MATH1050

Mathematical
Foundations II
Semester 1, 2023

Course notes

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 About these notes
These are the course notes for MATH1050. We will use these notes very
heavily, so it is important that you get your own copy. You can buy these
notes fairly cheaply at UQ Print, or you can download them from the web
and print them yourself. Do not try to re-use a copy from previous
semesters: the notes have changed, and in addition it is important for you
to write things in your own words.

In lectures, we will use visualisers and notes. These notes contain copies of
all the pages used in lectures, so you have time to listen and think in class,
rather than spending your whole time writing. However, there are many
spaces in your notes for examples and solutions. We’ll work through the
examples in lectures, and you should write down all the solutions to the
examples, as well as any annotations that you feel will help you to
understand the course material when you look through your notes at a
later date.

The notes are divided into sections. The table of contents at the start of
the notes and the index at the end of the notes should help you to find
your way around. We will start with Vectors in the first week of
semester. Please make sure you have worked through the
background knowledge section. Worked solutions for this section
are available on the course Blackboard site. At the back of the notes
there are additional practice problems for each section of the notes.

Each year, some people accidentally lose their notes, which causes big
problems for them. You might like to write your name and some contact
details on the front cover just in case you misplace them.

These notes have been prepared very carefully, but there will inevitably be
some errors in them. If you find any errors, or have any suggestions on
how to improve the notes, please tell your lecturer (in person or by email).

Page 2
 Table of contents.
About these notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
MATH1050
0.0 Table of contents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.0 Background knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.1
Mathematical
Set notation, real numbers & interval notation .
1.2 Absolute value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
13
1.3
1.4
Foundations II
Surds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Index laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
16
1.5 Review of logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.6 Trigonometry review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Semester 1, 2023
1.7 More trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2.0 Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.1
Course notes
Introduction to vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2 Addition of vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.3 Scalar multiplication of vectors . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4 Position
These importantvectors . . . . to:
notes belong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
If
2.5youThe
find norm
them, of
please return
a vector . them
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. . . . . . . . . . 46
I can be contacted via:
2.6 Component form of a vector . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.7 About. .these
The scalar product . . . notes
. . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.8 are
These Thethevector
course product . . . . . .We
notes for MATH1050. . .will
. .use. these
. . . notes
. . .very55
heavily, so it is important that you get your own copy. You can buy these
notes fairly cheaply at UQ Print, or you can download them from the web
and print them yourself. Do not try to re-use a copy from previous
3.0 Applications of vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
semesters: the notes have changed, and in addition it is important for you
to write things in your own words.
3.1 Vectors in geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.2lectures,
In Forces . .use
we will . .visualisers
. . . . .and. notes.
. . . .These
. . .notes
. . contain
. . . .copies
. 63 of
all the pages used in lectures, so you have time to listen and think in class,
3.3 Displacement,
rather than spending yourvelocity
whole timeand momentum
writing. However,.there
. . are
. . many
. 68
spaces in your notes for examples and solutions. We’ll work through the
examples in lectures, and you should write down all the solutions to the
examples, as well as any annotations that you feel will help you to
4.0 Complex
understand numbers
the course . . you
material when . . look
. . through
. . . . your
. . notes
. . . at. a 76
later date.
4.1 Introduction to complex numbers . . . . . . . . . 77
The notes are divided into sections. The table of contents at the start of
4.2notes
the Complex numbers
and the index at thein polar
end of theform
notes .should
. . . help
. . you
. . to. find
. 83
your way around. We will start with Vectors in the first week of
4.3 Powers
semester. of complex
Please make surenumbers . . . . through
you have worked . . . . .the. . . 89
background knowledge section. Worked solutions for this section
4.4 available
are The Fundamental
on the courseTheorem
Blackboard of site.
Algebra
At the. back
. . of
. .the. notes
92
there are additional practice problems for each section of the notes.

Each year, some people accidentally lose their notes, which causes big
5.0 Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
problems for them. You might like to write your name and some contact
details on the front cover
5.1 Introduction tojust in case you
matrices . . misplace
. . . . them.
. . . . . . . . 101
5.2 notes
These Addinghaveand
beensubtracting
prepared very matrices
carefully, but. there
. . .will
. .inevitably
. . . 104 be
some errors in them. If you find any errors, or have any suggestions on
5.3 toScalar
how improvemultiplication of matrices
the notes, please tell your lecturer. (in
. .person
. . . or. by
. .email).
107
5.4 Multiplying matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.5 The transpose of a matrix . . . . . . . . . . .Page
. . 2 115
5.6 Identity and inverse matrices . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.7 The determinant of a square matrix . . . . . . . 123
5.8 MATH1050
Vector product - Part 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.9 Solving systems of linear equations . . . . . . . . 128

6.0 Equation of lines and planes . . . . . . . . . 136

6.1 Mathematical
Scalar Equation for a Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.2
6.3
Foundations II
Vector equation of a plane I . . . . . . . . . . . .
Equations for a Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
141
144
6.4 Vector equation of a plane II . . . . . . . . . . . 152

Semester 1, 2023
7.0 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
7.1 Introduction to functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
7.2 A collection of standard functions . . . . . . . . 166
Course notes
7.3 Solving inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
7.4 Composition of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
7.5 Inverse functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
7.6 Limits
These of functions
important . . to:
notes belong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
If you find them, please return them to me!
I can be contacted via:
8.0 Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
 8.1 Tangent lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
8.2 The derivative of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
8.3 Differentiation rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
8.4 Critical points and curve sketching . . . . . . . . 211
8.5 Applications of differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . 218

9.0 Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

9.1 Antiderivatives and indefinite integrals . . . . . . 226
9.2 The area under a curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
9.3 Definite integrals and the Fundamental Theorem
of Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
9.4 Integration by substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
9.5 Applications of integration . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

10.0 Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

10.1 Direct Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
10.2 Mathematical Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

11.0 Revision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

11.1 Revision examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276-1
This first section is background knowledge which you
should complete before semester begins. Fully worked
solutions are available on the course Blackboard site.
Throughout semester you should make use of the
edX(edge) platform which contains more resources.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 1. Page 8

 1 Background knowledge
We begin by reviewing some elementary concepts which we
will use throughout the course. Topics in this section are:
• Set notation, real numbers & interval notation
• Absolute value
• Surds
• Index laws
• Logarithms
• Trigonometry
• More trigonometry.

1.1 Set notation, real numbers & interval

notation
Set notation
• A set is an unordered collection of elements.
• We usually use curly brackets to represent a set. The order
in which the elements are listed is irrelevant, and elements
are only listed once. If we want to give a set a name, we
usually use an upper-case letter.
• For example, the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} is the same as the set
A = {3, 1, 4, 2, 5}. Another example of a set is
X = {(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 2)}.
• The symbol ∈ means “belongs to” or “is an element of”, so
we can say that 1 ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} or 2 ∈ A. The symbol ∈
means “does not belong to”, so we can say that 6 ∈ A.
MATH1050, 2023. Section 1. Page 9
 • If you don’t want to list all the elements of a set, you may
be able to use the symbol | which means “such that” to
describe the elements of a set in terms of a certain property.
• For example, the set of elements of A that are less than 3,
can be written as {x ∈ A | x < 3}. Thus
{x ∈ A | x < 3} = {1, 2}. Set X could also be written as
X = {(x, y) | x = y, 0 ≤ x, y ≤ 2}.
• The symbol ⊆ means is a subset of, so {2, 3} ⊆ A and
{(0, 0)} ⊆ X. However, {2, 6}  A and {(1, −1)}  X.
• The union of two sets A and B is the set of elements that
occur in either A or B (or both) and is indicated by the
symbol ∪. For example, if A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {3, 6, 7}
and C = {−1, −2}, then A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}.
• The intersection of two sets A and B is the set of elements
that occur in both A and B, and is indicated by the symbol
∩. Thus A ∩ B = {3}. If the sets have no common elements,
e.g., A ∩ C, then we write A ∩ C = {} or ∅ (the empty set).
Real numbers
A real number can be represented by a decimal expansion (finite
or infinite). The set of real numbers, denoted R, contains several
important number systems.
• The natural numbers, denoted N, are the counting numbers
{1, 2, 3, 4, . . . }.
• The integers, denoted Z, are the positive natural numbers,
the negative natural numbers and zero.
• The rational numbers, denoted Q, are the real numbers that
can be represented in the form ab , where a and b are
integers and b = 0. In decimal form, each rational number
is a terminating or repeating decimal.
MATH1050, 2023. Section 1. Page 10
 • The irrational numbers, denoted Q̄, are the real numbers
that are not rational. In decimal form, each irrational
number is a non-terminating, non-repeating decimal.
• The real numbers, denoted R, are any decimals, infinite or
not, recurring or not.
• The following diagram shows how these number systems are
related.
Q R
Z Q

• The set of real numbers can be represented by a number

line.

−2 −1 0 1 2 3
Symbols
• ≤ reads is less than or equal to.
• < reads is strictly less than.
• ≥ reads is greater than or equal to.
• > reads is strictly greater than.
• ⊆ reads is a subset of.
• ∈ reads is an element of (or belongs to).
Note that from the diagram above, N ⊆ Z ⊆ Q ⊆ R, and Q̄ ⊆ R.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 1. Page 11

Interval notation
• The real numbers are ordered, so we can describe one real
number as being less than, equal to, or greater than another
real number.
• A subset of consecutive real numbers can be represented
graphically on the number line, or using interval notation.
• The set of all x ∈ R such that a ≤ x ≤ b, written
{x ∈ R | a ≤ x ≤ b}, is illustrated below. In interval
notation, this closed interval is denoted [a, b].
a b

• The set of all x ∈ R such that a < x < b, written

{x ∈ R | a < x < b}, is illustrated below. In interval
notation, this open interval is denoted (a, b).
a b

• The sets {x ∈ R | a ≤ x < b} and {x ∈ R | a < x ≤ b} are

illustrated below. In interval notation, these half-open,
half-closed intervals are denoted [a, b) and (a, b],
respectively.
a b a b

• Infinity is not a real number! However, we use the symbol

for infinity, ∞, to describe intervals of real numbers that
extend forever.
{x ∈ R | x ≥ a} = [a, ∞) {x ∈ R | x > a} = (a, ∞)
{x ∈ R | x ≤ a} = (−∞, a] {x ∈ R | x < a} = (−∞, a)
R = (−∞, ∞)
You never have a closed interval with the symbol ∞ in it!
MATH1050, 2023. Section 1. Page 12
 1.2 Absolute value
Absolute value
• The absolute value, or modulus, of a real number x is given
by 
x if x ≥ 0,
|x| =
−x if x < 0.
So, for every real number x, |x| ≥ 0.
• The distance between two real numbers a and b is

b−a if b ≥ a,
|b − a| = |a − b| =
a−b if b < a.

Thus |x| gives the distance between x and 0.

• The set {x ∈ R | |x − 2| < 3} = (−1, 5) and can be
pronounced “what real numbers are within a distance of 3
from 2?”. It can be represented using a number line:
−1 5

Properties of the absolute value

• For every real number x, |x|2 = x2 .
Proof If x ≥ 0, then |x| = x, so |x|2 = x2 .
If x < 0, then |x| = −x so |x|2 = (−x)(−x) = x2 .
• For every pair of real numbers x and y, |xy| = |x| · |y|.
Proof If x ≥ 0 and y ≥ 0 then |xy| = xy and |x| · |y| = xy.
If x < 0 and y < 0 then |xy| = xy and
|x| · |y| = (−x)(−y) = xy.
If x ≥ 0 and y < 0 then |xy| = −(xy) and
|x| · |y| = x(−y) = −xy. Similarly for x < 0 and y ≥ 0.
MATH1050, 2023. Section 1. Page 13
 • For every pair of real numbers x and y, |x + y| ≤ |x| + |y|.
(This property is called the triangle inequality.)

1.3 Surds
• A surd is an irrational number
√ √ which√
is represented by a
3
root√
sign. For√ example, 2, 7 and 15 are surds,
but 9 and 3 125 are not surds.
Example
√ 1.3.1
√ Simplify the following expressions.
a) 5 3a3 b2 12a where a and b are positive real numbers.

√ √ √
b) 5 3 + 2 12 − 18

• Rationalising the denominator is the process of multiplying

the numerator and denominator of a fraction by an
appropriate number so that the result does not have a surd
in the denominator.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 1. Page 14

Example 1.3.2 Simplify the following expressions.
3
a) √
2

√ √
3+ 2
b) √ √
3 2+2 3

MATH1050, 2023. Section 1. Page 15

 1.4 Index laws
Let a, b, m and n be real numbers. Then:
Rule Example
am an = am+n 23 22 = 25

(am )n = amn (23 )2 = 26

(ab)m = am bm (2a)3 = 23 a3 = 8a3

am m−n 23 3−2 1
= a (a = 0) = 2 = 2 =2
an 22
1 1 1
a−m = (a = 0) 2−3 = =
am 23 8
a0 = 1 (a = 0), a1 = a 20 = 1, 21 = 2
1/m √ 1/3
√
3
a = m
a (m = 0) 2 = 2

Example 1.4.1 Simplify the following:

(a) x2 y×y −2 ×(xy)−1

(b) x2 ÷(x2 y −2 )×(x2 y)−2

MATH1050, 2023. Section 1. Page 16

 1.5 Review of logarithms
• At time of fertilisation, t = 0, a zygote contains 1 cell. This
cell then splits into two cells when t = 1, and cells continue
to split into two. If the splitting time is constant we can
represent this as an exponential function, C(t) = 2t . To find
out when we first have 100 cells, we need to solve 2t = 100.
• Sometimes we can easily solve exponential equations. Other
times, solving equations such as 2t = 100 are best done
using logarithms, which we review briefly here.
• The notation
loga b
means “to what power do we raise a to obtain the value b?”
Hence, the statement loga b = c is equivalent to the
statement ac = b.
• For example, log5 25 = 2, log7 1 = 0 and log9 3 = 12 .
• The notation loga b is read as the logarithm of b with base a
or as the logarithm with base a of b.
Example 1.5.1 Evaluate the following:
1
(a) log4 64 (b) log5 25
(c) log27 3

MATH1050, 2023. Section 1. Page 17

 • To solve the equation 2t = 100 we need to evaluate
t = log2 100. Since 26 = 64 and 27 = 128, the value of t will
be between 6 and 7. To find a more exact value for t, we
can use a calculator.
• Most calculators can only evaluate logarithms having one of
two particular bases, 10 or e.
• The number e = 2.71828 . . . is a very important irrational
number, and loge b is called the natural logarithm of b.
• When we write log without a base, the base is understood
to be 10 and when we write ln we mean a natural logarithm.

log 100 = log10 100 = 2 since 102 = 100, but

ln100 = loge 100 ≈ 4.605 since e4.605 ≈ 100.

• Now consider the equation (−3)x = −27. Clearly, this

equation has the solution x = 3. However, we cannot use
the method of Example 1.5.2 to determine this. Very
strange things happen if you use a non-positive number for
the base of a logarithm and also if you try to evaluate a
logarithm of a non-positive number. For the purposes of
this course, the notation loga b is only defined if a > 0 and
b > 0.
• There are some useful rules which allow us to manipulate
expressions involving logarithms.
If a > 0, a = 1, x, y > 0 and r is any real number, then

loga (xr ) = r loga x

loga (xy) = loga x + loga y
loga ( xy ) = loga x − loga y

MATH1050, 2023. Section 1. Page 18

 • Our calculators usually evaluate logarithms to the base 10
or the natural logarithm to the base e. To evaluate
logarithms to other bases, so for instance finding x where
x = loga b we have to change the base to a formula involving
either base 10 or base e. To see how to do this we note that

ax = b
log(ax ) = log b
x log a = log b
log b
x = log a

This is called the change of base rule. So provided that

a > 0, a = 1 and b > 0,
log b lnb
loga b = = .
log a lna

• Coming back to our original question of 2t = 100, we find

that
ln100
t = log2 100 = ≈ 6.644.
ln2
Example 1.5.2 Solve for x:
(a) 5x = 32 (b) 9x+1 = 100

MATH1050, 2023. Section 1. Page 19

 1.6 Trigonometry review
• In this course we will usually measure angles in radians. To
convert between radians and degrees, use the fact that π
radians is equal to 180 degrees.
• The circumference of a circle of radius 1 is 2π. Therefore
the length of an arc defined by an angle of 180o (length of
the arc of a semicircle) is π which is approximately 3.142.
Based on this information we say an angle of 180o is
equivalent to an angle of π radians. If we take an arc of
length 1 around the unit circle then we say it subtends an
angle of 1 radian.
y y

π 1
O 1 x O 1 x

• Angles will be measured anti-clockwise from the positive

x-axis, unless otherwise indicated, so a negative angle can
be interpreted in terms of moving clockwise from the x-axis.
• We define the trigonometric functions of sine and cosine as
follows. If P is a point on the unit circle, and the line
segment OP makes an angle θ measured anti-clockwise
from the positive x-axis, then the point P has coordinates
(cos θ, sin θ).
 y y
S A
P (cos θ , sin θ)
sine +ve all +ve

θ
O 1 x x

tangent +ve cosine +ve

T C

Graphs of the trigonometric functions

• We can draw the graphs of y = sin θ and y = cos θ by
considering what happens to the coordinates of the points
as we move around the circumference of the unit circle.
Example 1.6.1 On the axes below, draw the graphs of
y = sin θ and x = cos θ.
y x

1 1
θ θ
−π π 2π −π π 2π
−1 −1

• Useful identities sin θ = sin(π − θ), sin θ = − sin(π + θ),

sin θ = − sin(2π − θ).
• − cos θ = cos(π − θ), − cos θ = cos(π + θ),
cos θ = cos(2π − θ) = cos(−θ).

MATH1050, 2023. Section 1. Page 21

 • If we scale the unit circle so that it becomes a circle of
radius r, and let A be the point where that circle meets the
extension of the line OP , then the coordinates of A are
(r cos θ, r sin θ).
y y
A ( r cos θ , r sin θ)
P (cos θ , sin θ) P

θ θ
O 1 x O r x

• For a right-angled triangle with angle θ as shown, the

values of the trigonometric ratios are

opp. hyp.

