TACHEOMETRY LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, students will be able to understand: What is tacheometry? Instruments used for tacheometry Determination of horizontal and vertical distances with tacheometry Fixed hair method Anallactic lens and its advantage Movable hair method Tangential method Range finding Sources of error, mistakes and accuracy 7.0 INTRODUCTION ——_——__- ‘The most common method of measuring horizontal distances is chaining and that for measuring vertical distances is differential levelling. Both of these methods give results to the required accuracy. Chaining, however, on rough grounds does not furnish very accurate results. When the ground is rough and more observations at a faster rate with ordinary precision are acceptable, then tacheometry is the choice. An example of the use of tacheometry for the above-said conditions is the collection of data to draw contours on a topographic map. As compared to chaining on flat grounds, the accuracy of tacheometric distances is low, but on rough and steep grounds the accuracy is more. Tacheometry is defined as an optical distance measurement method. Though less accurate, this method of surveying is very rapid and convenient. The other names given to tacheometry are tachymetry or telemetry. The primary object of a tacheometric survey is the preparation of a.contoured plan. It is particularly suitable for filling in details on topographical maps, preliminary location surveys {for example, for railways, roadways, canals, reservoirs, etc.) and surveying steep grounds, broken boundaries and water stretches, etc. Also, on surveys of higher accuracy, it may be used to provide a ready check on distances measured with a chain or tape. A tacheometer is essentially a transit theodolite, the diaphragm of which is furnished with Stadia wires in addition to the cross-wires. Observations are made on stadia rod, usually a level staff but with a larger least count (1 cm), and horizontal as well as vertical distances are computed from these observed readings. j Scanned with CamScanner298 + Surveying In the sections to follow, the instruments required, the methods and techniques involved in the field to make the observations and reduction of required horizontal and vertical distances. are described. Also, the limit of errors creeping in, and the accuracy attainable are discussed. 7,1 INSTRUMENTS USED 711 Tacheometer It is a transit theodolite fitted with stadia diaphragm. The stadia diaphragm consists of two stadia hairs at equal distances, one above and the other below the horizontal hair of the cross- hairs. Various types of stadia diaphragm are shown ii 71, but usually the arrangement shown in Fig. 71 (a) is provided. (tarde (27 Nw of 7 Oe @ ) (c) OD ay ab UD Gi GHD @ @ Fig. 71. Stadia diaphragms Essential Characteristics pee ey A The value of the multiplying constant should be 100. 2.The value of the additive constant should be zero. 3The telescope should be fitted with an anallactic lens. 4.The magnification of the telescope should be 20-80 diameters. ‘SMagnifying power of the eyepiece is kept high. 7.12 Subtense Theodolite It is similar to a tacheometer but with a special diaphragm, as shown in Fig. 72. The stadia hairs can be raised or lowered by a micrometer screw. The screw is provided with a milled head and a drum scale. The drum is divided into 100 parts and is read against a fixed index to 01 of a division by a vernier. Readings are, therefore, made to 0.001 of the pitch of the screw. A comb scale with teeth of the same pitch as that of the screw is provided to exhibit the number of complete pitches. The distance through wer movable hair which either stadia hair is moved from the middle one is measured Fig. 72. Subtense diaphragm —— Scanned with CamScannerTacheometry + 299 by the number of turns made by the micrometer screw, the whole turns being read on the comb scale seen in field of view and the fractional part of a turn on the drum scale. 713 Stadia Rod Itis also known as vertical stave. It is a rod (Fig. 73) 5-15 m long, graduated in decimals of a metre. For small distances, say up to 100 m, an ordinary levelling staff may be used but beyond this a stadia rod is used, since the graduations of an ordinary levelling staff become indistinct. There is a great variety of stadia rod patterns in common use. But, irrespective of the patterns, an observer should be able to read easily and accurately the staff intercepts through the telescope. The staff can be held either vertical or normal to the line of sight. Fig. 73. Stadia rods Vertical Holding The staff must be held truly vertical. In ordinary work the verticality of the staff can be judged by the eye, but in precise surveying it is judged by suspending a plumb line or by a foldable circular bubble attached perpendicular to the rear side of the staff as shown in Fig. 74. It can be shown that on slopes a small error in the verticality of the staff results, in serious errors in the computed distances. Normal Holding The staff must be held perpendicular to the line of sight. The perpendicularity of the staff may be checked by be ing the instrument with the help of a pair of open sights, or by means of a small telescope fixed at right angles to the - side of the staff. The staff is inclined until the telescope of the fi# 7 Foldable circular bubble tacheometer is bisected by the cross-wires of the telescope fitted to the staff. Merits and Demerits of Vertical and Normal Holding 1. It is a bit easy to ensure that the staff is perfectly vertical. 2. A slight error in not keeping the staff vertical causes a serious error in computation of distances. Scanned with CamScanner300 + Surveying-| 3. In the case of an inclined sight, it is difficult to keep the staff perpendicular to the line of sight during high winds and in rough country. 4, In the case of normal holding, the accuracy of the direction of the staff can be judged by the transitman even during high winds. Reading the Staff The telescope is directed to sight the staff. The telescope is raised or depressed by means of a vertical tangent screw until one of the stadia wire strikes some graduation on the staff. The other stadia wire is also read. The difference of the two readings is the staff intercept. Then the middle cross-wire and the corresponding vertical angle is read. ‘Some of the surveyors keep the middle hair reading equal to height of instrument (HI) which results in minor arithmetical work. But this practise should be disregarded as the error due to refraction of rays near the ground creeps in, and results in erroneous observations. 71.4 Subtense Bar It is also known as horizontal stave. It is used for measuring both the horizontal as well as the vertical distances in places where chaining is impossible because of undulations and rough country. A subtense bar is used to determine short distances of up to 200 m. ‘Subtense bar is a horizontal metal bar to which two targets are fixed at a known distance of 0.3-3.0 m apart. In India, the subtense bars are usually 3.5 m long. It is mounted on a tripod. A small spirit level is provided to level it. The alidade provides a line of sight perpendicular to the bar, which is thereby set normal to the line of measurement. After aligning and levelling the bar, it is clamped by the screw underneath the tripod top. The targets are usually 20 cm in diameter and are painted half red and half white with a 7.5 cm black centre. Sometimes targets are made square as shown in Fig. 7.5. The targets are set apart at a known distance and the horizontal angle between them is read by a theodolite. The vertical angle to the bar is also read. Then the horizontal and vertical distances are computed. t Level aaa vane rare hot = Leveling head Fig. 75 Subtense bar 7.2. METHODS OF TACHEOMETRY There are three methods of measuring distances the stadia method, the tangential method and the range finding by optical means. The applications of the tacheometric methods vary according to whether an external focussing or internal focussing telescope is being used. In either case, not much precision is required in observing the horizontal directions, but staff intercepts should be measured very accurately. Scanned with CamScannerTacheometry + 304 721 Stadia Method The term stadia is a greek word for a unit length. Originally it was applied to measuring distances for athletic contests. In a tacheometer the various wires, in addition to the cross-wires on the diaphragm, are known as stadia wires and the vertical distance between the stadia wires is termed as stadia interval. The method derives its name from the fact that the observations are made with respect to these wires. When the parallactic angle a (Fig, 76), defined by means of stadia wires, is kept fixed and the staff intercept is varied, for example, AB and A’B’, the method is called fixed hair method. A tacheometer and a staff is used to make the observations. Another way can bé to keep the staff intercept fixed, for example, AB and A’B”, and varying the parallactic angle, for example, a and a’ (Fig. 76). In the latter case the stadia wires have to be moved and is accordingly known as the movable hair or subtense method. A subtense theodolite in conjunction with a staff or subtense bar is used to make the observations. Fig. 26 Concept of stadia method 72.2 Tangential Method In this method of tacheometry, observations are made for vertical angles and staff intercepts are obtained by the cross-wires only. Stadia wires are not used at all. This method of tacheometry is similar to the method of trigonometrical levelling. 7.2.3 Range Finding This method is used to find the horizontal distance and direction of a line without going to the far end of the line. The instrument used is known as range finder. A fixed base is used to compute the ranges. The instruments and methods used are based on measurement of either the base angles or the angle of parallax. In the first two methods, that is, the stadia and the tangential, both the horizontal and vertical distances are obtained, but by this method only horizontal distances can however be measured. A level can however be employed, in conjunction with range finder, to measure the vertical distances. 