriers
in semiconductor crystal
 This leads to an electric current even without application of an electric
field
16. Mobility
 Drift velocity v is proportional to electric field strength E.
 Thus v= uE
 The constant of proportionality is called mobility u.
17. Photo-electric effect
 When light falls on semiconductor electrons are freed.
 Photoconductivity arises from the electrons freed by the light and from a flow of positive
charge as well.
 Electrons raised to the conduction band correspond to missing negative charges in the
valence band, called “holes.” Both electrons and holes increase current flow when the
semiconductor is illuminated.
18. Thermo-electric effect
 The effect is due to conversion of thermal energy to electrical energy. The Seebeck
effect is a phenomenon in which a temperature difference between two dissimilar
electrical conductors or semiconductors produces a voltage difference between the two
substances.
 The thermoelectric effect is the direct conversion of temperature differences to
electric voltage and vice versa
 Thermocouples make use of this effect

19. Hall effect

 When a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the direction of flow of charge
carriers, in a semiconductor material, charge carriers experience a force in transverse to
the direction of applied magnetic field and carriers flow. This effect is known as Hall
effect. So a potential difference is created in a direction opposite to both.
1.2 Semiconductor Diode
1. P-N Junction

 When P-type and N-type are put together, a device called diode is formed
 Diffusion of charge carriers happens
 A depletion region is formed around the junction of P and N type semiconductors

2. Properties of P-N junction

 It is called a diode because it has two electrodes (i.e. terminals), called the anode and
the cathode.
 A diode is unidirectional because current can flow freely from the anode to the cathode,
but not in the other direction.
 Hence used in rectifiers to convert ac to dc
 p–n junctions are elementary "building blocks" of semiconductor electronic devices such
as diodes, transistors, solar cells, LEDs, and integrated circuits

3. Biasing P-N junction

 Applying a voltage across the P-N junction is called biasing of it.
 There are 2 types of biasing- forward and reverse
 Forward bias
 P-type (anode) is connected to +ve terminal of battery and N-type (cathode) is
connected to –ve terminal of the battery
 Current flows from anode to cathode
  Reverse bias
 P-type (anode) is connected to -ve terminal of battery and N-type (cathode) is
connected to +ve terminal of the battery
 No current (actually negligible current) flows through the diode

4. Current flow in forward biased P-N junction

 In forward bias condition, when applied voltage is increased from zero, hardly any current
flows through the device in the beginning because external voltage is opposed by the
internal barrier voltage
 Barrier voltage is 0.7V for Si and 0.3V for Ge
 Once barrier voltage is crossed, current increases rapidly with applied voltage
 If voltage is increased beyond a safe limit, diode gets damaged
5. Volt-Ampere characteristics of P-N junction
 When diode is reverse biased, majority carriers are blocked and only a small current flows
due to minority carriers.
 This reverse current saturates at a maximum value called leakage current
 If reverse voltage exceeds break-down voltage, leakage current increases sharply
 If reverse voltage is increased further, the diode is likely to get damaged

6. Important terms
 Knee voltage: It is the forward voltage at which the flow of the current through the PN
junction of the diode increases rapidly. Also called forward break-over voltage
 Breakdown voltage: When this applied reverse bias voltage is increased gradually at a
certain point a rapid increase in the reverse current can be observed. This is known as
Junction breakdown. The corresponding applied reverse voltage at this point is known as
Breakdown Voltage of the PN junction diode.

7. Resistance of crystal diode

 Ideally speaking, a diode is expected to offer zero resistance when forward biased and
infinite resistance when reverse biased. However, no device can ever be ideal.
 Practically speaking, every diode is seen to offer a small resistance when forward biased, and
a considerable resistance when reverse biased.
 Forward resistance: It is nothing but the resistance offered by the diode when the diode is
working in its forward biased condition, after it starts conducting. It is also called bulk
 resistance. It is sum of resistance values of P and N type semiconductor material of which
the diode is made of.

 Static or DC Resistance:It is the resistance offered by the diode to the flow of DC through it
when we apply a DC voltage to it. Mathematically the static resistance is expressed as the
ratio of DC voltage applied across the diode terminals to the DC flowing through it.
o Rdc = Vdc/Idc

 Dynamic or AC Resistance:It is the resistance offered by the diode to the flow of AC through
it when we connect it in a circuit which has an AC voltage source as an active circuit element.
Mathematically the dynamic resistance is given as the ratio of change in voltage applied
across the diode to the resulting change in the current flowing through it.
o Rac = Vac/Iac

8. Crystal diode equivalent circuits

 Forward biased diode has a resistance rd and diffusion capacitance Cd (Cd comes into
picture only at very high frequencies). Voltage Vf takes care of barrier potential.
 Reverse biased diode has resistance Rr in parallel with capacitance Cpn
1.3 Rectifiers and Filters
1. Rectifier, Rectification
 Electronic devices and circuits requires DC voltage for their operation
 Dry cells and batteries are portable and ripple free, but requires replacement and
comparatively expensive
 Alternately it is economical to convert ac voltage to small dc voltage using DC regulated
power supplies
 Conversion of ac voltage to dc voltage is called rectification by a rectifier
 DC regulated power supply consists of rectifier, filter and voltage regulator

2. Crystal diode rectifier

 Rectifier circuit which uses crystal diode along with some resistors for the conversion of ac
voltage to dc voltage is known as crystal diode rectifier .

3. Half-Wave Rectifier
 The half wave rectifier is the simplest rectifier and it uses a transformer and a single diode.
 It conducts current only during the positive half cycles of the input supply voltage.
 The a.c. supply is normally applied through a transformer.
o It allows us to step up or step down the a.c. input voltage as required.
o Also the transformer isolates the rectifier circuit from power line and thus reduces
the risk of electric shock.
 Circuit diagram of HWR
  Working of HWR
o During the positive half cycles of input supply voltage, end A becomes positive with
respect to end B.This makes the diode D forward biased and hence it conducts
current.
o During negative half cycles, end A becomes negative with respect to end B. So the
diode D is reverse biased and hence conducts no current.
o So current flows through the diode only during the positive half cycles of the input
a.c. voltage.
o Hence current flows through the load RL always in the same direction and d.c.
output is obtained across RL
o The output across the load is pulsating. So a filter circuit is used to smoothen the
output.
 Disadvantages
o The output is pulsating with high ripple factor. Ripple factor = (rms ac)/ dc = 1.21
o The a.c. supply delivers power only half the time. So output voltage is low.
o Low conversion efficiency = 40.6%

4. Full-Wave Rectifier
 In full wave rectifier , current flows through the load in the same direction ( i.e. d.c.) for both
the half cycles of input a.c. supply voltage.
 It requires 2 diodes and a centre-tap transformer as shown in circuit diagram below
  Working of FWR
o During the positive half cycle of secondary voltage, the end A of the secondary
winding becomes positive and end B negative.
 So diode D1 is forward biased and diode D2 is reverse biased. Hence, diode
D1 conducts and diode D2 does not.
 The current flows through diode D1, load resistance RL and the upper half of
the secondary winding OA. This is shown by the dotted arrows.
o During the negative half cycle of secondary voltage, the end A of the secondary
winding becomes negative and end B positive.
 So diode D2 is forward biased and D1 is reverse biased. Hence D2 conducts
while D1 does not.
o So the current in the load RL flows in the same direction for both the half cycles of
input supply voltage. So d.c.is obtained across RL.
 Advantage
o Better conversion efficieny (81.2%) compared to HWR
 Disadvantage
o Diodes need to rated to withstand double the peak inverse voltage(PIV)
compared to HWR

5. Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier

 It uses 4 diodes and centre-tap transformer is not required
 Working of Bridge Rectifier
o During the positive half-cycle of secondary voltage, the end P of the secondary
winding becomes positive and end Q negative.
 This makes diodes D1 and D3 forward biased while D2 and D4 are reverse
biased. Hence only diodes D1 and D3 conducts.
 These two diodes will be in series through the load RL as shown below.

o During the negative half cycle of secondary voltage, end P becomes negative and
end Q positive.
 This makes diodes D2 and D4and forward biased and diodes D1 and D3 are
reverse biased. Hence only diodes D2 and D4 conducts.
 These two diodes will be in series through the load RL as shown below.
  So again the current flows from A to B through the load i.e. in the same
direction as for the positive half-cycle.
Therefore, d.c. output is obtained across load RL.
 Advantages
o There is no need of centre taped transformer in this type of full-wave bridge
rectifier.
o Small size of transformer
o The PIV rating of diode required is half that of the centre-tap circuit.
o Conversion efficiency is double that of HWR (81.2%)
 Disadvantages
o Requires 4 diodes

6. Efficiency of Full-Wave Rectifier

 Efficiency of a rectifier is actually the efficiencyofthe process of conversion of ac power to dc
power

Efficiency of FWR = 81.2%

7. Nature of Rectifier Output

 The output of a rectifier consists of a d.c. component and an a.c. component, which is also
known as ripple.
 The a.c. component is undesirable and accounts for the pulsations in the rectifier output.
 The effectiveness of a rectifier depends upon the magnitude of a.c. component in the
output. i.e., the smaller this
component, the more effective is the rectifier.
 The ratio of r.m.s. value of a.c. component to the d.c. component in the rectifier output is
known as ripple factor
 Ripple factor = (r.m.s. value of a.c component)/(value of d.c. component) = Iac /Idc

8. Comparison of Rectifiers
 Ripple factor
o HWR : 1.21
 o FWR: 0.482
o Bridge rectifier: 0.482
 Efficiency
o HWR: 40.6%
o FWR: 81.2%
o Bridge rectifier: 81.2%

9. Types of Filter Circuits or smoothing circuits (C, L, LC, CLC filter)

 Why Do We Need Filters?
o The output of all the rectifiershavesome AC component. This ac component has to
be completely removed in order to get pure dc output. So, we need a circuit
that smoothens the rectified output into a pure dc signal.
o A filter circuit is one which removes the ac component present in the rectified
output and allows the dc component to reach the load.
o The following figure shows the functionality of a filter circuit.

 A filter circuit is constructed using two main components, inductor and capacitor.
o An inductor allows dc and blocks ac.
o A capacitor allows ac and blocks dc.

 Series Inductor Filter(L Filter)

o As an inductor allows dc and blocks ac, a filter called Series Inductor Filter can be
constructed by connecting the inductor in series, between the rectifier and the load.
The figure below shows the circuit of a series inductor filter.

o The rectified output when passed through this filter, the inductor blocks the ac
components that are present in the signal, in order to provide a pure dc. This is a
simple primary filter.

 Shunt Capacitor Filter (C Filter)

o As a capacitor allows ac through it and blocks dc, a filter called Shunt Capacitor
Filter can be constructed using a capacitor, connected in shunt, as shown in the
following figure.
 o The rectified output when passed through this filter, the ac components present in
the signal are grounded through the capacitor which allows ac components. The
remaining dc components present in the signal are collected at the output.
o The above filter types discussed are constructed using an inductor or a capacitor.
Now, let’s try to use both of them to make a better filter. These are combinational
filters.
 L-C Filter
o A filter circuit can be constructed using both inductor and capacitor in order to
obtain a better output where the efficiencies of both inductor and capacitor can be
used. The figure below shows the circuit diagram of a LC filter .

o The rectified output when given to this circuit, the inductor allows dc components
to pass through it, blocking the ac components in the signal. Now, from that signal,
few more ac components if any present are grounded so that we get a pure dc
output.
o This filter is also called as a Choke Input Filter as the input signal first enters the
inductor. The output of this filter is a better one than the previous ones.

 Π- Filter orPifilter (CLC Fileter)

o This is another type of filter circuit which is very commonly used. It has capacitor at
its input and hence it is also called as a Capacitor Input Filter. Here, two capacitors
and one inductor are connected in the form of π shaped network. A capacitor in
parallel, then an inductor in series, followed by another capacitor in parallel makes
this circuit.
o If needed, several identical sections can also be added to this, according to the
requirement. The figure below shows a circuit for ππ filter Pi−filterPi−filter.

o Working of a Pi filter
 In this circuit, we have a capacitor in parallel, then an inductor in series,
followed by another capacitor in parallel.
  Capacitor C1 − This filter capacitor offers high reactance to dc and low
reactance to ac signal. After grounding the ac components present in the
signal, the signal passes to the inductor for further filtration.
 Inductor L − This inductor offers low reactance to dc components, while
blocking the ac components if any got managed to pass, through the
capacitor C1.
 Capacitor C2 − Now the signal is further smoothened using this capacitor so
that it allows any ac component present in the signal, which the inductor
has failed to block.
 Thus we, get the desired pure dc output at the load.

1.4 Special Purpose diodes and applications

1. Zener diode
o Zener diodes are a special kind of diode which permits current to flow in the
forward direction.
o What makes them different from normal diodes is that Zener diodes will also allow
current to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above thebreakdown
voltage (calledZener voltage).
o This reverse conduction occurs because of Avalanche breakdownin the
semiconductor depletion region.
o Breakdown voltage value is decided the doping level in the semiconductor.
o Zenervoltage can range from less than one volt to a few hundred volts.