θ
adj.

opposite adjacent opposite

sin θ = , cos θ = , tan θ = .
hypotenuse hypotenuse adjacent

• The trigonometric function “tangent” is defined as

sin θ
tan θ = cos θ
.
• The reciprocal trigonometric functions are cosecant, secant
and cotangent. There are defined as:
1 1 1 cos θ
csc θ = , sec θ = , and cot θ = = .
sin θ cos θ tan θ sin θ
MATH1050, 2023. Section 1. Page 22
 • The graphs of y = csc θ, y = sec θ, y = tan θ and y = cot θ
are shown. You should think about how these relate to the
graphs of y = sin θ and y = cos θ.

y y

1 1
θ −π π θ
−π π 2π 2π
−1 −1

1 1
y = csc θ = sin θ
y = sec θ = cos θ

y y

1 1
θ −π π θ
−π π 2π 2π
−1 −1

sin θ 1 cos θ
y = tan θ = cos θ
y = cot θ = tan θ
= sin θ

MATH1050, 2023. Section 1. Page 23

 • You will need to remember how to calculate the sine and
cosine of the special angles, 0, π6 , π4 , π3 , π2 and their related
angles in the (x, y)-plane.
• The two special triangles and the CAST rule (illustrated
below) can be used in calculations of trigonometric ratios.
y
π 30 S A
π 45 6
sine +ve all +ve
4
2
2 3 x
1
60 tangent +ve cosine +ve

1 1 π T C
3

Example 1.6.2 Calculate the following trigonometric ratios.

a) cos( 5π
3
)

b) tan(π)

c) sin( 5π
4
)

MATH1050, 2023. Section 1. Page 24

 • Inverse functions exists for sin and cos, and for tan on the
interval between − π2 and π2 .
• Inverse functions satisfy arcsin(sin θ) = θ, arccos(cos θ) = θ,
and for −π
2
< θ < π
2
, arctan(tan θ) = θ.
• In high school, you probably wrote inverse sin x as sin−1 x.
Most university textbooks use arcsin x, so we will write it
this way, too.
Example 1.6.3 Calculate the values of the angle θ that satisfy
the following equations, where 0 ≤ θ < 2π.
1
a) sin θ = 2

b) tan θ = −1

c) cos θ = 0.53

MATH1050, 2023. Section 1. Page 25

 1.7 More trigonometry
• When you work with triangles that are not right-angled
triangles, the following two rules are useful.
• Let ABC be a triangle with side lengths a (opposite the
angle at A), b (opposite the angle at B), and c (opposite
the angle at C).
A

c
b
B
C a

Cosine Rule a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A

sin A sin B sin C
Sine Rule = =
a b c

• Although the Sine Rule is usually quicker to apply than the

Cosine Rule, you have to be careful with the Sine Rule if
your triangle contains an obtuse angle (greater than a right
angle).
• Every angle θ within a triangle must satisfy 0 < θ < π, but
sin θ = sin(π − θ) so there are two angles between 0 and π
that have the same sine value.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 1. Page 26

Example 1.7.1 Determine the angles (in degrees) in the
following triangle.
D
5
4
E

7
F

The most accurate way to do this question is to use the cosine

rule for all three angles. Do it that way first, then do the
following: determine angle E first, then use the sine rule to
determine angle D. What do you notice?

MATH1050, 2023. Section 1. Page 27

 • When manipulating algebraic expressions involving the
trigonometric functions, it is useful to be aware of their
relationships to one another.
• A trigonometric identity is an equation that involves
trigonometric functions. We will now prove several of these.
For future reference, we will label them TI1 through TI19
for trigonometric identities 1 through 19.
• Remember that angles will be measured anti-clockwise
from the positive x-axis, unless otherwise indicated, so a
negative angle can be interpreted in terms of moving
clockwise from the x-axis.
• From the definitions of sine and cosine in terms of the unit
circle, we see that

sin(−θ) = − sin θ (TI1) and cos(−θ) = cos θ (TI2).

y

P (cos θ , sin θ)

θ
1 x

• By considering a point P on the unit circle, with

coordinates (x, y) = (cos θ, sin θ), and using the equation for
the unit circle x2 + y 2 = 1, we have

sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 (TI3).

MATH1050, 2023. Section 1. Page 28

Example 1.7.2 Prove the following trigonometric identities.
(a) 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ (TI4)

(b) cot2 θ + 1 = csc2 θ (TI5)

MATH1050, 2023. Section 1. Page 29

Example 1.7.3 Show that cos( π2 − θ) = sin θ and that
sin( π2 − θ) = cos θ, for 0 < θ < π2 .
y

(cos θ , sin θ)

θ
1 x

• In fact, the identities

cos( π2 − θ) = sin θ (TI6) and sin( π2 − θ) = cos θ (TI7)

are true for all θ.

• It can also be shown that

cos( π2 + θ) = − sin θ (TI8) and sin( π2 + θ) = cos θ (TI9).

MATH1050, 2023. Section 1. Page 30
 • The sum and difference formulae are trigonometric
identities that involve the sum or difference of two angles.
cos(θ + φ) = cos θ cos φ − sin θ sin φ (TI10)
sin(θ + φ) = sin θ cos φ + cos θ sin φ (TI11)
cos(θ − φ) = cos θ cos φ + sin θ sin φ (TI12)
sin(θ − φ) = sin θ cos φ − cos θ sin φ (TI13)
• The sum and difference formulae can be used to calculate
the exact value of the trigonometric ratios for certain angles
by relating them to the special angles π6 , π4 and π3 .
Example 1.7.4 Determine the exact value of sin( 7π
12
).

• If we let φ = θ in the sum formulae, we get identities that

are often called the double-angle formulae.
sin(2θ) = 2 sin θ cos θ (TI14)
cos(2θ) = cos2 θ − sin2 θ (TI15)

• Applying sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 to TI15, we see that

cos(2θ) = 2 cos2 θ − 1 (TI16)
cos(2θ) = 1 − 2 sin2 θ (TI17)
• Finally from TI16 and TI17, we get the half-angle formulae.
1 − cos(2θ) 1 + cos(2θ)
sin2 θ = (TI18) cos2 θ = (TI19)
2 2
MATH1050, 2023. Section 1. Page 31
NOTES

MATH1050, 2023. Section 1. Page 32

NOTES

MATH1050, 2023. Section 1. Page 33

 2 Vectors

• In modelling the real world, some quantities, such as length,

area, time and temperature, can be described by real
numbers. We call these scalar quantities. However, the
description of other quantities, such as displacement,
velocity and force, require more than just one real number.
They are described by both a magnitude and a direction.
We call these vector quantities.
• Vectors can be represented in many ways and have many
applications.
• In this section we look at three representations of vectors:
geometric form, matrix form and component form.
• Topics in this section are:
– Introduction to vectors (geometric and matrix form)
– Addition of vectors
– Scalar multiplication of vectors
– Position vectors
– The norm of a vector
– Component form of a vector
– The scalar product
– The vector product - Part 1.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 2. Page 34

 2.1 Introduction to vectors

• A vector quantity is something whose specification requires

both a magnitude and a direction.
• We normally use bold lower-case letters to represent
vectors, or, when handwriting, a lower-case letter with the
∼ symbol below it, for example v .
∼

• Throughout this section we will refer to the (x, y)-plane as

2-space, denoted R2 , and (x, y, z)-space as 3-space, denoted
R3 . All of our vectors can be depicted in R2 or R3 .
Geometric representation of a vector
• A vector can be represented geometrically in R2 or R3 by
an arrow.
• The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the
vector, and the direction of the vector is indicated by the
direction the arrow is pointing.
• The actual location of the arrow in the diagram is
irrelevant, only its magnitude and direction matter.

Example 2.1.1 The vector v represents a velocity of 10 km/h

in the north-east direction, while the vector w represents a
velocity of 5 km/h in the north-west direction.
y

w v

MATH1050, 2023. Section 2. Page 35

Example 2.1.2 The three arrows shown below each represent
the same vector.
y

−→
• If P and Q are points in R2 or R3 , then P Q denotes the
vector from P to Q. The point P is the tail of the vector
and the point Q is the head of the vector.
−→ −→
• Suppose that P Q and RS are two representations of the
same vector in the (x, y)-plane. Let the coordinates of the
four points be P = (xP , yP ), Q = (xQ , yQ ), R = (xR , yR )
−→ −→
and S = (xS , yS ). Since P Q = RS, the triangles P QA and
RSB are congruent.
y
Q

P A = ( xQ , yP )

S x

R B = ( xS , yR )

Thus
P A = RB, so xQ − xP = xS − xR ,
AQ = BS, so yQ − yP = yS − yR .
• For every geometric representation of a particular vector v
in R2 , the change in x-coordinate is a fixed quantity, and
the change in y-coordinate is a fixed quantity.
MATH1050, 2023. Section 2. Page 36
Matrix representation of a vector
• For a (geometric) vector v ∈ R2 with tail at the point
(x1 , y1 ) and head at the point (x2 , y2 ), the matrix form of
the vector has 2 rows and 1 column and is written as
 
x 2 − x1
.
y2 − y1

• The matrix form of a vector is the same for all geometric

representations of the vector.
• The usual notation
  for writing a general vector v in matrix
v1
form is v = (a column vector) or v = (v1 , v2 ) (a row
v2
vector).
• Although we usually write the vector v as a column vector,
we may occasionally write it as a row vector.
 
v1
• Given a vector v = in matrix form, you can find a
v2
geometric representation of v by picking any point in the
plane as the tail of the vector, moving v1 units in the
x-direction and then v2 units in the y-direction to find the
point that is the head of the vector.
−→
• For a (geometric) vector v = P Q in R3 , where
P = (xP , yP , zP ) and Q = (xQ , yQ , zQ ), the matrix form is
   
x Q − xP v1
   
v =  yQ − yP  =  v2  or v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ).
zQ − zP v3

• The entries v1 and v2 (or v1 , v2 and v3 ) are called the

components of the vector.
MATH1050, 2023. Section 2. Page 37
Converting from matrix to geometric form
Example 2.1.3 On the (x, y)-axes below, draw geometric
representations
  of each of the
 following
 vectors.  
3 −2 −1
a) u = b) v = c) w =
4 3 −2
y

Converting from geometric to matrix form

Example 2.1.4 Determine the matrix form of each of the
vectors drawn below.
y

x
w

MATH1050, 2023. Section 2. Page 38

 2.2 Addition of vectors
Geometric addition of vectors
• Given vectors v and w, we define the sum v + w by the
triangle rule for vector addition.
−→
• Let P , Q and R be points in R (or R ) such that v = P Q
2 3
−→ −→
and w = QR. Then v + w = P R.
R
v+w
w

Q
v
P

• Note that when adding vectors v and w geometrically you

put the tail of w at the head of v and then draw the sum
v + w from the tail of v to the head of w.
Matrix addition of vectors
   
v1 w1
• If v = and w = , then
v2 w2
 
v1 + w1
v+w = .
v2 + w 2

• Addition of vectors in R3 is the same procedure.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 2. Page 39

To see that geometric and matrix addition of vectors are
equivalent, consider the following diagram showing the addition
of vectors v and w.

v+w w2
w

w1
v v2
v1
Example2.2.1    
2 −4 −1
Let u = ,v= and w = .
3 2 −3
Determine the following vector sums, using matrix addition of
vectors and using geometric addition of vectors.
y
a) u + v

y
b) u + w

MATH1050, 2023. Section 2. Page 40

 • We define the zero vector to be the vector (of an appropriate
size) with each component equal to zero, and denote it by 0.
 
  0
0  
0= or 0 =  0 
0
0

• The zero vector has zero magnitude and unspecified

direction, so can be represented geometrically as a point.
Properties of vector addition
(1) Vector addition is commutative, that is, v + w = w + v.
• To illustrate the commutativity of addition geometrically,
consider four points P , Q, R and S, arranged in 2-space so
that
−→ −→ −→ −→
v = P Q = SR and w = P S = QR.
v R
S

w w

Q
v
P
−→ −→ −→ −→ −→
Then v + w = P Q + QR = P R = P S + SR = w + v.
(2) Vector addition is associative, that is
u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w.
(3) 0 + v = v + 0 = v.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 2. Page 41

 2.3 Scalar multiplication of vectors
Geometric scalar multiplication of vectors
• Given a vector v and a real number t, we define the scalar
multiple tv to be the vector whose magnitude is |t| times
the magnitude of v, and whose direction is the same as v if
t > 0 and opposite to v if t < 0.
• Note that if t = 0, then the scalar multiple tv is the zero
vector.
y
2v

−1.5 v
x

Matrix scalar multiplication of vectors

 
v1
• If v = and t is a real number, then
v2
 
t · v1
tv = .
t · v2

• Scalar multiplication of vectors in R3 is the same procedure.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 2. Page 42

To see that geometric and matrix scalar multiplication of
vectors are equivalent, consider the following diagram showing
the multiplication of vector v by the scalar t.

tv
t v2
v
v2

v1
t v1
 
−4
Example 2.3.1 Let u = . Determine the following
2
vector scalar multiples, using matrix scalar multiplication of
vectors and using geometric scalar multiplication of vectors.
y
a) 2u

y
b) −1u

MATH1050, 2023. Section 2. Page 43

 • Note that we usually write −1v as −v.
• We can define vector subtraction as a combination of vector
addition and scalar multiplication. If v and w are two
vectors, then
v − w = v + (−w).
   
2 −3
Example 2.3.2 Let u = and v = .
−1 −4
Determine the vectors resulting from the following operations,
in both matrix form and geometric form.
y

a) u − v

b) v − 2u

MATH1050, 2023. Section 2. Page 44

 2.4 Position vectors
• Of all the geometric representations of a vector v, the one
with its tail at the origin is special.
• In R2 , let P be the point with coordinates (xP , yP ). The
−→
vector OP with its tail at the origin O and its head at P is
called the position vector of P .
   
−→ xP − 0 xP
• The matrix form of OP is = , which
yP − 0 yP
−→
can also be written as OP = (xP , yP ).
• Similarly, in R3 , let P be the point with coordinates
−→
(xP , yP , zP ). The vector OP with its tail at the origin O
and its head at P is called
 the position
 vector of P , and the
−→
xP − 0 xP
   
matrix form of OP is  yP − 0  =  yP , which can
zP − 0 zP
−→
also be written as OP = (xP , yP , zP ).
• The coordinates of the point P are the components of the
position vector of P .
y
P = ( xP , yP )

O x

MATH1050, 2023. Section 2. Page 45

 2.5 The norm of a vector
−→
• The norm (or length or magnitude) of the vector v = P Q is
the (shortest) distance between points P and Q.
• The norm of the vector v is denoted ||v||.
• In R2 , if P 
= (xP , yP ) and
 Q= (xQ, yQ ), then
−→ x Q − xP v1 
v = PQ = = , and ||v|| = v12 + v22 .
yQ − yP v2

Q
v v2
P
v1

In R3 , if P 
= (xP , yP , zP
) andQ = 
(xQ , yQ , zQ ), then
−→
xQ − xP v1
   
v = P Q =  yQ − yP  =  v2 , and
zQ − zP v3

||v|| = v12 + v22 + v32 .
z

v
v3

v1 y
v2
x

• Note that for most vectors v and w, ||v + w|| = ||v|| + ||w||.
• For any vector v and any real number t, ||tv|| = |t| ||v||.
MATH1050, 2023. Section 2. Page 46
 • A vector with norm 1 is called a unit vector.
• The notation v̂ will be used to denote a unit vector having
the same direction as the vector v.
• For a given vector v, with norm ||v||, the vector
1
v̂ = v
||v||
is a unit vector in the direction of v.
Example 2.5.1 Determine
 ûand v̂ in matrix form where
  2
3  
u= and v =  −1 .
4
4

MATH1050, 2023. Section 2. Page 47

 2.6 Component form of a vector
Component form in 2-space
• In the (x, y)-plane, there are two important unit vectors.
The unit vector in the direction of the x-axis is denoted i,
and the unit vector in the direction of the y-axis is denoted
j, so
   
1 0
i= and j= .
0 1
• Note that i and j can also be written as row vectors
i = (1, 0) and j = (0, 1).
 
a
• Any vector v = in R2 can be written as the sum of
b
scalar multiples of i and j, since
     
a 1 0
v= =a +b = ai + bj.
b 0 1
 
a
• The component form of the vector v = is v = ai + bj.
b
y
v = 2i + 3 j
3j w v
3j
w = −4 i + 3 j
−4 i 2i x

MATH1050, 2023. Section 2. Page 48

Component form in 3-space
• In 3-space, there are three important unit vectors. The unit
vector in the direction of the x-axis is denoted i, the unit
vector in the direction of the y-axis is denoted j, and the
unit vector in the direction of the z-axis is denoted k, so
    
1 0 0
i =  0 , j= 1  and k =  0 .
0 0 1

• Note that i, j and k can also be written as row vectors

i = (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0) and k = (0, 0, 1).

a
• Any vector v =  b  in R3 can be written as the sum of
c
scalar multiples of i, j and k, since
       
a 1 0 0
v =  b  = a  0  + b  1  + c  0  = ai + bj + ck.
c 0 0 1
 
a
• The component form of the vector v =  b  is
c
v = ai + bj + ck.
z
v = 2i + 3 j
w
4k
w = 2 i + 3 j + 4k
2i v y

3j
x

MATH1050, 2023. Section 2. Page 49

Converting vectors from geometric to component form
A vector v in R2 , with magnitude ||v|| and direction θ measured
anti-clockwise from the positive x-axis, has component form
v = ||v|| cos θi + ||v|| sin θj.

Example 2.6.1 a) The vector v in R2 has magnitude 4 and

direction 2π
3
. Write v in component form and in matrix form.

b) The vector w in R2 has magnitude 3 and direction 3π

2
. Write
w in component form and in matrix form.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 2. Page 50

Converting vectors from component to geometric form

A vector v = v1 i + v2 j has magnitude ||v|| = v12 + v22 . If v is
non-zero, then its direction θ, measured anti-clockwise from the
positive x-axis, is obtained as follows.
• Sketch the position vector v on a set of (x, y)-axes.
• If v = v1 i + 0j or v = 0i + v2 j, then θ will be one of 0, π2 , π
or 3π
2
, and you can determine which it is from the sketch.
• If neither ofv1 nor
 v2 is zero, then calculate
 
φ = arctan  vv21  . The value of φ will be between 0 and π
2
.

• The value of θ will be one of φ, π − φ, π + φ, or 2π − φ. You

can identify which it is from your sketch.
Example 2.6.2 √
a) Find the magnitude and direction of the vector v = i − 3j.

b) Find the magnitude and direction of the vector v = −2i + 3j.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 2. Page 51

 2.7 The scalar product
−→ −→
• Let v = OP = 0 and w = OQ = 0 be two vectors. Then
−→
the angle between v and w is the angle θ between OP and
−→
OQ at the origin, with 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.
y y

w θ v v

x θ x
w

• The scalar product of two vectors v and w is


0 if v = 0 or w = 0,
v·w =
||v|| ||w|| cos θ otherwise,

where θ is the angle between v and w.

• The scalar product is also called the dot product or inner
product.
• If v and w are in matrix form, then the scalar product is
easy to calculate. If v = (v1 , v2 ) and w = (w1 , w2 ), then

v · w = v1 w1 + v2 w2 .

If v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) and w = (w1 , w2 , w3 ), then

v · w = v1 w1 + v2 w2 + v3 w3 .

MATH1050, 2023. Section 2. Page 52

Example 2.7.1
a) The vector u has magnitude 5 and direction 5π
4
radians. The
vector v has magnitude 3 and direction 7π
12
radians. Calculate
u · v.

b) The vector v = (−3, 2) lies in the 2nd quadrant. Find a

vector in the 3rd quadrant that is perpendicular to v.

• If we are given two vectors v and w in matrix or

component form, then we can use the scalar product to
calculate the angle between v and w.
MATH1050, 2023. Section 2. Page 53
Example 2.7.2 Calculate the angle (in both radians and
degrees) between vectors u = (4, 3, 1) and v = (2, −3, −2).

Properties of the scalar product

(1) The scalar product of two vectors is a scalar, not a vector.
(2) v · v = ||v||2 since the angle between v and itself is 0 and
cos 0 = 1.
(3) v · w = 0 if and only if v and w are perpendicular.
(Perpendicular vectors are also called orthogonal vectors.)
Proof If v = 0 and w = 0, then

v·w =0 iff ||v|| ||w|| cos θ = 0,

iff cos θ = 0,
iff θ = π/2.

(4) For vectors u, v and w, (u + v) · w = u · w + v · w.

(5) For vectors v and w, v · w = w · v.
(6) For vectors v and w and any real number t,
(tv) · w = t(v · w).