73 FIXED HAIR METHOD ++ The horizontal and vertical distance (elevation) of a point may be determined by the fixed hair (fixed stadia interval), commonly known as stadia method. A tacheometer is kept at one point and the staff is placed on the points whose elevations, and distances from the instrument point, Scanned with CamScanner302 + Surveying are to be determined. The stadia interval is kept fixed, and consequently the staff intercept varies (AA4’, BB’, etc.) as shown in Fig. 77. Reading corresponding to lower stadia wire Reading corresponding to cross wire Reading corresponding to upper stadia wire Fig. 27 Fixed hair method The principle of the stadia method is that ‘in isosceles triangles, the ratio of perpendiculars from the vertex on their bases, and the bases is constant”. Let OA, O88’ and OCC be the three isosceles triangles (Fig. 77). Then, 00°00" 00” _1 a aa” BBP” cor 2K where K is a constant and a is the parallactic angle. Hence. # the staff intercepts AA, BB’ and CC’ are known, the horizontal distance 00’, 00” an¢ 00 can be determined, provided the parallactic angle « is known. 7.31 Distance and Elevation Formulae for Horizontal Sights Figure 78 shows schematically a telescope of a tacheometer and stadia rod. The surveyor sees, through the telescope, the upper and lower stadia hairs intersecting the rod at A and B, respectively. The rays from A’ and B’, the stadia wires, pass through the optical centre of the objective lens and continue to the rod at B and A fags / Tacheometer Fig. 18 Distances for horizontal sight Scanned with CamScannerTacheometry + 303 optical centre of the object glass, he stat wires, stadia interval, horizontal cross-wire position, staff intercept, = focal length of object glass, = the conjugate focal lengths of the lens, and are the distances between the optical centre O and staff, and optical centre O and the image of staff, respectively, distance between the vertical axis of the tacheometer and the optical centre O and distance between the vertical axis of the tacheometer and the staff (stadia rod). From the similar triangles AOB and A’0B’ AB 0 A oc’, f Sate (7) or 7 By the lens formula (72) or Hence, substituting for £ in Eq, (71) leads to A s_f oo f or . i or fed=Lsefed i or D= (E\ssr- (73) i or D=Ks+C (a) Equation (7.4) is known as the tacheometric distance equation K and C are the respective multiplying and additive tacheometric constants. The multiplying constant is also known as stadia interval factor. Scanned with CamScanner304 ¢ Surveying-! Alternative Proof The tacheometric distance formula may also be deduced in another way by drawing rays passing through either the interior or exterior principal focus, as shown in Fig. 78 by dark lines, of the object glass. The rays proceeding from 4’ and B’ parallel to the principal axis of the objective lens, must after refraction at A” and 8”, pass through F’—the exterior principal focus of the objective. Since A’ and B’ are at a constant distance from the axis, A” and B” are therefore fixed points. Consequently, as F’ is fixed, the angle AF’Bis also fixed in magnitude. From similar triangles ABF’ and A’B'F’ AB__ CF’ AB" OF Since AB = AB s_cF or Now, D=CF'+ OF’ +d = footed i D= (fJs+e+a) or D=Ks+C Elevation of the staff station = Elevation of the instrument axis — Horizontal cross-wire reading The constant K equals f/. Its value, therefore, depends upon the stadia interval and the pr focal length of the objective. To facilitate computation of distances, the stadia wires are so spaced as to make the multiplying constant equal to 100. The additive constant C equals (f+ d). Practically, it is a constant value for a tacheometer, as the value of d varies by only a small and negligible amount when focussing the telescope on different objects. The value of C ranges from 0.25 to 035. If an anallactic lens is a special lens built into the telescope, it is so placed that all the observations are reduced to the centre of the instrument and the constant C becomes zero and the Eq. (74) is simplified to D = Ks. Thus, if the staff intercept is known, the horizontal distance can be readily obtained by multiplying it by 100. In the preceding paragraphs, it has been assumed that the tacheometer was oriented horizontally. In general, it is seldom possible to keep the line of sight horizontal and perpendicular to the stadia rod due to the undulations of the ground surface, or more precisely, when the staff stations and the instrument station have large differences in elevation. In such a case an inclined line of sight must be taken with the staff vertical or normal to it. Before we modify the distance equation for the said cases, consider the procedure to determine the constants experimentally as outlined below. 1. Aline AB about 200-250 m long is set out on a fairly level ground. Then pegs are fixed at 25-30 m interval. 2. The tacheometer is set up at one end of the ranged line and the staff intercepts are obtained by taking stadia readings on the staff held vertical on every peg. Scanned with CamScannerTacheometry + 305, 3, By substituting the value of different distances and staff intercepts in Eq, (74), a number of equations are obtained: D,= Ks, +C D, = Ks, + D, = Ks, + C 4, These equations are solved pairs to obtain several sets of constants K and C. The mean of all the obtained values of K and C are reported as the values of the constants K and C. 732 Distance and Elevation Formulae for Inclined Sights Staff Vertical As the staff is held vertical, the staff intercept AB is not normal to the line of sight OC (Figs. 79 and 7.10). Draw a line A’B’ passing through C and perpendicular to OC, cutting Odat A’ and OB at B’. Fig. 710 Staff vertical (angle of depression) Scanned with CamScanner4 306 + Surveying! From right angle triangle OFC OCF ZBCB’ =@ ZA'CA = ZB'CB=0 Let the stadia hairs subtend an angle a, then or - 8 (2s CB is perpendicular to og COM’ = af2 ZCKO = 90° - (a/2) ZCA’A = 180°- (90° - a/2) it = 90° + a/2 value of «/2 (its value being 17'II” for K = 100) is very small. Hence, lL. » the tr and BB'C may be assumed to be right-angled triangles. Thus, © trlangles aac AB =AC+ BC = AC cos 6 + BC cos 6 = (AC + BC) cos @ =scos 0 Inclined distance OC, L=KAB+C L = Ks cos 0+C D =Lcos@ But = (Ks cos 6 + C) cos @ = Ks cos*@+ C cos 8 V=FC=Lsin® = (Ks cos @ + C) sin 8 = Ks cos 6 sin 0+ C sin =4 Ks sin 20 + C sin @ Elevation of staff station for angle of elevation = H+V-h Elevation of staff station for angle of depression = HI-V-A a4, Staff Normal As the staff at Eis held normal to the fine of sight OC (Figs. 711 and 712) therefore the staff intercept AB is normal to the line of sight OC. Line of sight at an angle of elevation (Fig. 211) Let, staff intercept, AB = CE = h= central hair reading, @ = angle of elevation, and F 7 of eal inclined distance. fig, 111. Staff normal (andle Scanned with CamScannerTacheometry + 307 prop perpendicular CF’ to horizontal OF. Consider OCF’. L=Ks+C OF’ = (Ks + C) cos @ But D= OF + FF = (Ks + C) cos +h sin @ Elevation of the staff station, V= OC sin 0 sLsin@ = (Ks + C) sin 8 Fig. 712 Staff normal (angle of depression) n of staff station HI + V-h cos 6 Line of sight at an angle of depression (Fig, 712) Consider AOCF” Ks+C OF = L cos @= (Ks + C) cos 8 OF — FF = OF ~ EE = (Ks + C) cos 0- hsin @ OC sin 0 = L sin @= (Ks + C) sin 9 Now, Elevation of staff station, Elevation of staff station =HI-V-hcos 6 The distance clevation formulae deduced in the foregone are applicable only for external focussing telescopes fitted with an anallactic lens. In the instruments equipped with an internal focussing telescope, the system of lenses of object glass and an internal lens do not have constant focal length, since the distance between these two is varied to achieve focussing and since the anallactic lens has to be placed at a constant distance from the object glass. Therefore, an internal lens in the internal focussing telescope cannot be regarded as a substitute for an anallactic lens. But by suitably designing the optical system, the anallactic Point may be brought approximately to the centre of the instrument, thereby reducing the additive constant to so small a figure that it may be disregarded. The variation in the focal length is very small if the sights are more than 30 m and practically the same formulae may be used as in the case of an external focussing telescope. For smaller sights, an additive constant of 0.2 m, if used, gives results with an error of about 1%, except for sights less than 5 m. It is impossible to proportion the focussing lens system to serve as an anallactic lens but some companies have produced internal focussing telescopes which they claim to be perfectly anallactic. These have three lenses between the objective and diaphragm and therefore necessitate larger apertures to compensate for the loss of illumination. 7.4 ANALLACTIC LENS Itis a special convex lens fitted between the object glass and eyepiece, at a fixed distance from the former, inside the telescope of a tacheometer. The use of an anallactic lens was first introduced by Porro of Milan. Its purpose is to reduce the additive constant to zero. In the tacheometric equation D = Ks + C (Fig. 78) the staff intercept s is proportional to the distance Scanned with CamScanner308 Surveying! between the staff and the exterior principal focus of the object glass (i.c., to D - C). If Cis to be made zero, the apex Fof the tacheometric triangle AFB (Fig. 78) will have to be brought to the centre of the instrument, that is, the staff intercept will have to be made proportional to its distance from the instrument. In Fig. 7:13, the apex N of the tacheometric triangle ANB has been made coincident with the centre of the instrument by providing an anallactic lens, Fig. 713 Optical diagram for anallactic lens ‘An anallactic lens is generally provided in the external focussing telescopes only. In an internal focussing telescope it cannot be provided because a third lens is already there, between objective and eyepiece, for focussing the objective. However, the value of the additive constant for internal focussing telescopes is only few centimetres and may be treated as virtually anallactic, The advantage of an anallactic lens is that it reduces the additive constant to zero and thus simplifies the computations of distance. However, it absorbs a certain amount of light and also increases the cost. Consider Fig. 713 where, O = optical centre of object glass M_ — = optical centre of anallactic lens n= distance between O and M F, = principal focus of the anallactic lens N = centre of the instrument d= distance between O and the vertical axis of the instrument D = distance between vertical axis of the instrument and the staff m = distance between objective and diaphragm fy fp = conjugate focal lengths of the object glass f = focal length of the object glass F = focal length of anallactic lens i i = image size ab when anallactic lens is provided 1 = image size a,b, when