2. Zener diode as voltage stabilization circuit

o Zener diodes are used as voltage regulators while operating in the reverse biased
condition.
o zener diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant
negative voltage regardless of the value of the current flowing through the diode.
o This voltage Vzremains almost constant even with large changes in current Iz.
o Thezener diodes current remains between the breakdown current IZ(min) and its
maximum current rating IZ(max) as shown in the V-I characteristics above
o This ability of the zener diode to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate
or stabilise a voltage source against supply or load variations.
o Circuit diagram of zener regulator is shown below

o Resistor, RS is connected in series with the zener diode to limit the current flow
through the diode with the voltage source, VS being connected across the
combination. The stabilised output voltage Vout is taken from across the zener
diode.
o The zener diode is connected with its cathode terminal connected to the positive
rail of the DC supply so it is reverse biased and will be operating in its breakdown
condition. Resistor RS is selected so as to limit the maximum current flowing in the
circuit.
o With no load connected to the circuit, the load current will be zero, ( IL = 0 ), and all
the circuit current passes through the zener diode which in turn dissipates its
maximum power.
o Also a small value of the series resistor RS will result in a greater diode current when
the load resistance RL is connected and large as this will increase the power
dissipation requirement of the diode so care must be taken when selecting the
appropriate value of series resistance Rs so that the zener’s maximum power rating
is not exceeded under this no-load or high-impedance condition.
o The load is connected in parallel with the zener diode, so the voltage across RL is
always the same as the zener voltage, ( VR = VZ ).
o There is a minimum zener current for which the stabilisation of the voltage is
effective and the zener current must stay above this value operating under load
within its breakdown region at all times. The upper limit of current is of course
dependant upon the power rating of the device. The supply voltage VS must be
greater than VZ.

Example:A 5.0V stabilised power supply is required to be produced from a 12V DC

power supply input source. The maximum power rating PZ of the zener diode is 2W.
Using the zener regulator circuit above calculate:
 a). The maximum current flowing through the zener diode.

b). The minimum value of the series resistor, RS

c). The load current IL if a load resistor of 1kΩ is connected across the zener diode.

d). The zener current IZ at full load.

3. Breakdown mechanism in zener diode

o The junction breakdown mechanism which occurs in the heavily doped thin region is
called Zener breakdown.
o In this mechanism when the high electric field is applied across the junction, the
charge carrier starts jumping across the junction.
o These electrons constitute the heavy current in the reversed direction.

4. Light-Emitting diode (LED)

o A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a special type of PN junction diode.
o The light emitting diode is specially doped and made of a special type
of semiconductor.
o This diode can emit light when it is in the forward biased state.
o Aluminum indium gallium phosphide (AlInGaP) and indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
are two of the most commonly used semiconductors for LED technologies.

5. LED voltage and current characteristic

o The characteristics of an LED depends upon the color of light, wavelength and
intensity. The main characteristic is color.
o In beginning, only red colored LED was available but with the passage of time,
different other colors were introduced.
o The following graph shows the approximate curves between the forward voltage
and the current. Each curve in the graph indicates the different color.
6. Advantages of LED
o Long Lifespan.
o Energy Efficiency
o Improved Environmental Performance
o The Ability to Operate in Cold Conditions
o No Heat or UV Emissions
o Design Flexibility
o Instant Lighting and the Ability to Withstand Frequent Switching
o Low Voltage Operation

7. Multicolour LEDs
o For some systems where space, cost, and power are constraints, it is an advantage
to have one LED that can transmit more than one color.
o Usually these multicolor LEDs have three LEDs, a red, a green, and a blue (RGB)
inside a single clear epoxy housing.
o Typically these have a rectangular lens emitting surface measuring 2.5 mm wide by 5
mm high and comes with four radial leads for through-hole mounting on a pc board.

o If an application only needs to display one of three states, then the simplest way is
to just turn on one LED at a time, giving the user a selection of red, green, or blue.
o For a greater variety of colors, a designer can simply combine two colors together,
giving the following six color options:
o Red
o Green
o Blue
 o Yellow (Red + Green)
o Cyan (Green + Blue)
o Magenta (Red + Blue)

8. Applications of LEDs

o Phones and digital watches.

o Camera flashes and automotive lamps.
o Aviation lighting
o Digital computers and calculators
o Traffic signals and Burglar alarms systems
o Microprocessors based systems

9. Photo-diode
o Photo-diode is a light sensor that converts light energy into electrical energy (voltage
or current). It is a semi conducting device with PN junction. Between the p (positive)
and n (negative) layers, an intrinsic layer is present. The photo diode accepts light
energy as input to generate electric current.

o It is also called as Photodetector, Photo Sensor or Light Detector. Photodiode

operates in reverse bias condition i.e., the p – side of the photodiode is connected
with negative terminal of battery (or the power supply) and n – side to the positive
terminal of battery.

o Typical photodiode materials are Silicon, Germanium, Indium Gallium Arsenide

Phosphide and Indium gallium arsenide.

o Internally, a photodiode has optical filters, built in lens and a surface area. When
surface area of photodiode increases, it results in less response time. Few photo
diodes will look like Light Emitting Diode (LED). It has two terminals as shown below.
The smaller terminal acts as cathode and longer terminal acts as anode.

10. Photo-diode operation

 o When a light illuminates the PN junction, covalent bonds are ionized. This generates
hole and electron pairs. Photocurrents are produced due to generation of electron-
hole pairs.

o Electron hole pairs are formed when photons of energy more than 1.1eV hits the
diode. When the photon enters the depletion region of diode, it hits the atom with
high energy. This results in release of electron from atom structure. After the
electron release, free electrons and hole are produced.

o Electrons will have a negative charge and holes will have a positive charge. The
depletion energy will have built-in electric field. Due to that electric field, electron-
hole pairs move away from the junction. Hence, holes move to anode and electrons
move to the cathode to produce photocurrent.

11. Characteristics of photo-diode

o Photodiode operates in reverse bias condition. Reverse voltages are plotted along X
axis in volts and reverse current are plotted along Y-axis in microampere
o Reverse current does not depend on reverse voltage. When there is no light
illumination, reverse current will be almost zero. The minimum amount of current
present is called as Dark Current.
o Once when the light illumination increases, reverse current also increases linearly.

12. Applications of photo-diodes

 o Photo-diodes have a linear response to a light illumination. When more amount of
light falls on the sensor, it produces high amount of current.
o Photodiodes help to provide an electric isolation with help of optocouplers. When
two isolated circuits are illuminated by light, optocouplers is used to couple the
circuit optically. But the circuits will be isolated electrically. Compared to
conventional devices, optocouplers are fast.
o Photodiodes are also used in safety electronics like fire and smoke detectors.
o When utilized in cameras, they act as photo sensors. It is used in scintillators charge-
coupled devices, photoconductors, and photomultiplier tubes.
o Photodiodes are also widely used in numerous medical applications like instruments
to analyze samples

13. Diode in a clipping circuit

o Diode Clipper, also known as a Diode Limiter, is a wave shaping circuit that takes an
input waveform and clips or cuts off its top half, bottom half or both halves
together.

14. Diode in a clamping circuit

o Clamping circuit consists of a diode, a resistor and a capacitor that shifts the
waveform to a desired DC level without changing the actual appearance of the
applied signal.
 2. Basic Electronic Circuit Element
2.0 Transistor
1. Introduction

o A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electrical signals

and power. The transistor is one of the basic building blocks of modern electronics.
o Transistors are packaged individually and also embedded in integrated circuits.

2.Types of transistors and Symbols

o Transistors are broadly divided into three types:

o Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs)
o Field-effect transistors (FETs)
o Insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs)

Symbols of BJT:
3.Bipolar Junction Transistor operation (working)

o A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal semiconductor device

consisting of two p-n junctions which are able to amplify or magnify a signal.
o It is a current controlled device. The three terminals of the BJT are the base, the
collector and the emitter.
o A BJT is a type of transistor that uses both electrons and holes as charge carriers,
whereas FET has either holes or electrons as charge carriers
o In the symbols of PNP and NPN transistors, the arrow shows the direction of
conventional current
o BJT is analogous to 2 diodes connected back to back

Biasing

o Biasing means applying external voltage to transistor

o In an unbiased transistor, depletion region penetrates more in the base
region because base is lightly doped
o Unbiased transistor does not conduct current
o Depending upon the polarities of external voltages applied, transistor can
operate in 3 different regions as follows

Region Emitter-base junction Collector-base junction

Active Forward biased Reverse biased
Cut-off Reverse biased Reverse biased
 Saturation Forward biased Forward biased

Working of n-p-n transistor:

o The forward bias causes the electrons in the n-type emitter to flow towards
the base. This constitutes the emitter current IE.
o As these electrons flow through the p-type base, they tend to combine with
holes. As the base is lightly doped and very thin, therefore, only a few
electrons (less than 5%) combine with holes to constitute base current IB.
o The remainder ( more than 95%) cross over into the collector region to
constitute collector current IC. In this way, almost the entire emitter current
flows in the collector circuit.
o It is clear that emitter current is the sum of collector and base
currents i.e.IE = IB + IC

Working of p-n-p transistor:

o PNP transistor works identical to n-p-n transistor, the only difference is that
holes are majority carriers
o The forward bias causes the holes in the p-type emitter to flow towards the
base. This constitutes the emitter current IE.
o As these holes cross into n-type base, they tend to combine with the
electrons. As the base is lightly doped and very thin, therefore, only a few
holes (less than 5%) combine with the electrons.
o The remainder (more than 95%) cross into the collector region to constitute
collector current IC.
o In this way, almost the entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit. It
may be noted that current conduction within pnp transistor is by holes.
However, in the external connecting wires, the current is still by electrons
4.Transistor Connections (Configurations)

o Transistor has only 3 terminals, but to connect it to a circuit, we require 4 terminals

(2 for input, 2 for output)
o This difficulty is overcome by making one terminal common to both input and
output
o Depending on which terminal is made common, there are 3 configuration of
transistor
o Common base configuration
o Common emitter configuration
o Common collector configuration

5.Characteristics of Common Base connection

o In this configuration, base terminal as a common between input circuit and output
circuit of the transistor
o The input and output characteristics are a graphical representation of transistor
behavior.

Input characteristics:

Output Characteristics:
 o Used in high frequency amplifiers

6.Common emitter connection

Base current amplification factor (β):

Input characteristics:
 Output Characteristics:

7.Common Collector Connection

Input characteristics:
Output characteristics:

o Not used as amplifier, used as voltage buffer for impedance matching.

8. Commonly Used Transistor Connection

o Common emitter configuration has the highest voltage gain and power gain
compared to the types

9.Transistor DC Load Line Analysis

 o Consider the output characteristics of CE configuration shown above.
o When a value for the maximum possible collector current(IC) is considered ( on the
Y-axis), such a point is called the saturation point.
o When a value for the maximum possible collector emitter voltage(VCE) is
considered, ( on the X-axis), such a point is called the cutoff point.
o When a line is drawn joining these two points, such a line can be called as Load line.
o Load line, when drawn over the output characteristic curve, makes contact at a
point called as Operating point(Quiescent point or Q-point)
o There can be many such intersecting points, but the Q-point is selected in such a
way that for the entire AC signal swing, the transistor remains in active region

2.1 Transistor Biasing

1. Introduction

o Biasing is the process of providing DC voltage which helps in the functioning of the
circuit.
o Transistor Biasing is the process of setting a transistor’s DC operating voltage or
current conditions to the correct level
o A transistor is biased in order to make the emitter base junction forward biased and
collector base junction reverse biased, so that it remains in active region,to work
as an amplifier.
o Establishing the correct operating point requires the selection of bias resistors and
load resistors to provide the appropriate input current and collector voltage
conditions.
o The correct biasing point for a bipolar transistor, either NPN or PNP, generally lies
somewhere between the two extremes of operation with respect to it being either
“fully-ON” or “fully-OFF” along its DC load line. This central operating point is called
the “Quiescent Operating Point”, or Q-point.
o Once selected , the Q-point should remain stable and should not shift due to
temperature rise etc. So special arrangement are required.

2. Inherent Variations of Transistor

Variations are due to

 Variations due to manufacturing like doping variations

 Temperature changes change the minority carrier current

3. Parameters of Stabilisation circuits

  Temperature increase results in increase in collector currentIc. This increases
power dissipation and also the temperature, causing thermal runaway which
will destroy the transistor itself.
 Stabilisation circuits help in making collector current independent of
temperature
 The process of making the operating point independent of temperature
changes or variations in transistor parameters is known as Stabilization.

4. Essentials of a Transistor Biasing Circuit

 Biasing circuit helps in stabilising the Q-point when temperature changes or

transistor is replaced with another transistor

5. Stability Factor

 Collector current IC should be kept constant in spite of variations of I CO. The

extent to which a biasing circuit is successful in maintaining this is measured
by Stability factor ‘S’.
 By definition, the rate of change of collector current IC with respect to the
collector leakage current ICO at constant β and IB is called Stability factor.
 S=dIC/dICO , at constant IB and β

6. Methods of Transistor Biasing

 Base resistor bias (fixed current bias)

 Emitter bias
 Emitter bias with with collector feedback
 Voltage divider bias

7. Base Resistor Method

 A resistor RB of high resistance is connected in base.

 The required zero signal base current is provided by VCC which flows through RB.
 The base emitter junction is forward biased, as base is positive with respect to
emitter.
 A simple method, but stabilisation is not very good.
Improvement in stabilization by collector feedback:

 The collector to base feedback configuration ensures that the transistor is always
biased in the active region regardless of the value of Beta (β).
 The DC base bias voltage is derived from the collector voltage VC, thus providing
good stability.