MATH1050, 2023. Section 2. Page 54

 2.8 The vector product
• Given a pair of vectors, it is often useful to find a vector
which is perpendicular to both of them. For example, in
3-space, any two non-collinear vectors define a plane, and
we often need to find a vector which is perpendicular to
such a plane.
• Consider the vectors v and w shown below along with the
plane they define. There are two possible directions for a
vector that is perpendicular to both v and w (and hence
perpendicular to the plane), the vector can either go
upwards from the plane u1 , or downwards, u2 .
u1
w

u2

• The vector u1 is said to be in a right-hand direction from v

to w. If you consider your right hand with your thumb
pointing outwards then if you curl your fingers in the
direction from v to w, then your thumb points in the
direction of u1 .
• The vector product of two vectors v and w is the vector
v × w satisfying
(1) ||v × w|| = ||v|| ||w|| sin θ, where θ is the angle between
v and w, and
(2) v × w is perpendicular to both v and w and in a
right-hand direction from v to w.
• The vector product is also called the cross product.
MATH1050, 2023. Section 2. Page 55
Example 2.8.1 Consider the unit vectors i, j and k in 3-space.
Compute the nine vector products to fill in the following table.
z

Second vector k
i j y
× i j k
i x
First vector
j
k

• Note that in any diagram of 3-space, the arrangement of

the axes must satisfy the right-hand rule so that i × j = k.
Properties of the vector product
• The vector product is a vector, not a scalar.
• For two non-zero vectors u and v, ||u × v|| = 0 if and only
if u and v are parallel or antiparallel.

||u × v|| = 0 iff sin θ = 0,

iff θ = 0 or θ = π.
MATH1050, 2023. Section 2. Page 56
 • For any two vectors u and v, u × v = −v × u.
• The vector product is not associative, so for most vectors u,
v and w, u × (v × w) = (u × v) × w.
For example, (i × i) × k = 0 but i × (i × k) = i × −j = −k.
• For vectors u and v and any real number t

t(u × v) = (tu) × v = u × (tv).

• For vectors u, v and w,

u×(v+w) = u×v+u×w, and (u+v)×w = u×w+v×w.

We can use the properties of the vector product and the table of
vector products of i, j and k to calculate the vector product of
any pair of vectors expressed in component form.

Example 2.8.2 If v = 2i − j + 4k and w = i + 2j + 3k,

calculate v × w.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 2. Page 57

Torque
• When you use a spanner to turn a nut, or use different
gears while riding a bicycle, your choice of size of spanner
or particular gear on the bike is based on a turning force
called torque.
• The magnitude of the torque is given by ||r × f || where f is
the force and r is the vector from the point (or axis) about
which the object is turning to the point of application of
the force.
• The standard unit for torque is Newton metres, denoted
Nm. To obtain torque in Nm, f should be in newtons and r
should be in metres.
• Since sin θ reaches its maximum at π/2 radians (90◦ ), the
torque is a maximum when the angle between f and r is
π/2 radians.
Example 2.8.3 Bob and Jane are sitting on a horizontal
seesaw. Bob has a mass of 40 kg and Jane has a mass of 35 kg.
a) If Bob is sitting 1.3 metres from the centre, calculate the
magnitude of the torque that Bob’s weight exerts about the
centre point.
b) Where should Jane sit to keep the seesaw balanced in a
horizontal position (with no feet on the ground).
Bob 40 kg Jane 35 kg

1.3 m

continued...
MATH1050, 2023. Section 2. Page 58
NOTES

MATH1050, 2023. Section 2. Page 59

NOTES

MATH1050, 2023. Section 2. Page 60

 3 Applications of vectors

• Now that we are familiar with the different representations

of vectors, we can investigate some of the ways vectors are
used to solve mathematical problems.
• In pure mathematics, vectors can be used to solve problems
in geometry.
• In applied mathematics, vectors can be used to model
quantities such as displacement, velocity, or forces acting on
an object, and thus answer questions about such vector
quantities.
• There are two operations on vectors, the scalar product and
the vector product, that also have useful applications.
• In this section we look at several applications of vectors and
investigate the scalar and vector products.
• Topics in this section are:
– Vectors in geometry
– Forces
– Displacement, velocity and momentum
– The scalar product
– The vector product - Part 1.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 3. Page 61

 3.1 Vectors in geometry
• Let P be a point on the line through points A and B. We
can use vectors to describe the position vector of P in terms
of the position vectors of A and B.
−→ −→ −→
• Let p = OP , a = OA and b = OB.
A B P

b
a p

O
−→ −→
Now a + AB = b so AB = b − a. Thus,
−→ −→
p = a + AP = a + tAB = a + t(b − a) = (1 − t)a + tb,
−→ −→
where t is the real number such that AP = tAB.
Example 3.1.1 Express p in terms of a and b in each of the
following cases.
A 2 P 1 B
a)

P 4 A 5 B
b)

MATH1050, 2023. Section 3. Page 62

 3.2 Forces
• A force (a push or a pull on an object) can be modelled as a
vector.
• The standard unit of measurement for forces is the newton,
denoted N.
• Weight: This is the force due to gravity, and we will
denote it by W. The weight vector associated with an
object of mass m kilograms has magnitude 9.8m newtons
and has direction vertically downwards. (The acceleration
due to gravity g = 9.8 m/s2 is the magnitude of the
acceleration with which an object close to the surface of the
Earth falls back to Earth.)
• Tension: This is a force along a string or similar object,
that counteracts a pulling force (such as weight) at the end
of the string. We will denote it by T. The tension adjusts
its magnitude to exactly counteract the pulling force.
• Normal reaction: This is a force that pushes at a
right-angle to a surface, and we will denote it by N. For
example, the normal reaction of a horizontal table-top
pushes upwards to counteract the weight of a book placed
on the table. Like tension, the normal reaction adjusts its
magnitude to exactly counteract the downwards force.
• Friction: This is a force in the direction parallel to a
surface. It is the force that counteracts an object sliding
along a surface. We will denote it by F.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 3. Page 63

 • In our modelling of forces, we will assume that our objects
can be represented by a particle, so we don’t have to worry
about which part of an object the forces act on. We will
also make other simplifying assumptions in our modelling.
• For an object to be at rest, the forces acting on that object
must be in balance. This is called the equilibrium condition
for forces, and it means that the sum of all the forces acting
on that object must be the zero vector.

Example 3.2.1 An object with a mass of 2 kg is suspended

from the ceiling by a string. Determine the tension acting on
the object.

• If exactly three forces are acting on an object, and that

object is at rest, then the three vectors representing the
forces must sum to zero. Geometrically, this means that the
three vectors must form a triangle, with the arrows pointing
in a consistent direction around the triangle.

Force B
x Force B Force C
Force A y x y

Force C Force A

MATH1050, 2023. Section 3. Page 64

Example 3.2.2 Find the magnitude and direction of the two
unknown forces in the following diagram. The particle is at rest.

30
P

MATH1050, 2023. Section 3. Page 65

Example 3.2.3 A 3 kg brick is sitting on a ramp, inclined at
π/6 radians to the horizontal. The only forces acting on it are
weight, normal reaction from the ramp, and friction, as depicted
in the following diagram. Determine the magnitude of each of
the three forces.
F
N

W
π
6

continued...
MATH1050, 2023. Section 3. Page 66
Example 3.2.3 (continued) Extra space for your working.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 3. Page 67

3.3 Displacement, velocity and momentum
Example 3.3.1 A surveyor walks 200 metres due North. He
then turns clockwise through an angle of 2π 3
radians and walks
100 metres. Finally he turns and walks 300 metres due West.
Find his resulting displacement, relative to his starting point.

continued...
MATH1050, 2023. Section 3. Page 68
Example 3.3.1 (continued) Extra space for your working.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 3. Page 69

Example 3.3.2 A river flows due East at a speed of 0.3 metres
per second. A boy in a rowing boat, who can row at 0.5 m/s in
still water, starts from a point on the South bank and steers due
North. The boat is also blown by a wind with speed 0.4 m/s
from a direction of N 20◦ E.
a) Find the resultant velocity of the boat.
b) If the river has a constant width of 10 metres, how long does
it take the boy to cross the river, and how far upstream or
downstream has he then travelled?

continued...
MATH1050, 2023. Section 3. Page 70
Example 3.3.2 (continued) Extra space for your working.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 3. Page 71

 • In order to understand the movement of two objects after
they collide, we need the concept of momentum.
• Momentum is a vector property of a moving object. It is a
scalar multiple of the velocity of the object, and is given by
momentum = mass times velocity.
• The standard unit for the magnitude of momentum is
newton seconds, denoted Ns. To obtain momentum in Ns,
your mass must be in kilograms and your velocity in metres
per second.
• The important property of momentum is that it is
conserved in collisions. That is, when objects collide, the
total momentum before collision is equal to the total
momentum after collision.
Example 3.3.3 A car weighing 1900 kg is travelling east at 22
m/s. A second car travelling north and weighing 2400 kg passes
through a stop sign travelling at 14 m/s. It collides with the
first car, and after the collision the cars move off together.
Calculate their speed and direction after the collision.
(Note that we make some simplifying assumptions, namely that
the cars do not brake, and that there is no friction from the
road or air resistance to slow them down.)

continued...
MATH1050, 2023. Section 3. Page 72
Example 3.3.3 (continued) Extra space for your working.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 3. Page 73

Example 3.3.4 In outer space, object A weighing 2 kg, collides
with object B weighing 3 kg, moving as shown in diagram (a).
After the collision, A moves off as shown in diagram (b).
Calculate the speed and direction of B after the collision.
10 m/s 9m/s
A
40
A
8 m/s
45 B
B

(a) (b)

continued...
MATH1050, 2023. Section 3. Page 74
Example 3.3.4 (continued) Extra space for your working.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 3. Page 75

 4 Complex numbers

• Number systems evolved from a basic need to count and to

measure. As the need arose to solve more sophisticated
problems, less intuitive (but very useful) number systems
were introduced.
• Complex numbers evolved from the need to solve quadratic
equations that have no solutions in the real number system.
To do this, the symbol i was introduced, where i2 = −1.
Although this seems artificial (and the term ‘imaginary
numbers’ is sometimes used for complex numbers), this
breakthrough had a huge impact and complex numbers are
widely used in mathematics, physics and engineering.
• We will look at several representations of complex numbers
and investigate some important theorems.
• Topics in this section are:
– Introduction to complex numbers
– Complex numbers in polar form
– Powers of complex numbers
– Fundamental Theorem of Algebra.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 4. Page 76

 4.1 Introduction to complex numbers
• By the 16th century, it was known that the quadratic
equation

ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b, c ∈ R

has solutions √
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= ,
2a
provided that a = 0 and b2 − 4ac ≥ 0.
• The quantity b2 − 4ac is called the discriminant of the
quadratic equation. A quadratic equation (with real
coefficients) having a negative discriminant has no solution
over the real numbers.
• In the next century, the first steps were taken to enlarge the
real number system and create a new number system called
the complex numbers, denoted C, in which all quadratic
equations have solutions.
• The idea that allowed the formation of the complex
numbers was the introduction of the symbol i, which
satisfies i2 = −1.
• Eventually engineers and scientists discovered uses for
complex numbers and they are now used extensively in
many applications, including electric circuits and
electromagnetic waves.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 4. Page 77

 • A complex number is an expression of the form a + bi, where
a, b ∈ R and i2 = −1. The set of such numbers is called the
complex numbers and is denoted C.
• If z = a + bi ∈ C, then we call a the real part of z and b the
imaginary part of z. We write this as a = Re(z) and
b = Im(z).
• The representation of a complex number in the form a + bi
is called the Cartesian form of the complex number.

Example 4.1.1 Let z = −3 − 4i. State Re(z) and Im(z).

• Two complex numbers a + bi and c + di are equal if and

only if a = c and b = d.
• Let z = a + bi and w = c + di be two complex numbers.
Addition
z+w = (a + bi) + (c + di)
= (a + c) + (b + d)i

So Re(z + w) = Re(z) + Re(w)

and Im(z + w) = Im(z) + Im(w).
Multiplication

zw = (a + bi)(c + di)
= ac + adi + bci + bdi2
= ac + adi + bci − bd
= (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 4. Page 78

Example 4.1.2 Let z = −3 + 2i and w = 4 − i. Write each of
the following in Cartesian form.
a) 3z + 2w

b) wz

c) iw

Example 4.1.3 Solve for x ∈ C where x2 + 2x + 2 = 0.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 4. Page 79

 • Let z = a + bi ∈ C. The complex conjugate of z, denoted z̄,
is z̄ = a − bi.
• The complex conjugate is useful because the product z z̄
gives a real number.
z z̄ = (a + bi)(a − bi) = a2 + b2

• This is useful when we need to divide by a non-zero

complex number.
a + bi a + bi c − di
= ×
c + di c + di c − di
(a + bi)(c − di)
=
c 2 + d2
ac + bd bc − ad
= + i
c 2 + d2 c 2 + d2

2+i
Example 4.1.4 Write in Cartesian form.
2−i

MATH1050, 2023. Section 4. Page 80

 • The modulus of the complex number z = a + bi is denoted
|z|. It is defined to be
√ 
|z| = z z̄ = a2 + b2 .

Properties of the modulus and complex conjugate

Let z = a + bi and w = c + di be complex numbers.
• |z| = |z̄|

• |z|2 = z z̄

• z + w = z̄ + w̄

• zw = z̄ w̄

z z̄
• =
w w̄

• z̄ = z if and only if z ∈ R

• z̄¯ = z

MATH1050, 2023. Section 4. Page 81

Geometric representation of complex numbers
• The complex number z = a + bi can be represented by a
point (a, b) in the complex plane. To represent the complex
plane we use a pair of axes where the horizontal axis is the
Real axis and the vertical axis is the Imaginary axis.
• The illustration of complex numbers in the complex plane is
often called an Argand diagram.
Im

3i
−2+i
4
Re

2−3i

• If we represent each complex number by its position vector,

then the sum of two complex numbers corresponds to vector
addition.
• The point corresponding to z̄ is the reflection of the point
corresponding to z in the Real axis.
• The modulus of a complex number z is the length of the
position vector corresponding to z.
Im Im Im

z
−5+i
3+2i
|z |
−2+i
3+2i
Re Re Re
−2−i
3−2i
(3+2i) + (−5+i) = −2+3i

MATH1050, 2023. Section 4. Page 82

 4.2 Complex numbers in polar form
Suppose that the complex number z = a + bi is represented as a
point in the complex plane.
• The modulus of z gives the distance from z to the origin.
• The argument of z, arg(z), is the angle that the position
vector of z makes with the positive Real axis. Note that
there can be many different arguments for a non-zero
complex number z, since the angle θ is equivalent to the
angle θ plus or minus any multiple of 2π radians.
• Note that positive angles are in an anti-clockwise direction
and negative angles are in a clockwise direction from the
positive Real axis.
• We call the argument of z that lies in the interval (−π, π]
the principal argument of z, denoted Arg(z).
• If z = a + bi then arg(z) = θ where tan θ = ab . Always draw
a sketch to help you choose the correct value for θ.
Example 4.2.1 Let z = −4 + 4i. Determine |z| and Arg(z).

MATH1050, 2023. Section 4. Page 83

 • Consider the representation of z = a + bi in the complex
plane below, which shows that a = |z| cos θ and b = |z| sin θ.
Im
z = a+bi

|z|
z = |z| cos θ + |z| sin θi
b
= |z|(cos θ + i sin θ).
θ
Re
a

• The complex number z with modulus |z| = r and principal

argument θ can be written in polar form as
z = r(cos θ + i sin θ).
The polar coordinates of z are (r, θ).
• The abbreviation cis θ is often used for cos θ + i sin θ.
Example 4.2.2 a) Express the complex number z = −1 − i in
polar form.

2π
b) Express the complex number z = 3 cis 3
in Cartesian form.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 4. Page 84

 • Let z1 = r1 cis θ1 and z2 = r2 cis θ2 .
Multiplication in polar form

z1 z2 = r1 r2 cis (θ1 + θ2 )

Division in polar form

z1 r1
= cis (θ1 − θ2 )
z2 r2

Example 4.2.3 Let z = 10 cis 5π

6
and w = 6 cis π3 .
a) Calculate zw and express your answer in polar form.

z
b) Calculate and express your answer in polar form.
w

MATH1050, 2023. Section 4. Page 85

 • Recall that the number e = 2.71828 . . . is an irrational
number. It can be defined as e = lim (1 + n1 )n .
n→∞

• The following important result is known as Euler’s formula:

cos θ + i sin θ = eiθ .

This result was introduced by the Swiss mathematician

Euler in 1748. The proof is beyond the scope of this course.
• Every non-zero complex number z = a + bi with polar
coordinates (r, θ) can be written as

z = r cis θ (polar form) and z = reiθ (exponential form).

• Some people call both of the above forms the polar form of
z, since they are both based on the polar coordinates of z.
√
Example 4.2.4 Write the complex number z = 1 − 3i in
exponential form.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 4. Page 86

Example 4.2.5 Let z = reiθ . Write z̄ in exponential form.

Example 4.2.6 Write −1 in exponential form.

It is wonderful that two irrational numbers and the square root

of a negative number combine in this way to give −1.
MATH1050, 2023. Section 4. Page 87
 • The exponential form of a complex number can be used to
show that multiplication by i can be interpreted
geometrically as a counter-clockwise rotation through π/2
radians about the origin.
If z = reiθ , then
π
iz = ei 2 × reiθ
π
= rei 2 eiθ
π
= rei( 2 +θ) .

• The complex numbers that can be written as z = eiθ for

some θ are the complex numbers with modulus 1. Their
corresponding points in the complex plane make up a circle
of radius one, centered at the origin. Multiplication of any
complex number z by the complex number eiθ can be
interpreted geometrically as a counter-clockwise rotation
through θ about the origin.
If z = reiφ , then

eiθ z = eiθ × reiφ

= reiθ eiφ
= rei(θ+φ) .
Im Im

−2+3i
z
3+2i 4+2i
__
π __π
2
2 3

Re Re

i (3+2i) = −2+3i 1 __3

z = (− __ + 2
i) (4+2i)
2

MATH1050, 2023. Section 4. Page 88

 4.3 Powers of complex numbers
• De Moivre’s Theorem states that if z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) and
n is a natural number, then

z n = rn (cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ)).

This theorem was named after the French mathematician

Abraham de Moivre (1667–1754).
Proof: Let z = r(cos θ + i sin θ). Thus z = reiθ , and

zn = (reiθ )n
= rn eiθn
= rn (cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ)).

• Notice that de Moivre’s theorem is also true for n ∈ R.

• De Moivre’s Theorem allows us to calculate powers of
complex numbers with ease.
√ 6
Example 4.3.1 Evaluate (1 − 3i) .

MATH1050, 2023. Section 4. Page 89

 • De Moivre’s Theorem also allows us to calculate the nth
roots of any complex number, where n ∈ N.
• The nth roots of the complex number w are the values of z
such that z n = w. There are exactly n such values of z.
• To solve the equation z n = w for some w ∈ C and n ∈ N.
1. Express w in polar form as w = r cis θ.
2. Since the angle θ is equivalent to the angle (θ + 2kπ) for
any k ∈ Z, we know that

r cis θ = r cis (θ + 2kπ), where k ∈ Z.

1
3. Thus z = (r cis (θ + 2kπ)) n , and by the extension of de
Moivre’s theorem
 
1 θ + 2kπ
z = r n cis
n
for k ∈ Z.
Example 4.3.2 Determine the four values of z for which
z 4 = 1. (These are called the fourth roots of unity.)

