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PERIODIC TABLE
& PROPERTIES
 MARKS 3

PERIODIC PROPERTIE S

I nt r o du c t i o n

The basic object of classification is to arrange the facts regarding elements and compounds in such
a way so that we may have greatest control over their characteristics with least possible efforts.
Such a classification is called as Periodic table.
Some of the earlier attempts by scientists are discussed below.

Do
Dobb e re i ner ’s Tr i a ds

In 1829, J. Dobereiner made an important first step towards a systematic classification by arranging
elements into groups of three (triads). He observed that the atomic weight of the middle element
of the group was midway between the atomic weights of the other two. He also concluded that
the same midpoint relation held true for the physical properties of these elements.
Some of his triads were (Li, Na, K), (CI, Br, I), (Ca, Sr, Ba), (S, Se,Te)

Newla nd
nd’’s law o
off Octa ve

The first attempt to classify all the known elements was made by Newland in 1864.
He proposed that if the elements are arranged according to the increasing atomic weights (beginning
with lightest element, excluding Hydrogen), the chemical and physical properties of a particular
element would be similar to those of the elements seven places before and seven places after it.
For example, Li, the second element in NewlandÊs list, had properties similar to Na, the ninth
element in the list and K, the sixteenth element. Thus these were similar elements represented
by numbers 2, 9, 16 which show interval of seven.

Men dele e v’ s Per io di

dicc L aw a nd Cl assif icat i on

In 1869, Mendeleev classified the then known 56 elements on the basis of their physical and
chemical properties by giving a law known as the periodic law. The name periodic law stems from
the fact that the properties of the elements orderly recur in a cyclic fashion. His periodic law states
that „the physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic function of
their atomic masses.‰ This means that when the elements are arranged in the order of their
increasing atomic masses, the elements with similar properties recur at regular intervals. Based
on this law all the known elements were arranged in the form of a table known as periodic table.
Elements with similar properties recur at regular intervals and fall in certain groups or families.
The elements in each group were similar to each other in many properties.

Mer its of M
Meendel ee v’s pe
perr iodic tabl e

MendeleevÊs periodic table was one of the greatest achievements in Chemistry with some of its
important contributions as follows :

PERIODIC TABLE & PROPERTIES

 4 MARKS
Ć As the arrangements are classified into groups, it was very useful in studying and
remembering the properties of a large number of elements in a systematic way.
Ć This classification helped in correcting the atomic masses of some of the elements like gold,
beryllium and platinum based on their positions in the periodic table.
Ć Mendeleev could predict the properties of some undiscovered elements like scandium,
galliumand germanium. By this intuition, he had left gaps for the undiscovered elements
while arranging elements in his periodic table.

De mer tis of M
Meendele ev ’s pe
perr iodi
dicc ta
tabble

In spite of the above advantages, MendeleevÊs periodic table suffered defects as follows :
Ć The position of hydrogen was not correctly defined. It was placed in group I although it
resembles both the group I elements - the alkali metals and the group VII elements-the
halogens, in their properties.
Ć In some cases Mendeleev placed elements according to their similarities in properties and not
in increasing order of their atomic masses. Thus, the position of these elements was not
justified e.g. cobalt (atomic mass 58.9) was placed before nickel (atomic mass 58.6).
Ć Isotopes were not given separate places in the periodic table although MendeleevÊs classification
is based on the atomic masses.
Ć Some similar elements were grouped separately while some dissimilar elements were grouped
together. For example copper and mercury are similar in their properties but were placed
separately. Copper was placed in group I although it did not resemble the elements of this
group.
Ć Mendeleev could not explain the cause of periodicity in the elements.
Ć the position for lanthanides and actinides were not included in this table.

Lon
ongg fo
forr m o
off pe
perr iodic tta
a bl e

With developments on the structure of atoms, it was discovered that the atomic number (Z) is the
important characteristic of the atom and not the atomic mass. This led to the development of the
modern periodic law by Moseley in 1942. The modern periodic law states that „the physical and
chemical properties of the elements are periodic function of their atomic numbers.‰
Thus, when the elements were arranged in the order of their increasing atomic numbers, the
elements of similar properties recur at regular intervals.
The long form of the periodic table or the modern periodic table is based on the general plan of
the table as proposed by Mendeleev. This table is the most widely used periodic table of today.

St
Strructur al Fe
Feaatur es o
off the Mo
Modder n P
Peer iodi
dicc Ta
Tabble

This table consists of horizontal rows called as ÂperiodsÊ and vertical columns called as ÂgroupsÊ.