8. Emitter Bias Circuit

 Emitter bias provides excellent bias stability in spite of changes in β or

temperature.
 It uses both a positive(VCC) and a negative supply voltage(VEE).
 9. Emitter Bias Biasing with Collector Feedback

10.Resistor Voltage Divider Bias method

This gives better stabilisation compared to other methods.

2.2 Amplification
1. Single Stage Transistor Amplifier CE configuration
  Only 1 transistor is used to amplify a weak signal.
 But a practical amplifier has many stages connected together
 When a weak signal applied to base, a small base current flows causing a large
collector current Ic to flow through load RL (due to large beta of transistor)
 Since RL is very high, a large voltage is produced at Vout
 A weak signal at base appears as an amplified signal at collector.
 R1, R2 and RE provide biasing and stabilisation
 CE amplifier has voltage gain greater than unity and hence suitable for cascading
multiple stages

2. Input/Output Phase Relationships

 Common emitter transistor amplifier gives an inversion of 180°, between the
input and output signals.
 As the input voltage rises, the current increases through the base circuit which In
turn increases the current thought the collector circuit, i.e. it tends to turn the
transistor on. This results in the voltage between the collector and emitter
terminals falling.
 Thus an increase in voltage between the base and emitter has resulted in a fall in
voltage between the collector and emitter terminals, in other words the phase of
the two signals has been inverted.
3. Role of Capacitors in Transistor Amplifiers
 C1 used to isolate signal source resistance (in parallel to R2) from changing the
bias
 C2 provides low reactance path to ac signal at output, preventing drop in output
voltage due to drop across RE
 Vout will be coupled to next stage through a coupling capacitor so that RL does
not affect biasing of next stage

4. Voltage Gain
 The current gain of the common emitter amplifier is defined as the ratio of change in
collector current to the change in base current.
 The voltage gain is defined as the product of the current gain and the ratio of the
output resistance of the collector to the input resistance of the base circuits
 β = ΔIc/ ΔIb
 Av = β Rc/Rb

5. Frequency response of CE amplifier

 The voltage gain of a CE amplifier varies with signal frequency. It is because the
reactance of the capacitors in the circuit changes with signal frequency and hence
affects the output voltage.
 The curve drawn between voltage gain and the signal frequency of an amplifier is
known as frequency response. The below figure shows the frequency response of a
typical CE amplifier.
 At Low Frequencies (< FL) The reactance of coupling capacitor C1 is relatively high
and hence very small part of the signal will pass from the amplifier stage to the
load.Moreover, CE cannot shunt the RE effectively because of its large reactance at
low frequencies. These two factors cause a drops off of voltage gain at low
frequencies.
 At High Frequencies (> FH) The reactance of coupling capacitor C1 is very small and
it behaves as a short circuit. This increases the loading effect of the amplifier stage
and serves to reduce the voltage gain.
6. Multistage Transistor Amplifier
 When gain of 1 stage is not sufficient, multiple stages are connected together
using a coupling device such as transformer or a capacitor
 The basic purposes of a coupling device are
o To transfer the AC from the output of one stage to the input of next
stage.
o To block the DC to pass from the output of one stage to the input of next
stage, ie, to isolate the DC conditions.

Overall voltage gain = AV1 * AV2

7. Properties of dB Gain

 Gain as such does not have unit, but gain is represented on a logarithmic scale
then it will have a unit called decibel (dB).
 decibel gain is defined in terms of the common (base 10) logarithm of a power
ratio
 If the conventional gain of an amplifier is (Po / Pi) , then this gain is expressed in
decibel scale as 10log(Po / Pi).
 Gain of 1 equals 0 dB, gain of 10 equals 10 dB & so on
 While overall gain is product of gains of all stages, in dB scale overall gain is
addition of gains in dB

8. RC Coupled Transistor Amplifier

 A Resistance Capacitance (RC) Coupled Amplifier is basically a multi-stage amplifier
circuit extensively used in electronic circuits.
 Individual stages of the amplifier are connected together using a resistor–capacitor
combination
 Figure 1 shows such a two-stage amplifier whose individual stages are nothing but
the common emitter amplifiers.
 Design of individual stages of the RC coupled amplifiers is similar to that in the case
of common emitter amplifiers in which the resistors R1 and R2 form the biasing
network while the emitter resistor RE form the stabilization network.

 Capacitor CE is also called bypass capacitor which passes only AC while restricting
DC, which causes only DC voltage to drop across RE while the entire AC voltage will
be coupled to the next stage.
 Coupling capacitor CC also increases the stability of the network as it blocks the DC
while offers a low resistance path to the AC signals, thereby preventing the DC bias
conditions of one stage affecting the other.
 In addition, in this circuit, the voltage drop across the collector-emitter terminal is
chosen to be 50% of the supply voltage VCC inorder to ensure appropriate biasing
point.
 The input signal applied at the base of the transistor in stage 1 (Q1) is amplified and
appears at its collector terminal with a phase-shift of 180o.
 The AC component of this signal is coupled to the second stage of the RC coupled
amplifier through the coupling capacitor CC and thus appears as an input at the base
of the second transistor Q2.
 This is further amplified and is passed-on as an output of the second stage and is
available at the collector terminal of Q2 after being shift by 180o in its phase.
  Frequency response:

Advantages:
o Economical and compact as it uses only resistors and capacitors.
o Constant gain over a wide frequency band.
Disadvantages:
o Unsuitable for low-frequency amplification.
o Low voltage and power gain as the effective load resistance (and hence the
gain) is reduced
o Moisture-sensitive, making them noisy as time elapses.
o Poor impedance matching as it has the output impedance several times
larger than the device at its end-terminal (for example, a speaker in the case
of a public address system).
o Narrow bandwidth when compared to JFET amplifier.
Applications:
o RF Communications.
o Optical Fiber Communications.
o Public address systems as pre-amplifiers.
o Radio or TV Receivers as small signal amplifiers.

9. Transformer-Coupled Amplifier

 This overcomes the problem of effective load resistance is decreased.

 The amplifier circuit in which, the previous stage is connected to the next stage using
a coupling transformer, is called as Transformer coupled amplifier.
 The coupling transformer T1 is used to feed the output of 1st stage to the input of
2nd stage. The collector load is replaced by the primary winding of the transformer.
The secondary winding is connected between the potential divider and the base of
2nd stage, which provides the input to the 2nd stage. Instead of coupling capacitor
like in RC coupled amplifier
 When an AC signal is applied to the input of the base of the first transistor then it
gets amplified by the transistor and appears at the collector to which the primary of
the transformer is connected.
 The transformer which is used as a coupling device in this circuit has the property of
impedance changing, which means the low resistance of a stage (or load) can be
reflected as a high load resistance to the previous stage. Hence the voltage at the
primary is transferred according to the turns ratio of the secondary winding of the
transformer.
 This transformer coupling provides good impedance matching between the stages
of amplifier. The transformer coupled amplifier is generally used for power
amplification.
 The figure below shows the frequency response of a transformer coupled amplifier.
The gain of the amplifier is constant only for a small range of frequencies. The output
voltage is equal to the collector current multiplied by the reactance of primary.
 Advantages
o An excellent impedance matching is provided.
o Gain achieved is higher.
o There will be no power loss in collector and base resistors.
o Efficient in operation.
Disadvantages :
o Though the gain is high, it varies considerably with frequency. Hence a poor
frequency response.
o Frequency distortion is higher.
o Transformers tend to produce hum noise.
o Transformers are bulky and costly.
 Applications
o Mostly used for impedance matching purposes.
o Used for Power amplification.
o Used in applications where maximum power transfer is needed.

10. Direct-Coupled Amplifier

 Used to amplify lower frequencies, such as amplifying photo-electric current or

thermo-couple current or so.
 As no coupling devices are used, the coupling of the amplifier stages is done directly
and hence called as Direct coupled amplifier.
 The figure below indicates the three stage direct coupled transistor amplifier. The
output of first stage transistor T1 is connected to the input of second stage transistor
T2.
  The transistor in the first stage will be an NPN transistor, while the transistor in the
next stage will be a PNP transistor and so on. This is because, the variations in one
transistor tend to cancel the variations in the other. The rise in the collector current
and the variation in β of one transistor gets cancelled by the decrease in the other.

 The input signal when applied at the base of transistor T1, it gets amplified due to
the transistor action and the amplified output appears at the collector resistor Rc of
transistor T1. This output is applied to the base of transistor T2 which further
amplifies the signal. In this way, a signal is amplified in a direct coupled amplifier
circuit.

 Frequency response:

o It is similar to low pass filter and hence it is also known as "Low-Pass

Amplifier".
o The amplification of DC (zero frequency) is possible only by this amplifier,
hence it later becomes the building block for differential amplifier and
operational amplifier.


 Advantages
o The circuit arrangement is simple because of minimum use of resistors.
o The circuit is of low cost because of the absence of expensive coupling
devices.
 Disadvantages
o It cannot be used for amplifying high frequencies.
o The operating point is shifted due to temperature variations.
 Applications
o Low frequency amplifications.
o Low current amplifications.

11.Comparition of Different Types of Coupling

RC Transformer Direct
S.No Particular
Coupling Coupling Coupling
 Frequency Excellent in
response audio
1 Poor Best
frequency
range

2 Cost Less More Least

Space and
3 Less More Least
Weight

Impedance
4 Not good Excellent Good
matching

For
amplifying
For voltage For Power
5 Use extremely
amplification amplification
low
frequencies

12.Switching action of transistor

 A transistor can be used as a solid state switch.

 If the transistor is operated in the saturation region then it acts as closed switch and
when it is operated in the cut off region then it behaves as an open switch.
 The transistor operates as a Single Pole Single Throw (SPST) solid state switch. When
a zero input signal applied to the base of the transistor, it acts as an open switch. If a
positive signal applied at the input terminal then it acts like a closed switch.
 When the transistor operating as switch, in the cut off region the current through
the transistor is zero and voltage across it is maximum, and in the saturation region
the transistor current is maximum and voltage across is zero. Therefore, both the on
– state and off – state power loss is zero in the transistor switch.

 Cut Off State (Open Switch)

o The input is grounded i.e. at zero potential.
o The VBE is less that cut – in voltage 0.7 V.
o Both emitter – base junction and collector – base junction are reverse biased.
o The transistor is fully – off acting as open switch.
o The collector current IC = 0 A and output voltage Vout = VCC.
  Saturation State (Closed Switch)
o The input is connected to VCC.
o Base – Emitter voltage is greater than cut – in voltage (0.7 V).
o Both the base – emitter junction and base – collector junction are forward
biased.
o The transistor is fully – ON and operates as closed switch.
o The collector current is maximum
o IC=VCC/ RL
o Vout= 0 V.

2.3 JFET and MOSFET

1. JFET
 FETs (Field Effect Transistors) are unipolar in which the current is due to either only
electrons or only holes
 FETs are voltage controlled devices
Note: BJTs are current controlled devices
 FETs have 3 terminals – Gate, Source and Drain
o Source – Entry point of majority carriers
o Drain – Exit point of majority carriers
o Gate - 2 internally connected heavily doped impurity regions which form 2 P-
N junctions
 Channel – Space between 2 gates through which majority carriers pass from source
to drain
 2 types of FETs
o Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)
 N-Channel JFET (commonly used)
  P-Channel JFET
o Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET) or Insulated Gate FET (IGFET)
 Depletion Enhancement MOSFET (DE MOSFET)
 Enhancement -only MOSFET (E-only MOSFET)

2. Construction of N-channel JFET

 A narrow bar of N-type semiconductor is taken and then 2 P-type junctions are
diffused on opposite sides of its middle part
 These junctions form 2 P-N diodes (or gates) and area in between the 2 gates is
called channel
 2 P-regions are internally connected and a single lead(terminal) is brought out (called
Gate terminal)
 Ohmic contacts are made at 2 ends of N-type bar – Source and Drain terminals
 When voltage is applied between Source and Drain, a current flows in the bar
through the channel between 2 P-regions
 Current is only due to majority carriers, electrons in this type of JFET
 Symbol and construction is shown below (Note: Gate arrow points to N-type
material)

 Gates are always reverse biased, hence Gate current is practically zero
 Source is connected to negative end of Drain voltage supply for obtaining
electrons(majority carriers)
 Note: In P-Channel FET connection is just opposite

3. Working and characteristic of N-channel JFET

 With no voltage applied between gate and source, the channel is a wide-open path
for current to flow.
  However, if a voltage is applied between gate and source so as to reverse-biases
the PN junction, the current flow between source and drain gets limited or regulated
(similar to BJTs controlled by base current).
 Maximum gate-source voltage cuts-off all current through source and drain, thus
forcing the JFET into cutoff mode. This behavior is due to the depletion region of the
PN junction expanding under the influence of a reverse-bias voltage, eventually
occupying the entire width of the channel if the voltage is great enough.
 So, JFETs are normally-ON devices as compared to BJTs which are normally-OFF
devices
 Also JFETs are voltage controlled devices as compared to BJTs which are current
controlled devices
 Source and Drain terminals are identical, so current can flow in either directions in a
JFET , unlike in BJT
 JFETs also can operate in 3 regions- Cut-off, saturation and active regions by
controlling voltage Drain to source reverse voltage.