MATH1050, 2023. Section 4. Page 90

Example 4.3.3 Determine the five values of w for which
w5 = −2 − 2i, and draw them on an Argand diagram.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 4. Page 91

4.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
• A polynomial in the variable z is an expression of the form

an z n + an−1 z n−1 + an−2 z n−2 + · · · + a2 z 2 + a1 z + a0 ,

where n ∈ N is the degree (highest power) of the

polynomial, an , an−1 , an−2 , . . . , a2 , a1 , a0 are the coefficients
of z, and an = 0.
• If P (z) is a polynomial, then P (z) = 0 is a polynomial
equation.

Example 4.4.1 Determine which of these are polynomials and

which are polynomial equations.

2x3 − 10x = 1, 3z 4 + z −2 + 5, (3 + 2i)z 4 − 5iz 2 + 10.

• Fundamental Theorem of Algebra (FTA) Every polynomial

equation with real or complex coefficients has a solution in
the complex numbers.
• The first proof of this theorem was given by Gauss in his
doctoral thesis in 1799. None of the known proofs are easy,
so we won’t prove it in this course.
• Factor Theorem Let P (z) be a polynomial and let a ∈ C.
Then P (a) = 0 if and only if (z − a) is a factor of P (z).

MATH1050, 2023. Section 4. Page 92

Example 4.4.2 Let P (z) = z 3 − 7z 2 + 6z + 14. Determine
which of (z + 1) or (z − 2) is a factor of P (z).

• Let P (z) = 0 be a polynomial equation. The FTA

guarantees that there is a solution to P (z) = 0, suppose it is
z = a. Then the factor theorem tells us that (z − a) is a
factor of P (z) and so we can write P (z) = (z − a)Q(z)
where Q(z) is a polynomial equation whose degree is one
less than the degree of P (z). Now the FTA guarantees that
we can find a solution to the polynomial equation Q(z) = 0,
so we can repeat this procedure.
• From Example 4.4.2 above, we know that (z + 1) is a factor
of P (z). Thus
P (z) = (z + 1)Q(z),
where the degree of the polynomial Q(z) is two. Let the
coefficients of Q(z) be a, b and c.
z 3 − 7z 2 + 6z + 14 = (z + 1)(az 2 + bz + c)
= az 3 + az 2 + bz 2 + bz + cz + c
= az 3 + (a + b)z 2 + (b + c)z + c
Equating coefficients on each side we see that
a = 1, b = −8 and c = 14.
Hence
z 3 − 7z 2 + 6z + 14 = (z + 1)(z 2 − 8z + 14).
MATH1050, 2023. Section 4. Page 93
 • If we start with a polynomial equation P (z) = 0 where P (z)
has degree n, then we can continue taking out linear factors
of the form (z − a) until we have found n linear factors.
• From Example 4.4.2 above,

z 3 − 7z 2 + 6z + 14 = (z + 1)(z 2 − 8z + 14).

We can use the quadratic formula to solve z 2 − 8z + 14 = 0,

as √
8 ± 64 − 4 × 14 √
z= = 4 ± 2.
2
Thus
3 2
√ √
z − 7z + 6z + 14 = (z + 1)(z − (4 + 2))(z − (4 − 2)).

• Important result Let P (z) be a polynomial of degree n,

where n ∈ N. Then the polynomial equation P (z) = 0 has n
solutions.
• Note that the n solutions may not be distinct.
• Useful factorising results to remember.
– Difference of squares: x2 − y 2 = (x − y)(x + y).
– Perfect square: x2 + 2xy + y 2 = (x + y)(x + y)
x2 − 2xy + y 2 = (x − y)(x − y).
– Quadratic: ax2 + bx + c = (a1 x + c1 )(a2 x + c2 ), where
a = a1 a2 , c = c1 c2 and b = a1 c2 + a2 c1 .

MATH1050, 2023. Section 4. Page 94

Example 4.4.3 a) Write z 4 − 81 as the product of linear
factors and hence find all solutions of z 4 − 81 = 0 (over C).

b) Write z 2 + 2iz − 1 as the product of linear factors and hence

find all solutions of z 2 + 2iz − 1 = 0 (over C).

continued...
MATH1050, 2023. Section 4. Page 95
Example 4.4.3 (continued) c) Write 6z 4 + z 2 − 1 as the
product of linear factors and hence find all solutions of
6z 4 + z 2 − 1 = 0 (over C).

• If a polynomial equation has real coefficients, its solutions

(roots) are either real numbers or occur as pairs of
conjugate complex numbers.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 4. Page 96

 √
Example 4.4.4 z = 5 + 5 2i is a solution of

z 3 − 8z 2 + 55z + 150 = 0.

Find all the other solutions of this equation.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 4. Page 97

NOTES

MATH1050, 2023. Section 4. Page 98

NOTES

MATH1050, 2023. Section 4. Page 99

 5 Matrices

• Matrices represent a structured way of storing and using

groups of data in mathematically valid ways.
• They were initially developed for solving systems of
simultaneous equations, such as

2x − 3y + z = −13
x + 4y = 0
x − 2y + 3z = 2.

• Matrices are used very heavily in computer software, for

solving complex problems from science, business and
engineering. Most supercomputers spend a lot of their time
solving large matrix problems.
• Most programming languages allow the use of arrays, which
are closely related to matrices.
• Topics in this section are:
– Introduction to matrices
– Adding and subtracting matrices
– Scalar multiplication of matrices
– Multiplying matrices
– The transpose of a matrix
– Identity and inverse matrices
– The determinant of a square matrix
– Vector product - Part 2
– Solving systems of linear equations.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 100

 5.1 Introduction to matrices
• We will start with an example to illustrate what matrices
are and how they can be used in a familiar situation.

Example 5.1.1 Suppose that this week you buy 1 kg of apples,

0.6 kg of oranges and 0.76 kg of bananas, and next week you
buy 0.75 kg of apples, 1 kg of oranges and 0.8 kg of bananas. If
the cost of apples is $2.99 per kg, oranges is $3.99 per kg, and
bananas is $1.89 per kg, how much did you spend on fruit each
week?
This information can be presented as follows.
cost per kg
A O B
A 2.99
Week 1 1 0.6 0.76
O 3.99
Week 2 0.75 1 0.8
B 1.89
To determine how much money was spent on fruit each week we
combine the infomation in a row of the first table with a column
of the second table.
 
  2.99
1 0.6 0.76  3.99 
0.75 1 0.8
1.89
   
1 × 2.99 + 0.6 × 3.99 + 0.76 × 1.89 6.82
= =
0.75 × 2.99 + 1 × 3.99 + 0.8 × 1.89 7.74

You spent $6.82 in the first week and $7.74 in the second week.

• The rows and columns of numbers enclosed in brackets are

examples of matrices, and this combining operation is an
example of matrix multiplication. We will now define
matrices and operations on matrices formally.
MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 101
 • A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers, enclosed in
brackets.
• An m × n matrix has m rows and n columns. The size or
order of a matrix is its number of rows and number of
columns. An m × n matrix has size “m by n”.
• The plural of matrix is matrices.
 
1 2 3
Example 5.1.2 is a 2 × 3 matrix.
4 5 6

• Common notation for a general m × n matrix A is

 
a11 a12 a13 · · · a1n
 a · · · a2n 
 21 a22 a23 
A=  .. .. .. .. 
 = (aij ) .
 . . . . 
am1 am2 am3 · · · amn

• The notation aij is used to represent the element or entry in

the ith row and jth column of the matrix A.
• We commonly use an upper case letter to refer to a matrix
and the corresponding lower-case letter (with subscripts) to
refer to the elements of that matrix.
Example 5.1.3 The 2 × 3 matrix A = (aij ) with entries
aij = i − j is

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 102

 • A matrix with exactly one row may be called a row vector.
A matrix with exactly one column may be called a column
vector. Row and column vectors are often denoted by
lower-case letters in bold type.
• A matrix with one row and one column is just a number
(as we’re all familiar with). Sometimes this is called a
scalar, to distinguish it from matrices with multiple rows or
columns, and we write it without any brackets.
• A matrix in which every entry is 0 is called a zero matrix.
The m × n zero matrix will sometimes be written as 0m×n .
• A matrix with the same number of rows and columns is
called a square matrix.

Example 5.1.4
(1 2 3) is a 1 × 3 matrix, also called a row vector.
 
1
is a 2 × 1 matrix, also called a column vector.
2

2, 3, −4 and π are all examples of scalars.

 
0 0
02×2 = is the 2 × 2 zero matrix, and it is also a
0 0
square matrix.

• Matrices A = (aij ) and B = (bij ) are equal if and only if

– A and B have the same size, and
– aij = bij for all values of i and j.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 103

 5.2 Adding and subtracting matrices
• Two matrices can be added or subtracted provided that
they have the same size. Two matrices of different sizes
cannot be added or subtracted!
• Matrix addition: Let A = (aij ) and B = (bij ) be m × n
matrices. Then A + B = C = (cij ) is the m × n matrix with
cij = aij + bij .
• Matrix subtraction: Let A = (aij ) and B = (bij ) be m × n
matrices. Then A − B = C = (cij ) is the m × n matrix with
cij = aij − bij .

Example5.2.1   
1
0 1 −2 3 −1 2
Let A = and B = . Then
−1 2 4 2 −5 3

A+B =

A−B =

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 104

Example 5.2.2 Three teams (X, Y and Z) compete in a hockey
league. Each team has played a number of home matches and a
number of away matches. Their results are summarised in the
following table (P = played, W = won, L = lost, D = drawn):

Home matches Away matches

Team P W L D P W L D
X 9 6 2 1 6 4 2 0
Y 7 4 1 2 9 5 3 1
Z 8 4 3 1 6 3 1 2

a) A matrix representing the home games of the three teams is

 
9 6 2 1
 
H= 7 4 1 2 
8 4 3 1

b) A matrix representing the away games of the three teams is

 
6 4 2 0
 
A= 9 5 3 1 
6 3 1 2

c) A matrix representing all the games of the three teams is

H +A=

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 105

Example 5.2.3 Evaluate each of the following where possible:
   
1 0 3 2
a) +
0 1 −2 −1

   
1 0 0 2 1
b) +
0 2 3 −2 −1

     
1 2 3 −2 x −2y
c) + −
−2 4 −3 4 1 −1

   
1 2 −1 1 2
   
d) 0 1 3 − 0 1 
0 −1 1 0 −1

Properties of matrix addition

For m × n matrices A, B and C:
(1) A + B = B + A (commutative);
(2) A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C (associative);
(3) A + 0m×n = A.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 106

 5.3 Scalar multiplication of matrices
• It is possible to multiply any matrix by any scalar
(number); this is called scalar multiplication.
• Let A = (aij ) be an m × n matrix, and let k be any scalar
(number). Then kA = C = (cij ) is the m × n matrix with
cij = k aij .
 
0 2 4
Example 5.3.1 Let A = . Then
6 8 2
   
1 1 1
1 2
·0 2 ·2 2 ·4 0 1 2
2
A = 1 1 1 = .
2
· 6 2
· 8 2
· 2 3 4 1

• Scalar multiplication of a matrix A by a positive integer k is

the same as adding k copies of A together.
 
1 2
Example 5.3.2 Let B = .
4 5
(a) Calculate B + B + B.

(b) Calculate 3B.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 107

 • We usually write −A for (−1)A. Note that matrix
subtraction is just a combination of matrix addition and
scalar multiplication since A − B = A + (−B).

Example5.3.3     
1 2 0 −1 0 1
Let A = ,B= ,C= .
2 4 −2 −1 1 0
Evaluate each of
2A + 3C

−3(A − B)

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 108

 5.4 Multiplying matrices
• The product AB of matrices A and B exists if and only if
the number of columns in A equals the number of
rows in B.
• Matrix multiplication: Let A = (aij ) be an m × n matrix
and B = (bij ) be an n × p matrix. Then AB = C = (cij ) is
the m × p matrix with cij = ai1 b1j + ai2 b2j + · · · + ain bnj .

Example 5.4.1 The product of a 3 × 4 matrix and a 4 × 2

matrix is a 3 × 2 matrix. (Note that · represents multiplication.)
 
  5 6
2 3 1 0  
  4 5 
 0 4 3 2  
 3 4 
4 3 2 5
2 4
 
2·5+3·4+1·3+0·2 2·6+3·5+1·4+0·4
 
= 0·5+4·4+3·3+2·2 0·6+4·5+3·4+2·4 
4·5+3·4+2·3+5·2 4·6+3·5+2·4+5·4
 
25 31
 
=  29 40 
48 67

Example
 5.4.2     
1 2 1 2 3 2
Let A = ,B= ,C= .
3 4 −1 0 1 0
Which of the following products are defined?
a) AA b) CA c) AC d) BB

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 109

 • Some people get confused by how to work out exactly which
row should be multiplied by which column. The following
method may help you.
To multiply matrix A by matrix B (assuming possible):
(a) Position (1,1) - multiply the first element in the first row
of A by the first element in the first column of B. Add to
this the product of the second element in the first row of
A and the second element in the first column of B. Keep
going until there are no more entries in the first row.
(b) Position (1,2) - multiply the first element in the first row
of A by the first element in the second column of B. Add
to this the product of the second element in the first row
of A and the second element in the second column of B.
Keep going until there are no more entries in the first row.
(c) Repeat the above procedure until the first row of your new
matrix (AB) is complete.
(d) Position (2,1) - multiply the first element in the second
row of A by the first element in the first column of B. Add
to this the product of the second element in the second
row of A and the second element in the first column of B.
Keep going until there are no more entries in the second
row.
(e) Repeat the above procedure until the second row of your
new matrix (AB) is complete.
(f) Repeat (a)-(e) until all rows are completed.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 110

Example 5.4.3 Calculate the product
 AB where

  2 −5
−1 3 1  
A= and B =  1 3 .
0 4 −2
−2 4

First, check that it is possible to find the product AB. A is

2 × 3 and B is 3 × 2. The number of columns in A equals the
number of rows in B, so it is possible. AB will be 2 × 2.

Position (1, 1) in the answer matrix AB is found by multiplying

entries in the first row of A by entries in the first column of B
(and adding the products to get the answer value). Continue
until the answer matrix is full.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 111

    
1 −1 0 1
Example 5.4.4 Let A = and B = .
2 4 3 −2
Calculate AB and BA.

Properties of matrix multiplication

For matrices of appropriate sizes:
• A(BC) = (AB)C (associative);
• A(B + C) = AB + AC and (A + B)C = AC + BC
(distributive);
• The order of multipication is important. Matrix
multiplication is not commutative, so in general AB = BA.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 112

Example 5.4.5 Find all possible x such that
  
  2 1 0 1
  
x 4 1  1 0 2   −7  = 0
0 2 4 x

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 113

 • For a square matrix A, we can define matrix powers by
repeated matrix multiplication (k > 0).
A1 = A, A2 = A A, A3 = A A A = A2 A,
..., Ak+1 = Ak A.

• The usual exponent laws hold for matrix powers, so

Ak · Ar = Ak+r and (Ak )r = Akr (k, r ≥ 0).

 
2 −1
Example 5.4.6 Let A = . Calculate A4 .
3 4

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 114

 5.5 The transpose of a matrix
• Informally, the transpose of an m × n matrix A is the n × m
matrix obtained by exchanging the rows and columns of A.
• Formally, given an m × n matrix A = (aij ), the transpose of
A is the n × m matrix C = (cij ) where

cij = aji , for all i, j.

• The transpose of A is usually denoted by AT .

Example 5.5.1
 T
0 1 2
=
−1 3 5

 T
1 2
=
−1 3

 T
1
 
 2  =
3

Properties of transposes
For matrices of appropriate sizes:
• (A + B)T = AT + B T ;
• (AT )T = A;
• (AB)T = B T AT (Be careful!).

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 115

 5.6 Identity and inverse matrices
• In the multiplication of real numbers, the number 1 plays a
special role because 1 · k = k · 1 = k for all real numbers k.
In matrix multiplication, this role is played by the identity
matrix.
• The identity matrix of order n, denoted I or In , is the n × n
matrix A = (aij ) where

1 if i = j,
aij =
0 if i = j.

Example 5.6.1 The identity matrices of orders 2 and 3 are:

 
  1 0 0
1 0  
I2 = I3 =  0 1 0 
0 1
0 0 1

• If A is any m × m matrix, then

Im A = A Im = A.

• More generally, if A is any m × n matrix, then

Im A = A In = A.

• When dealing with matrix powers, if A is an m × m matrix,

we define A0 = Im .

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 116

  
−1 2 0
Example 5.6.2 Let B = . Verify that
−2 4 3
I2 B = B and B I3 = B.

• The identity matrix is an example of a diagonal matrix.

• A square matrix A = (aij ) is a diagonal matrix if and only
if aij = 0 whenever i = j.
• Examples of diagonal matrices are:
 
  −3 0 0
2 0  1 
 0 2
0 .
0 −1
0 0 −4

• Matrix powers of diagonal matrices are easy to calculate.

For example
 3    
3
2 0 2 0 8 0
= = .
0 −1 0 (−1)3 0 −1

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 117

The inverse of a square matrix
• A square matrix A is non-singular if there exists a matrix B
such that AB = BA = I. The matrix B is called the
inverse of A, and is denoted A−1 .
• A non-singular matrix is said to be invertible.
• Suppose that A and B are square matrices of the same size.
If A is invertible and AB = I, then BA = I and hence B is
the inverse of A.
AB = I
if and only if A−1 AB = A−1 I
iff IB = A−1 I
iff B = A−1
iff BA = A−1 A
iff =I

Example5.6.3   
−1 −4 3 4
Let A = . Show that A−1 = .
1 3 −1 −1

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 118

 • Not every square matrix is invertible.
• A matrix that does not have an inverse is said to be
singular or non-invertible.
 
0 1
Example 5.6.4 Show that the matrix A = is
0 2
singular.

Properties of matrix inverses

If A and B are non-singular n × n matrices, then
• (A−1 )−1 = A;
• (AB)−1 = B −1 A−1 (Be careful!);
• (AT )−1 = (A−1 )T .

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 119

The inverse of a 2 × 2 matrix
 
a b
Consider the 2 × 2 matrix A = .
c d
• A is invertible if and only if ad − bc = 0.
• If ad − bc = 0, then the inverse of A is
 
1 d −b
A−1 = .
ad − bc −c a

Example 5.6.5 Suppose that ad − bc = 0, verify that

AA−1 = A−1 A = I.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 120

    
2 2 −1 − 23
Example 5.6.6 Let A = and B = .
3 4 6 4
Determine, if possible, A−1 and B −1 .

• Note that after you have calculated the inverse of a matrix

A, it is a good idea (and easy) to check your work by
multiplication. If AA−1 = I then you have made an error.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 121

Example 5.6.7 Prove that a matrix A has at most one inverse.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 122

 5.7 The determinant of a square matrix
• With each square matrix A we associate a number called
the determinant of A, denoted det(A) or |A|.
• A square matrix A is invertible if and only if det(A) = 0.
• The determinant of a matrix A is often indicated by writing
the elements of A inside two vertical bars.
 
a11 a12
For the 2 × 2 matrix A = ,
a21 a22
 
 a 
 11 a12 
det(A) =   = a11 a22 − a12 a21 .
 a21 a22 

 
a11 a12 a13
 
For the 3 × 3 matrix A =  a21 a22 a23 ,
a31 a32 a33
 
 a 
 11 a12 a13 
 
det(A) =  a21 a22 a23 
 
 a31 a32 a33 
     
 a22 a23     a 
  a21 a23   21 a22 
= a11   − a12   + a13  
 a32 a33   a31 a33   a31 a32 

= a11 (a22 a33 − a23 a32 ) − a12 (a21 a33 − a23 a31 )
+a13 (a21 a32 − a22 a31 ).