anallactic lens is not provided and (m ~ n), (f, - n) = conjugate focal lengths of anallactic lens. Scanned with CamScannerlight from A and Tacheometry + 309 the rave Sr jaced that F, ia te preted by the object glass t i tes is $° Tract and become parallel angus, iu after passing through the’ onalontene the Faye 1d give th | h the anallactis ay the law of lenses : © actual image ab of the staff intercept 42, i (75) 1 and + (76) Also i : a and (78) Multiplying Eqs. (77) and ( From Eq. (75) or and from Eq. (7.6) Hence, _ ali-Ai=9 aE _aett an) , FoF) =p Fehr en _.s_fle-f) f= Fapon 7 feo Fapon i Now, p=ft+d ——— Scanned with CamScanneror 0. - (79) ( or D=Ks+C (710) i _,_ f(n-F') where = Gepca ond Ot, For an analliactic lens, the value of the additive constant C is made zero. Hence. The anallactic lens is 60 placed that n=f"+ 7: This is done by bringing the apex of the + tacheometric triangle ANB at the centre of the instrument. ‘The value of f and i are so adjusted, that the value of the constant K is a suitable number, ‘sey 100. Equation (710) thus reduces to D= Ks = 100s 7.5 MOVABLE HAIR METHOD OR SUBTENSE METHOD in the movable hair method the stadia interval is variable, whereas the staff intercept is kept constant The staff intercept is generally fixed between 3 and 6 m. If the staff intercept is more thon the staff length only half the staff intercept is needed. The staff intercept is also called base. Wher the base is horizontal, the method is called horizontal base subtense method and the angle 1 messured with the horizontal circle of the theodolite. If the base is vertical, the method 1 Caled vertical base subtense method and the angle is measured with the help of special diaphragms (Fig. 72). 751 Vertical Base Subtense Method The firm lines in Fig 714 show the optical diagram with subtense theodolite for a staff at P and dotted lines show it for the staff at Q. Distance and Elevation Formulae for Horizontal Sights Let s = AB = AB, be the staff intercept, i = ab, the stadia interval, F © exterior principal focus of the objective, and M © centre of the instrument Scanned with CamScannerTacheometry # 3114 Fig. 714 Vertical base subtense method From similar triangles ABF and a‘B'F FC_ FO fF Now, the distance or This is the distance equation for the subtense method for a horizontal line of sight. The staff intercept in the subtense method is fixed, whereas the stadia interval is varied, so f/i varies with the staff position. The stadia interval is measured with the help of micrometer screw Let m = total number of revolution of micrometer screw | P= pitch of micrometer screw e = index error Thus, tee Substituting this value in the distance equation p= Lss(f+a) | mp | =Ksse m where K= £ = multiplying constant, and | C= (f+ d) = additive constant the index error e is there, the distance equation can be written 3S Scanned with CamScanner{ 312 + Surveying Distance and Elevation Formulae for Inclined Sights _ If the line of sight is inclined at an angle @ and staff is vertical, cos*8+C cos@ us 28 Cine m-e 2 Usually, the constant K is fixed to 1000. Experimentally, it can be determined as follows: and 1. Two targets are fixed on a staff at some distance, say s. 2. Aline is ranged on fairly level ground and distances D, and D, are measured along 3. The micrometer readings m, and m, to move the stadia hairs are noted. The linear distance moved by the stadia hairs is equal to the number or revolutions multiplied by the pitch. (711) (712) Solving Eqs. (711) and (712) leads to The value of the multiplying constant varies between 600 and 1000. 752 Horizontal Base Subtense Method A In this method the horizontal distance between the instrument station O and the subtense bar station Cis, calculated by a subtense bar. The base AB is kept in a horizontal plane and the angle AOB (Fig. 715) is measured B with the help of horizontal circle of the theodolite. Pee If the line AB is perpendicular to the line OC, where Fig. 715 Horizontal base subtense Cis the mid-point of AB, then the distance between the method (plan) instrument and the staff is given by ° I | Bliss e 2 2tanp/2 If Bis very small then, tan /2 (in radians) or D= < 206265 (in seconds) (713) The above formula is used to compute the horizontal distances. Scanned with CamScanner183 Effect of Angular Error on Ho rizontal Tacheometry + 313 hat, DtanB_s pea that, an BS We know a5 is small, then tan 5 _8 and when Bis si len tan 279 DBs or 275 7 OB=s Let the negative error in i be 3B and positive error in D be SD. Th . Then, s= (D+ 60). 6-5 From the above equations it follows that DB = (D+ 8D) . (B- 5p) D+8D_ 8B - D B-8 or = a Similarly, 60 = 255. (wren 50 is negative and it Bop \egative and 68 is positive) Since 5B is too small in comparison with p, dB sD =—— (7314) B (74) 75.4 Measurement of Distance and Elevation on Sloping Ground by a Subtense Bar Let P and @ be the two points on a sloping ground (Fig. 716). It is required to find out the horizontal distance and the difference in elevation between them. Place a theodolite at the point P and a subtense bar at Q such that AB, the subtense bar, is perpendicular to the sground by subtense bar ince and elevation on 2 sloping Fig. 716 Measurement of dista Scanned with CamScanner314 Surveying+ line of sight OC. Measure the horizontal angle f very accurately. Also, measure the vertical angle @ ZOCA (or ZOCB) is a right angle, so that OC = AC cot 2 cot B 2 In the right-angled triangle OEC, So that or Also, So that or (715) Normally s= 2m, s0 that hah =cot sin 0 and D=cot4 cos 0 Reduced level (RL) of Q = RL of P + HI + h— Height of subtense bar. 755 Advantages and Disadvantages of Subtense Method over Stadia Method Advantages Field work for long sights is more accurate with a movable wire than to read the staff graduations. Thi for railways, etc. Disadvantages The calculations in the subtense method are more time consuming as the number of revolutions of the micrometer screw and index error come in the denominator. is easier to intersect a fixed vane is very effective in setting out curves 7. TANGENTIAL METHOD In this method, stadia hairs are not used to bisect the staff for observations. Two vanes at a constant distance apart are fixed on the staff. Each vane is bisected by the cross-hai and the staff reading and vertical angle corresponding to each vane are recorded. This method is preferred when the telescope is not equipped with a stadia diaphragm. Since in this method two manipulations of the instrument and two sights are required for one set of observations, there are more possibilities of error as compared to the stadia and subtense methods of tacheometry. Though the results do not differ much, however, the tangential method should definitely be regarded as inferior to the other two methods of tacheometry. There are three cases for deducing distance and elevation formulae depending upon the nature of the vertical angles. Scanned with CamScannerTacheomet +a 7.61 Distance and Elevation Formulae 1s Both the Angles are Angles of Elevation Refer to Fig. 717. Let Fig. 717 Tangential method (Elevation angles) = distance between instrument station O and staff station P | D= V = vertical distance between the instrument axis and the lower vane s = distance between the vanes—staff intercept 0, = vertical angle to the upper vane B 0, = vertical angle to the lower vane C 0’ = position of instrument axis r = height of lower vane C, above the foot of the staff at P h = height of the instrument. From triangle O’KB, V+s=Dtan@ From triangle O’KC, V=Dtan @ From the above equations s = D (tan 6, — tan @,) s tan 6, —tan 6, or D= Elevation of station P = elevation of instrument axis + V-r elevation of station O+ h+ V-r " Both the Angles are Angles of Depression From triangle O’KC (Fig. 718). V=Dtan @& From triangle O’KB, V-s=Dtan@ Scanned with CamScanner-/+——_—_—_—__ b Fig. 118 Tangential method (Depression angles) From the above equations Dtan 6 + s=D tan 6, or D (tan 6, - tan @) = 5 s or Pe paeeee Eee tan, - tan 6, But V= Dtan 6, stan 0, tan @, —tan 6, Hlevation of staff station P= Elevation of station Q+h-V-r One Angle is Angle of Elevation and the Other Angle is Angle of Depression From triangle O’KC (Fig. 719), V=Dtan a, From triangle OKB, s - V= D tan 0 e —_—- p —________| Fig. 719 Tangential method (One angle of elevation and the other angle of depression) Scanned with CamScannerTacheometry + 317 From the above equations $= Dtan 6, + Dtan 0, ee oa tan 6, +tand, But V=Dtan 6, ve—stan tan 0, + tan 0, Elevation of staff station P = Elevation of station 0 + h- V-r 7.7 RANGE FINDING tis a method of determining horizontal distances, without visiting the point for which measurement is required. This is done by instrument known as range finder. A range finder is of great advantage in measuring distances to inaccessible objects. These are extremely useful in the reconnaissance of the triangulation scheme where the need to obtain a location of forward points in a chain is a very urgent one. Range finders do not measure angles of elevation and are, therefore, by themselves, unable to measure vertical distances. As compared to a tacheometer, a range finder gives precise results; since in the latter the problem of refraction error, because of grazing rays, is avoided by selecting the target at a suitable height. The range finder is used in military and also sometimes in ordinary topograptical werk, particularly in such operations as traversing along a wide river. Basically there are two types of range finders but the method of determining distances by either of them depends upon the solution of a triangle. In some of the range finders, the point whose range is desired is situated at the apex of the triangle—with a base of known length measured at the observer's place—to be solved. These instruments are so graduated as to directly give the range for a standard base. Examples of such range finders are telemeter and mekometer. In the other type of instruments such as Barr and Stroud range finders, the principle used is the same but the base of the triangle to be sched is contained in the strument itself. Usually, one of the base angles is kept at a right angle. The angle at the apex of the triangle is known as the parallax of the object. 