Characteristics of JFET:

4. Parameters of JFET

 AC drain resistance (Rd)

 Transconductance
 Amplification factor
AC drain resistance (Rd) − It is the ratio of change in the drain source voltage (ΔVDS) to the
change in drain current (ΔID) at constant gate-source voltage. It can be expressed as,
Rd = (ΔVDS)/(ΔID) at Constant VGS

Transconductance (gm) − It is the ra o of change in drain current (ΔID) to the change in

gate source voltage (ΔVGS) at constant drain-source voltage. It can be expressed as,
gm = (ΔID)/(ΔVGS) at constant VDS
The unit is Seimens(S) earlier called mho

Amplification Factor (u) − It is the ra o of change in drain-source voltage (ΔVDS) to the

change in gate source voltage (ΔVGS) constant drain current (ΔID). It can be expressed as,
u = (ΔVDS)/(ΔVGS) at constant ID

5. P-channel JFET
 Holes are majority carriers
 Channel is made of P-type semiconductor
 Gate area has N-type semiconductor
 Working is similar to N-type JFET

6. Applications of JFET
 Advantages of JFET
o It has the high input impedance. This permits high degree of isolation
between input-output circuit.
o JFET has a negative resistance temperature coefficient. This avoids the risk of
thermal runaway.
o A JFET has a very high power gain.
o A JFET has smaller size, high efficiency and longer life.
 Applications of JFET
o JFET can be used
 as a switch.
 as an amplifier.
 as a chopper.
  as a buffer.
 as voltage controlled resistors in the operational amplifiers.
 in cascade amplifier and in RF amplifiers.
 in communication devices.
 in digital circuits

7. MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor)

 MOSFETs overcomes the disadvantages of JFETs like high drain resistance, moderate
input impedance and slower operation.
 Also known as IGFET - Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistor
 2 types
o Depletion Enhancement MOSFET- operates in both depletion and
enhancement modes (Normally-ON MOSFET)
 Gate voltage VGS can be negative or positive
o Enhancement-only MOSFET- operates only enhancement mode (Normally-
OFF MOSFET)
 Gate voltage is only positive
8. Construction of N-channel MOSFET
 A lightly doped P-type substrate is taken into which two heavily doped N-type
regions are diffused, which act as source and drain.
 Between these two N+ regions, there occurs diffusion to form an N-channel,
connecting drain and source.

 A thin layer of Silicon dioxide (SiO2) is grown over the entire surface and holes
are made to draw ohmic contacts for drain and source terminals. A conducting
layer of aluminium is laid over the entire channel, upon this SiO2 layer from
source to drain which constitutes the gate. The SiO2 substrate is connected to
the common or ground terminals.
 Because of its construction, the MOSFET has a very less chip area than BJT, which
is 5% of the occupancy when compared to bipolar junction transistor.

9. Operation, characteristics and parameters of N-channel MOSFET

 When we apply the positive gate voltage the holes present beneath the oxide
layer experience repulsive force and the holes are pushed downwards into the
bound negative charges which are associated with the acceptor atoms.
 The positive gate voltage also attracts electrons from the N+ source and drain
region into the channel thus an electron reach channel is formed.

Characteristics:
 Parameters:

 Blocking voltage (BVDSS)- Max voltage FET can withstand

 On-resistance (RDS(ON))
 Maximum junction temperature (TJ(max))
 Continuous drain current (ID)
 Safe operating area (SOA)

10. P-channel MOSFET

 When the gate terminal is given a negative potential at VGG than the drain
source voltage VDD, then due to the P+ regions present, the hole current is
increased through the diffused P channel and the PMOS works
in Enhancement Mode.
 When the gate terminal is given a positive potential at VGG than the drain
source voltage VDD, then due to the repulsion, the depletion occurs due to
which the flow of current reduces. Thus PMOS works in Depletion Mode.
 Though the construction differs, the working is similar in both the type of
MOSFETs. Hence with the change in voltage polarity both of the types can be
used in both the modes
11. Enhancement MOSFET

 The MOSFET that is basically in OFF condition which requires a certain

amount of voltage at the terminal gate to turn ON is referred to as
Enhancement MOSFET.
 Due to the application of gate voltage the channel among the terminal of
drain and source gets less resistive. If the applied voltage at the gate
increases then the current flow from the terminals drain to the source
increases until and unless it reaches its maximum point.
 The behaviour of this type of MOSFET resembles the behaviour of bipolar
junction transistor (BJT).

12. Operation, characteristics Enhancement MOSFET

 To induce the channel positive polarity , Gate to Source voltage is required. A large
amount of voltage must be applied at the terminal gate for this operation.
 If the voltage applied at the terminals gate to the source is zero, Enhancement
MOSFET doesn’t conduct.
 When the applied amount voltage at the terminal gate exceeds the limit of the
threshold the current at the drain tends to flow through the circuit.

13. P-channel Enhancement MOSFET

 Works similar to N-Channel Enhancement mode, except that the majority carriers
are holes

14. Explain Advantages, disadvantages, applications

 Comparison below shows advantages and disadvantages

TERMS BJT FET MOSFET

Device type Current controlled Voltage controlled Voltage Controlled

 Current flow Bipolar Unipolar Unipolar

Not
Terminals Interchangeable Interchangeable
interchangeable

Operational No modes Depletion mode Both Enhancement and

modes only Depletion modes

Input
Low High Very high
impedance

Output
Moderate Moderate Low
resistance

Operational
Low Moderate High
speed

Noise High Low Low

Thermal stability Low Better High

Applications: Amplifiers, Choppers, Linear voltage regulators, SMPS, Digital circuits, BLDC
motor drives, inverters

15. UJT
 A Unijunction Transistor (UJT) is a three-terminal semiconductor device.
 When it is triggered, the emitter current increases re-generatively until it is limited
by emitter power supply.
 Due to this characteristic feature, it is used in applications like switching pulse
generator, saw-tooth wave generator etc

16. Construction of UJT

 Consists of an n-type silicon semiconductor bar with an electrical contact on each
end.
 The terminals of these connections are called Base terminals (B1 and B2). Near to
base B2, a pn-junction is formed between a p-type emitter and the n-type silicon bar.
The terminal of this junction is called emitter terminal (E).
 Has three terminals and one pn-junction, for this reason this is called as a
Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
17. Operation, characteristics of UJT

 When the voltage VBB is applied with emitter open. A potential gradient is
established along the n-type silicon bar. As the emitter is located close to the
base B2, thus a major part of VBB appears between the emitter and base B1. The
voltage V1 between emitter and B1, establishes a reverse bias on the pn-junction
and the emitter current is cut off, but a small leakage current flows from B2 to
emitter due to minority charge carriers. Thus, the device is said to be in OFF
state.

 When a positive voltage is applied at the emitter terminal, the pn-junction will
remain reverse biased till the input voltage is less than V1. A soon as the input
voltage at emitter exceeds V1, the pn-junction becomes forward biased. Under
this condition, holes are supplied from p-type region into the n-type bar. These
holes are repelled by positive B2 terminal and attracted towards the B1 terminal.
This increase in the number of holes in the emitter to B1 region results in the
decrease of resistance of this section of the bar. Because of this, the internal
voltage drop from emitter to B1 region is reduced, thus the emitter current (IE)
increases. As more holes are supplied, a condition of saturation is reached. At the
point of saturation, the emitter current is limited by the emitter power supply.
Now, the device is conducting, hence said to be in ON state.
18. Applications of UJT

Advantages:
 Low cost
 Excellent characteristics
 Low power absorbing device under normal operating conditions
Applications:

 Oscillators
 Trigger Circuits
 Saw tooth generator
 Bi-stable networks
 Pulse and voltage sensing circuits
 UJT relaxation oscillators
 Over voltage detectors

3. Power Electronics
1. Thyristor
 Thyristors are four-layer devices with alternating P-type and N-type semiconductors
(P-N-P-N). SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier) is one of the Thyristors
 Thyristors usually have three terminals: anode (positive terminal), cathode (negative
terminal), and gate (control terminal). The gate controls the flow of current between
the anode and cathode.
 Thyristorcontrols electric power and current by acting as a switch.
 It is a small and lightweight component, but it offers adequate protection to circuits
with large voltages and currents (up to 6000 V, 4500 A).
 The term “Thyristor” is derived from the words of thyratron (a gas fluid tube which
works as SCR) and Transistor.

2. SCR construction
 The SCR has three pn – junctions, and four layer of p and n type semiconductor
joined alternatively to get pnpn device.
 The three terminals are taken – one from outer p – type layer called anode (A),
second from the outer n – type layer called cathode (K) and the third from the
internal p –type layer called gate (G).
Applications of SCR:

 Power Switching Circuit

 Controlled Rectifier
 AC power control circuits
 Speed control of DC shunt motor
 Inverters
 Battery Charging Regulators
 Temperature control systems

3. Modes of operation and characteristics of SCR

 Depending on the biasing given to the SCR, the operation of SCR is divided into three
modes.
o Forward blocking Mode
o Forward Conduction Mode
o Reverse Blocking Mode
 Forward Blocking Mode
o In this mode of operation, the Silicon Controlled Rectifier is connected such
that the anode terminal is made positive with respect to cathode while the
gate terminal kept open. In this state junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased
and the junction J2 reverse biased.
o Due to this, a small leakage current flows through the SCR. Until the voltage
applied across the SCR is more than the break over voltage of it, SCR offers a
very high resistance to the current flow. Therefore, the SCR acts as a open
switch in this mode by blocking forward current flowing through the SCR as
shown in the VI characteristics curve of the SCR.

 Forward Conduction Mode

 o In this mode, SCR comes into the conduction mode from blocking mode. It
can be done in two ways as either by applying positive pulse to gate terminal
or by increasing the forward voltage (or voltage across the anode and
cathode) beyond the break over voltage of the SCR.
o Once any one of these methods is applied, the avalanche breakdown occurs
at junction J2. Therefore the SCR turns into conduction mode and acts as a
closed switch thereby current starts flowing through it.
o Note that in the VI characteristic figure, if the gate current value is high, the
minimum will be the time to come in conduction mode as Ig3 > Ig2 > Ig1. In
this mode, maximum current flows through the SCR and its value depends on
the load resistance or impedance.
o It is also noted that if gate current is increasing, the voltage required to turn
ON the SCR is less if gate biasing is preferred. The current at which the SCR
turns into conduction mode from blocking mode is called as latching current
(IL).
o And also when the forward current reaches to level at which the SCR returns
to blocking state is called as holding current (IH). At this holding current level,
depletion region starts to develop around junction J2. Hence the holding
current is slightly less than the latching current.

 Reverse Blocking Mode

o In this mode of operation, cathode is made positive with respect to anode.
Then the junctions J1 and J3 are reverse biased and J2 is forward biased. This
reverse voltage drives the SCR into reverse blocking region results to flow a
small leakage current through it and acts as an open switch as shown in
figure.
o So, the device offers a high impedance in this mode until the voltage applied
is less than the reverse breakdown voltage VBR of the SCR. If the reverse
applied voltage is increased beyond the VBR, then avalanche breakdown
occurs at junctions J1 and J3 which results to increase reverse current flow
through the SCR.
 o This reverse current causes more losses in the SCR and even to increase the
heat of it. So there will be a considerable damage to the SCR when the
reverse voltage applied more than VBR.

4. SCR ratings
o Break Over Voltage − It is the minimum value of the applied voltage at which
the SCR is turned ON, provided the gate voltage is not applied. For
commercially available SCRs the range of break over voltage is 50 V to 500 V.
o Peak Reverse Voltage (PRV) − It is the maximum reverse voltage (i.e. cathode
made positive with respect to the anode) that can be applied to the SCR
without conducting in the reverse direction. The commercially available SCRs
have PRV up to 2.5 kV.
o Holding Current − With gate being open, it is the maximum value of anode
current at which SCR is turned OFF from ON state.
o Forward Current Rating − It is maximum value of the anode current that an
SCR can pass through it without destruction.
o Circuit Fusing Rating − It indicates the maximum forward surge current
capability of the SCR. It is defined as the product of square of forward surge
current and the time duration of the surge.

5. UJT triggering circuit

o In the circuit above, we can control the speed of a universal series motor or
load such as heaters, lamps, etc. by regulating the current flowing through
the SCR.
o To control the motors speed, simply change the frequency of the sawtooth
pulse, which is achieved by varying the value of the potentiometer.

6. Protection circuits for dv/dt and di/dt (snubber circuit)

 o The main purpose of Snubber Circuit is to prevent the unwanted triggering of
SCR or thyristor due to high rate of rise of voltage i.e. dv/dt.
o If the rate of rise of anode to cathode voltage of SCR is high then it may lead
to false triggering. This is commonly known as dv/dt triggering.
o So, some arrangement is required to protect SCR from such undesirable
turning. Application of Snubber Circuit prevents from such spurious triggering
of SCR. Thus it is basically dv/dt protection of SCR.

o Thus, a snubber circuit comprises of series combination of resistance and

capacitance in parallel with SCR or thyristor.
o Generally, resistance R, capacitance C and load parameters are so chosen
that the dv/dt during charging of capacitor C is less than the specified dv/dt
rating of SCR and the discharge current at the turn on of SCR is less than the
specified di/dt rating.
o Normally, R, C and load parameter forms an underdamped circuit so that
dv/dt is limited to acceptable value as provided by the SCR rating.