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 123

Example 5.7.1
 
 1 2 3       
   1 
0   0 
0   0 1 
    
 0 1 0  = 1  − 2  + 3 
   2 1   3 1   3 2 
 3 2 1 
= 1(1 − 0) − 2(0 − 0) + 3(0 − 3)
= −8.

• Memorise the formula for the determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix.

• For a 3 × 3 (or larger) matrix, understand the following
method for calculating determinants.
Calculating the determinant of a square matrix
For the element aij in a matrix A, define the cofactor of aij to
be (−1)i+j times the determinant of the matrix obtained from
A by deleting row i and column j.
To calculate the determinant of an n × n matrix A, choose one
row (or column) of A along which you will expand the
determinant. Multiply each element of that row (or column) by
its cofactor, and sum the results.
Observe that (−1)i+j gives the pattern
 
+ − + − ...
 − + − + ... 
 
 ,
 + − + − ... 
 
..
.
so if you remember this pattern, you don’t need to work out
(−1)i+j each time you calculate a cofactor.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 124

On the previous slide we calculated the determinant of a 3 × 3
matrix by expanding along the first row of the matrix. We could
have calculated the determinant in many ways.
Expanding along the second row we have:
 
 1 2 3       
  2 3   1 
3   1 2 
     
 0 1 0  = −0   + 1  − 0 
   2 1   3 1   3 2 
 3 2 1 

= −0(2 − 6) + 1(1 − 9) − 0(2 − 6)

= −8.

Expanding along the first column we have:

 
 1 2 3 
 
 
 0 1 0  =
 
 3 2 1 

Expanding along the second column we have:

 
 1 2 3 
 
 
 0 1 0  =
 
 3 2 1 

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 125

 5.8 Vector product - Part 2
In the previous chapter we saw how to calculate a vector
product in R3 using the vector products of the unit vectors i, j
and k. Although this method works, it can be a bit tedious. We
now illustrate a shortcut using determinant notation.
If u = u1 i + u2 j + u3 k and v = v1 i + v2 j + v3 k then
     
 u     u 
 2 u3   u1 u 3   1 u2 
u × v = i  − j   + k  .
 v2 v3   v 1 v3   v1 v2 
 
 i j k 
 where the determinant must
 
So u × v =  u1 u2 u3 
  be expanded along its top row.
 v1 v2 v3 

Warning! This is not a real determinant, we are just using it

as a calculation aid.

Example 5.8.1 For vectors v = (2, −1, 4) and w = (1, 2, 3)

from Example 6.5.2, show that the determinant method gives
the same answer for v × w.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 126

Area of a triangle
• The area of a triangle with base length b and height h is
given by 12 bh.
• The triangle formed by the vectors v and w has base of
length ||v||, and height given by ||w|| sin θ, where θ is the
angle between v and w.

θ
v

• Thus, the area of the triangle formed by vectors v and w is

Area = 12 ||v|| ||w|| sin θ = 12 ||v × w||.

Example 5.8.2 Calculate the area of the triangle OAB where

A is the point with coordinates (3, −1, 1) and B is the point
with coordinates (−2, 2, 1).

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 127

 5.9 Solving systems of linear equations
Consider the following pair of simultaneous linear equations in
two unknowns.
2x + y = 7
3x + 2y = 12

We can write these using matrices as follows,

     
2 1 x 7
= .
3 2 y 12
   
2 1 2 −1
Now the inverse of A = is A−1 = .
3 2 −3 2
We can solve for x and y by multiplying both sides of the above
matrix equation by A−1 (on the left).
         
2 −1 2 1 x 2 −1 7
=
−3 2 3 2 y −3 2 12
     
1 0 x 2
=
0 1 y 3
   
x 2
=
y 3

Thus, the solution is x = 2, y = 3.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 128

How to use matrices to solve a system of simultaneous
linear equations
Consider a system of n simultaneous linear equations in n
unknowns x1 , x2 , . . . , xn :

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + · · · + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 + · · · + a2n xn = b2
.. ..
. = .
an1 x1 + an2 x2 + an3 x3 + · · · + ann xn = bn

These equations can be expressed in matrix form as Ax = b

where
     
a11 . . . a1n x1 b1
 a     
 21 . . . a2n   x2   b2 
A=  .. .. ,
 x=
 ..  , and b = 
  .. .

 . .   .   . 
an1 . . . ann xn bn

If A is invertible, then we can multiply both sides of Ax = b by

A−1 (on the left!), to give

A−1 A x = A−1 b,

which gives the solution

x = A−1 b.

• If the matrix A is singular, then the system of equations has

either no solution, or an infinite number of solutions, and
we cannot use the above method.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 129

Example 5.9.1 Use matrices to solve (if possible) the following
pair of simultaneous equations.
x − 2y = 0 and x + 3y = 5

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 130

Example 5.9.2 Use matrices to solve (if possible) the following
pair of simultaneous equations.
2x = y − 3 and 2y − 4x = 6

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 131

Example5.9.3   
1 −1 2 −1 1 2
  1  
Let A =  3 1 0  so A−1 =  3 −1 −6 .
2
0 −1 1 3 −1 −4
Use these matrices to solve the following system of equations

x − y + 2z = 3
3x + y = −5
−y + z = 2

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 132

Example 5.9.4 Ali Baba’s rug store is having a sale on persian
rugs and mats. Peter buys 3 mats and 2 rugs for $1300, and
Dave buys 2 mats and 3 rugs for $1700. How much will it cost
to purchase 4 mats and 4 rugs, at these prices?

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 133

NOTES

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 134

NOTES

MATH1050, 2023. Section 9. Page 135

 6 Equations of Lines and Planes
In Chapters 2 and 3, we learned about vectors and how to
use them to solve problems in physics and engineering. In
this chapter, we use vectors to describe lines and planes in
space.
6.1 Scalar Equation for a Plane

The equation of a plane can be expressed using scalars or

vectors. In this section we will sketch planes in R3 and
determine their scalar equations.

6.1.1 Horizontal planes

The x- and y-axes lie in the horizontal plane z = 0. All other

horizontal planes are parallel to z = 0 and are given by the
equation z = c.
Example 6.1.1 Sketch the horizontal plane z = 2.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 10. Page 136

6.1.2 Vertical planes

A vertical plane has the form ax + by = d; it depends on x and y

only and z does not appear. If you are not told this is an
equation of a plane, or, equivalently, an equation in R3 , then
you cannot distinguish it from the equation of a line in R2 .
Example 6.1.2 Sketch the plane x + y = 1.
First sketch the line x + y = 1 in the xy-plane; the plane
x + y = 1 contains this line and is parallel to the z axis.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 10. Page 137

6.1.3 Arbitrary planes

The general equation of a plane in R3 is given by

ax + by + cz = d

with a, b, c, d fixed real numbers. If the plane is not vertical, i.e.,

c = 0, this equation can be rearranged so that z is expressed in
terms of x and y:
z = −(a/c)x − (b/c)y + (d/c) = mx + ny + z0 .

The easiest way to sketch the plane by hand is to use the

triangle method: If all of a, b, c = 0 the plane ax + by + cz = d
intercepts each axis at precisely one point. These three points
make up a triangle which fixes the plane.
Example 6.1.3 The plane x + 2y + z = 4 intersects the x-axis
at x = 4, the y-axis at y = 2 and the z-axis at z = 4.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 10. Page 138

    "!


 

5





 


0


−5

−10
0
1
0
2 1
2
3 3
4

4 5

The triangle method is based on the simple fact that any three
points that lie in a plane uniquely determine this plane provided
these three points do not lie on a single straight line.
Example 6.1.4 Use the triangle method to sketch the plane
2x + 3y − z + 6 = 0.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 10. Page 139

Important remark: It is customary to say the equation of a
plane, even though it is not unique. Multiplying the equation of
a plane by a nonzero constant gives another equation for the
same plane. For example, x − 2y + 3z = 4 and
−2x + 4y − 6z = −8 are equations of the same plane.
Example 6.1.5 Find the equation of the plane through
(0, 0, 5), (1, 3, 2) and (0, 1, 1).


  

50

−50
−5
−2
0 −1
0
1
 5 2

MATH1050, 2023. Section 10. Page 140

The following picture shows the intersection of the planes
2x + 3y − z + 6 = 0 and z = 9x − 4y + 5. Note that the
intersection is a line.

 
 
   "!$#&%(' )*+ ,#.-"!$#&/

50


0

−50
−5
−3 −2
−1 −1
1 0
3 1
! 5 2

6.2 Vector equation of a plane I

We have seen in Section 6.1 that any three points in R3 which
do not lie on a straight line determine a plane. A plane can also
be specified by a point P0 = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) in the plane and a
vector n which is perpendicular to the plane.
Let P = (x, y, z) be an arbitrary point in the plane. Let r 0 and
r be the position vectors of P0 and P respectively. Then
−−→ −−→
P0 P = r − r 0 . Since P0 P is perpendicular to n,
Hence
n · (r − r 0 ) = 0.
This is the vector equation for a plane.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 10. Page 141

The vector and scalar equations are in fact the same, as shown
next.
We start with the vector equation, where n = (a, b, c) is a
normal, r 0 = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and r = (x, y, z). Then

n · (r − r 0 ) = 0
(a, b, c) · (x − x0 , y − y0 , z − z0 ) = 0
a(x − x0 ) + b(y − y0 ) + c(z − z0 ) = 0
ax + by + cz = d

where d = n · r 0 = ax0 + by0 + cz0 .

Important remark: Given a plane ax + by + cz = d we now

have a geometric interpretation of the vector (a, b, c): it is a
normal to the plane. Obviously the normal is not unique since
any vector of the form k(a, b, c), where k is a nonzero scalar, is
also a normal.

Example 6.2.1 Find the vector and scalar equations for the
plane passing through the point (2, 4, −1) with normal
n = 2i + 3j + 4k = (2, 3, 4).

MATH1050, 2023. Section 10. Page 142

Our understanding of normal vectors allows us to compute
angles between planes.

Example 6.2.2 Find the angle between the planes

x + 4y − 3z = 1 and −3x + 6y + 7z = 0.

Important remark: Contrary to popular belief, the angle

between two planes cannot exceed π/2.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 10. Page 143

 6.3 Equations for a Line
There are three common ways to represent a line:
(a) the vector representation;
(b) the parametric representation;
(c) the symmetric equations, obtained by eliminating
parameters in (b).
The representation that is best depends on the particular
problem at hand.

(a) Vector representation

Let P0 = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) be a point on the line L with corresponding
position vector r 0 and let v be a vector parallel to L, known as
a direction vector. For an arbitrary point P = (x, y, z) lying on
L we have
−→
P0 P = (x − x0 , y − y0 , z − z0 ).

P
r
P0
r0

0
−→ −→
Since P0 P , is parallel to v, we have P0 P = λv for some scalar λ.
MATH1050, 2023. Section 10. Page 144
Hence
−→
r = r0 + P0 P = r 0 + λv.
The equation

r = r 0 + λv, λ∈R

is know as the vector equation of the line L.

Important remark: As with the equation of a plane, the
vector equation of a line is not unique. One can choose any
point P0 on the line as “starting point”and one can multiply the
vector v by any nonzero constant.

Example 6.3.1 Find (a) the vector representation of the line

passing through (5, 1, 3) and parallel to the vector (1, 4, −2) and
(b) the vector representation of the line passing through
(4, −3, 5) and parallel to the vector (−2, −8, 4). What is the
relation between the two lines?

MATH1050, 2023. Section 10. Page 145

(b) Parametric representation
The parametric representation of a line is a scalar representation
of the vector equation r = r 0 + λv. Writing each vector in
component form,

r = (x, y, z)
r 0 = (x0 , y0 , z0 )
v = (a, b, c)

gives
(x, y, z) = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) + λ(a, b, c).
Matching components results in three scalar equations

x = x0 + aλ

y = y0 + bλ λ∈R (∗)


z = z0 + cλ

known as the parametric equations of a line.

Example 6.3.2 Find the parametric equations for the line

passing through (5, 1, 3) and parallel to i + 4j − 2k.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 10. Page 146

(c) Symmetric equations
The parameter λ can be eliminated from the parametric
equations of a line. For example, by eliminating λ from each of
the three equations x = 5 + λ, y = 1 + 4λ, z = 3 − 2λ for the
line L, we obtain
y−1 z−3
λ=x−5= = .
4 −2
The equations
y−1 z−3
x−5= =
4 −2
are known as the symmetric equations of L.
What these equation really are is a set of two non-identical,
non-parallel planes
y−1 z−3
x−5= and x−5= ,
4 −2
which, as we know, must intersect to give a line.
The general form of the symmetric equations of the line (∗)
from the previous page is given by

x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
= = ,
a b c
but some care is needed when one (or two) of a, b or c is equal to
zero. For example, if a = 0 the above needs to be replaced by
y − y0 z − z0
x = x0 , =
b c
and so on.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 10. Page 147

Example 6.3.3 Find the symmetric equations of the line that
passes through the points (2, 4, −3) and (3, −1, 1).

MATH1050, 2023. Section 10. Page 148

Example 6.3.4 Find the symmetric equations of the line
r = (1, 2, 3) + λ(0, 1, 0).

MATH1050, 2023. Section 10. Page 149

6.3.1 Parallel and orthogonal Lines.

Two lines are parallel if, when written as r = r 0 + λv, and

r = s0 + µu, the direction vectors u and v are linear multiples
of each other, i.e., u = kv for some nonzero scalar k.
Two lines are orthogonal if their direction vectors are
orthogonal. An easy test for orthogonality is to take the dot
product of the direction vectors; if and only if this gives zero are
the lines orthogonal.
Example 6.3.5 Show that the lines L1 and L2 given by
x−1 z+5
L1 : =y−3= ,
2 4
5−y
L2 : 2−x= = z − 5.
2
are orthogonal.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 10. Page 150

Example 6.3.6 Find the parametric equations for the
intersection of the planes

z =x+y and 2x − 5y − z = 1.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 10. Page 151

 6.4 Vector equation of a plane II
Previously we discussed the scalar equation of a plane, which is
an equation of the form ax + by + cz = d, and vector equation of
a plane, which is an equation of the form n · (r − r 0 ) = 0.
There is a second type of vector equation of a plane, which is
similar in form to the vector equation of a line. One fixes a
point P0 on the plane with corresponding position vector r 0 ,
but now not one, but two (non-parallel) vectors u and v parallel
to the plane are required to fully determine the plane:
r = r 0 + λu + µv, λ, µ ∈ R.

Example 6.4.1 Sketch a figure explaining the above equation

geometrically.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 10. Page 152

Important remark: In some sense the above vector equation
of a plane is even less unique than the vector equation of a line.
Again one can take r 0 to be any point on the plane and one can
multiply both u and v by nonzero constants. But unlike a line,
we can also replace u and v by any other pair of (independent)
vectors parallel to the plane. For example,
(x, y, z) = (1, 0, 1) + λ(0, 1, 2) + µ(3, 1, −1) and
(x, y, z) = (4, 1, 0) + λ(−1, 0, 1) + µ(−3, 1, 5) are different vector
representations of the same plane!

Example 6.4.2 Find the second type of vector equation of the

plane through (0, 0, 5), (1, 3, 2) and (0, 1, 1).

MATH1050, 2023. Section 10. Page 153

Example 6.4.3 Find the second type of vector equation for the
plane 2x + y − z = 4.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 10. Page 154

6.4.1 Distance from a Point to a Plane

A common problem that arises in applications is to find the

distance from a point to a plane, where, by distance, we always
mean minimum distance.

Example 6.4.4 Find the distance from the point (1, 2, 3) to

the plane z = 4.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 10. Page 155

Example 6.4.5 Find the distance between the point (1, 2, 3)
and the plane x + y + z = 1.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 10. Page 156

NOTES

MATH1050, 2023. Section 10. Page 157

NOTES

MATH1050, 2023. Section 10. Page 158

 7 Functions

• A function is a rule that associates a unique output to each

input.
• Functions are used heavily in all areas of mathematics and
in most applications of mathematics.
• Some examples of functions include:
– A formula that converts temperature in Fahrenheit to
temperature in Celcius, c = 59 (f − 32), describes
temperature in degrees centigrade as a function of
temperature in degrees Fahrenheit.
– A formula for the area of a circle in terms of its radius,
A = πr2 , describes area as a function of radius.
– A table of values that given the human population of
the world for each year from 1900 to 2000 describes
population as a function of year.
• Topics in this section are:
– Introduction to functions
– A collection of standard functions
– Solving inequalities
– Composition of functions
– Inverse functions
– Limits of functions.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 159

 7.1 Introduction to functions
• A function is a rule that assigns to each element x in a set
A exactly one element from a set B.
• The notation f (x) is used to denote the element in B that
arises from applying the function f to the element x, and
we say that f maps x to f (x). We call f (x) the value of f
at x, or the image of x under f .
• The set A is called the domain of the function. It is the set
of all possible inputs to the function.
• The set of all possible values of the function is called the
range of the function. The range is a subset of the set B.
Example 7.1.1 Let f be the function that takes a real number
as input and returns two plus the square of that real number as
output.
a) Determine f (2), f (−3) and f (x) for some real number x.

b) Determine the domain and range of f .

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 160

 • The following example illustrates some common notation
used to denote functions. The notation f : R → R is read as
“the function f maps a real number to a real number”.
Example 7.1.2 Let f : R → R where f (x) = 2x and let
g : Z → Z where g(x) = 2x. Determine the domain and range
for each function f and g.

• Domain convention If a function is given by a formula

and the domain is not specified, the convention is that the
domain is the set of all real numbers for which the formula
defines a real number.
• Although we often use x as the variable in the rule of a
function, this is not required. For example, if f is the
function which computes the area of a circle given its radius
then f (r) = πr2 , and we say that f is a function of r.
Example
√ 7.1.3 Let g be the function defined by the rule
g(a) = a − 1. Determine the domain and range of g.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 161

 • We can represent a function f : A → B using an arrow
diagram. We draw the set A on the left and the set B on
the right, and draw an arrow from each x ∈ A to its image
f (x) ∈ B.
• If an arrow diagram illustrates a function, then there will
be a single arrow coming out of each element on the left.
Example 7.1.4 Let A = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2}. Let g : A → Z where
g(x) = x2 . Draw the arrow diagram for g.

• The most common representation of a function is a graph

with the domain of the function on the horizontal axis and
its range on the vertical axis.
• The graph of a function f with domain A is given by the
set of ordered pairs {(x, f (x)) for all x ∈ A}. If f is a
function of x, we often let y = f (x) and draw the graph of f
on the x, y-axes.
Example 7.1.5 A function f : R → R has the graph shown
below. Determine f (2) and the domain and range of f .
y

2 x

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 162

 • An important property of a function f is that each x in the
domain corresponds to a unique value f (x). Thus, to check
whether a graph represents a function, we can use the
vertical line test.
• Vertical line test A curve in the x, y-plane is the graph of
a function of x if and only if no vertical line intersects the
curve more than once.