PERIODIC TABLE & PROPERTIES

 MARKS 5

PERIODIC TABLE & PROPERTIES

 6 MARKS
P e r i o ds
There are seven periods in the periodic table and each period starts with a different principal
quantum number.
The first period corresponding to ÂnÊ = 1 consists of only two elements hydrogen (1s1) and helium
(1s2). This is because the first energy shell has only orbital (1s), which can accommodate only two
electrons.
In the second period corresponding to ÂnÊ = 2, there are four orbitals (one Â2sÊ and three Â2pÊ)
having a capacity of eight electrons and so contains eight elements. This period starts with lithium
(Z = 3) with electron entering the Â2sÊ orbital and ends with neon (Z = 10) where the second shell
is complete (2s22p6).
In the third period corresponding to ÂnÊ = 3, there are nine orbitals (one Â2sÊ three Â2pÊ and five
Â3dÊ). As Â3dÊ orbitals are higher in energy, they are filled after the Â4sÊ orbitals. This period
involves filling of only four orbitals (Â3sÊ and Â3pÊ) containing eight elements. It starts with sodium
(Z = 11) with electron entering the Â3sÊ orbital and ends with argon (Z = 18) where the third shell
is partially complete (3s2 3p6).
The fourth period corresponding to ÂnÊ = 4, consists of filling of one Â4sÊ and three Â4pÊ orbitals. The
Â4dÊ and Â4fÊ orbital are higher in energy than the Â5sÊ orbitals and are filled later. The five Â3dÊ
orbitals have energies in between Â4sÊ and Â4pÊ orbitals and so are filled accordingly. Totally nine
orbitals are filled and therefore, there are eighteen elements in this period starting from potassium
with electron entering the Â4sÊ orbital (Z = 19) to krypton (Z = 36) where the third shell gets
completed (4s2 3d 10 4p6).
In the fifth period there are 18 elements like the fourth period. It begins with rubidium (Z = 37)
with the filling of Â5sÊ orbital and ends with xenon (Z = 54) with the filling of Â5pÊ orbital.
The sixth period contains 32 elements (Z = 55 to 86) and the successive electrons enter into Â6sÊ,
Â4fÊ, Â5dÊ and Â6pÊ orbitals in that order. It starts with caesium and ends with radon.
The seventh period, though expected to have 32 elements is incomplete and contains only 19
elements at present.

Num
umbb er of e
ell ements in e
eaac h pe
perriod
Period (n) Orbital Number of electron/
filled up elements in the period
First (1) 1s 2 = 2
Second (2) 2s 2p 2 + 6 = 8
Third (3) 3s 3p 2 + 6 = 9
Fourth (4) 4s 3d 4p 2 + 10 + 16 = 18
Fifth (5) 5s 4d 5p 2 + 10 + 16 = 18
Sixth (6) 6s 4f 5d 6p 2 + 14 + 10 + 6= 32
Seventh (7) 7s 5f 6d 7p 2 + 14 + 10 + 6= 32

PERIODIC TABLE & PROPERTIES

 MARKS 7

There is a periodicitiy occurring at regular intervals of 2, 8, 8, 18 and 32 and so the numbers 2,

8, 18 and 32 are called magic numbers. The first three periods are called short periods while the
other three periods are called long periods.

G r ou p s

The vertical column in the periodic table is called as group. There are 18 groups in the long form
of the periodic table and they are numbered from 1 to 18 in the IUPAC system. In the old system
of naming they are numbered as I to VIII with A and B groups. This convention is followed in
many places.

Mer its of the lo

lonng for m of th
thee per iodi
dicc ta
tabble

Ć This classification is based on the most fundamental property of the elements - the atomic
number, so it is more accurate.
Ć With the atomic number as the basis of this classification, the position of isotopes in one
place is justified.
Ć The systematic grouping of elements into the four blocks of ÂsÊ, ÂpÊ, ÂdÊ and ÂfÊ has made the
study of elements simpler.
Ć The electronic configuration determines the properties of the elements. The position of elements
governed by this feature is useful in studying the properties of elements.
Ć The position of the element, which were misfit on the basis of atomic mass is now justified
on the basis of atomic number.
Ć The lanthanides and actinides have been placed separately due to their properties different
from other groups.
Ć The whole table is easy to remember and reproduce in terms of electronic configuration and
properties of the elements.

De
Demmer its of th
thee lo
lonng f or
ormm of th
thee per iodi
dicc ta
tabble

Although the long form of the period table has been able to help in systematic studying the
elements to a great extent, it has some minor defects.
Ć Hydrogen resembles both the alkali metals and halogens. But it has been placed with the
alkalis.
Ć The lanthanides and actinides have not been placed in the main body of the table.

An
Anaal ysis o
off T
Taabl e in ffo
or m o
off Bl
Bloocks

With a better understanding of the part that the electron plays great role in the properties of
elements, a corresponding understanding of the periodic system came about.
On the basis of electronic configuration the elements may be divided into four groups.

PERIODIC TABLE & PROPERTIES

8 MARKS
S-b l ock e lem e nt
ntss

Ć These are present in the left part of the periodic table.