7. Commutation circuit for SCR

o Commutation is process of bringing SCR to OFF state from ON state.
o SCR is turned on by applying a gate signal to a forward biased SCR.
o For power control, it is also required to turn off SCR as and when required.
o Turn off of a thyristor means bringing it to forward blocking mode from
forward conduction mode.
o Once an SCR goes in forward conduction mode, gate loses its control. So,
some external circuit must be used to turn off SCR. This external circuit is
known as commutation circuit.

Natural commutation:

o Source of commutation voltage is the supply source itself. If the SCR is

connected to an AC supply, at every end of the positive half cycle, the anode
current naturally becomes zero.
 o As the current in the circuit goes through the natural zero, a reverse voltage
is applied immediately across the SCR turning it OFF.

Forced commutation:

o One of the forced commutation technique is Class A (Self commutation)

 Source of commutationis load itself as shown below

o When an input voltage is applied to the circuit as shown, the thyristor will not
turn ON, until a gate pulse given
o After the thyristor turns ON, the current will flow through the inductor and
charges the capacitor to its peak value
o As the capacitor gets fully charged, inductor polarity gets reversed and
inductor starts opposing the flow of current.
o Due to this, the output current starts to decrease and reaches zero.
o At this moment the current is below the holding current of the thyristor, so it
turns OFF.

8. GTO construction, working, characteristic, applications

 In case of DC to DC and DC to AC conversion circuits, turning off an SCR becomes

a serious deficiency with SCR due to the absence of natural current zero (as in
case of AC circuits).

 Gate Turn off Thyristor (GTO) addresses this major problem of the SCR by
ensuring the turn OFF mechanism through the gate terminal.
  As the name indicates, it has gate turn off capability.
 The gate current required to turn off the GTO is relatively high.
 Construction-wise it is similar to SCR (P-N-P-N junctions) with difference in
doping levels
 During ON state, characteristics is similar to SCR
 The GTO can be turned OFF by the application of reverse gate current which can
be either step or ramp drive.
 Also GTO can be turned OFF without reversing anode voltage. The dashed line in
the figure shows VI characterustic during the turn OFF for an inductive load.
 During the turn OFF, GTO can block a rated forward voltage only.

Applications:

 AC drives
 DC drives or DC choppers
 DC circuit breakers
 Induction heating

9. DIAC construction, working, characteristic, applications

 A DIAC is a diode that conducts electrical current only after its breakover voltage
(VBO) has been reached. DIAC stands for “Diode for Alternating Current”.
 A DIAC is a device which has two electrodes, and it is a member of the thyristor
family. DIACs are used in the triggering of thyristors
 Construction & Symbol:

 The basic structure of a Diac is similar to a BJT transistor. The only difference
is that there is no base terminal in case of Diac.

VI Characteristic:

 The amount of voltage required across the terminals of the diac to switch it
ON is called the Break-Over Voltage (IBO).
 Once the diac is made ON, the only way to switch it off is to reduce the
current to zero by isolating it from the supply.
 When the applied voltage is equal to or greater than the breakdown voltage,
the Diac starts to conduct and the voltage drop across it becomes a few volts.
Applications:
 Lamp dimmer, heater control, universal motor speed control

10. TRIAC construction, working, characteristic, applications

 While SCR can only control current over one half of the cycle, the triac controls it
over two halves of an AC waveform.

 Triac can be considered as a pair of parallel but opposite SCRs with the two gates
connected together and the anode of one device connected to the cathode of
the other
Symbol & Construction:
  Triac can conduct in a number of ways - more than the SCR.
 Can conduct current irrespective of the voltage polarity of terminals MT1 and
MT2. So it is bidirectional
 Can also be triggered by either positive or negative gate currents, irrespective of
the polarity of the MT2 current.
 So there are four triggering modes or quadrants:
 Mode 1: MT2 current is +ve, gate current is +ve
 Mode 2: MT2 current is +ve, gate current is -ve
 Mode 3: MT2 current is -ve, gate current is +ve
 Mode 4: MT2 current is -ve, gate current is –ve

Characteristic:

Applications:
 Lighting control - especially domestic dimmers.
 Control of fans and small motors.
 Electronic switches for general AC switching and control

11. IGBT construction, working, characteristic, applications

  The insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) is a semiconductor device with three
terminals and is used mainly as an electronic switch
.

 IGBT requires only a small voltage to maintain conduction in the device unlike in
BJT.
 The IGBT is a unidirectional device, that is, it can only switch ON in the forward
direction. This means current flows from the collector to the emitter unlike in
MOSFETs, which are bi-directional.

Characteristic:

Applications:

 UPS, AC & DC motor drives, inverters, choppers

 4. Operational Amplifiers

1. Differential Amplifier Theory

 A differential amplifier (or difference amplifier) is a type of electronic amplifier that
amplifies the difference between two input voltages but suppresses any voltage
common to the two inputs.
 It is an analog circuit with two inputs (V1 and V2) and one output (V0)
 Output is ideally proportional to the difference between the two voltages.

Differential amplifier using transistors:

2. Block diagram of Op-Amp

3. Op-Amp symbol and terminals

4. Op-Amp IC 741, features and Pin configuration

Features:
 Power Supply: Requires a Minimum voltage of 5V and can withstand up to 18V
 Input Impedance: About 2 MΩ
 Output impedance: About 75 Ω
 Voltage Gain: 200,000 for low frequencies (200 V / mV)
 Maximum Output Current: 20 mA
 Recommended Output Load: Greater than 2 KΩ
 Input Offset: Ranges between 2 mV and 6 mV
 Slew Rate: 0.5V/µS (It is the rate at which an Op-Amp can detect voltage
changes)

Note: The high input impedance and very small output impedance makes IC 741 a near
ideal voltage amplifier.

5. Ideal vs. practical Op-Amp

 Ideal Op – Amp
o Infinite voltage gain
o Zero offset voltage
o Infinite bandwidth
o Zero output impedance
o Infinite input impedance
o Infinite CMRR (Common Mode Rejection Ratio = ratio of the common-mode
gain to differential-mode gain)
o Infinite PSRR ( Power supply Rejection Ratio = V ripple(in) / V ripple(out) )
o Infinite slew rate ( Slew rate = the maximum rate of change of an op amps
output voltage)

But practically these are not possible due to the imperfections in the manufacturing of
practical Op – Amp

 Practical Op
o Finite open loop gain (tens of thousands)
o Non zero offset voltage (few mV)
o Finite bandwidth( few MHz, but it can be increased by using
negative feedback)
 o Non-zero output impedance( few tens of Ohms, it can be minimized by using
negative feedback)
o Finite input impedance (few Mega Ohms)
o Finite CMRR (Common Mode Rejection Ratio = 90 dB typically)
o Finite PSRR ( Power supply Rejection Ratio)
o Finite slew rate ( few Volts/u Sec)

6. Open loop and close loop configuration of Op-Amp

 The gain of an op-amp without feedback is called the open-loop gain whereas the
gain with a feedback circuit is called the closed-loop gain
 Open loop gain is very high
 In open loop amplifier goes into saturation
 Negative feedback added to op-amps give stableoperation

7. Concept of zero input current and virtual ground

 Concept of the virtual ground is applicable to ideal op-amp (open loop gain =
Infinity) when used in the linear range with negative feedback.
 But for practical op-amps, the open-loop gain is very high (typically 100000), so
this concept is still applicable.
 When the op-amp is operated with negative feedback (in the linear region), both
inverting and non-inverting op-amp terminals will be at the same potential.
 When non-inverting op-amp terminal is grounded then the inverting terminal will
also act as ground.
 The inverting terminal is not actually grounded, it acts as a virtual ground.
  Gain = Vo/Vin
 As gain is infinite, Vin = 0
 But, Vin = V2 – V1
 V1 is connected to ground, so V1 = 0.
 Thus V2 also will be at ground potential.
 V2 = 0

8. Inverting amplifier
 Input voltage is applied to the inverting terminal of op-amp
 Output is 180 degree out of phase with respect to the input

9. Non inverting amplifier

 Input voltage is applied to the non-inverting terminal of the op-amp
10. Op-Amp IC application as adder
 Adds the voltages present on 2 or more inputs
 Also known as summing amplifier

Example:

The output voltage is

11. Op-Amp IC application as subtractor

 Differential amplifier circuit is used
 o If R1=R2 and R3=R4,

12. Op-Amp IC application as integrator

 Output voltage is integral of the input voltage

13. Op-Amp IC application as differentiator

 Output voltage is differentiation of input voltage

14. Comparator circuit using Op-Amp

 Compares 2 input voltages and indicates which input voltage is larger
15. Schmitt trigger circuit using Op-Amp
 Converts any regular or irregular shaped input waveform into a square wave output
voltage or pulse
 It uses positive feedback
 Inverting Schmitt trigger is shown below

16. Instrumentation amplifier using Op-Amp

 Used in industrial and consumer applications to amplify signals from temperature
transducers etc.
 A transducer is a device which converts one form of energy into another and its outs
are very low-level signals
 Hence, it is necessary to amplify the level of the signal, rejecting noise and the
interference.
 The general single ended amplifiers are not suitable for such operations.
 Instrument amplifier is used for such low-level amplification with high CMRR, high
input impedance to avoid loading
 The instrumentation amplifier is intended for precise, low-level signal amplification
where high input resistance, low noise and accurate closed-loop gain is required..

Vout = (V3-V4) * R/R = ( V3-V4) Volts

  The overall gain can be adjusted by Rgain
 The common mode signal attenuation for the instrumentation amplifier is provided
by the difference amplifier.

Advantages:
Adjustable gain, high input impedance, low output impedance, high CMRR

16. Applications of Instrumentation amplifier

 To amplify very low-level signals, such as heartbeats, blood pressure ,rejectingnoise
and interference signals.
 To enhance the S/N ratio (signal to noise) in audio applications like audio signals with
low amplitude.

17. Voltage to current converter using Op-Amp

 Voltage to current converter produces an output current when a voltage is applied

to its non-inverting terminal.
 Virtual ground concept : Input at non-inverting terminal = Vi.
 Nodal equation: Io = Vi/R1

18. Current to voltage converter using Op-Amp

 Zero voltage at non-inverting input

  Virtual ground concept : -Ii + (0-Vo)/ Rf = 0
 -Ii = Vo/ Rf

19. Construction, working of Op-Amp as multivibrator

 Multivibrator 3 types – Astable (no stable state), Monostable (single stable state),
Bistable(2 stable states)
 Multivibrators be constructed using transistors or gates or timer IC 555 or Opamps
 Astablemultivibrator using Opamp is shown below.

 Astablemultivibrator switches continuously between its two unstable states without

the need for any external triggering
Working:
 Assume that the capacitor is fully discharged and the output of the op-amp is
saturated at +Vcc. The capacitor, C starts to charge up from the output
voltage, Vout through resistor, R at a rate determined by their RC time constant.
 As soon as the capacitors charging voltage at the op-amps inverting (-) terminal is
equal to or greater than the voltage at the non-inverting terminal, the output will
change state and be driven to -VEE.
 But the capacitor, which has been charging towards +Vcc, now sees a negative
voltage, -VEE across its plates. This sudden reversal of the output voltage causes the
capacitor to discharge towards -VEE at a rate dictated again by their RC time
constant.
 Once the op-amps inverting terminal reaches the negative reference voltage, -VEE at
the non-inverting terminal, the op-amp once again changes state and the output is
driven to +Vcc and the cycle repeats
 5. Digital techniques

5.0 Digital Electronics Basics

1. Number System
 The number system is used for representing the information in digital systems. The
number system has different bases and the most common of them are the decimal,
binary, octal, and hexadecimal.
 The base or radix of the number system is the total number of the digit used in the
number system. Decimal system has base 10 and the digit from 0 – 9 are used.

2. Boolean Algebra

 Boolean Algebra is used in design of the digital (logic) circuits. It uses only the binary
numbers i.e. 0 and 1. Boolean algebra was Invented by George Boole in 1854.
 Rules in Boolean Algebra
o Boolean variablecan have only two values. Binary 1 (high) and Binary 0 (low)
o Complement of a variable is represented by an overbar (-). Thus, complement
of variable B is represented as . Thus if B = 0 then =1
o Logical ORing of the variables is represented by a plus (+) sign, ex: A + B + C.
o Logical ANDing of the variables is represented by a dot between ex: A.B.C.
 Boolean Laws
o Commutative law

Changing the sequence of the variables does not have any effect on
the output of a logic circuit.
o Associative law
 The order in which the logic operations are performed is irrelevant as
their effect is the same.

 o Distributive law

o AND law

o OR law

o INVERSION law
 This law uses the NOT operation.
 Double inversion of a variable results in the original variable itself.

3. De Morgan’s Theorem

Theorem 1:

 The left hand side (LHS) of this theorem represents a NAND gate with inputs A and B,
whereas the right hand side (RHS) of the theorem represents an OR gate with
inverted inputs.

Theorem 2:

4. Code Conversion

 Binary to Decimal conversion

 o Multiply the bits of binary number with its corresponding positional weights
and finally add all those products.