Example 7.1.6 Determine which of the following graphs

represent functions.
y y y

x x x

y = x2 y2 = x x2 + y 2 = 4

Example 7.1.7 Determine the domain and range of each of the

following functions, and sketch the graph of the function.
a) f (x) = 5x − 3
y

continued...
MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 163
Example 7.1.7 (continued)
b) f (x) = x2 − 2x + 1
y

√
c) f (x) = 2x − 4
y

1
d) f (x) =
x−2
y

e) f (x) = |3x| + 2
y

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 164

 • A piecewise defined function is defined by different formulae
in different parts of its domain.
Example 7.1.8 Draw the graph, and state the domain and
range, of each of the following functions.

x − 1 if x ≤ 1
a) f (x) =
x2 if x > 1
y



 −1 if 0 ≤ x < 1
b) g(x) = 0 if 1 ≤ x < 2

 1 if 2 ≤ x < 3
y

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 165

 7.2 A collection of standard functions
Polynomial functions
• A polynomial in the variable x is an expression of the form

an xn + an−1 xn−1 + an−2 xn−2 + · · · + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 ,

where n ∈ N is the degree (highest power) of the

polynomial, an , an−1 , an−2 , . . . , a2 , a1 , a0 are the coefficients
of x, and an = 0.
• The general shape of the graph of a polynomial function
depends on the degree (highest power) of the polynomial.
• A polynomial function f of degree 0 is defined by a formula
of the form f (x) = a where a is a real number. It is called a
constant function and its graph is a horizontal line.
• A polynomial function f of degree 1 is defined by a formula
of the form f (x) = ax + b where a and b are real numbers
(a = 0). It is called a linear function and its graph is a line
with slope a.
y y

x x

y=3 y = − 12 x + 1

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 166

 • A polynomial function f of degree 2 is defined by a formula
of the form f (x) = ax2 + bx + c where a, b and c are real
numbers (a = 0). It is called a quadratic function and its
graph is a parabola.
y y

x x

y = x2 − 2x − 3 y = −2x2 + 2
• A polynomial function f of degree 3 is defined by a formula
of the form f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d where a, b, c and d
are real numbers (a = 0). It is called a cubic function.
y y

x x

y = x3 + 2x2 − 2x − 1 y = −x3 + 2x + 2

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 167

 • A polynomial function f of even degree greater than two
has a graph that is similar in shape to that of a quadratic
function, but potentially having some bumps in the middle.
y y

x
x

y = x4 + 2x2 − 3 y = −x4 + 2x3 + 3x2 − 2x − 1

• A polynomial function f of odd degree greater than three
has a graph that is similar in shape to that of a cubic
function, but potentially having some more bumps in the
middle.
y y

x x

y = x5 + 2x3 − 2x − 1 y = −x5 + x4 + 2x3 − x2 − x

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 168

Power functions
• A power function f is defined by a formula of the form
f (x) = xa where a is a real number.
• If a is a positive integer, then the power function f (x) = xa
is a polynomial function of degree a (with only one term).
y y y y y

x x x x x

y=x y = x2 y = x3 y = x4 y = x5
• If a = 1/n where n is a positive integer, then
√
f (x) = xa = n x is the nth root function. If n is even, then
√
the domain of f (x) is [0, ∞) and the graph of f (x) = n x
√
looks similar to that of f (x) = x shown below. If n is odd,
√
then the domain of f (x) is R and the graph of f (x) = n x
√
looks similar to that of f (x) = 3 x shown below.
y y

x x

√ √
3
y= x y= x
• If a = −1, then f (x) = x1 is the reciprocal function. Its
domain and range are both R \ {0} and its graph is a
hyperbola.
y

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 169

Absolute value functions
• An absolute value function is a function whose rule involves
absolute value bars. An absolute value function can be
written as a piecewise defined function.
Example 7.2.1 Let f and g be functions where f (x) = |x| and
g(x) = |x2 − 4|. Write the rules of f and g as piecewise defined
functions, and sketch the graphs of f and g.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 170

Rational functions
• A rational function f is defined by a formula of the form
p(x)
f (x) = where p and q are polynomial functions.
q(x)
Unless otherwise specified, the domain of f consists of all
real numbers x such that q(x) = 0.
p(x)
• The graph of the rational function f (x) = may have
q(x)
vertical asymptotes at those values of x for which q(x) = 0.
• A non-vertical asymptote is a line that the graph of a
function approaches arbitrarily closely, far from the origin.
y y

x
x

2 x3 + 2x − 1
y= y=
x−3 x2 − 1

x3 − x2 + 2x − 2
y=
x−1

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 171

Exponential functions
• An exponential function is defined by a rule of the form
f (x) = ax where a is a positive real number.
• When a > 1, the graph of f (x) = ax has the x-axis as a
horizontal asymptote, passes through the point (0, 1) and
rises steeply to the right of the y-axis.
• When a < 1, the graph of f (x) = ax has the x-axis as a
horizontal asymptote, passes through the point (0, 1) and
rises steeply to the left of the y-axis.
y y

x x

y = ex y = ( 12 )x
Logarithmic functions
• A logarithmic function is defined by a rule of the form
f (x) = loga x where the base a is a positive real number.
• A logarithmic function has domain (0, ∞). Its graph has
the y-axis as a vertical asymptote and it passes through the
point (1, 0). If a > 1, then the graph rises slowly for x > 1,
whereas if a < 1, then the graph descends slowly for x > 1.
y y

x x

y = lnx = loge x y = log10 x

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 172
 7.3 Solving inequalities
Solving inequalities is similar to solving equations. However;
remember that if you multiply (or divide) both sides of an
inequality by a negative number, you must reverse the
inequality sign.

3
Example 7.3.1 (a) Sketch the graph of f (x) = .
x
y

3
(b) Determine (algebraically) the values of x for which <6
x
and relate your answer to the graph in part (a).

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 173

Example 7.3.2 (a) Sketch the graph of f (x) = x2 − x − 2.
y

(b) Determine the values of x for which x2 − x − 2 ≥ 0.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 174

Example 7.3.3 Determine (algebraically) the values of x for
which
x−3
≤2
x+2
x−3
and then relate your answer to the graph of f (x) = below.
x+2

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 175

Example 7.3.4 (a) Solve the inequality |2x − 3| < 2 and
illustrate the solution on a number line.

(b) Sketch the graph of f (x) = |2x − 3| and relate your answer
to part (a) to the sketch.
y

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 176

 7.4 Composition of functions
• Often we apply one function and then apply another
function to the result of the first function.
• Given any two functions f and g, we start with a number x
in the domain of g and determine its image g(x). If this
number is in the domain of f , we can now apply f to the
number g(x) and obtain the value f (g(x)). This process is
called the composition of f and g.
• Given two functions f and g, the function with input x and
output f (g(x)) is called the composite function of f and g
and is denoted f ◦ g.
• The domain of f ◦ g is the set of all x in the domain of g
such that g(x) is in the domain of f .
• To apply the function f ◦ g, we must first apply g and then
apply f .
Example 7.4.1 Let f (x) = x + 1, h(x) = 4x, i(x) = x2 and
√
j(x) = x.
Find (a) f (h(−2)) (b) j(f (8)) (c) i(h(x)) (d) h(i(x))

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 177

Example 7.4.2 √ Let f and g be functions defined by the
formulae f (x) = x − 5 and g(x) = x2 − 4. Determine the
functions f ◦ g and g ◦ f , and state their domains and ranges.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 178

 7.5 Inverse functions
• If f is a function, then each element x in the domain of f
gives rise to a unique value f (x) in the range of f . However,
it may be the case that multiple elements in the domain
gives rise to the same element in the range.
• Let f be the function defined by f (x) = x2 , so f (2) = 4 and
f (−2) = 4. The question: ‘Which value of x gives rise to
the value 4?’ does not have a unique answer. Consider the
arrow diagram illustrating f on the domain
A = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2} with range B = {0, 1, 4}.
−2
0
−1
0 1
1
4
2

The value 4 has two arrows pointing to it, so if we try to

reverse the action of f , there is confusion over what to do
with 4. Hence, there is no function that reverses the action
of f to map elements in B back to their corresponding
elements in A.
• A function f is called a one-to-one function if it never takes
the same value twice; that is
f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) for x1 = x2 .

• Let f be a one-to-one function with domain A and range B.

Then its inverse function f −1 has domain B and range A
and is defined by
f −1 (b) = a if and only if f (a) = b
for any b in B.
MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 179
Example 7.5.1 Let f (x) be the function defined by f (x) = x2 .
Determine a suitable domain for f so that f −1 exists.

• To determine the inverse of a one-to-one function f :

1. Solve the equation y = f (x) for x in terms of y.
2. To express f −1 as a function of x, interchange x and y
in the result of the previous step.
Example 7.5.2 Determine the inverse function of f (x) = 2x + 3
and sketch the graphs of f and f −1 on the same set of axes.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 180

 • If the point (a, b) lies on the graph of a function f , then
f (a) = b. Thus, if f −1 exists, then f −1 (b) = a, and the
point (b, a) lies on the graph of f −1 .
• The graph of f −1 is obtained by reflecting the graph of f in
the line y = x.
Example 7.5.3 Sketch the graph of the function
√
f (x) = x − 2 and its inverse function f −1 . Determine f −1
algebraically and verify that your sketch is correct.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 181

Inverse trigonometric functions
• The trigonometric functions sine, cosine and tangent take
an angle as input and return the value of the trigonometric
ratio of that angle. We often wish to do the reverse of this;
that is, given the value of a trigonometric ratio, compute
the corresponding angle. For this, we use the inverses of the
trigonometric functions.
• With domain R, none of the functions sine, cosine or
tangent are one-to-one, so we must restrict the domains of
the trigonometric functions.
• The function f (x) = sin x where − π2 ≤ x ≤ π2 is a
one-to-one function. The function f −1 exists and is denoted
arcsin or sin−1 . The inverse sine function has domain
[−1, 1] and range [− π2 , π2 ].
y y
π
__
2
1

π
− __ π
__ x −1 1 x
2 2
−1
π
− __
2

y = sin x, − π2 ≤ x ≤ π
2
y = arcsin x, −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
• The function f (x) = cos x where 0 ≤ x ≤ π is a one-to-one
function. The function f −1 exists and is denoted arccos or
cos−1 . The inverse cosine function has domain [−1, 1] and
range [0, π].
y y
π
1

x π
__
2
π
__ π
2
−1
x
−1 1

y = cos x, 0 ≤ x ≤ π y = arccos x, −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 182
 • The function f (x) = tan x where − π2 < x < π2 is a
one-to-one function. The function f −1 exists and is denoted
arctan or tan−1 . The inverse tangent function has domain
R and range (− π2 , π2 ).
y y
π
__
1 2

x
π
__ x
π
−__
2 2 −1 1
−1
π
−__
2

y = tan x, − π2 < x < π

2
y = arctan x, x ∈ R

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 183

 7.6 Limits of functions
• When working with functions we often need to know what
the function values are close to a particular value that may,
or may not, be in the domain of the function. To obtain
this type of information, we use limits, which describe
function values for elements of the domain which are close
to the particular value of interest.
• Consider the following example: Let f be the function
defined by f (x) = x2 + 1. What happens to the values of
f (x) as x approaches 2 from the left? What happens to the
values of f (x) as x approaches 2 from the right?

x f (x) x f (x)
1.9 4.61 2.1 5.41
1.99 4.9601 2.01 5.0401
1.999 4.996001 2.001 5.004001
1.9999 4.99960001 2.0001 5.00040001
1.99999 4.99996 2.00001 5.00004
1.999999 4.999996 2.000001 5.000004

It appears that for x approaching 2 from the left (x < 2),

the function value is approaching 5 from below (f (x) < 5),
and for x approaching 2 from the right (x > 2), the function
value is approaching 5 from above (f (x) > 5). From the
table (and from the graph), we see that as x gets closer and
closer to 2, f (x) gets closer and closer to 5. We express this
as ‘the limit of the function f (x) = x2 + 1 as x approaches 2
is equal to 5’. We write this as

lim (x2 + 1) = 5.
x→2

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 184

 • Let f be a function defined on both sides of the value a,
except possibly at a. We write lim f (x) = L and say ‘the
x→a
limit of f (x) as x approaches a equals L’ if we can make the
values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L by taking x to be
sufficiently close to a (on either side) but not equal to a.
• Notice that we do not let x = a when evaluating the limit.
For all three of the following functions, we have
lim f (x) = 5.
x→2
y y y

x x x


2 (x2 +1)(x−2) x2 + 1 x = 2
f (x) = x + 1 f (x) = x−2
f (x) =
3 x=2

Example 7.6.1 Let f (x) = −x3 + 2. Determine lim f (x).

x→1

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 185

One-sided limits
• Let f be a function defined on both sides of a, except
possibly at a. If lim f (x) = L then the function values
x→a
must approach L as x approaches a with x < a AND also as
x approaches a with x > a.
• If the graph of our function f has a break at x = a,
lim f (x) may not exist, but we can talk about the one-sided
x→a
limits as x approaches a from above and from below.
• The notation lim f (x) = L means that the values of f (x)
x→a+
approach L as x approaches a with x > a.
• The notation lim f (x) = L means that the values of f (x)
x→a−
approach L as x approaches a with x < a.
y

lim f (x) = 1
x x→0+

lim f (x) = 0
 x→0−
−x if x ≤ 0
f (x) =
1 if x > 0

• For a function f , lim f (x) = L if and only if

x→a
lim f (x) = lim f (x) = L.
x→a+ x→a−

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 186

Limits at infinity and infinite limits
• The notation lim f (x) = L means that as x gets larger and
x→∞
larger, f (x) gets closer and closer to the value L.
• The notation lim f (x) = L means that as x gets larger
x→−∞
and larger in the negative sense, f (x) gets closer and closer
to the value L.
y

 
1
lim =0
x→∞ x
 
x 1
lim =0
x→−∞ x

• Let f be a function defined on both sides of a, except

possibly at a itself. The notation lim f (x) = ∞ means that
x→a
the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily large by taking x
sufficiently close to a (but not equal to a).
• Similarly, the notation lim f (x) = −∞ means that the
x→a
values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily large in the negative
sense by taking x sufficiently close to a (but not equal to a).
• In each of these cases, we say that the function f diverges
as x approaches a.
y

 
1
lim =∞
x→0 x2
x

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 187

Example 7.6.2 Use the graphs of the following functions to
determine the given limits.
x3 −x2 +2x−2
a) Let f (x) = x−1
. Determine lim f (x).
x→1
y


x2 + 2 if x ≥ 0
b) Let f (x) = Determine lim f (x).
x if x < 0. x→0

1
c) Let f (x) = x−2
. Determine lim f (x).
x→2
y

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 188

 • If you are asked to determine the limit of a messy looking
function and you have no idea what the graph of that
function looks like, you might be tempted to use your
calculator to evaluate the function close to the value of
interest. This approach could be dangerous.
√
x2 + 4 − 2
• For example, consider the function g(x) = and
x2
the limit lim g(x). Using a typical calculator, the following
x→0
results were obtained. (Note that exact results depend on
the calculator.)
x −x g(x) = g(−x)
0.1 -0.1 0.2498439
0.01 -0.01 0.2499984
0.001 -0.001 0.2500000
0.0001 -0.0001 0.2490000
0.00001 -0.00001 0.0000000
0.000001 -0.000001 0.0000000
From these results, you might be tempted to guess that
lim g(x) = 0, which is incorrect.
x→0

• It can be very dangerous to use your calculator to estimate

a limit. Rounding errors can cause small numbers to appear
as zero on your calculator, so we need a more accurate way
to work out limits.

• If the function f can be evaluated at x = a and f is a ‘nice’

function with no jumps, then usually lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a

For example lim x3 = 23 = 8.

x→2

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 189

 • If the function f cannot be evaluated at x = a, then you
may be able to use algebraic manipulation to rewrite f in a
form that can be evaluated at x = a.
• For example, the function from Example 7.6.2 (a),
3 2
f (x) = x −xx−1+2x−2
is not defined at x = 1, but provided
(x2 +2)(x−1)
that x = 1, we have f (x) = x−1
= x2 + 2. Thus

lim f (x) = lim (x2 + 2) = 12 + 2 = 3.

x→1 x→1

• Similarly,
√ the function from the calculator discussion,
x2 + 4 − 2
g(x) = is not defined at x = 0, but provided
x2
that x = 0, we have
√ 2 √ 2 
x +4−2 x +4+2 x2
g(x) = √ = √ .
x2 x2 + 4 + 2 x2 ( x2 + 4 + 2)
Thus
 
1 1 1
lim g(x) = lim √ = √ = .
x→0 x→0 x2 + 4 + 2 02 + 4 + 2 4

• If f and g are functions such that lim f (x) and lim g(x)
x→a x→a
exist, then
lim (f (x) + g(x)) = lim f (x) + lim g(x);
x→a x→a x→a

lim (f (x) − g(x)) = lim f (x) − lim g(x);

x→a x→a x→a

lim (f (x)g(x)) = lim f (x) × lim g(x);

x→a x→a x→a
  lim f (x)
f (x) x→a
lim = if lim g(x) = 0.
x→a g(x) lim g(x) x→a
x→a

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 190

Continuous functions
• A function f is continuous at a number a if
lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a

• A function f is continuous on an interval if it is continuous

at every number in the interval.
Example 7.6.3 Determine which of the following functions are
continuous on the interval [−2, 2].
y y

x x

2 x3 − x2 + 2x − 2
f (x) = x + 2 f (x) =
x−1
y y

x x

 
x3 −x2 +2x−2 1
x−1
x = 1 x−1
x = 1
f (x) = f (x) =
3 x=1 1 x=1

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 191

NOTES

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 192

NOTES

MATH1050, 2023. Section 5. Page 193

 8 Differentiation

• In many applications of mathematics, it is very important

to be able to calculate the gradient, or slope, of the graph
of a function at a particular point.
• This gradient is called the derivative of the function at the
point and it measures the rate of change of the function at
that point.
• Derivatives of functions provide useful information about
the graph of a function and also have important
applications in many areas of science and economics.
• In this section we will look at the definition of the
derivative of a function and review some rules that allow us
to calculate the derivatives of many functions.
• We will apply our knowledge of derivatives to sketch the
graphs of functions and to solve optimisation problems and
problems involving rates of change.
• Topics in this section are:
– Tangent lines
– The derivative of a function
– Differentiation rules
– Critical points and curve sketching
– Applications of differentiation.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 6. Page 194

 8.1 Tangent lines
• The slope of a line describes the rate of change of y with
respect to x.
y y y y

x x x x

Rapid increase Slow increase Slow decrease Rapid decrease

• A secant line is a line that passes through two points on a
curve.
• For a curve y = f (x), we can use the slope of a secant line
to describe the average rate of change of f (x) with respect
to x over a given interval of values for x.
• The slope of the secant line passing through the points
f (b) − f (a)
(a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)) is .
b−a
• Consider the family of secant lines that we obtain by letting
b get closer and closer to a.
y y y y

a b x a b x a b x a x

• The limit of these lines (as b → a) is the line that just

touches the curve at the point (a, f (a)). We call this line
the tangent line to f (x) at the point x = a.
• The slope of the tangent line to f (x) at the point x = a is
f (b) − f (a)
lim .
b→a b−a
MATH1050, 2023. Section 6. Page 195
 • The slope of the tangent line at x = a gives the
instantaneous rate of change of f (x) with respect to x at
that point.
Example 8.1.1 We can guess the slope of the tangent line to
the curve f (x) = 2x2 − x + 1 at x = 1, by evaluating the slopes
of the secant lines passing through (1, f (1)) and (b, f (b)) for
values of b that approach 1.

b 1.5 1.1 1.01 1.001

4−2 2.32−2 2.0302−2 2.003002−2
f (b) − f (1) 1.5−1 1.1−1 1.01−1 1.001−1
b−1 =4 = 3.2 = 3.02 = 3.002
We might guess that the slope of the tangent line at x = 1 is 3.