7.71 Features A range finder consists of two mirrors M, and M;, (Fig. 720 (a)) placed at the end of a line AB usually about 1-2 m long and also placed perpendicular to the plane of the paper. Mirror Mis a fixed mirror and its reflecting surface makes an angle of 45° to A. Whereas, mirror M, is allowed to rotate about an axis in its plane and through its centre about 8 P, and P are the two right-angled prisms fixed at the mid-point of AB The prism P, is mounted above the prism P,, The parallel plane faces of both of these prisms are kept perpendicular to AB and also to the plane of the paper, Two objectives O, and O; are placed at equal distances from the mid-point of AB and an eyepiece E is placed at right angles to AB so as to receive the reflected rays from both the prisms, Scanned with CamScanner318 + Surveying! c Se A B Fig. 720 (a) Diagram illistrating the princi Fig. 720 (b) of he range face = PrnePle 7.72 Principle and Working The principle used is that the rays from a distant object falling on the ends of two closely placed (1-2 m) points can be considered to be parallel, In addition to the above, if a ray is successively reflected from two plane mirror surfaces, the angle between the initial and final direction of the ray is twice the angle between the mirrors. To understand the working of a range finder, consider a ray aA reflected by the mirror M, along AB at right angles to aA. It is then reflected by prism P, at right angles to AB so as, to pass through the eyepiece at E Similarly, mirror M, placed at B if set to 45° will reflect the image of b to the eyepiece. Thus, the image of an object on a line bB will appear to lie immediately below the image of an object on aA. If the mirror M, is rotated by 6, a ray cB from an object C lying on aA will be reflected through the prism P, to pass through the eyepiece. The angle cBb will be 20. Consequently, by measuring the angle 6, angle cBb can be deduced. From Fig. 7.20 (b), the distance AC can be computed since ZACB = ZcBb = 20 and the distance AB is known. 7.73 Telemeter 7 Telescope Eyepiece ‘Scale It is about 12 cm long and 4 cm in diameter —_— (Fig. 721). It consists of 2 metal tube enclosing two mirrors one of which is known as the index glass and the other as horizon glass. At one end aaa Of the tube there is a telescope, whereas at the Whdew other end a graduated collar is connected to the index mirror by a metal arm. The index mirror can Fig. 2.21 Telemeter be moved in azimuth, The horizon mirror can also be turned by a few degrees by a small toothed wheel. It works on the principle that if a ray is successively reflected from two plane mirror surfaces, the angle between the initial and final direction of the ray is twice the angle between the mirrors. Scanned with CamScannerTacheometry + 3149 Let O be an object whose range is to be found from A ° (Fig. 722). The observer stands at A with the range finder and adjusts the instrument so that the mirrors make an angle of 45° and directs the telescope in the direction approximately at right angles to AO, The telescope is then adjusted until a ray from the object O, entering from a rectangular opening on the side of the tube, is reflected from the index mirror and forms an image in the lower Part of the horizon glass. The observer then sees through the front of the tube directly and fixes a ranging rod at C which will be at right angles to AO, and moves to a point D in line © A o with CA, The distance AD is, say 20 m., At D, the observer 20 m—4 directs the telescope towards C and rotates the collar until Fig. 7.22 the image of O is seen again which will be coincident with ite the direct vision of C. The angle between the mirrors will be half of ZODA. The arrangements on the scale are so made that instead of giving this angle, the tangent of this angle with a base of 20 m is indicated directly, which is the required distances AO, The accuracy of the results very much depend upon how precisely the base AD is measured, By exercising proper care, results with an accuracy of 1 in 100 can be obtained. 7.74 Mekometer This type of range finder is obsolete nowadays. It was extensively used by the military in the past. It consists of two instruments connected by silk covered hemp base cord 25 or 50 yards in length. The left-hand instrument at A consists of two mirrors inclined at 45° as in an optical square, and the right-hand instrument consists of one 4 fixed mirror and another capable of rotation as in the sextant. ~ The surveyor at the left-hand instrument sights the object O whose | range is to be determined and moves to such a position that the reflected image of the right-hand instrument at B coincides with the direct image of O. In such a position, ZOAB = 90° (Fig. 7.23). Now, from the other instrument at B, the observer directly sights the object O and rotates the movable index mirror until the image of the instrument at A coincides with that of O. The reading on the scale should be ZOBA. But the graduations on the drum of the instrument | at B are arranged so as to indicate directly the distance AO. This is done by proportioning the graduations to the tangents of angles 25 or 50 yards subtended at B for a base of 25 or 50 yards. The observations can be made with an accuracy of 1 in 10. Fig. 223, 7.7.5 Barr and Stroud Range Finder It finds extensive use in military surveying. The base used ranges from 0.30.to 30 m. These range finders can be used to determine the vertical as well as the horizontal distances. Some of the range finders are fitted with stereoscopes and are called stereoscopic range finders. Scanned with CamScanner320 © Suneying4! In this type of range finder, the rage is determined from the measurement of the parallax angle. The instrument consists of two telescopes provided with object glasses O, and O, and a common eyepiece (Fig 724), The rays from an object enter from the opening W, and are successively reflected by 90 from two opposite faces (at 45°) of the silvered pentagonal prism P, The deflected rays pass through the object glass and are diverted through the prism P, to the eye through eyepiece € A similar course W,P,0, ¢ is followed by the rays entering from opening WW; The prisms are xo arranged that the image of the object from window W, is seen in the lower half and that from the window W, is seen in the upper half. To achieve the coincidence of the two images. a prism P, is placed in the path of the rays from.P,. The movement of Fy necessary to obtain coincidence, is 2 measure of the range and is indicated fon the scale The reading is observed from another eyepiece. Cylindrical lenses C, and C, known as axtiomatsers, are used to convert the image of a point, such as stars, into the vertical line, The observations can be made with an accuracy of 1 in 250. W, w, , Cp (t-tt Fig. 724 Barr and stroud range finder 78 SPECIAL INSTRUMENTS Certain instruments, attachments or some modifications are available which, when provided, facilitate reduction of observations. Some such examples are Beaman stadia arc, Fergusson’s percentage unit system, gradienter, direct reading tachcometers, auto-reduction tacheometer, ‘and double image tacheometer For surveys of large extent where the number of points observed ate many, the calculation or reduction of stadia notes can be done quickly with the help of reduction disgrams and tables. Tacheometric reduction diagrams and tacheometric tables are given in Appendices XI and Xil, respectively. 781 Beaman Stadia Arc This is 2 special attachment fitted externally to a tacheometer to reduce the observations This facilitates the determinstion of horizontal and vertical distances without the use of stadia tables (Appendix Xill) Out of the two: cos“ and (V/2) sin 20, the former varies very slowly for the smal! angie usually required in tacheometry. Therefore, if the scale is graduated for the values of for which (1/2) sin 20 = 001, 002, and so on, the distances can be readily worked out The arc carries two scales H and V The central points of these are marked O and 50, respectively (Fig 725) tor the telescope in horizontal position. To avoid possible confusion between elevations and depressions, 0 is marked as 50 on the V-scale. A common index is used to read both the scales. The graduations of the V-scale are of magnitude 0.01 corresponding eee — Scanned with CamScannerTacheometry + 321 to every (1/2) sin 20. For example, when the index reads 49 or Si, the line of sight is inclined by an angle corresponding to the first division on the scale. In such a case V = Ks (1/2) sin 20 = 100 x s x OO1 = 5, Fig. 7.25. Beaman stadia arc Let the index read 48 or 52, then the line of sight is inclined by an angle corresconding to the second division. Then, V= ks 3 sin 20 = 100 x s x 002 = 2s Since the central graduation on the V-scale is marked 50, when the reading i value it indicates an angle of depression, while a reading of more than 50 indica’ of elevation. The H-scale is graduated to such values so as to represent the Percentage by which an observation is to be reduced to obtain the corresponding distance. Therefore, the reading on the H-scale multiplied by the staff intercept gives the correction to be subtracted from the distance computed from D = Ks. When using the instrument it is preferred to set the V-scale to 2 whole number to simplify the calculations and read the corresponding Value of H. The H-scale will not read a whole number. Since V is Proportional to (1/2) sin 20, and the correction for H to sin* a the spacing between graduations decrease as the vertical angle 9 increases and this restricts the use of the vernier. Therefore, an accurate reading can be obtained only by setting the V-scale to read a whole number, The H-scale, in such a case, will not read a whole number (Fi and the value may be interpolated, As an example let staff intercept, s = 2 m and let the cross-wire reading = 235 m. Let the observation made on the Beaman scale be as shown in Fig. T26 Then, V=2\ 22=44m less than this and angle Fig. 128 Scanned with CamScanner322 + Surveying The staff station is (44 - 2.35) = 4165 m above the instrument axis. To facilitate calculation of horizontal distance, the stadia arc also carries a scale of percentage reductions to be applied to the distance readings. The distance scale in Fig. 726 reads 2.1, so that ‘The horizontal distance = 2 x 100 ~ 2 x 21 = 195.8 m. 7.82 Fergusson's Percentage Unit System. The system was devised by Mr JC. Fergusson. A circle is graduated in terms of tangents of angles as percentage, and therefore, the divisions are unequal. This system facilitates the redi ‘of observations in tangential tacheometry. ‘A circle is inscribed in a square and is divided into eight parts as shown in Fig. 7.27, Each of the eight tangents of length equal to the radius of the circle is divided into 100 equal parts. Each point so formed is joined to the centre. Lines so formed divide each octant into 100 unequal parts, each of which