Example: Convert (10110.001)2into decimal

(10110.001)2=(1×24)+(0×23)+(1×22)+(1×21)+(0×20)+
(0×2-1)+(0×2-2)+(1×2-3)
(10110.001)2=(1×16)+(0×8)+(1×4)+(1×2)+(0×1)+
(0×1 2)+(0×1 4)+(1×1 8)
(10110.001)2=16+0+4+2+0+0+0+0.125
(10110.001)2=(22.125 )10

 Decimal to Binary conversion

Example :Convert (152)10 into Binary

Operation Quotient Remainder

152/2 76 0 (LSB)

76/2 38 0

38/2 19 0

19/2 9 1

9/2 4 1

4/2 2 0

2/2 1 0

1/2 0 1(MSB)

(152)10=(10011000)2

5. BCD Code (Binary Coded Decimal)

 It is a form of binary encoding where each digit in a decimal number is represented
in the form of bits (4 bits)
 BCD code is generally used in digital displays as it is easy to convert between binary
and decimal using BCD format
 BCD is not same as Hexadecimal. BCD numbers start from 0 and stop
at 9 (binary 10012)

Example: Convert (123)10 in BCD

 1 -> 0001
2 -> 0010
3 -> 0011
thus, BCD becomes -> 0001 0010 0011

6. Gray Code
 A binary numeral system in which two successive values differ in only one bit
 Useful in digital hardware generating binary sequence (like optical encoders) that
may cause an error or ambiguity during the transition from one number to the next.
So, the Gray code can eliminate this problem easily since only one bit changes
between 2 numbers.
 It is not a weighted code
 Gray code also known as reflected binary code, because the first (n/2) values
compare with those of the last (n/2) values, but in reverse order.

7. Binary to Gray code conversion (using ex-OR operation)

 The most significant bit (MSB) of the Gray code is always equal to the MSB of the
given Binary code.
 Other bits of the output Gray code can be obtained by XORing binary code bit at the
index and previous index.

 Example −Convert Binary number 111010 into Gray code.

g0=b0⊕b1 = 0⊕1 = 1
g1=b1⊕b2 = 1⊕0 = 1
g2=b2⊕b3 = 0⊕1 = 1
g3=b3⊕b4 = 1⊕1 = 0
g4=b4⊕b5 = 1⊕1 = 0
g5=b5 = 1 = 1
So, Gray will be 100111.

8. Gray code to Binary conversion(using eX-OR operation):

 Example −Convert Gray code 11100 to Binary

(11100)Gray Code = ( ? )2

b4=g4=1

b3=b4⊕g3=1⊕1=0

b2=b3⊕g2=0⊕1=1

b1=b2⊕g1=1⊕0=1

b0=b1⊕g0=1⊕0=1

∴ Binary : 10111

9. Basic Logic gates

 Logic gates are the basic building blocks of digital systems.
 It is an electronic circuit having one or more than one input and only one output.
 The relationship between the input and the output is based on a certain logic. Based
on this, logic gates are named as AND gate, OR gate, NOT gate etc.

AND Gate
 It has n input (n >= 2) and one output.
 For 2 inputs
o Output Y = A.B

Logic diagram

Truth Table

OR Gate
 It has n input (n >= 2) and one output.
 For 2 inputs
o Output Y = A + B
 Logic diagram

Truth Table

NOT Gate
 NOT gate is also known as Inverter. It has one input A and one output Y.

Logic diagram

Truth Table

NAND Gate
 A NOT-AND operation is known as NAND operation. It has n input (n >= 2) and one
output.


Logic diagram

Truth Table
NOR Gate
 A NOT-OR operation is known as NOR operation. It has n input (n >= 2) and one
output.

Logic diagram

Truth Table

XOR Gate
 XOR or Ex-OR gate is a special type of gate. It can be used in the half adder, full adder
and subtractor. It has n input (n >= 2) and one output.

Logic diagram

Truth Table
 XNOR Gate
 XNOR gate is a special type of gate. It can be used in the half adder, full adder and
subtractor. It has n input (n >= 2) and one output.

Logic diagram

Truth Table

10. Universal gates

 A universal gate is a logic gate which can implement any Boolean function without
the need to use any other type of logic gate. The NOR gate and NAND gate are
universal gates.
 NOR and NAND gates are economical and easier to fabricate than other logic gates.
So, AND gate is typically implemented as a NAND gate followed by an inverter.

Implementing logic functions using only Universal gates:

11. SOP (Sum of Products) and POS (Product of Sums) form
Sum of Product (SOP) Form
o A method (or form) of simplifying the Boolean expressions of logic gates.
o The variables are operated by AND (product) to form a product term and all
these product terms are ORed (summed or added) together to get the final
function.
o This form is most suitable to use them in FPGA (Field Programmable Gate
Arrays).

Example: Boolean expression F = A’BC + AB’C + ABC ‘ + ABC

Product of Sums (POS) Form

 o Another method of simplifying the Boolean expressions of logic gates.
o All the variables are ORed, i.e. written as sums to form sum terms.
o All these sum terms are ANDed (multiplied) together to get the product-of-
sum form.
o Example: F = (A + B + C) (A + B + C ‘) (A + B’ + C) (A’ + B + C)

12. Minterm and Maxterm

Minterm:
 A minterm is a product term in boolean function in which every element is present is
either in normal or in complemented form.
 For example if F(a,b,c) is a boolean function then the possible minterms would
be abc, abc’, ab’c, ab’c’, a’bc, ab,c, a’b’c, a’b’c’ .
 These are used for sum of product(SOP) canonical forms.
 The value correspond to 1 or true is selected as minterm.

Maxterm:
 A maxterm is a sum term in boolean function in which every element is present is
either in normal or in complemented form.
 For example if F(a,b,c) is a boolean function then the possible maxterms would be
(a+b+c), (a+b+c’), (a+b’+c), ( a+b’+c’), (a’+b+c), ( a+b’+c), ( a’+b’+c), (a’+b’+c’) .
 There are used for product of sum(POS) canonical forms.

13. Minimization technique using K-map

 The process of simplifying the algebraic expression of a Boolean function is

called minimization.
 Minimization reduces the cost and complexity of the associated digital circuit
 For example, both of the circuits shown below implement the same logic
 Minimization can be done using Algebraic Manipulation or K-Map method.
(a) Algebraic manipulation method
 Simplest of all methods, suitable for medium sized expressions, error
prone
 Common Laws used in algebraic manipulation are
 A + A’ = 1
 A + A’B = A +B
 A + AB = A

(b) K-Map method

 K-Map (Karnaugh’smap) is a 2D truth table
A 3-variable k-map
 3-variable K Map is used for a boolean expression of 3 variables.
 The number of cells present in three variable K Map =23 = 8 cells.

 Similarly K-map for 4 variables has 16 cells

 Rules for K-map:
o Horizontal or vertical grouping of 1’s is done
o Groups can overlap
o In any group number of cells should be in the power of 2. (ie, 1,2,4,8,16 etc.)
o Each group should be as large as possible
o Opposite grouping and corner grouping is allowed
o There should be as few groups as possible
Example 1: Minimize the following boolean function in SOP form
F(A, B, C, D) = Σm(0, 1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 15)

o From k-map, the minimized function is F(A, B, C, D) = BD + C’D + B’D’

Example 2: Minimize using k-map for the following Boolean function

F= ABC’D’ + ABC’D+AB’C’D+ABCD+AB’CD+ABCD’+AB’CD’

 Draw 4-variable k-map which as 16 cells as shown below

 Enter 1 in those cells where output is 1
 Group the cells as per rules for grouping
 Write SOP expression using all the groups as

F = AB + AC + AD
5.1 Basic digital devices

1. Half-adder

 Half-adder is a basic building block of adding 2 inputs.

 It produces 2 outputs ‘sum’ and ‘carry’

Block diagram:

Truth table:

SOP form :
Sum = A'B + AB'
Carry = AB

Circuit:

2. Full-adder
 Full-adder can add 3 inputs to produce 2 outputs

Block diagram:

Truth table:
 SOP form:

Circuit:

3. Comparator
 Compares magnitudes of 2 inputs

Block diagram & Truth table:

Circuit:
4. Flip-flops
 Flip-flop is a circuit that maintains a state until changed by the input
 4 Types
 Set-Reset (SR) flip-flop or Latch.
 JK flip-flop.
 D (Data or Delay) flip-flop.
 T (Toggle) flip-flop.

5. NAND gate latch/NOR gate latch

 This is a basic Flip-flop
 Level triggered flip-flops are called latches
 2 NAND gates or 2 NOR gates are used with feedback
 Used for storing 1 bit of information
 NAND gate latch is active low, NOR gate latch is active high

NAND gate latch:

NOR gate latch:

6. Concept of clock and triggering

 A clock pulse is a time varying voltage signal applied to control the operation
(triggering) of a flip flop.
 If a clock pulse is of frequency 1 Hz, the voltage it will supply will oscillate
between 2 DC levels every half second
7. R-S flip-flop

The Set State

 When the input R is set to false or 0 and the input S is set to true or 1, the NAND
gate Y has an input 0, which will produce the output Q' 1. The value of Q' is faded
to the NAND gate 'X' as input 'A', and now both the inputs of the NAND gate 'X'
are 1(S=A=1), which will produce the output 'Q' 0.
 Now, if the input R is changed to 1 with 'S' remaining 1, the inputs of NAND gate
'Y' is R=1 and B=0. Here, one of the inputs is also 0, so the output of Q' is 1. So,
the flip flop circuit is set or latched with Q=0 and Q'=1.
Reset State
 The output Q' is 0, and output Q is 1 in the second stable state. It is given by R =1
and S = 0. One of the inputs of NAND gate 'X' is 0, and its output Q is 1. Output Q
is faded to NAND gate Y as input B. So, both the inputs to NAND gate Y are set to
1, therefore, Q' = 0.
 Now, if the input S is changed to 0 with 'R' remaining 1, the output Q' will be 0
and there is no change in state. So, the reset state of the flip flop circuit has been
latched

Truth Table

8. J-K flip-flop

 JK flip flop is an improved version of SR flip-flop with the addition of a clock input
 This prevents the illegal or invalid output condition that can occur when both
inputs S and R are equal to logic level “1”.
 There are no invalid states even if both 'J' and 'K' flip flops are set to 1.
 When both inputs 'J' and 'K' are set to 1, the JK toggles the flip flop

Circuit

Truth Table
9. Master-slave J-K flip-flop
 The Master-Slave Flip-Flop is basically a combination of two JK flip-flops
connected together in a series configuration. Out of these, one acts as the
“master” and the other as a “slave”.
 In master slave JK flip flop , the output of master change many times but slave
output change only one time so master flip flop act as level triggered and slave
flip flop act as edge triggered by which race around condition does not take place
at the output of slave flip flop .

Truth Table

10. D flip flop or Delay flip flop (symbol, truth table)

  It ensures that at the same time, both S and R inputs are never equal to 1.
 Uses a gated SR flip-flop with an inverter connected between the inputs
 Has a single input D(Data)
Symbol:

Circuit:

Truth table:

11. T flip flop or Toggle flip flop(symbol, truth table)

 It is a modification of JK flip flop
 It works as a Toggle switch.
 The next output state is changed to the complement of the present output state
 It requires two triggers to complete a full cycle of the output waveform. The
frequency of the output is half of the input frequency. The "T Flip Flop" works as
the "Frequency Divider Circuit."

Symbol:

Truth table:
12. Multiplexer (Mux)
 It is a combinational circuit that has 2n input lines and a single output line.
 The binary data from the selected input line is directed to the output line.
 Selection lines decide which data inputs will be connected to the output.

Symbol:

Block Diagram:

Truth Table:

Boolean Expression for output: Y=S0'.A0+S0.A1

Circuit:

13. Multiplexer Tree

 An arrangement in which a number of m-to-1 multiplexers are arranged in a tree
topology to obtain a bigger n-to-1 multiplexer is called Multiplexer Tree ( n>m).
 Used to implement a bigger Multiplexer by combining smaller Multiplexers

Example:
Implement a 8x1 Multiplexer (Mux) using 4x1 and 2x1 multiplexers.
14. Applications of multiplexer
 Used in computer systems in implementation of memory etc.
 Reduces the number of copper lines required to connect memory chips to other
parts

15. Demultiplexer (Demux)

 It is a combinational circuit that performs the reverse operation of Multiplexer.
 It has single input, ‘n’ selection lines and maximum of 2n outputs.
 Selection lines decides to which output the input will be connected

Symbol:

Block diagram& Truth table:

16. Demultiplexer Tree

 Just like multiplexer tree, we can cascade two or more demultiplexer to get a demux
with a larger number of lines.
 Such a connection is called a demultiplexer tree.
17. Applications of Demultiplexer
 Communication system
 Digital computer circuits
5.2 Additional digital devices

1. Introduction to decoder
 A combinational circuit that change the binary information into 2N output lines.
 The binary information is passed in the form of N input lines.
 Decoder performs the reverse operation of the Encoder

2. Design of 2X4 decoder

 Enable line ‘E’ should be set to ‘1’ (or HIGH) to enable the decoder

3. Applications of decoder
 Used in address decoding for memory chips in
 Used in code conversions.
 Used in control units of CPU to decoder instructions to carry out various operations

4. Introduction to encoder
 A combinational circuits that change the binary datain 2N lines into N output lines
 Encoder performs the reverse operation of the Decoder.
5. Priority encoder

 Main disadvantages of standard digital encoders is that they can generate the wrong
output code when there is more than one input present at logic level “1”.
 In priority encoder, this problem is solved by prioritising the inputs.
 So if there is more than one input at logic level “1” at the same time, the actual
output code would only correspond to the input with the highest designated
priority.