Determine the slope of the tangent line to the curve

f (x) = 2x2 − x + 1 at x = 1 by evaluating the limit
f (b) − f (1)
lim .
b→1 b−1

MATH1050, 2023. Section 6. Page 196

 • Another way of writing the slope of the tangent line to f (x)
at x = a is to let b = a + h. Then b → a is equivalent to
h → 0 and the slope of the tangent line to f (x) at x = a is
f (a + h) − f (a) f (a + h) − f (a)
lim = lim .
h→0 a+h−a h→0 h

Example 8.1.2 a) Determine the slope of the tangent line to

the curve f (x) = x3 − 2x at x = 2.

b) Use your answer from part (a) to determine the equation of

the tangent line to the curve f (x) = x3 − 2x at x = 2.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 6. Page 197

 8.2 The derivative of a function
• The derivative of a function f at the number a, denoted by
f  (a) is
f (a + h) − f (a)
f  (a) = lim
h→0 h
if this limit exists.
• Thus the tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at x = a is the
line through (a, f (a)) whose slope is equal to f  (a), the
derivative of f at a.
• The derivative f  (a) is the instantaneous rate of change of
y = f (x) with respect to x when x = a.
Example 8.2.1 In a controlled laboratory experiment, the
number of bacteria after t hours is described by a function n(t)
having the following graph.
n(t)

a) What does the derivative n (t) represent?

b) On the graph, locate the value of t that gives the largest

value of the derivative.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 6. Page 198

 • Given a function f , we can define a new function, called the
derivative of f , and denoted f  , by the rule that
f (x + h) − f (x)
f  (x) = lim .
h→0 h
The domain of f  is the set of all x in the domain of f such
that f  (x) exists.
• The derivative of f is also called the derived function of f .
The process of determining the derivative of a function f is
called differentiation.
Example 8.2.2 Use the definition of the derivative to
√
determine the derived function of f where f (x) = x. Draw the
graphs of f and f  .

y y

x x

MATH1050, 2023. Section 6. Page 199

Example 8.2.3 The graph of a function f is shown below.
Sketch (roughly) the graph of the derivative of f .
y y

x x

• If y = f (x), then other notation commonly used for the

derivative f  (x) includes:
dy df d
y f (x).
dx dx dx
• A function f is said to be differentiable at a if f  (a) exists.
Note that a function may not be differentiable at all points
in its domain.
y y y

x x x

not smooth not continuous too steep

enough at x = 0 at x = 1 at x = 0

MATH1050, 2023. Section 6. Page 200

 8.3 Differentiation rules
• Determining derivatives from the definition can be
time-consuming. Luckily there are some rules for
differentiation that speed up the process. The proofs of
these rules can be found in most calculus textbooks, but
you do not need to know the proofs for this course.
• The derivative of a constant function is zero.
• If f (x) = xn , then f  (x) = nxn−1 for n ∈ R.
• Constant multiple rule If c is a constant and f is a
differentiable function, then
d d
(cf (x)) = c f (x).
dx dx
• Sum rule If f and g are both differentiable functions, then
d d d
(f (x) + g(x)) = f (x) + g(x).
dx dx dx
This rule can also be written as (f + g) = f  + g  .
• Product rule If f and g are both differentiable functions,
then
d d d
(f (x)g(x)) = f (x) g(x) + g(x) f (x).
dx dx dx
This rule can also be written as (f g) = f g  + gf  .
• Quotient rule If f and g are both differentiable functions,
then   d d
d f (x) g(x) dx f (x) − f (x) dx g(x)
= .
dx g(x) (g(x))2
 
f gf  − f g 
This rule can also be written as = .
g g2
MATH1050, 2023. Section 6. Page 201
Example 8.3.1 Determine the derivative of each of the
following functions.
a) f (x) = x3 + 4x − 1

√
b) g(u) = u(2u − u2 )

4n − n3 + 2
c) h(n) =
3n4

MATH1050, 2023. Section 6. Page 202

 • Chain rule (also called the Composite Function rule) If f
and g are both differentiable functions, then

(f ◦ g) (x) = f  (g(x))g  (x).

If y = f (u) and u = g(x), then this rule can be written as

dy dy du
= .
dx du dx
• To apply the chain rule, think about starting with the
outside function and working your way in.
Example 8.3.2 a) Find h (x) where h(x) = (2x3 − 3x + 1)4 .

continued...
MATH1050, 2023. Section 6. Page 203
Example 8.3.2 (continued)
√
b) Find h (x) where h(x) = x2 − 3x.

1
c) Find h (x) where h(x) = .
(−10x−7 + 4)2

MATH1050, 2023. Section 6. Page 204

 • So far we have only looked at deriving relations where y or
f (x) is defined explicitly as a relation of x. What happens
if y is defined implicitly as a relation of x, such as y 2 = x or
y 3 + 2y = 4x3 ? We can use a technique called implicit
differentiation, which is based on the chain rule.
• Let’s look at the derivative of x2 + y 2 = 25 (circle, radius 5,
centred at the origin). We differentiate both sides w.r.t x,
d 2 d
(x + y 2 ) = (25).
dx dx
d 2 d 2
⇒ (x ) + (y ) = 0.
dx dx
d 2 d 2
We can easily work out (x ), but how can we do (y )?
dx dx
This is where the chain rule comes in.
d 2 d 2 dy dy
(y ) = (y ) = 2y
dx dy dx dx
dy
So we now have 2x + 2y =0
dx
dy 2x
⇒ =−
dx 2y
dy x
⇒ =−
dx y
So the derivative of y w.r.t x, where y is defined in terms of
dy x
x implicitly by the equation x2 + y 2 = 25, is =− .
dx y

MATH1050, 2023. Section 6. Page 205

Example 8.3.3 Determine the derivative of y with respect to
the other variable for each of the following relations.
a) y 3 = x3 + 4x − 1

√ √
b) y = u(2u − u2 )

MATH1050, 2023. Section 6. Page 206

Example 8.3.4 Determine the derivative of y with respect to
the other variable for each of the following relations.
a) y 3 + 2y + 7 = x3 + 4x − 1

b) xy = 3x2 + 2y

MATH1050, 2023. Section 6. Page 207

Derivatives of trigonometric functions
• Note that when we use the trigonometric functions, such as
f (x) = sin x, all angles are measured in radians.
• To determine the derivative of f (x) = sin x we require two
special limits:
sin h cos h − 1
lim =1 lim = 0.
h→0 h h→0 h
The proofs of these limits can be found in most calculus
textbooks, but we won’t worry about the proofs in this
course.
• If f (x) = sin x then f  (x) = cos x.
Proof
sin(x + h) − sin x
f  (x) = lim
h→0 h
sin x cos h + cos x sin h − sin x
= lim
h→0 h
 
sin x cos h − sin x cos x sin h
= lim +
h→0 h h
    
cos h − 1 sin h
= lim sin x + cos x
h→0 h h
   
cos h − 1 sin h
= lim sin x lim + lim cos x lim
h→0 h→0 h h→0 h→0 h
= sin x · 0 + cos x · 1

= cos x.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 6. Page 208

 • Using a similar method to the previous page, we can show
that if f (x) = cos x then f  (x) = − sin x.
d
Example 8.3.5 Use the quotient rule to determine tan x.
dx

• The derivatives of the trigonometric functions are

summarised below.
d d
(sin x) = cos x (csc x) = − csc x cot x
dx dx

d d
(cos x) = − sin x (sec x) = sec x tan x
dx dx

d d
(tan x) = sec2 x (cot x) = − csc2 x
dx dx
MATH1050, 2023. Section 6. Page 209
Derivatives of exponential and logarithmic functions
• If f (x) = ex , then f  (x) = ex . Note: Another way of writing
ex is exp(x).
• Thus, on the graph of f (x) = ex , the slope of the tangent
line at each point is equal to the function value at that
point.
1
• If f (x) = lnx, then f  (x) = . Note that here x > 0 since
x
the domain of f (x) = lnx is x > 0.
Example 8.3.6 Determine the derivative of each of the
following functions.
2
a) f (x) = xex

b) g(x) = ln(x3 − 2x)

MATH1050, 2023. Section 6. Page 210

 8.4 Critical points and curve sketching
• When solving practical problems, or when sketching the
graph of a function, we often need to know when a function
attains a maximum or minimum value.
• A function f has a global maximum at c if f (c) ≥ f (x) for
all x in the domain of f . The number f (c) is called the
maximum value of f on its domain. A global maximum is
also called an absolute maximum.
• A function f has a global minimum at c if f (c) ≤ f (x) for
all x in the domain of f . The number f (c) is called the
minimum value of f on its domain. A global minimum is
also called an absolute minimum.
• A function f has a local maximum at c if f (c) ≥ f (x) for all
x near c.
• A function f has a local minimum at c if f (c) ≤ f (x) for all
x near c.
Example 8.4.1 On the graph of the function f below, identify
all global and local maxima and minima.
y

MATH1050, 2023. Section 6. Page 211

 • If f has a local maximum or minimum at a, and if f  (a)
exists, then f  (a) = 0.
• The point (a, f (a)) is a critical point of the function f if
f  (a) = 0 or if f  (a) does not exist (but f (a) does).
• Thus, all local maxima and minima are critical points. Note
however, that not all critical points are local maxima or
minima.
y y y y

x x x x

• To find any local maxima or minima of a function f , we

solve the equation f  = 0. We can then classify any critical
points we find using the information about the function
near the critical point.
• A function f is strictly increasing on an interval [a, b] if for
all x1 and x2 in [a, b], f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 .
• A function f is strictly decreasing on an interval [a, b] if for
all x1 and x2 in [a, b], f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 .
• If f  (x) > 0 on an interval, then f is strictly increasing on
that interval.
• If f  (x) < 0 on an interval, then f is strictly decreasing on
that interval.
• If f  (x) = 0 on an interval, then f is constant on that
interval.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 6. Page 212

 • First derivative test Suppose that the function f has a
critical point at x = c. Then
– If f  changes sign from positive to negative at c, then f
has a local maximum at c.
– If f  changes sign from negative to positive at c, then f
has a local minimum at c.
– If f  does not change sign at c, then f has neither a
local maximum nor a local minimum at c.
Example 8.4.2 Find all local maxima and minima of
f (x) = x3 − 2x2 + x + 1 and classify them using the first
derivative test. Use this information to sketch the graph of f .

MATH1050, 2023. Section 6. Page 213

The second derivative
• The second derivative of a function f is the derivative of the
derived function f  . The second derivative of f is denoted
f  .
• The second derivative provides information about the
concavity of the graph of a function.
• If the graph of f lies above all of its tangent lines on an
interval, then it is concave up on that interval. If the graph
of f lies below all of its tangent lines on an interval, then it
is concave down on that interval.
y y

x x

• If f  (x) > 0 for all x in an interval, then the graph of f is

concave up on that interval. If f  (x) < 0 for all x in an
interval, then the graph of f is concave down on that
interval.
• Second derivative test Suppose f  is a continuous
function near a point c.
– If f  (c) = 0 and f  (c) > 0, then f has a local minimum
at c.
– If f  (c) = 0 and f  (c) < 0, then f has a local maximum
at c.
– If f  (c) = 0, then this test is inconclusive.
MATH1050, 2023. Section 6. Page 214
Example 8.4.3 Analyse the curve y = x4 − 2x3 with respect to
concavity, and local maxima and minima. Use this information
to sketch the curve.
y

MATH1050, 2023. Section 6. Page 215

Curve sketching To sketch the curve of a function y = f (x):
• Determine the domain of f .
• Determine the y-intercept of the graph by evaluating f (0).
• If it is possible to solve the equation f (x) = 0, find the
x-intercepts of the graph.
• Determine f  and identify the intervals on which f is
increasing and the intervals on which f is decreasing.
• Find the critical points of f . Determine which critical
points are local maxima or local minima (use first or second
derivative test).
• Determine f  and identify the intervals on which f is
concave up and the intervals on which f is concave down.
• Sketch the graph.
Example 8.4.4 Sketch the graph of the function f (x) = x2 ex .
y

continued...
MATH1050, 2023. Section 6. Page 216
Example 8.4.4 (continued) Extra space for your work.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 6. Page 217

 8.5 Applications of differentiation
Optimisation problems
Example 8.5.1 Find two numbers whose difference is 100 and
whose product is a minimum.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 6. Page 218

Example 8.5.2 A box with a square base and open top must
have a volume of exactly 4000 cm3 , a height of at least 5 cm,
and a base side length of at least 5 cm.
a) Find the dimensions of the box that minimise the amount of
material used.

continued...
MATH1050, 2023. Section 6. Page 219
Example 8.5.2 (continued) b) Find the dimensions of the box
that maximise the amount of material used.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 6. Page 220

Rates of change
• Rates of change have important applications in many areas.
The derivative of a function f with respect to a variable x
gives the rate of change of f with respect to x.
• If s(t) is a function of displacement with respect to time,
then the derivative s (t) gives the velocity, since velocity is
the rate of change of displacement with respect to time.
Similarly, s (t) gives the acceleration, since acceleration is
the rate of change of velocity with respect to time.
Example 8.5.3 A skier pushes off and heads directly down a
ski slope with an initial velocity of 3 m/s. The position of the
skier after t seconds is given by s(t) = 3t + 2t2 .
a) Determine the velocity of the skier after 2 seconds.

b) When the skier reaches a velocity of 15 m/s (that is 54

km/h), he makes a turn to slow down. How far has the skier
travelled down the hill when he starts the turn?

MATH1050, 2023. Section 6. Page 221

 • In economics it is often important to study the functions
that describe the cost of producing various quantities of a
given product.
• In economics marginal cost is defined as the cost of
producing one more unit of product.
• Let C(x) be the total cost to produce x units of a certain
commodity. The marginal cost is the rate of change of the
cost function with respect to the number of units produced.

C  (x) ≈ C(x + 1) − C(x)

Example 8.5.4 A company has estimated that the cost (in

dollars) of producing x snowboards is

C(x) = 10000 + 18x + 0.02x2 .

a) Determine the marginal cost function and evaluate C  (10).

b) Compare C  (10) with the actual cost of producing the 11th

snowboard.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 6. Page 222

NOTES

MATH1050, 2023. Section 6. Page 223

NOTES

MATH1050, 2023. Section 6. Page 224

 9 Integration

• Situations often arise in which we know the derivative of a

function and we need to determine the function itself. The
reverse process of differentiation is called antidifferentiation
or integration.
• We will start this section by looking at how to determine
antiderivatives for some simple functions.
• We will then investigate how to approximate the area of a
region under the graph of a function.
• An extremely important theorem, called the Fundamental
Theorem of Calculus, tells us how the area under the graph
of a function is related to an antiderivative of that function.
• Determining an antiderivative of a function is usually more
challenging than determining the derivative of a function.
We will take a brief look at the technique of integration by
substitution, which can be thought of as the reverse of the
chain rule for differentiation.
• Just as the process of differentiation has many practical
applications, so does the process of antidifferentiation. We
will end this section with a few practical problems.
• Topics in this section are:
– Antiderivatives and indefinite integrals
– The area under a curve
– Definite integrals and the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
– Integration by substitution
– Applications of integration.
MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 225
9.1 Antiderivatives and indefinite integrals
• A function F is called an antiderivative of f on an interval
I if F  (x) = f (x) for all x ∈ I.
• For example,

F (x) = 2x3 is an antiderivative of f (x) = 6x2

for all x ∈ R since F  (x) = 6x2 = f (x) for all x ∈ R.

However, F (x) = 2x3 + 10 is also an antiderivative of
f (x) = 6x2 for all x ∈ R.
• If F is an antiderivative of f on an interval I, then the most
general antiderivative of f on I is

F (x) + C where C is an arbitrary constant.

Rules for antidifferentiation

• Let F be an antiderivative of f and let k be a constant. An
antiderivative of kf (x) is kF (x).
• Let F be an antiderivative of f and let G be an
antiderivative of g. Then F + G is an antiderivative of f + g.
Common antiderivatives
Function Antiderivative Function Antiderivative

xa for a = −1 1
a+1
xa+1 sin x − cos x

1
for x > 0 ln x cos x sin x
x
ex ex sec2 x tan x

MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 226

Example 9.1.1 Find the most general antiderivative of each of
the following functions.
a) f (x) = 3x2 − 7x + 2

b) f (x) = 4 sin x

• If we are given a particular value of the antiderivative, we

can use that information to decide which antiderivative to
chose.
Example 9.1.2 Determine the antiderivative F of
f (x) = 4 sin x such that F (0) = −5.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 227

Example 9.1.3 Suppose that f is a function satisfying
√ 1
f (1) = 4 and f  (x) = 3 x − 3 . Determine f (x).
x

Example 9.1.4 The graph of a function f is shown below.

Make a rough sketch of the antiderivative F of f which satisfies
F (0) = 1.
y y

x x

MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 228

 • We need a convenient notation for antiderivatives.

• f (x) dx denotes the most general antiderivative of f , and
we call this the indefinite integral of f .
• Thus, the indefinite integral of f is defined by

f (x) dx = F (x) + C

where F (x) is any antiderivative of f and C is an arbitrary

constant, called the constant of integration.
• The indefinite integral of f gives a family of functions: the
antiderivatives of f as the constant of integration varies.
• After evaluating an indefinite integral, you should always
differentiate your result to check your answer.
Example 9.1.5 Determine the following indefinite integrals.
 2
a) x (2 + x) dx

 √
5
b) u du

MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 229

 9.2 The area under a curve
• Consider the problem of finding the area under the curve
defined by f (x) = −x2 + 7x − 6 between x = 2 and x = 4.
y

4 x
2

• How do we determine the area of a region with a curved

side? We start by approximating the area with rectangles.
y y
6 6

4 4

x x
2 4 2 4

Using the left side to define the height of the rectangles:

1
AL = 2
f (2) + 12 f (2.5) + 12 f (3) + 12 f (3.5)
1
= 2
(4) + 12 (5.25) + 12 (6) + 12 (6.25)
= 10.75

Using the right side to define the height of the rectangles:

1 1 1 1
AR = 2
f (2.5) + 2
f (3) + 2
f (3.5) + 2
f (4)
1 1 1 1
= 2
(5.25) + 2
(6) + 2
(6.25) + 2
(6)
= 11.75

• The real area is between 10.75 and 11.75. By taking more

rectangles, we can get a better approximation to the area.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 230

 • Now consider the general problem of determining the area
under the curve defined by y = f (x), between x = a and
x = b, where f (x) ≥ 0 for x ∈ [a, b].
y y

A 1 A 2 ... A n
A

a b x a b x

• We subdivide A into n strips A1 , A2 , . . . , An of equal width.

The width of each strip is denoted ∆x, so
b−a
∆x = .
n
• The strips divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals
[x0 , x1 ], [x1 , x2 ], . . . , [xn−1 , xn ] where x0 = a and xn = b.
• We can then approximate the area A by summing the areas
of n rectangles, where each rectangle approximates one
strip.
• We need to decide on the height of each rectangle. We can
do this by evaluating the function at any particular value
within each interval. Let ci be the value in the ith
subinterval, ci ∈ [xi−1 , xi ], that defines the height of the ith
rectangle. Then we approximate A by the sum

f (c1 ) ∆x + f (c2 ) ∆x + · · · + f (cn ) ∆x.