subtends 1/100 of the tangent, which is the telemetric unit. To use it. a theodolite with this system is made to sight upon a graduated rod. A reading is taken on the lower staff point (target) with a whole percentage unit. The telescope is then raised by some units say h and again the staff reading is made. Then, distance D = 100 s/h The elevation of staff station is usually determined as in the tangential method. esseraass 3 Th seep (48 ee ¥ <0 ee ig- 1.27 Ferguson's percentage unit system 783 Gradienter It is mainly used in setting out gradients, but is also used in tacheometry. When the tangent Screw actuating the vertical circle of a theodolite is provided with a micrometer head and a scale for counting the whole turns by which it has been turned, it is called gradienter. The pitch of the screw is kept such that when moved by one revolution, the line of sight moves by tan 'Oo1. Scanned with CamScannerTacheometry + 323 The telescope of the instrument is directed towards the staff, with the line of sight horizontal, and the staff reading is made. The screw is then given one turn and the staff is again read. The difference in the two readings is the staff intercept s. Then, distance D = 100 s. For inclined sights, the staff may be held vertical or normal to the line of sight. Usually, the vertical staff position is employed. For an angle of elevation (Fig. 7.28) the observation is first made to a lower point, say B, and the vertical angle 6 is recorded. The line of sight is then moved by tan’ 0.01, say to A, by the gradienter screw, and the reading is made again. Let the staff intercept AB be equal to s. In case A and B are the two fixed targets then s= nc, where nis the number of turns the screw has to be moved and c is the distance by which the line of sight moves by one revolution of the screw. The horizontal distance D and the vertical distance V can be calculated from the following equations: ne tana=—— D=s{ 00-c08'8 1 onze nc 2 ve (2 sin 20 int 6) 2nc 6 Fig. 728 784 Direct Reading Tacheometer This is also known as self-reducing tacheometer. With this tacheometer the amount of computation is reduced, and the accuracy of the results is the same as that by the other methods. By a tacheometer fitted with anallactic lens the equations deduced are D = Ks cos*8 and V = Ks (1/2) sin 20, Provisions are made on the diaphragm of the instrument to read directly 8 cos*@ and (1/2)s sin 26. Examples of this type of instrument are Jeffcott and Szepessy direct reading tacheometers. Jeffcott Direct Reading Tacheometer It was invented by Dr HH. Jeffcott. This enables the computations of horizontal and vertical distances directly, by entirely dispensing with the reduction formulae. It consists of three pointers (Fig. 729) of which the middle one is fixed, say A, Scanned with CamScanner324 + Surveying! on the axis, defining the line of collimation and the other two, say B and C, are accentuated by a cam mechanism as the telescope is elevated or depressed. The right-hand movable pointer C is called the distance pointer, and the left-hand movable pointer B is called the height pointer. The left-hand pointer moves upwards relative to the fixed pointer for angles of elevations and downwards for angles of depression. The intercept on the target staff between the two pointers A and B directly gives the value of (1/2) s sin 26, and the intercept between pointers A Fig. 729 and C gives the value of s cos*6. Further, the intercept between A and when multiplied by 100 directly gives the horizontal distance and the intercept between A and B when multiplied by 10 gives directly the vertic : ent arranged that the reading corresponding to the pointer A is equal to the height of the Seer First above the station peg. The telescope is equipped with an anallactic lens. The staff reading © taken by setting the fixed pointer at the metre or decimetre mark and then the other two PON St are read after adjusting them. The main drawback of the instrument is the inconvenic! reading the pointers. As an example, let the noted readings be 1.85, 140 and 105 m, then horizontal distance, D = 100 (1.85 - 140) = 45 m vertical distance, V = 10 (140 - 105) = +35 m Szepessy Direct Reading Tacheometer The instrument derives this name fromits Hungarian inventor Joseph Szepessy. It overcomes the inadequacies of the tangential tacheometry in which two telescope pointings are required. A scale of tangents of vertical angles is engraved on a glass plate attached to the vertical circle cover, so that it does not rotate when the telescope is moved in a vertical plane. It uses percentage angles. With the help of prisms the scale is brought in the view through an eyepiece, and when the telescope is directed towards a staff, the image of the latter is placed alongside that of the scale (Fig. 730). The scale of tangents is divided into 0.005 and is figured at every 0.01 in terms of 100 times the tangent. Thus, the graduation 14 corresponds to tan” 014 or 14%. Fig. 7.30 To take a reading, the staff is sighted and the vertical circle tangent screw is adjusted so that preferably a numbered graduation falls opposite the horizontal cross-hair, Read the staff intercept between the small 0.005 divisions immediately above and below this numbered division. The horizontal distance will be this length of staff intercept multiplied by 100, The vertical distance, V, is found by multiplying the intercept by the number corresponding to the division opposite the horizontal cross-wire. As an example, if the number against which the horizontal cross-wire is set at 15 and the staff intercept is 1.15 m. then, o> ‘al distance. It is also D= 115 x 100 = 15 m and V=15 x 115 = 1725 m Scanned with CamScanner| | | | | Tacheometry + 325 785 Auto-Reduction Tacheometer (Hammer and Fennel) 4 This instrument makes the method of determining the horizontal distance and difference in elevation most simple, as only one observation is made. The instrument is pro special auto-reduction device. The field of view of the instrument's telescope is di two halves. One half is used to view the staff and the other to view a diagram (Fig. 731) in which four curves N, E, d, and D are shown. The N-curve is the zero curve, the E-curve is for reading distance, the D-curve is to be used for vertical angles up to + 14” and the d-curve for vertical angles up to + 47° (where the plus sign means elevation and the minus sign means depression). D and d-curves are the height curves, The multiplying constant for the distance curve is 100 whereas for the height curves D and d it is 10 and 20, respectively. Fig. 731 Hammer-Fennel auto-reduction device To take a reading the N-curve is made to bisect the specially marked zero point of the staff. In such a condition the perpendicular edge of the prism should be in line with the staff. The staff readings are then taken with the distance curve and height curves. The distance curve reading is multiplied by 100 to get the desired horizontal distance. The readings corresponding to the D (d)-curve when multiplied by 10 (20), gives the difference in elevations between the instrument and staff stations. 78.6 Double Image Tacheometer This instrument is meant to provide more accurate results than obtainable with the methods described so far. The accuracy of measurement is 1 in 5000. It is most suitable for control traverses using medium length sights and of large-scale works. If many observations are to be made from one point, as in contouring, then it is inconvenient It consists of a horizontal subtense bar supported over a vertical graduated rod. The bar on its upper edge is graduated in metres and on the lower edge in decimetres. The staff is observed through a theodolite fitted with glass wedges in front of the object glass. These wedges displace the two horizontal images of the upper and lower halves of the staff, one viewed directly and the other deflected by the wedge prism (Fig. 7.32). The displacement is in the direction of their length by an amount proportional to the distance to the staff station. The observer sees the graduations of one part of the staff superimposed upon those of another part. As the telescope is revolved in a vertical plane, the tacheometric angle is varied automatically by suitable rotation of the wedges in such a way that 100 times the displacement readings of the images gives directly the horizontal distance. For determining the difference in elevation between the instrument and vertical staff, the setting of the wedges is altered Scanned with CamScanner326 + Surveying-! & 2 Fst Po o> 493% 3 é a*3 1 Telescope fos of image(s) ‘Subtense bar -——__—_ » —______+| Fig. 7.32 Schematic diagram of double image tacheometer by tuming them as a unit by 90°. Then 100 times the displacement readings of images is ‘the required difference in elevation, The distances so obtained are directly in metres. The decimetres are obtained by reading the staff vernier which is seen as the lower image, Centimetres and millimetres are obtained from the graduated micrometre head which is responsible for rotation of the rhomboid prism about a vertical axis. 7.9 OMNIMETER —— $$ This is an instrument similar to the transit theodolite, invented by Eckohold, and was used for the tangential method of tacheometry. It is obsolete nowadays. with a compound microscope at right angles to the optical axis of the telescope and passing through the horizontal axis. When the line of collimation of the telescope is horizontal, the microscope tube will be vertical. If the telescope is moved in a vertical plane, the microscope also moves correspondingly. A graduated scale is placed upon the vernier plate and is read with the help of the microscope. This scale is fitted into a slide and can be moved either way by means of a micrometer screw. The longitudinal movement of the scale is required so that the graduation corresponding to the approximate reading may be brought into the line of sight of the microscope. When the telescope is horizontal, the zero of the scale should be on the middle of the scale. The telescope is directed towards a graduated staff provided with two targets at a fixed distance apart. Instead of reading vertical angles to these vanes, the corresponding readings Of the scale are recorded. In Fig. 733, 4’ is the point at which the line of collimation would cut the vertical through A (the staff station), A’ the point at which the microscope cross-hairs intersect the horizontal scale. OA; will be at right angles to O4’. When the vane b is sighted, the microscope cross-wire intersects the graduated scale in bj and when vane c is sighted, the corresponding scale reads cj. Either or both the points b and c may be below A’ and will be an indication of the angle of depression. From similar triangles OA’c and OA/c/ on’ = 04; PO Li cy D= 0A; =~ bye, Scanned with CamScannerTacheometry + 327 foal ee +» —____} Fig. 7.33 Principle of omnimeter The difference in levels, Aba 5 Ab bye, RL of A= RL of 0+ A’b~ Ab As a/b and b/c; are the measurements made with the microscope, the horizontal distance D and the reduced level of the staff station can be determined, 710 SOURCES OF ERROR Errors in tacheometric work may be instrumental, personal or natural. The common instrumental errors in tacheometry are caused by improper spacing of stadia wires, incorrect stadia rod graduations, and index error. The most common personal errors are due to improper positioning of stadia rod, incorrect rod readings during long sights because of indistinct graduations, and careless levelling for measurements of vertical angles. Natural factors such as wind and temperature changes also affect the observations. Most of the errors can either be eliminated or minimised by careful manipulation of the instrument and rod, and by limiting the length of sights. 