6. Applications of encoder
Keyboard Encoder - to reduce the number of inputs to computer from a keyboard
Position encoders – to convert angular position into binary encoded output

7. Introduction to register
 A flip-flop is a one-bit register.
 A Flip-flop is a 1 bit memory cell which can be used for storing the digital data.
 To increase the storage capacity in terms of number of bits, we have to use a group
of flip-flops. Such a group of flip-flop is known as a Register.
 The n-bit register will consist of n number of flip-flops and it is capable of storing
an n-bit word.

8. Types of register
 The binary data in a register can be moved within the register from one flip-flop to
another.
 The registers that allow such data transfers are called as shift registers. There are
four mode of operations of a shift register.
 Serial Input Serial Output
 Serial Input Parallel Output
 Parallel Input Serial Output
 Parallel Input Parallel Output

 Serial Input Serial Output type is shown below.

9. Applications of registers
o Storing data in digital form.
o To hold data and address.
o To make digital memory chips like ROM Chips, Flash Memory etc.
o Cache memory in CPU

10. Introduction to counter

 Shift registers are also used as counters.
 There are two types of counters based on the type of output from right most D flip-
flop is connected to the serial input. Those are Ring counter and Johnson Ring
counter.

11. Types of counters (synchronous counter, asynchronous counter)

 Synchronous counter is the one in which all the flip flops are clocked simultaneously
with the similar clock input.
 Asynchronous counter (Ring counter) is a device all the flip flops in the counter are
clocked with different input signals at different instants of time.

12. Ripple counter (Up counter) with truth table

 Asynchronous counter in which the clock pulse ripples through the circuit
 Flips-flops are used in toggle mode
 The external clock pulse is applied to only one flip flop. The output of this flip flop is
treated as a clock pulse for the next flip flop.
 The up-counter counts the states in ascending order.

Truth Table:
13. Ripple counter (Down counter) with truth table
 The down-counter counts the states in ascending order.
 Truth table has reverse sequence that of Up counter

14. Ring counter with truth table

 A ring counter is a special type of application of the Serial IN Serial OUT Shift
register.
 The only difference between the shift register and the ring counter is that the last
flip flop outcome is taken as the output in the shift register. But in the ring counter,
this outcome is passed to the first flip flop as an input.

Truth Table:
15. Johnson’s counter with truth table
 The Johnson counter is similar to the Ring counter.
 The only difference between the Johnson counter and the ring counter is that the
outcome of the last flip flop is passed to the first flip flop as an input. But in Johnson
counter, the inverted outcome Q' of the last flip flop is passed as an input.

Truth Table:
5.3 ADC, DAC and Memory devices

1. Introduction to ADC

 Analogue to Digital Converter, or ADC, is a data converter which allows digital

circuits to interface with the real world by encoding an analogue signal into a binary
code

2. Parameters of ADC (resolution, full scale voltage, accuracy)

Resolution :
 The smallest incremental voltage that can be recognized and thus causes a change in
the digital output.
 It is expressed as the number of bits output by the ADC.
 A 12 bit ADC has a resolution of 12 bits.

Fullscale voltage :
 The input voltage which gives maximum digital output value
Accuracy:
 The ability of a device to produce accurate value is known as accuracy. It is the
closeness of the produced value to the true (standard) value. Expressed in %

3. Types of ADC
 Counter type ADC
 Successive Approximation ADC
 Flash type ADC
 Single slope ADC
 Dual slope ADC

4. Block diagram, operation of counter type ADC

 A counter type ADC produces a digital output, which is approximately equal to the
analog input by using counter operation internally.
  The control logic resets the counter and enables the clock signal generator in order
to send the clock pulses to the counter, when it received the start commanding
signal.
 The counter gets incremented by one for every clock pulse and its value will be in
binary (digital) format. This output of the counter is applied as an input of DAC.
 DAC converts the received binary (digital) input, which is the output of counter, into
an analog output. Comparator compares this analog value,VaVa with the external
analog input value Vi.
 The output of comparator will be ‘1’ as long as    is greater than. The operations
mentioned in above two steps will be continued as long as the control logic receives
‘1’ from the output of comparator.
 The output of comparator will be ‘0’ when Vi is less than or equal to Va. So, the
control logic receives ‘0’ from the output of comparator. Then, the control logic
disables the clock signal generator so that it doesn’t send any clock pulse to the
counter.
 At this instant, the output of the counter will be displayed as the digital output. It is
almost equivalent to the corresponding external analog input value ViVi.

5. Block diagram, operation of single slope type ADC

 It consists of an integrator, a comparator, an AND gate, and a counter that gives us
the binary outputs.
 The output of the comparator is passed to the AND gate.
 Whenever the output of the comparator is high which means that when the
reference voltage is lesser than the input voltage, clock pulses are given to the
counter through the AND gate, and the counter starts counting.
6. Block diagram, operation of Dual slope type ADC
 In dual slope type ADC, the integrator generates two different ramps, one with the
known analog input voltage VA and another with a known reference voltage –Vref.
Hence it is called a s dual slope ADC

7. Applications of ADC
 Used together with the transducer
 Used in computer to convert the analog signal to digital signal.
 Used in cell phones.
 Used in microcontrollers.
 Used in digital signal processing.
 Used in digital storage oscilloscopes.
 Used in scientific instruments.
 Used in music reproduction technology etc.

8. Introduction to DAC
 A Digital to Analog Converter (DAC) converts a digital input signal into an analog
output signal.
9. Resolution of DAC
 The resolution is the smallest increment of output that the DAC can produce. An 8-
bit, DAC has a resolution of 8 bits

10. Types of DAC

 Binary weighted Resistor DAC
 R-2R Ladder DAC

11. Design of binary weighted DAC

 A binary weighted resistor DAC produces an analog output, which is almost equal to
the digital (binary) input by using binary weighted resistors in the inverting adder
circuit.

12. Design of R-2R type of DAC

  The advantage of a R-2R Ladder DAC is that it contains only two values of resistor: R
and 2R. So, it is easy to select and design more accurate resistors.

13. Applications of DAC

 In music players to convert digital data streams into analog audio signals.
 In televisions and mobile phones to convert digital video data into analog video
signals.
 In Control systems

14. Introduction to memories

 Semiconductor memory is a type of semiconductor device tasked with storing data.

15. Types of memories (RAM, ROM-PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, UVPROM)

 RAM – Random Access Memory
 ROM – Read Only Memory
 PROM – Programmable ROM
 EPROM – Erasable PROM
 EEPROM – Electrically Erasable PROM
 UVPROM – Ultra violet Erasable PROM

16. Compare RAM and ROM

 RAM is volatile memory that temporarily stores the files you are working on.
 ROM is non-volatile memory that permanently stores instructions for your
computer.
  Random Access Memory (RAM) is expensive when compared to ROM
 The speed of Random Access Memory (RAM) is higher when compared to ROM
 Random Access Memory (RAM) has a higher capacity when compared to ROM
 Data in RAM can be modified, erased, or read, but ROM can only be read

17. Compare Static RAM and Dynamic RAM

SRAM DRAM

It stores information as long as the power is

It stores information as long as supplied or a few milliseconds when power is
1. the power is supplied. switched off.

Transistors are used to store

2. information in SRAM. Capacitors are used to store data in DRAM.

Capacitors are not used hence To store information for a longer time, contents of
3. no refreshing is required. the capacitor needs to be refreshed periodically.

SRAM is faster as compared to

4 DRAM. DRAM provides slow access speeds.

It does not have refreshing

5. unit. It have a refreshing unit.

6. These are expensive. These are cheaper.

SRAMs are low density

7. devices. DRAMs are high density devices.

In this bits stored in voltage

8 form. In this bits stored in the form of electric energy.

These are used in cache

9. memories. These are used in main memories.

18. What is a CPU (Central Processing Unit)

 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.
CPU itself has following three components.

 Memory or Storage Unit

 Control Unit
 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

19. CPU Block Diagram

5.4 IC and LSI

1. Integrated Circuit (IC)

 An integrated circuit also referred to as an IC, a chip a set of electronic circuits on

one small flat package
 IC is the fundamental building block of all modern electronic devices.
2. Advantages of IC
 Extremely small in size
 Low power consumption
 Reliability
 Reduced cost
 Very small weight
 Easy replacement

3. Classification of integrated circuit on number of circuit elements

Based on Size:

 SSI: Small scale integration. 3 – 30 gates per chip.

 MSI: Medium scale integration. 30 – 300 gates per chip.
 LSI: Large scale integration. 300 – 3,000 gates per chip.
 VLSI: Very large scale integration. More than 3,000 gates per chip.

Based on signal types:

 Analog
 Digital
 Mixed

4. Large Scale Integrated Circuit (LSI) as circuit elements

 Large-scale integration (LSI) is the process of integrating or embedding thousands of
transistors on a single silicon semiconductor microchip.
 It was succeeded by very large-scale integration (VLSI)

5. Structures of IC
Package types:
 DIP (Dual In-line Package)
 SOP/SOIC/SO (Small Outline Package)
 QFP (Quad Flat Package)
 QFN/LCC (Quad Flat Non-leaded Package)
 PGA (Pin Grid Array package)
 BGA (Ball Grid Array Package)
 CSP (Chip Scale Package)
6. Types of ICs:

Logic families:
 Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL)
o Standard logic family
o Used for the longest time

 Emitter-Coupled Logic (ECL)

o Suitable for systems requiring high-speed operations.
 Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS)
o Suitable for systems with low power consumption (VLSI circuits).
o Gradually becomes the dominant logic family
 6. Electronic Measuring & Test Instruments
1. Principle and working of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
 An oscilloscope is an instrument used for measuring the amplitude of amplitude of
electrical signals and displayed as a function of time.
 It is widely used measuring instrument in laboratories and industries.

 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) – The CRT displays the quantity being measured. It
generates and accelerates an electron beam, deflects the beam to create the image
and contains a phosphor screen where the electron beam eventually becomes
visible.
 Vertical Amplifier –The vertical amplifier amplifies the waveform of the signal to be
viewed.
 Horizontal Amplifier – The horizontal amplifier is fed with a saw-tooth voltage which
is then applied to horizontal deflection plates.
 Sweep / Time Base Generator – It produces the saw-tooth voltage waveform, which
is used for horizontal deflection of the electron beam.
 Trigger Circuit – The trigger circuit produces trigger pulses to start horizontal sweep.
 High & Low Voltage Supply −
 Low Voltage (LV) Supply – It supplies the required operating voltages (of the order of
few hundred volts) to the all circuits of the oscilloscope.
 High Voltage (HV) Supply – It supplies the high voltages (of the order of few
thousand volts) required by CRT, for acceleration as well as relatively low voltage for
the heater of the electron gun, which emits the electrons.
 Delay Line – The purpose of the delay line is to delay the vertical signal enough to
keep it from reaching the CRT deflection plates before the horizontal circuits are
running.

2. CRO for measuring voltage, frequency and phase difference

Voltage measurement:

 The simplest way to measure signal is to set the trigger button to auto that means
oscilloscope start to measure the voltage signal by identifying the zero voltage point
or peak voltage by itself. As any of these two points identified the oscilloscope
triggers and measure the range of the voltage signal.
  Vertical and horizontal controls are adjusted so that the displayed image of the sine
wave is clear and stable. Now take measurements along the center vertical line
which has the smallest divisions. Reading of the voltage signal will be given by
vertical control.

Frequency measurement:
 Increase the vertical sensitivity to get the clear picture of the wave on the screen
without chopping any of its amplitude off.
 Now adjust the sweep rate in such a way that screen displays a more than one but
less than two complete cycles of the wave.
 Now count the number of divisions of one complete cycle on the graticule from start
to end.
 Now take horizontal sweep rate and multiply it with the number of units that you
counted for a cycle. It will give you the period of the wave. The period is the number
of seconds each repeating waveform takes. With the help of period, you can simply
calculate the frequency in cycles per second (Hertz).

Phase measurement:
 By using 'Lissajous Patterns' in X-Y mode of operation
 When both pairs of the deflection plates (horizontal and vertical deflection plates) of
CRO are connected to two sinusoidal voltages, the patterns appear at CRO screen
are called the Lissajous patterns.
 Shape of these Lissajous pattern changes with changes of phase difference between
signal and ration of frequencies applied to the deflection plates (traces) of CRO
3. Principle and working of Digital voltmeter
 AC or DC
 Analog or Digital

Digital Voltmeter:

 Analog to digital converter converts an analog signal into a train of pulses, the
number of which is proportional to the input signal
 Counter counts the pulses and send the reading to display

4. Principle and working of Frequency meter

 A frequency meter has a small device which converts the sinusoidal voltage of
the frequency into a train of unidirectional pulses.
 The frequency of input signal is the displayed count, averaged over a suitable
counting interval out of 0.1, 1.0, or 10 seconds. These three intervals repeat
themselves sequentially.
5. Principle and working of Digital Multimeter (DMM)
 Digital multimeter is a test equipment which offers several electronic
measurement task in one tool. It is also known as the voltmeter or Ohm meter or
Volt Ohm meter.
 The standard and basic measurements performed by multimeter are the
measurements of amps, volts, and ohms.
 Apart from that, these digital multimeters perform many additional
measurements by using digital and logic technology. These may include
temperature, frequency, continuity, capacitance etc.
 The new improved integrated circuits of digital multimeter are more efficient,
faster and work with a large accuracy as compared to an analogue multimeter.