• This sum is called a Riemann sum and the points we choose

to use to determine the height of each rectangle are called
sample points.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 231

 • In practice we usually choose either the left-hand endpoints,
or the right-hand endpoints, of each subinterval as the
sample points.
• If we use the left-hand endpoints of each subinterval to
determine the height of the corresponding rectangle, then
the Riemann sum becomes
AL = f (x0 ) ∆x + f (x1 ) ∆x + · · · + f (xn−1 ) ∆x
n
= f (xi−1 ) ∆x.
i=1

• If we use the right-hand endpoints of each subinterval to

determine the height of the corresponding rectangle, then
the Riemann sum becomes
AR = f (x1 ) ∆x + f (x2 ) ∆x + · · · + f (xn ) ∆x
n
= f (xi ) ∆x.
i=1

• It can be shown that the limit of a Riemann sum, as

n → ∞, is independent of the sample points chosen.
• We define the area A under the curve to be this limit. Thus

A = lim AL = lim AR .
n→∞ n→∞

MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 232

 • The limit of a Riemann sum of a function f over the
interval [a, b] gives the area under the curve f only if the
curve lies above the x-axis for all x ∈ [a, b].
• If we evaluate a Riemann sum of a function f over an
interval on which f is not always positive, then the
rectangles below the x-axis count as negative area.
Example 9.2.1 Let Rn be a Riemann sum of f (x) = sin x over
the interval [a, b] having n rectangles.
y

a) If [a, b] = [0, 2π], will lim Rn be positive, negative or zero.

n→∞

3π
b) If [a, b] = [0, 2
], will lim Rn be positive, negative or zero.
n→∞

c) If [a, b] = [ π2 , 2π], will lim Rn be positive, negative or zero.

n→∞

MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 233

 9.3 Definite integrals and the
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
• Let Rn be a Riemann sum for a continuous function f over
the interval a ≤ x ≤ b, having n subintervals. Then the
definite integral of f from a to b is
 b n
f (x) dx = lim Rn = lim f (xi ) ∆x.
a n→∞ n→∞
i=1

• The definite integral is also called the Riemann integral.

• We call a and b the limits of integration where a the lower
limit and b the upper limit.

• The integral sign was introduced by Leibniz. It is an
elongated S and was chosen because the integral represents
the limit of a sum.
• Note
 b that the definite integral
 is a number. Thus
b b
a
f (x) dx = a
f (u) du = a
f (r) dr.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 234

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
If f is continuous on [a, b], then
 b
f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a)
a

where F is any antiderivative of f on [a, b].

y

a b b+ x x

Let A(b) denote the area under the curve y = f (x) from x = a
to x = b. From the diagram we see that
A(b + ∆x) − A(b) f (b).∆x≈
A(b + ∆x) − A(b)
f (b) ≈
∆x
As we take the limit ∆x → 0 we obtain
A(b + ∆x) − A(b)
f (b) = lim = A (b).
∆x→0 ∆x
This shows us that the area A is an antiderivative of the
function f . We have also seen that the area is given by the
Riemann integral, so we have
 b
A(b) = f (x) dx = F (b) + C
a

where F (x) is an antiderivative of f (x) and C is some constant

of integration.
MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 235
Next we observe that when b = a the area must be zero, which
allows to determine that

C = −F (a)

and finally
 b
f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a).
a

• Thus, for functions for which we can determine an

antiderivative, the time-consuming process of calculating
definite integrals using sums and limits can be replaced by
determining and evaluating an antiderivative.
• The notation [F (x)]ba is often used for F (b) − F (a).
• This is a simplified version of the FTC. If you continue your
studies in mathematics, you will encounter it in more detail.
Properties of the definite integral
a b
• b f (x) dx = − a f (x) dx
a
• a f (x) dx = 0
b
• a c dx = c(b − a) where c is a constant
b b b
• a [f (x) + g(x)] dx = a f (x) dx + a g(x) dx
b b
• a cf (x) dx = c a f (x) dx where c is a constant
c b b
• a f (x) dx + c f (x) dx = a f (x) dx

MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 236

Example 9.3.1 Determine the area under the curve
f (x) = −x2 + 7x − 6 between x = 2 and x = 4.
y

4 x
2

MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 237

Example 9.3.2 Refer back to Example 9.2.1.
 2π
a) Determine 0 sin x dx.

b) Use the properties of the definite integral to determine the

area enclosed by the sine curve and the x-axis over the interval
[0, 2π].

 1
1
Example 9.3.3 Determine dx.
−1 x2

MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 238

 9.4 Integration by substitution
• Recall the Chain rule for differentiation: If f and g are
differentiable functions, then (f ◦ g) (x) = f  (g(x))g  (x).
• Reversing the Chain rule gives the following integration
formula: 
f  (g(x))g  (x) dx = f (g(x)) + C.

 2
Example 9.4.1 Determine 2xex dx.

• Sometimes it is hard to see that an integrand has the form

f  (g(x))g  (x), so we need a systematic way to apply the
above integration formula.
• If y = f (x), where f is a differentiable function, then the
differentials dx and dy are related by the equation
dy = f  (x) dx.
• The geometric meaning of the differentials is that if  is the
tangent line to f at the point P = (x, f (x)), then the point
R = (x + dx, f (x) + dy) is also on the line .
• It can be shown that you can interpret the dx in an
indefinite integral as a differential. Thus, if u = g(x), then
du = g  (x) dx so
 
f  (g(x))g  (x) dx = f  (u) du.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 239

Integration by substitution
If u = g(x) is a differentiable function whose range is an interval
I and f is continuous on I, then
 
f (g(x))g  (x) dx = f (u) du = F (u) + C = F (g(x)) + C

where F is an antiderivative of f .

Example 9.4.2 Use integration by substitution to determine

the following indefinite integrals.
 2
a) 2xex dx


b) 6x(3x2 − 2)4 dx


c) 2x2 sin(4x3 + 2) dx

MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 240

 • It can be difficult to choose a good substitution. If the first
function you choose doesn’t seem to work, try something
else. The key is to look for a function that appears in the
integrand AND whose derivative also appears in the
integrand (perhaps multiplied by a constant).
• Sometimes there is more than one substitution that will
work.
Example 9.4.3 Determine the following indefinite integrals by
applying the indicated substitution.

√
a) 3x − 2 dx using u = 3x − 2


√ √
b) 3x − 2 dx using u = 3x − 2

MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 241

 • Since the function f (x) = ln x has domain (0, ∞), we need
to ensure that we never take the natural logarithm of a
negative number or zero.
• If f (x) = ln x where x > 0, then

1 1
f  (x) = and so dx = ln x + C.
x x
If f (x) = ln(−x) where x < 0, then we have

1 1 1
f  (x) = × (−1) = and so dx = ln(−x) + C.
−x x x
We often combine these cases and write

1
dx = ln|x| + C, for x = 0.
x
• An integral of the form

g  (x)
dx
g(x)
can usually be treated by integration by substitution.
• Let u = g(x), so du = g  (x) dx. Then
  
g (x) 1
dx = du = ln|u| + C = ln|g(x)| + C.
g(x) u

MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 242

Example 9.4.4 Determine the following indefinite integrals

2x
a) dx
x2 + 3


6x2 − 4x
b) dx
x 3 − x2


c) − tan x dx

MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 243

Integration by substitution for definite integrals
• There are two ways to apply integration by substitution to
a definite integral.
• The first way is to first determine the indefinite integral
using integration by substitution and then use this to solve
the definite integral.
Example 9.4.5 Evaluate
 1
18x(10 − 3x2 )3 dx.
−2

MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 244

 • The second way is to change the limits of integration when
the substitution is performed.
• If g  is continuous on [a, b] and f is continuous on the range
of u = g(x), then
 b  g(b)
f (g(x))g  (x) dx = f (u) du.
a g(a)

Example 9.4.6 Evaluate the following definite integrals.

 1
a) 18x(10 − 3x2 )3 dx
−2

continued...
MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 245
Example 9.4.6 (continued)
 7
√
b) 9 4 + 3x dx
0

MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 246

Proof of the substitution rule for definite integrals
We need to prove that if g  is continuous on [a, b] and f is
continuous on the range of u = g(x), then
 b  g(b)
f (g(x))g  (x) dx = f (u) du. (1)
a g(a)

Let F be an antiderivative of f . Then by the substitution rule

for indefinite integrals, F (g(x)) is an antiderivative of
f (g(x))g  (x).

By applying the FTC to the left-hand side of (1) above,

 b
f (g(x))g  (x) dx = [F (g(x))]ba = F (g(b)) − F (g(a)).
a

By applying the FTC to the right-hand side of (1) above,

 g(b)
g(b)
f (u) du = [F (u)]g(a) = F (g(b)) − F (g(a)).
g(a)

Thus  
b g(b)

f (g(x))g (x) dx = f (u) du.
a g(a)

MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 247

 9.5 Applications of integration
• When faced with a practical problem in which we know the
rate at which a quantity is changing, integration can give us
information about that quantity.
• For a particle moving in a straight line, an antiderivative of
the acceleration function a(t) is the velocity function v(t)
and an antiderivative of the velocity function v(t) is the
displacement function s(t).
• Additional information about the velocity or displacement
at a particular time can help us to choose the correct
antiderivative.
Example 9.5.1 A balloon filled with water is thrown upward
from Level 6 of the outside stairs of the Priestley building, with
an initial speed of 10 m/s. The balloon is thrown from an initial
height of 20 metres. Assume that the acceleration due to gravity
is 9.8 m/s2 (downward).
a) Determine a function v(t) describing the velocity of the
balloon at t seconds.
b) Determine a function s(t) describing the displacement of the
balloon at t seconds.
c) When does the balloon reach its maximum height and what
is this maximum height?
d) When does the balloon hit the ground and what is its
velocity just before it hits the ground?

continued...
MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 248
Example 9.5.1 (continued)

MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 249

 • It is important to distinguish between the displacement of
an object at time t and the total distance travelled by the
object at time t.
• When an object moves in a straight line and its velocity
changes from positive to negative (or negative to positive)
then the object is backtracking on ground already covered,
so displacement is reduced but total distance continues to
accumulate.
• Displacement is given by a definite integral but total
distance travelled is given by the area enclosed by the
velocity curve and the horizontal axis (time).
• If an object moving in a straight line has displacement
function s(t) and velocity function v(t) = s (t), then
 t2
v(t) dt = s(t2 ) − s(t1 )
t1

is the net change of displacement (position) of the object

during the time period from t1 to t2 .
• If the object is moving in the same direction for all of the
time interval t1 to t2 , then this is also the total distance
travelled during that time.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 250

Example 9.5.2 The velocity of a car driving along a straight
road is described by the following graph. By approximating this
curve using straight line segments, estimate the total distance
travelled by the car in 5 seconds.
velocity velocity
m/s m/s
20 20

10 10

1 2 3 4 5 time 1 2 3 4 5 time
s s

MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 251

Example 9.5.3 A particle moves along a line with acceleration
at time t of a(t) = 2t + 2 m/s2 . The particle has an initial
velocity of −3 m/s.
a) Determine the displacement of the particle after 2 seconds.

continued...
MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 252
Example 9.5.3 (continued) b) Determine the total distance
the particle travels in the first two seconds.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 253

Example 9.5.4 Water flows from the bottom of a storage tank
at a rate of r(t) = −6t + 180 litres per minute, where 0 ≤ t ≤ 30.
a) Find the amount of water that flows from the tank during
the first 10 minutes.

b) If the tank empties in 30 minutes, determine how much

water was in the tank at time t = 0.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 254

 • The definite integral can also be used to find the average
value of a (continuous) function over an interval.
• Consider the following diagram illustrating a function f (x)
and an interval [a, b].
y

y = f(x)

a b x

The average value of the function f (x) over [a, b] is the

height of the rectangle of width b − a that would have the
same area as the area under the curve between a and b.
• The average value of the (continuous) function f (x) over
the interval [a, b] is
 b
1
f (x) dx.
b−a a

MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 255

Example 9.5.5 The temperature, T , in degrees Centigrade
recorded during a day (from midnight to midnight) followed the
curve T = 0.001t4 − 0.280t2 + 25, where t is the number of hours
from noon, so −12 ≤ t ≤ 12. What was the average temperature
for that day?

MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 256

NOTES

MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 257

NOTES

MATH1050, 2023. Section 7. Page 258

 10 Proofs
A proof is a convincing argument that a statement is true.
In mathematics, a proof consists of a sequence of logical
statements, one implying the next, leading to the truth of a
statement. There are many proof techniques. We will cover
two in MATH1050: direct proofs and mathematical
induction.
10.1 Direct Proofs

In a direct proof, we begin with known statements. We then

construct an argument using a series of statements to arrive at
the conclusion. Here is a direct proof for the statement: The
sum of two even integers is even.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 8. Page 259

Example 10.1.1 Prove that the sum of any two rational
numbers is rational.

Example 10.1.2 Prove that the product of three consecutive

numbers added to the middle number is a perfect cube.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 8. Page 260

 10.2 Mathematical Induction
To prove mathematical statements that involve a positive
integer n, we often use a mathematical proof technique called
mathematical induction.
Consider the sequence {an }∞
n=1 defined recursively as

a1 = 2 (1)
ak+1 = 2 × ak for k = 1, 2, 3, . . . . (2)

We will use mathematical induction to show that an = 2n

(n = 1, 2, . . . ) is a closed form for this sequence.
It follows from Equation 2 that, for any natural number k,

if ak = 2k , then ak+1 = 2 × ak = 2 × 2k = 2k+1 .

Since we know that a1 = 2, this statement (with k = 1) tells us

that a2 = 4. The next step uses the deduction that a2 = 4 and
the above statement with k = 2, to deduce that a3 = 8.
Continuing in this way, we deduce that a4 = 16, a5 = 32, and so
on.
Formally, let P (n) be the claim that an = 2n . Then we know
that
1. P (1) is true;
2. if P (k) is true, then P (k + 1) is true for k = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
From these two facts, we can deduce that P (2) is true, then that
P (3) is true, and so on. In general, we can deduce that P (n) is
true for all natural numbers n.
Thus an = 2n for all natural numbers n.
MATH1050, 2023. Section 8. Page 261
Principle of Mathematical Induction Let P (n) be a
claim about a natural number n, where n is greater than or
equal to a particular natural number n0 . If
1. P (n0 ) is true, and
2. if P (k) is true, then P (k + 1) is also true, for all
natural numbers k ≥ n0 ,
then P (n) is true for all n ≥ n0 .
n

n(n + 1)
Example 10.2.1 Prove that i= , for all
i=1
2
integers n ≥ 1.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 8. Page 262

MATH1050, 2023. Section 8. Page 263
Example 10.2.2 Show that 7 divides 8n − 1 for all integers
n ≥ 1.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 8. Page 264

 d n
Example 10.2.3 Show that dx
x = nxn−1 for all integers
n ≥ 1.

MATH1050, 2023. Section 8. Page 265

NOTES

MATH1050, 2023. Section 8. Page 266

NOTES

MATH1050, 2023. Section 8. Page 267

 11 Revision

11.1 Revision examples

1. Determine whether or not the following system of linear
equations has a unique solution.

x − y + 2z = 3
−3x + y + z = −4
4x − 6z = 2

MATH1050, 2023. Revision. Page 268

 √
2. Let u = − 3i + j and let v = 3i − 4j. Determine the angle
(in radians) between u and v. Round your answer to two
decimal place accuracy.

MATH1050, 2023. Revision. Page 269

3. A pilot is steering a plane in the direction N60◦ E with an
airspeed (speed in still air) of 250 km/h. There is a wind
blowing from the direction N45◦ W at a speed of 50 km/h.
Determine the resultant speed and direction of the plane. Give
the speed to the nearest km/h and the direction as a bearing to
the nearest degree.

MATH1050, 2023. Revision. Page 270

4. Use mathematical induction to prove that, for all n ≥ 1,
n

2i = n(n + 1).
i=1

MATH1050, 2023. Revision. Page 271

5. Solve the following inequality and give your solution in
interval form and illustrate it on a number line.

|x + 2| ≤ 2

MATH1050, 2023. Revision. Page 272

 1
√
6. Let f (x) = x
and let g(x) = x + 2.
a) State the domain and range of f and g.
b) Determine (f ◦ g)(x) and state its domain and range.

MATH1050, 2023. Revision. Page 273

7. a) Use the definition of the derivative to determine the
derived function of f where f (x) = 3x2 − x.
b) Use your answer from a) to determine the equation of the
tangent line to the curve y = 3x2 − x at x = −1.

MATH1050, 2023. Revision. Page 274

8. Evaluate the following definite integrals.
 4 
1 3
a) 2
+ 2x dx
2 x
 2
2x3 − x
b) 4 − x2 + 5
dx
−1 x

MATH1050, 2023. Revision. Page 275

9. Find all solutions of z 5 = 32 over the complex numbers.
Write your answers in polar form using the principal arguments.

MATH1050, 2023. Revision. Page 276

Index
nth roots, 90 first derivative test, 213
force, 63
friction, 63
absolute value function, 170 function, 160
absolute value of a real fundamental theorem of
number, 13 algebra, 92
antiderivative, 226 fundamental theorem of
Argand diagram, 82 calculus, 234
argument of a complex number,
83
arrow diagram, 162 geometric form of a vector, 35
global maximum, 211
global minimum, 211
Cartesian form, 78
chain rule for differentiation,
203 identity matrix, 116
cofactor, 124 imaginary part Im(z), 78
column vector, 103 index laws, 16
complex conjugate, 80 integers, 10
complex number, 78 interval notation, 12
complex plane, 82 inverse function, 179
component form of a vector, 48 inverse matrix, 118
composite function, 177 invertible matrix, 118
continuous function, 191 irrational numbers, 10
cosine, 20
Cosine rule, 26
critical point, 212 length of a vector, 46
limit, 184
local maximum, 211
de Moivre’s theorem, 89 local minimum, 211
derivative, 198 logarithm, 17
determinant, 123 logarithmic function, 172
diagonal matrix, 117
discriminant, 77
domain, 160 magnitude of a vector, 46
mathematical induction, 261
matrix, 102
element of a matrix, 102 matrix addition, 104
entry of a matrix, 102 matrix form of a vector, 37
equal matrices, 103 matrix multiplication, 109
Euler’s formula, 86 matrix power, 114
exponential form, 86 matrix subtraction, 104
exponential function, 172 modulus of a complex number,
81
factor theorem, 92 modulus of a real number, 13

276-1
momentum, 72 size of a matrix, 102
square matrix, 103
sum rule for differentiation, 201
natural logarithm, 18 surd, 14
natural numbers, 10
non-invertible matrix, 119
non-singular matrix, 118 tangent line, 195
norm of a vector, 46 tension, 63
normal reaction, 63 torque, 58
transpose of a matrix, 115
trigonometric identities, 28
one-to-one function, 179
order of a matrix, 102
unit vector, 47
piecewise defined function, 165
polar coordinates, 84 vector, 35
polar form, 84 vector addition, 39
polynomial, 92 vector product, 55, 126
polynomial function, 166 vector scalar multiplication, 42
position vector, 45 vertical line test, 163
power function, 169
power laws, 16
principal argument, 83 weight, 63
product rule for differentiation,
201
zero matrix, 103
zero vector, 41
quotient rule for differentiation,
201

range, 160
rational function, 171
rational numbers, 10
real numbers, 10
real part Re(z), 78
row vector, 103

scalar, 103
Scalar Equation for a Plane,
136
scalar multiplication, 107
scalar product, 52
secant line, 195
second derivative, 214
second derivative test, 214
set notation, 9
sine, 20
Sine rule, 26
singular matrix, 119