711 MISTAKES Some of the mistakes in tacheometry are recording wrong staff intercepts, using a wrong stadia interval, and confusion in indicating whether the vertical angle is an angle of elevation or an angle of depression. 7.12 ACCURACY The degree of accuracy of the measurements that can be achieved by a tacheometer depends by and large, upon the power and optical precision of the instrument, and on the type and scale markings of the stadia rods. The vision of an observer, the length of sight, and the inclination of the line of collimation are also responsible for the obtainable accuracy. However, Scanned with CamScannera 328 + Surveying-l the position of the sun (whether in front or behind the observer) also affects the accuracy of the measurements made. It also varies with the conditions prevailing at the time an observ. is made. The atmospheric conditions that undermine accuracy are large temperature variation near the ground surface and high winds which prevent the staff from being held steady. The main factor affecting accuracy is probably the length of sight, since for long sights the graduations become indistinct. The error in reading the rod is accidental. Therefore, it will not be directly proportional to the length of the traverse but the error tends to compensate and reduces as the length of the survey increases. For a single short sight, under normal conditions for ordinary angles of inclination, the expected error in the horizontal distance may be of the order of 1 in 500 and for a vertical distance, it should not be more than Om. For long lines, where a number of set ups are required, the error will tend to be proportional to the square root of the number of set ups. An accuracy of 1/3000 to 1/10000 in distance is obtainable for sights up to about 120 m. The average error in horizontal distance varies from 1 in 600 to 1in 850. The closing error in a stadia traverse should not be greater than 0.055,/p, where pis the perimeter of the traverse. The error in closure for elevation varies from 0.08Vk on level ground to 0.25V/k on hilly areas, where & is distance in kilometres. SOLVED EXAMPLES SCRA The stadia readings with horizontal sight on a vertical staff held 50 m from a tacheometer were 1.285 m and 1.780 m. The focal length of the object glass was 25 cm. The distance between the object glass and the vertical axis of the tacheometer was 15 cm, Calculate the stadia interval. C=ftd=25+15= 40 cm=04m $= 1780 - 1.285 = 0495 m D=* 0.25 50 = —>x0.495+0.4 i i= 2.49 x 10% m= 249 mm It was required to determine the distance between two points A and B by a tacheometer fitted with an anallactic lens (K = 100, C = 0). With the instrument at A and staff at B, the observations made were a vertical angle of +9°46’ and staff intercept of 1.915 m. What is the horizontal distance AB? Later on it was found that the constants of the instrument were 100 and 0.5. What would be the percentage error in the horizontal distance computed? K = 100 and C= 0 D = Ks cos* 0+ C cos 8 = 100 x 1915 cos? 9°46’ + 0 = 185.9893 m K= 100 and C=05 Scanned with CamScannerTa = Ks 080 + © egg ; icheometry + 329 = 100 x 1915 cog? 1915 cos? geqgy = 185.9893 +05 cos 9°45 The actual distance = 185.9893 * 04927 = 186.482 m 9893 m nor 186.482 — 185.9893 = 0.4927 m Percentage error = 94927100 185.9893 ~ 0-2649% A levelling staff is held vertical at pris of a tacheometer and the staff intercept for horiconny 1 i00,m and 300 m from the respectively. Find the constants of the instrument, ™®! Sehts are 0.99 m and 3.00 m, The instrument is set up at station A and the staff is held vert telescope inclined at an angle of depression of 10° to the penta Ve cater eee ttaff are 2,670, 1835, 1.000 m, Calculate the RL of B Giese peaitne ety 142 m and RL of station A is 4505 m and its horizontal distance from A. The Given: 5,= 099 m S_= 300 m Now, Di= Ks, + or or 300 = Kx 300+C From the above equations 2.01 K = 200, 200 K= =~ =9950 2.01 Substituting the value of K in the second equation leads to 300 = 9950x3+C mH C = 300 - 9950 x 3=15 Hence, the constants of instrument are 995 and 15. Now, 5 = 2.670 ~ 1000 = 1670, and @ = 10° Horizontal distance AB, D= Ks cos @ + C cos @ 9950 x 1670 cos? 10° + 15 x cos 10° = 16263 m Ks ., ; Vertical distance, V= —> sin 20+Csind _ 99.50. 1.670 gi, 20° + 15 sin 10° = 28.67 -V-A HI RL of B=RL of A+ 7 — 1835 = 421415 m 4505 + 142 - 286 Scanned with CamScanner330 + Surveying-! another point Q from the f . Followi, allactic lens. The constants ow" from a point P to 8 of the fitted with an ani Fé was held vertical. Determine the gradient ‘observations made with a tacheometer instrument were 100 and 0, and the sta! Tnatrument station [Staff station | Bearing Vertical angle |" Staff readings (my R I ° 130° #1032" 1255, 1810, 2365 I I a 220° 35°06" 1300, 2:20, 2549 BEER Refer to Fig. Ex. 7 Instrument at R and staff at P N 10°32", s = 2.365 ~ 1.255 = M10 m = Ks cos? 6, + C cos 6 100 x 1410 x cos” 10°32’ + 0 10729 m v= Kesin26, _ 26. +.¢ sing, EL 21°04" | 5 d : = 1995 m Fig. Ex. 74 (Alternatively, V= D tan 6, = 10729 tan 10°32’ = 1995 m) Let the RL of R be X. Then RL of P=RL of R+HI+V—h = X +1995 - 1810 = X + 1814 m Instrument at R and staff at Q , = 5°06’, s = 2940 — 1.300 = 1640 RQ = 100 x 1.640 cos* 5°06’ = 162.70 m tox 1. Vn ORICA sin 10512’ +0= 14.52m RL of Q= RL of line of collimation + V—h =X +1452 - 212 = X + 12.40 Difference of level between P and Q = (X + 12.40) — (X + 1814) = 5.74 m fall Distance PQ \ Angle QRP = bearing of RQ - bearing of RP = 220° - 130° = 90° Fs PQ = \(107.28)" + (162.70)* = 194.89m t= 574 194.89 =1in 33.95 m Scanned with CamScannerPrsamle 75 To determine the elevati ee ill Fas observations were made with the tafe peo" P in a tach J leometeric survey, the mlactic lens and its multiplyi a oe hing and additive constant wert inetument was fitted with ere 100 tt jnetrument station L HI (m) Stati ease and 0, respectively. | 0 145 BM SSeS | 7 = ce 1335, 1895, 2460 ' P 140 cP 0780, 1.265, 1745 1155, 1615, 2075 RL of BM is 250 m, calculate RL of P. pd Refer to Fig. Ex. 7.5. Fig. Ex. 25 Instrument at O and staff at BM s = 2460 — 1335 = 1425 m, Hl = 145m, K = 100, 6 Y= sin 20+C sin® 6°00’ (depression) YOO X1425 gin 12°-+.0.0% in 6° = 1695 m 2 RL of plane of collimation = RL of BM + n+ = 250.00 + 1.895 + 11695 = 263.590 m Instrument at O and staff at CP 2 HI = 145m, = 1745 — 0780 = 0965 m @, = 8°30" Scanned with CamScanner332 + Surveying! Ks,sin26. 4 csina, 100 x 0.0965 x sin(2 x 8°30") 2 RL of CP = RL of plane of collimation + V2 — hy 263590 + 14106 - 1.265 = 276431 m +0x sin8°30! = 14.10 m dnstrument at P and staff at CP 83 = 2.075 -1155=0920 m, 6; = 6°30" v= Msn? +Csin 8, = 20XO82DX8INF 99, gingra0’ = 103477 m L of CP + hy + V3 — HI 76431 + 1615 + 10.3477 - 140 = 286.993 m RL of station P FEEEICEZA Two sets of tacheometric readings were taken from an instrument station A (RL = 100.00 m) to a staff station B as given below. Instruments P @ Mattiplying constant 100 95, ‘Additive constant 030 045 Height of instrument 140 m 145m Staff held Vertical Normal Instrument Staff station | Vertical angle | Stadia readings P i 8 5°44” 1.090, 1.440, 1.795 qa A B ead 7 Determine: | (i) The distance between instrument station and staff station. (ji) The RL of staff station B. Stadia readings with instrument Q. Instrument P at station A and staff held vertical at B j $= 1795 - 1090 = 0705 m, @= 5°44’, 20 = 11°28" AB = Ks cos’ @+ C cos 0 i) = 100 x 0705 cos” 5°44’ + 03 cos 5°44’ = 70,095 m _ Kssin20 Bee. | v +Csind Scanned with CamScannerTacheometry + 333 Sin 1°28’ 40.3 sinsr4qy Recrui 8in5°44’ = 7.038 m oe = 100.00 + 1400 + 70: : le 1038 — 1.440 = 10 Instrument Q at station A and staff held normal at B ae AB = (Ks + C) cos 04 hin @ = hi $+ 045) cos 5°44’ + h sin 5°44’ = (95 s + 045) x 0995 + h x 0.0999 or 70.095 = (95 s + 0.45) x 0995 + 0.0999 h ne 9461962 s + h = 697167 ‘i h = 697167 — 9461962 5 @ V= (Ks + C) sing = (95s + 045) sin 5°44” = (95s + 045) x 00999 RL of B=RL of A+ HI+V-hcos 0 = 100.00 + 1450 + (95 s + 0.45) x 0.0999 — h (0995) or 106.998 = 100.00 + 145 + (95 s + 0.45) x 00999 ~ h x 0.0995 on 9.5382 s — h= 55307 h = 95382 s — 5.5307 @ From Eqs. (i) and (i 697.167 — 9461962 s = 9.5382 s - 5.5307 955.7344 s = 702.698 _702.698 = 102888 = 0.735244 m ie ° 955.7344 | h = 95382 x 0.735244 - 5631 = 14819 m 0.735244 Upper stadia wire reading = 1.4819-——>—— = M43 m 0.735244 _ 1.3495m Lower stadia wire reading = 14819+— i ing distance may bt Find up to which vertical angle, in stadia work, © spin e atance may be assumed to be horizontal so that the error ee i : | with an anallactic lens and the staff is held vertice! ESEQEGY Let the vertical angle be & | True horizontal distance D = Ks cos’ 6 | Sloping distance L Sloping distance_ ___KS_ a sec’? Horizontal distance Ks cos’ @ Scanned with CamScanner| { 334 Surveying-! Permissible error is 1 in 300, hence L_300+1_ 301 D300 300 301, 300 = 3718/14” or A tacheometer is fitted with an anallactic lens and the constants are hung and zero. The reading corresponding to the cross-wire on a staff held vertical on a ane was 2295 m when sighted from A, If the vertical angle was +25° and the horizontal dita? ‘AB was 190.00 m, calculate the stadia wire readings and thus show that the two interac? intervals are equal. Using these values calculate the level of B if that of A was 50.00 mat the height of the instrument is 135 m. ie D= Ks cos*6+C or 190 = 100 s cos* 25° or s= 2313 m From Fig. Ex. 78, FG = s cos 25° = 2.313 cos 25° = 2.096 m Al AE sec 25° = 190 sec 25° = 209.64 m Fig. Ex. 78 2.096 or = 209.64 or a= 18" =36" Scanned with CamScannerNow: = Dtan (25° _ Tacheometry + 335 °° ~ 189 = 88578 m © 190 tan 25° = 88598 m gtadia intercept interval, GE = gasog Fs ) = 190 tan (25° 4 18°) = e8618 m Stadia intercept interval, FE = gagig _ basse eoehe Hence, the two staff intercepts are equal, and 8 = 0020 m = GE+ FE= Middle cross-wire reading = 2.295 m Lower stadia wire reading = 2295 + 0029 - 23 Upper stadia wire reading = 2.295 — o.029 oe PE= V= D tan 25° = 88598 m RL of B= 5000 + 135 + 88598 — 2.205 0.020 + 0.020 = 004 m = 137653 m ced The ruins of an old fort exist on a hill. It was required i . 