6. Q meter and its applications

 The instrument which measures the storage factor or quality factor of the
electrical circuit at radio frequencies.
 The quality factor is one of the parameters of the oscillatory system, which shows
the relation between the storage and dissipated energy.
 The Q meter works on series resonant. The resonance is the condition exists in the
circuit when their inductance and capacitance reactance are of equal magnitude.
They induce energy which is oscillating between the electric and magnetic field of
the capacitor and inductor respectively.
 The Q-meter is based on the characteristic of the resistance, inductance and
capacitance of the resonant series circuit.
 Applications:
1. Measurement of inductance
2. Measurement of Capacitance
3. Measurment of Q factor

7. IC tester is and it’s use to find faulty IC

4. IC testers or integrated circuit tester are used to test or check the condition
of IC before it is used in any circuit. It functionally tests variety of ICs
and displays PASS or FAIL accordingly.
5. Reasons to test after the IC has been placed on the board:
o To verify the proper chip orientation
o To verify its correct device
o To verify basic operations of the board
o To program and verify In-System-Programmable(ISP) device contents.
6. It is of two kinds:
o Analog and Digital IC testers.
o We also have Universal IC tester which can test both analog and
digital ICs.
 7. Microprocessor and Microcontroller
1. Introduction

 A microprocessor is a programmable electronics chip that has computing and

decision making capabilities similar to central processing unit of a computer.
 Any microprocessor- based systems having limited number of resources are
called microcomputers.
 Nowadays, microprocessor can be seen in almost all types of electronics devices
like mobile phones, printers, washing machines etc.
 Microprocessors are also used in advanced applications like radars, satellites etc.
 Due to the rapid advancements in electronic industry and large scale integration
of devices results in a significant cost reduction and increase application of
microprocessors and their derivatives

Block diagram:

Terminologies:
 Bit: A bit is a single binary digit.
 Word: A word refers to the basic data size or bit size that can be processed by
the arithmetic and logic unit of the processor. A 16-bit binary number is called a
word in a 16- bit processor.
 Bus: A bus is a group of wires/lines that carry similar information.
 System Bus: The system bus is a group of wires/lines used for communication
between the microprocessor and peripherals
 Memory Word: The number of bits that can be stored in a register or memory
element is called a memory word.
  Address Bus: It carries the address, which is a unique binary pattern used to
identify a memory location or an I/O port. For example, an eight bit address bus
has eight lines and thus it can address 28 = 256 different locations. The locations
in hexadecimal format can be written as 00H – FFH.
 Data Bus: The data bus is used to transfer data between memory and processor
or between I/O device and processor. For example, an 8-bit processor will
generally have an 8-bit data bus and a 16-bit processor will have 16-bit data bus.
 Control Bus: The control bus carry control signals, which consists of signals for
selection of memory or I/O device from the given address, direction of data
transfer and synchronization of data transfer in case of slow devices

Types of microprocessors:

 Complex Instruction Set Computer(CISC)

 The Application Specific Integrated Circuit
 Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)
 Digital Signal Multiprocessors (DSPs)

2. Microprocessor vs. Microcontrollers

 Microprocessor consists of only a Central Processing Unit, whereas Micro
Controller contains a CPU, Memory, I/O all integrated into one chip.
 Microprocessor is used in Personal Computers whereas Micro Controller is used
in an embedded system.
 Microprocessor uses an external bus to interface to RAM, ROM, and other
peripherals, on the other hand, Microcontroller uses an internal controlling bus.
 Microprocessors are based on Von Neumann model Micro controllers are based
on Harvard architecture
 Microprocessor is complicated and expensive, with a large number of
instructions to process but Microcontroller is inexpensive and straightforward
with fewer instructions to process.
3. Evolution of Microprocessor

First-generation –
From 1971 to 1972 the era of the first generation came which brought microprocessors
like INTEL 4004 Rockwell international PPS-4 INTEL 8008 etc.

Second generation –
The second generation marked the development of 8-bit microprocessors from 1973 to
1978. Processors like INTEL 8085 Motorola 6800 and 6801 etc came into existence.

Third generation –
The third generation brought forward the 16-bit processors like INTEL
8086/80186/80286 Motorola 68000 68010 etc. From 1979 to 1980 this generation used
the HMOS technology.

Fourth generation –
The fourth-generation came into existence from 1981 to 1995. The 32-bit processors
using HMOS fabrication came into existence. INTEL 80386 and Motorola 68020 are some
of the popular processors of this generation.

Fifth-generation –
From 1995 till now we are in the fifth generation. 64-bit processors like PENTIUM,
Celeron, dual, quad, and octa-core processors came into existence.

4. Features of 8085 Microprocessor

 It is an 8-bit microprocessor i.e. it can accept, process, or provide 8-bit data

simultaneously.

 It operates on a single +5V power supply connected at Vcc; power supply ground
is connected to Vss.

 It operates on clock cycle with 50% duty cycle.

 It has on chip clock generator. This internal clock generator requires tuned circuit like
LC, RC or crystal. The internal clock generator divides oscillator frequency by 2 and
generates clock signal, which can be used for synchronizing external devices.

 It can operate with a 3 MHz clock frequency. The 8085A-2 version can operate at the
maximum frequency of 5 MHz.

 It has 16 address lines, hence it can access (216) 64 Kbytes of memory.

 It provides 8 bit I/O addresses to access (28 ) 256 I/O ports.

 In 8085, the lower 8-bit address bus (A0 – A7) and data bus (D0 – D7) are Multiplexed
to reduce number of external pins. But due to this, external hardware (latch) is
required to separate address lines and data lines.

 It supports 74 instructions with the following addressing modes :

o Immediate
o Register
o Direct
o Indirect
o Implied

 The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) of 8085 performs :

o 8 bit binary addition with or without carry

o 16 bit binary addition
o 2 digit BCD addition.
o 8-bit binary subtraction with or without borrow
o 8-bit logical AND, OR, EX-OR, complement (NOT), and bit shift operations.

 It has 8-bit accumulator, flag register, instruction register, six 8-bit general purpose
registers (B, C, D, E, H and L) and two 16-bit registers. (SP and PC). Getting the
operand from the general purpose registers is more faster than from memory.
Hence skilled programmers always prefer general purpose registers to store program
variables than memory.

 It provides five hardware interrupts : TRAP, RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5 and INTR.

 It has serial I/O control which allows serial communication.

 It provides control signals (IO/M, RD, WR) to control the bus cycles, and hence
external bus controller is not required.

 It has DMA (Direct Memory Access) feature

5. Applications of microprocessor on Ship

 Navigation systems

 Automatic control systems for various parameter control

 Data acquisition and alarm systems

6. Block diagram of 8085 Microprocessor

7. Pin Diagram of 8085 Microprocessor

8. Address bus , multiplexed address/data bus
 A total of 16 pins are used for Data lines and address lines.
 Data lines and lower address lines are multiplexed

9. Control and Status signals

These signals are used to identify the nature of operation. There are 3 control signal and 3
status signals.
Three control signals are RD, WR & ALE.
 RD − This signal indicates that the selected IO or memory device is to be read and is
ready for accepting data available on the data bus.
 WR − This signal indicates that the data on the data bus is to be written into a
selected memory or IO location.
  ALE − It is a posi ve going pulse generated when a new opera on is started by the
microprocessor. When the pulse goes high, it indicates address. When the pulse goes
down it indicates data.
Three status signals are IO/M, S0 & S1.
 IO/M
o This signal is used to differentiate between IO and Memory operations, i.e.
when it is high indicates IO operation and when it is low then it indicates
memory operation.
 S1 & S0
o These signals are used to identify the type of current operation.
10. Power Supply and Clock frequency
Power Supply:
 There are 2 power supply signals − VCC & VSS.
 VCC indicates +5v power supply and VSS indicates ground signal.
Clock signals:
There are 3 clock signals, i.e. X1, X2, CLK OUT.
 X1, X2 − A crystal (RC, LC N/W) is connected at these two pins and is used to set
frequency of the internal clock generator. This frequency is internally divided by 2.
 CLK OUT − This signal is used as the system clock for devices connected with the
microprocessor.
11. External signals including interrupts

 Interrupts are the signals generated by external devices to request the

microprocessor to perform a task.
o There are 5 interrupt signals, i.e. TRAP, RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5, and
INTR.
 INTA − It is an interrupt acknowledgment signal.
 RESET IN − This signal is used to reset the microprocessor by setting the
program counter to zero.
 RESET OUT − This signal is used to reset all the connected devices when the
microprocessor is reset.
 READY − This signal indicates that the device is ready to send or receive data. If
READY is low, then the CPU has to wait for READY to go high.
 HOLD − This signal indicates that another master is requesting the use of the
address and data buses.
 HLDA (HOLD Acknowledge) − It indicates that the CPU has received the HOLD
request and it will relinquish the bus in the next clock cycle. HLDA is set to low
after the HOLD signal is removed.
12. Serial I/O Ports
There are 2 serial signals, i.e. SID and SOD and these signals are used for serial
communication.
 SOD (Serial output data line) − The output SOD is set/reset as specified by the SIM
instruction.
 SID (Serial input data line) − The data on this line is loaded into accumulator
whenever a RIM instruction is executed.

13. Input/Output devices

o Switches
o LEDs
o Relay
o Solenoid

14. 8085 Bus organisation and Registers

(a) General Purpose Registers –

The 8085 has six general-purpose registers to store 8-bit data; these are identified as- B, C,
D, E, H, and L. These can be combined as register pairs – BC, DE, and HL, to perform some
16-bit operation. These registers are used to store or copy temporary data, by using
instructions, during the execution of the program.
(b) Specific Purpose Registers –
 Accumulator:
The accumulator is an 8-bit register (can store 8-bit data) that is the part of the
arithmetic and logical unit (ALU). After performing arithmetical or logical operations, the
result is stored in accumulator. Accumulator is also defined as register A.
 Flag registers:
 The flag register is a special purpose register and it is completely different from other
registers in microprocessor. It consists of 8 bits and only 5 of them are useful. The other
three are left vacant and are used in the future Intel versions. These 5 flags are set or
reset (when value of flag is 1, then it is said to be set and when value is 0, then it is said
to be reset) after an operation according to data condition of the result in the
accumulator and other registers. The 5 flag registers are:
1. Sign Flag: It occupies the seventh bit of the flag register, which is also known as the
most significant bit. It helps the programmer to know whether the number stored in
the accumulator is positive or negative. If the sign flag is set, it means that number
stored in the accumulator is negative, and if reset, then the number is positive.
2. Zero Flag:: It occupies the sixth bit of the flag register. It is set, when the operation
performed in the ALU results in zero(all 8 bits are zero), otherwise it is reset. It helps
in determining if two numbers are equal or not.
3. Auxiliary Carry Flag: It occupies the fourth bit of the flag register. In an arithmetic
operation, when a carry flag is generated by the third bit and passed on to the fourth
bit, then Auxiliary Carry flag is set. If not flag is reset. This flag is used internally for
BCD(Binary-Coded decimal Number) operations.
Note – This is the only flag register in 8085 which is not accessible by user.
4. Parity Flag: It occupies the second bit of the flag register. This flag tests for number
of 1’s in the accumulator. If the accumulator holds even number of 1’s, then this flag
is set and it is said to even parity. On the other hand if the number of 1’s is odd, then
it is reset and it is said to be odd parity.
5. Carry Flag: It occupies the zeroth bit of the flag register. If the arithmetic operation
results in a carry(if result is more than 8 bit), then Carry Flag is set; otherwise it is
reset.
(c) Memory Registers –
There are two 16-bit registers used to hold memory addresses. The size of these registers is
16 bits because the memory addresses are 16 bits. They are :-
 Program Counter: This register is used to sequence the execution of the instructions.
The function of the program counter is to point to the memory address from which the
next byte is to be fetched. When a byte (machine code) is being fetched, the program
counter is incremented by one to point to the next memory location.
 Stack Pointer: It is used as a memory pointer. It points to a memory location in
read/write memory, called the stack. It is always incremented/decremented by 2
during push and pop operation.

15. Microprocessor operations

 Following are the some externally initiated operations:
1. RESET –
This RESET key is used to clear the program counter and update with 0000H memory
location. When this RESET pin is activated by any external key, then all the internal
operations are suspended for that time. After that the execution of the program can begin
at the zero memory address.
2. Interrupt –
8085 microprocessor chip have some pins for interrrupt like TRAP, RST 5.5, RST 6.5 and RST
7.5. The microprocessor can be interrupted from the normal instructions and asked to
perform some other emergency operations, which are also known as Service routine. The
microprocessor resumes its operation
after the completion Service routine.
3. READY –
The 8085 microprocessor has a pin called READY. If the the signal at this READY pin is in low
state then the microprocessor enters into the Wait state. The Input/Output devices that are
connected to microprocessor are of different speed, which is need to be synchronized with
the speed of microprocessor. This signal is used mainly to synchronize slower external
devices with the microprocessor.
4. HOLD –
When the HOLD pin is activated by an external signal, the microprocessor relinquishes
control buses and allows the external peripheral to use them. For example, the HOLD signal
is used Direct memory access (DMA) data transfer.In this DMA, the external Input/Output
devices are directly communicate with the memory without interfering the processor every
time.

16. Communication and bus timings

Memory read Cycle timing diagram:

Memory write Cycle timing diagram:

17. Demultiplexing bus AD7 to AD0 and control signal generation