4 to det i of the fort from the road and the height of its roof above the plinth with a echoes Observations were made on a 4 m staff held vertical on the entrance gate of the fort and on the roof from the road. Constants of the instrument were 100 and 0. instrument station | Height of instrument | Staff station | Vertical angle | Staff readings (w=) | oF] 145 m Plinth +10°30° | 2150, 2720, 3290 Roof +16%24" | 1850, 2400, 3040 Let the distance of the fort from the road be D. 5, = 3290 - 2150 = 114 m 6,= 10°30, K=100, C=0 Ks cos? 6, + C cos 6 100 x 1:14 x cos? 10°30’ + 0 = 10.2 m V, = vertical height of plinth of the entrance gate. Let Va dks sin 26+ C sin 6 = 1100 x 114 x sin 21° + 0 = 2042 m 2 Let Vz = Vertical height of top roof s2 = 3.040 - 1850 = 1190 m @, = 16°24’, K = 100, c=0 vet ks, sin 20) + Cin 2 x 100 x 1190 sin 32°48" + 0 = 32.23 m a 2 ove plinth = 32.23 - 204? = stm Hence, height of top of roof al Scanned with CamScannerP 336 + Surveying! Three points A, B and C were selected on the centre line of an existing road curve to find its radius. The instrument was set up at B and the readings were taken on a staff held vertical at A and C with the telescope horizontal. Instrument station ‘Staff station Bearing Stadia readings (m) 8 A 0°00" 1615, 1.205, 0795 c 195°30" 2.410, 1925, 1440 The trunnion axis was 150 m above the road at B and the instrument constants were 100 and 0. Calculate the radius of the circular curve ABC, the arc lengths AB and BC, and the gradients of AB and BC. Since traversing from A to B and that from B to Cis clockwise, the included angle ABC will be the exterior angle. In Fig. Ex. 710, FB of BA = BB of AB = 0°00" FB of BC = 195°30" ZABC = FB of BC - BB of AB = 195°30" — 0°00" = 195°30’ 5, = 1615 - 0795 = 082 m AB = Ks, + C= 100 x 082 + 0 = 82 m S, = 2410 - 1440 = 097 m BC = Ks, + C= 100x097 +0= Consider the closed traverse ABC. 7m Bearing of line BA = 0°00’ implies that BA is along Fig. Ex. 710 WCB. of AB = 180", * OB of AB = SO°E and QB of BC = $15°30’W Consider the closed traverse ABCA. ZL= 0 or -82 cos 0° - 97 cos 15°30’ + CA cos 9= O or CA cos @ = 175472 a) LD=0 or 82 sin O° - 97 sin 15°30’ + CA sin 0= 0 or CA sin 8 = 2592 (i) From Eqs. (i) and (i) 25.92 tan O= a5 472 Scanned with CamScannerTacheometry + 337 = 8°24'18" 25.92 d CA = 28.92 azt: oo singe2aigy = 733m or Refer to Fig. Ex. 710. FB of CA = FB of BC + ZBCA 8°24'18” = 195°30’ + (360° - a) - 540° or a= 7°5'42" Using the property of a circle that the angle subtended at the center of circle is twice the angle by the same arc at circumference. Angle subtended at circumference ABC = ZACB Angle subtended at center O by arc AB = ZAOB Hence, ZAOB = 2 x ZACB ZOBA = ZBAO = eee 82°54'18" Consider triangle ABO. From the sine rule AB R Sin2a sin82°5418" R= — 82 x sin 82°54'18” = 33194m sini4°124” 6 = 8°2418" or . 20 = 16°48'36” Are AB = Rx 2a = 33194 x 14°11'24” (rad) = 82.21 m Arc BC = R x 26 = 331.94 x 16°48’36” (rad) = 97.38 m Fall from A to B= 15 — 1.205 = 0.295 m Gradient of aB = 2295 82 in 27796 m Fall from B to C = 1925 — 15 = 0425 m Gradient of Bc = 2425 7 LETTSEMAL To determine the distance between two points X and Y and their elevations, the following observations were recorded upon vertically held staves from two traverse stations R and S. The tacheometer was fitted with an anallactic lens and the instrument constant was 100. in 22823 m Coordinates of Traverse Staff a o stati tation’ | RL tm) | HI (rm) _ station | Bearing L D R tozos0 | 150 | 800 | 1800 [x is4’_| 48°09" | 10, 185, 260 s yoziat | 153 | 950 [2500 | y | 3ao%s' | 42°03 | 132, 191, 250 Compute the distance XY, the gradient from X to Y and bearing of XY. Scanned with CamScanner338 + Surveying $,= 260'- 110 = 150, 6, = 8°09" Horizontal distance, RX = Ks, cos? 6, = 100 x 150 cos? 8°09" = 146985 m Vertical distance, Y= : Ks sin 26, = 3% 100 x 15 x sin 16818’ = 2105 m 82 = 2.50 - 132 = 118 m, 6, = 2°03" Horizontal distance, SY = Ks, cos? 0, = 100 x 118 x cos* 2°03’ = 117849 m Vertical distance, Ve= 3 ke, sin 26, = ; x 100 x 118 x sin 4°06’ = 4.218 m Bearing of RX = NI5°14E Latitude of RX, latgx = 146985 cos 15°14’ Departure of RX, depx = 146985 sin 15°14 Bearing of SY = 340°18’ = N 19°42’ W = Latitude of SY, lat.gy = 117849 cos 19°42’ Departure of SY, dep.gy = -117849 sin 19°42’ Refer to Fig. Ex. 711. Latitude of SR = 800 - 950 = - 150 m Departure of SR = 1800 ~ 2500 = - 700 m We know that for a closed traverse RXYSR, EL = 0 and ED = 0 For or For or rL=0 latigy + latxy + latys + latige = 0 1418205 + lat.xy — 110.95 - 150 (latys = —lat.gy) depax + depxy + depys + depise 3862 + depxy + 39726 - 700 depxy = +621654 m Distance XY = lati, + dep, (119.13)"+ (621.654)° = (depys = —dep.sy) 32.96 m Scanned with CamScannerTacheometry + 339 The bearing of XY = tan 1 621.654 = t =79°09'6.14” an gag = 78708 RL of X Hence, bearing of XY is N79°09‘614’E (since its latitude and departure both are positive). 10206 + 21.05 - 185 = 10398 m RL of Y= 1021.21 + 4.218 ~ 191 = 1023518 m Difference in level between X and ¥ 10398 ~ 1023518 = Gradient of xy= 16282 _ 632.96 16.282 m in 3891 ecard Find out the total number of turns a micrometer screw had to be moved in the subtense method for a staff intercept of 2.00 m, with the staff held vertical at a distance of 100 m from the instrument. The vertical angle was 6°00’ and the constants of the instrument were 1000 and 0.5. Perot = Scosto+C cos 9 ™ 109 = 1200%2.0 -9526°4.0.5 cos 6° m= 1988 pee staaesy A tacheometer was used to make observations on a vertical staff. The staff intercept made was 1.200 m and the angle of elevation recorded was 7°30’. The constants of the instrument were 100 and 0.1. What will be the number of turns registered on a substense Escort or By substense theodolite theodolite on the same station if the intercept on the staff at the same point was 150 m. The angle of elevation being 7°06’ and the constants of the instrument being 1000 and 0. D = Ks cos*0 + C cos 0 = 100 x 12 x cos 7°30’ + O10 x cos 7°30’ = 1805 m D = (K's cos* 6)/m + C cos 6 27°06" 118.95 = 1000X1S cost 7°06" | 4 m m= 1251 Scanned with CamScanner940 + Surveying-! In the tangential method of tacheometry, two vanes were fixed 2 m apart, the lower vane being 0.5 m above the foot of the staff held vertical at station A. The vertical angles measured were #112” and -1°30’, Find the horizontal distance of A from the instrument, if the height of line of collimation is 100 m. Also find the RL. of A. D 7 7 = 42.433 m P= tano,+tan@, tan P12"+tan P30" V=D tan 6, = 42.433 tan 1°30’ = 1111 m RL of A= 100 - V- 05 = 100 - 1111 - 05 = 98388 m SUMMARY Tacheometry is a very useful method in rough terrains, and yields fairly good results, where measurement with chain/tape will be crude and not reliable. In this method of surveying, the horizontal and vertical distances are calculated trigonometrically using the observed staff reat corresponding to the horizontal cross-wire and stadia-wires, and vertical angels. The surveying, using a tacheometer, can be performed by any of the three methods, the stadia method (the fixed hair method) and the subtense method (the movable hair method); the tangential method (the most convenient and preferred for contouring); and range finding. In the tangential method the readings are taken with cross-wire on two targets fixed on wooden rod at known distance apart and with bottom target fixed at known height from the bottom of the staff. In the first method, the staff readings are observed corresponding to the cross-wire and stadia wires. In fixed hair method the basic distance equation used is D = Ks + C, where K and C are constants and sis the staff intercept. An anallactic lense is placed in the telescope at such a place that K becomes 100 and C zero. This simplifies the equation to D = Ks making the calculation of distance D simpler. The staff in this method can be kept vertical or normal to the line of sight depending upon the field conditions. In vertical subtense method, the equation is same expect that m ~ e term appears in the denominator where mis number of revolutions of micrometer screw and e the index usually adjusted to be 1000 to Ks is D= => + C, the value of constant error. The equi = make the calculation simpler. The subtense method can also be applied by keeping a subtense bar (staff) horizontal and the method is called horizontal base subtense method. ‘Sometimes it becomes impossible to access objects in field and keep staff over them. In such ‘cases range finders are used. The principle, working and types of range finders are described. Some of the most commonly used range finders, the telemeter, the mekometer and the Barr and Stroud finder are described Special instruments, attachments and modifications to tachometer are discussed at the end of the chapter. These facilitate the reduction of observations. Sources of errors, mistakes, and degree of accuracy that can be achieved in tacheometry under various conditions are discussed, Scanned with CamScannerTacheometry + 341 CHECK YOUR FUNDAMENTALS Q1. Following are the stadia reading with eight horizontal and stadia rod plumb. What are the constants of tacheometer? Distance of staff from ‘Stadia reading i ‘Techeometer | 50 m 080 10, a? \ 100 m 115 200 285, [Ans K = 4545, C = 2273] | 2. Upto what vertical angle, in stadia work, 4 slopping distance can be treated to be horizontal, | if the error allowed is 1 in 2507 [Ans. @ = 3°37'8"] EXERCISES 71. Define tacheometry. What are the various methods employed in tacheometric survey? Explain the method most commonly used. 12 Explain the procedure to determine the tacheometric constants by (a) Fixed hair method & (b) Movable hair method 73 Derive the distance equation for an anallactic lens. What are its 2: Perors in stadia surveying. What is the 74 What do you understand by tacheometry? Discuss the érrors in stadia surveying utility of an anallactic lens in a tachometer? 7.5 What is the principle of the subtense bar method of measuri the construction details of a subtense bar: 16 Explain how a cubtense bar is used to determine horizontal 77 Explain briefly the construction of each of the following: (a) Subtense bar { (b) Auto-reduction tacheometer (©) Telemeter \dvantages? ing horizontal distances? Explain istances. Define the term range, How are the range finders classified? Explain the working principle of | a range finder. 78 Write short notes on: (a) telemeter (b) mekometer (¢) 740 Explain briefly the types of special fittings to 2 tacheometer wil | feaman stadia arc. = 200 mm) fixed | A tracheometer fitted with stadia wires 4 mm apart, has is obit ee a Rtablish the | at a distance of 250 mm from the trunnion axis. From the Fre tacheometric distance equation if the staff intercept is $ [ans 0 = 100 5 + 045m] 18 Barr and Stroud range finder: special reference to the | mH Scanned with CamScanner342 + Surveying 712 Write short notes on (a) Fergusson’s percentage unit system. (b) Beaman stadia are (6). Gradienter (a) Szepessy (e) Omnimeter 713 Describe briefly the construction and working of {a) Auto-reduction tacheometer (b) Double image tacheometer ‘114 Briefly discuss the following: (a) Errors in tacheometry (0) Accuracy of tacheometric observations TAS Following observations were recorded with a tacheometer fitted with an anallactic lens 100; C = 0). Calculate the reduced levels of change point and of station T. The staff irect reading tacheometer (k= was held vertical during the observations and the reduced level of BM was 500.0 m. Instrument station | Hi(m) | Staff station | Vertical angle | Staff readings (m) ° 1500 | BM | 430) 1250, 1400, 1550 0 [ 1500) oP) 1550, 1750, 1950 T [1350 | cP «d|Srease 390.1850, 1710 [Ars, 508.291 =, 510767 m] TAG The following readings were taken by a tacheometer from station 6 on stations A, C and D in clockwise direction: ‘Sight |] Horizontal circle reading | Vertical angle ‘Stadia readings (m) Top | Middle | Bottom leat 30110" I I I feral 152°56" [-5*00" 04a 3522 0 o | 205°06" I +2°30" 0645 The line B4 has a bearing of 58°46’ and the instrument constants are 100 and 0. Find the slope of the line CD and its bearing, [Ans Slope 1 in 7.54 rising, WCB 7162677] TIT A tacheometer has a muktiplying constant of 100 and an additive constant of 0. When set 135 m above station 8, the following readings were obtained: ‘Station | Sight | Horizontal angle | Vertical angle | Staff readings (m) | foarrr) {eser | I a [s203'00" | | pc | I 20°30" | tio, 2.282, 3420 Scanned with CamScannerTacheometry + 343 The coordinates of A are NOO and E16386 while that of B are NIIB4I and £163.86, \ Find the coordinates of C and its height above the datum, if the level of 2730 m, [Ans. N8887, £375.37, height = 101148 mi} 118 A tacheometer is set up at an intermediate point on a traverse course PQ and the following observations were made on a vertically held staff: ‘Staff station Vertical angle | Staff intercept (m) | _Axlal hair reading (m) P +9730" 2.250 2105 Q +600" 2055, 1875 The instrument is fitted with an anallactic lens. The multiplying constant is 100. Compute the length PQ and the RL of Q if the RL of P is 35050 m. [Ans. PQ = 42213 m, RL = 335.46 m] 119 The following readings were taken by a tacheometer with the staff held vertical. The tacheometer is fitted with an anallactic lens and the multiplying constant is 100. Find out the horizontal distance from A to B and the RL of B. Instrument station | Staff station | Vertical angle | Staff readings (m) | Remarks (m) BM | -60" 100, 1153, 2060_| RL of BM a B | +60" | 0982, 105, 188 _| = 97600 m [ans AB = 9414 m, RL = 98881 m] A tacheometer is placed at a station A and readings on a staff held vertical upon a BM of RL = 100.00 m and at a station B are 0.640, 2.200, 3760 and 0010, 2120, 4.230 m. respectively The angle of depression of the telescope in the first case is 6°19" and in the second case is 07°42’. Find the horizontal distance from A to B and the RL of station B, if the instrument has constants 100 and 05. 120 [Ans RL = 7815 m, D = 41492 m] Determine the gradient from a point P to a point Q and the distance PQ. Observations were made with a tacheometer and the staff was held vertical at each of the stations. The instrument was fitted with an anallactic lens, 721 ‘Staff station | Bearing | Vertical angle | Staff readings (m) Pe Ba" 0°32" 1365, 1920, 2475 ° Q 224° +56" 1065, 1885, 2705 [Ans. 1 in 361 (Falling), 194.89 m] It was required to find the distance between two points A and B and their reduced level. Two arbitrary points C and D were suitably selected and the tacheometric observations recorded were 28 follows. The reduced levels of C and D were 100 m ard W0 m,respectvehs 122 Scanned with CamScannerj 344 + Surveying! 123 124 125 126 > Ser 1 (n) | Total coordinate a8 _| Vertical | ctatt readings =] N E | 1480 [30a000| erzno | A | Nasr2ew| 16°24" | 165, 275, 385 D 1500 | 586650 | 1250750 B N37°12'E | +25°12" 2.50, 3.20, 3.90 Cateulate: (a) Length of line AB (b) Gradient of fine AB (©) Reduced levels of A and B [Ans, 67383 m, 1 in 17016 (rising), 158.29 m, 162.24 m] The constants for an instrument are 1000 and 0.5. Calculate the distance from the instrument to the staff when the micrometer readings are 5.246 and 5.246, The staff intercept is 2.0 m and the vertical angle measured is +4°30’, the staff being held vertical. [Ans. 18995 m] In the tangential method of tacheometry, two vanes were fixed at an interval of 1 mona 3m staff with the bottom vane at 10 m. The staff was held vertical at station A and the vertical angles measured for the two vanes were 5°30’ and 3°15’, respectively. Find the reduced level and horizontal distance of A, if the RL of a BM was 400 m. [Ans. 400437 mi] Two targets spaced 60 m’apart were fixed on a subtense bar and the vertical angles measured on the two upper and lower targets were 2°29'30” and 1°28’40”, respectively. If the lower target was at an elevation of 2492 m, what was the height of instrument. [Ans. 240.46 m] Describe the conditions under which tacheometric surveying is advantageous. Up to what vertical angle may sloping distances be treated to be horizontal so that error may not exceed in 200, the staff being held vertical and the instrument fitted with an anallactic lens. [Ans, not greater than 4°02"41"] a. Ans. a2, CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS One of the applications of tacheometer is to find horizontal distances. When would you prefer tacheometery over a changing? : Although chaining is the most common method for measuring horizontal distances, but if the ground is rough, undulating and if more observations at a faster rate with ordinary precision ‘are acceptable, tacheometer is preferred. Horizontal and vertical distances can be measured by tacheometry. Either of the stadia method or the tangential method can be used. How does the tangential method differ from stadia method? Scanned with CamScannerTacheometry + 345 ‘ans. In stadia method, stadia wires are used along with the horizontal cross-wire for taking) observations on stadia rod. In tangential method, the observations are made on the two vanes fixed at certain distance on the stadia rod. Observations are made on these vanes only through cross-wire. 93. When the tangential method is preferred over stadia method? ‘Ans. When the telescope is not equipped with stadia diaphragm, tangential method may be used. However, it is less accurate as compared to stadia method since the method involves two manipulations of the instrument and two sights are required for one set of observation. vy oN OBJECTIVE-TYPE QUESTIONS 71 The standard accuracy of tacheometric distance determination is (a) 1:10 (b) 1:100 (c) 1:500 —(¢) 1: 10000 12 If the spacing of stadia wires in a stadia diaphragm of tacheometer is 12 mm, and the focal length of the object glass is 24 cm, then the multiplying constant of the tacheometer is (a) 20 (b) 100 (©) 0005 (d) 200 13 If the focal length of an object glass is 25 cm, stadia interval is 125 mm and the distance from object glass to the trunnion axis is 15 cm, the additive constant is, (a) o1 (b) 04 (c) 02625 (@) 25125 1A If the intercept on a vertical staff is observed as 075 m from a tacheometer, with the line of sight horizontal, fitted with anallactic lens, the horizontal distance between the tacheometer and the staff station is (a) 075 m (b) 75m (c) 75 m (d) 750 m 15 In Beaman stadia arc, if the V-scale reading is 45, it indicates (a) depression (b) elevation (c)_ that the horizontal distance is 45 m (@) that the vertical distance is 45 m 16 In Ferguson's percentage unit system the circle is divided into (2) 2 parts (b) 4 parts () 6 parts (4) 8 parts 17 The purpose of an anallactic lens in a tacheometer is to (2) increase magnification (b) reduce effective length of the telescope (c)_to eliminate multiplying constant (d)_ make staff intercept proportional to its distance from the tacheometer 78 The stadia method in tacheometry is used to determine (a) horizontal angles (b) vertical angles \__ (©) horizontal distances (d) horizontal and vertical distances _/ Scanned with CamScanner123. Choose the correct statement(s). (In the subtense method. the staff intercept is varied, Tangential method of tacheometry is superior to the subtense method, (ii) An anatactic lens can be provided only in external focussing telescopes. (ix) Anaactic lens reduces the multiplying constant to zero. fa) (0 is correct (b) (i) and (ii) are correct (©) (a) is correct (4) Gi) and (iv) are correct 124. Choose the correct statement(s) (Range finding is a method of obtaining vertical distance. (H)_Telemeter is an example of a range finder. (i) Sextant is an example of a range finder (a) Mehometer is an example of a range finder. fa) Ory (in) is correct (b) (i) and (i) are correct {c) (i and (ii) are correct (4) (i) and (iv) are correct 2S Match List (Instrument) with List-Il (Use) and select the correct answer using the code given below the lists: Us Lst-tt (0 Subtense bar (A) To determine difference in elevation between points. @ Sextant (8) To determine horizontal distance. (i Tengent clinometer (C) To measure angles. (i) Range finder (C) To establish right angles. Codes: Oo @ Gi) Ww 2 8 © W © &) @& (©) (@) ©) oe © W oO @w © © (© J [ANSWERS TO OBJECTIVE-TYPE QUESTIONS 7 (4) 12 (a) 73 (bt) 74 (c) 75 (a) 76 (d) 17 (4) 78 (4) 79 (bl) 710 (c) mi (a) 712 (d) m3 (6) 74 (8) TIS (a) 716. (b) aT (d) 718 (b) 19 (c) 720 (ce) — TZN) 722 (ce) — 7.23 (ce) ~—7.24 (d) 725 (c) S Scanned with CamScanner