Ć These are IA and II A i.e. 1 and 2 group elements.
Ć These are metals.
Ć In these elements last electron fills in the s-orbital.
Ć Electron configuration of valence shell is ns1-2 (n = 1 to 7)

P-bl oc
ockk ele ments

Ć These are present in the right part of the table.

Ć These constitute the groups III A to VII A and zero groups i.e. groups 13 to 18 of periodic
table.
Ć Most of these elements are metalloids and non-metals but some of them are metals also.
Ć The last electron fills in p-orbital of valence shell.
Ć The electronic configuration of valence shell is ns2 np1ă6 (n = 2 to 7)
Ć ns2 np6 is stable noble gas configuration.

s-block el ements

These are present in the middle part of the periodic table (between s and p block elements).
Ć These constitute III B to VII B, VIII, I B and II B i.e., 3 to 12 groups of the periodic table.
Ć All are metals
Ć The last electrons fill in (n ă 1) d orbital
Ć The outermost electronic configuration is i(nă1) d1ă10 ns 1ă2 (n = 4 to 7)
Ć There are three series of d-block elements as under :
3d series ă Sc (21) to Zn (30)
4d series ă Y (39) to Cd (48)
5d series ă La (57), Hf (72) to Hg (80)

f-bl oc
ockk eleme nt
ntss

Ć These are placed separately below the main periodic table.

Ć These are mainly related to III B i.e, groups of the periodic table.
Ć There are two series of f-block elements as under :
4f series ă Lanthanides ă 14 elements from Ce (58) to Lu (71)
5f series ă Actinides ă 14 elements from Th (90) to Lw (103)
Ć The last electron fills in (n-2)f orbital
Ć Their outermost electronic configuration is (nă2)f1ă14 (n-1)s2 (nă1) p6 (n-1)d0-1 ns2 (n = 6 and 7)

PERIODIC TABLE & PROPERTIES

 MARKS 9

Exa mp
mplle 1

Predict the period, group number and block of the following elements. A (at. number = 8),
B (at. number = 11), C (at. number = 28)
Solution :
Electronic configurations of different elements are
A  1s2 2s2 2p4
B  1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
C  1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d 8 4s2
Element A : p ă block element
Group number = 10 + number of electron in the valence shell = 10 + 6 = 16
Period of the element = Principal quantum number of the valence shell = 2nd
Element B : s ă block element
Group number = number of electrons in valence shell = 1
Period number = 3rd
Element C : d ă block element

The Types o
off El
Elee ments

Using electronic configuration as the criterion, we ordinarily recognize some general type of
elements.

Ty pi cal E le me n ts

Elements of third period are also called as TYPICAL ELEMENTS. These include Na, Mg, Al, Si,
P, S, Cl. The properties of all the elements belonging to a particular group resembles the properties
of the corresponding typical element of that group. For example, the general properties of Alkali
Metals can be predicted from the behaviour of Na, not Li, the first member of the family.
The typical elements (all having n = 3) can take up 18 electrons. Note that, for these elements
3d sub-shell is available, but it is not filled i.e., these have vacant d sub-shell. This is not the case
with second period elements, hence they have somewhat different properties than the rest of the
group or we can say that it is the typical element, which in true sense represents a group.

Br
Briid ge Ele m ents

Elements of second period are also called as BRIDGE ELEMENTS. The properties these elements
resemble with the properties of elements belonging to third period placed diagonally. This is
illustrated as follows :

PERIODIC TABLE & PROPERTIES

10 MARKS

2nd Period Li Be B C N O F

3rd Period Na Mg Al Si P S Ci

Nob
obll e or Ine
nerr t G
Gaa ses

Elements of VIII A group or zero group are called as INERT or NOBLE GASES. They have
completely filled (2 or 8 electrons in outermost shell) outermost shells, called as stable configuration.
Their valency is zero. They are almost inert in their chemical behaviour. They have weak
intermolecular forces in them and hence are gases and exists in mono-atomic states.

Tr a nsi t i on E le me nt
ntss

Ć Last two shells of these elements namely outermost and penultimate shells are incomplete.
Ć The last shell contains one or two electrons and the penultimate shell may contain more
than eight up to eighteen electrons.
Ć Their outermost electronic configuration is similar to d-block elements i.e. (n-1)d1-10 ns1-2.
Ć According to latest definition of transition elements those elements which have partly filled
d-orbitals in neutral state or in any stable oxidation state are called transition elements.
According to this definition Zn, Cu and Hg (II B group) and d-block elements but not
transition elements because these elements have d10 configuration in neutral as well as in
stable +2 oxidation state.

Inne r T rans iti on El eme nts

Ć In these elements last three shell i.e., last, penultimate and perpenultimate shells are
incomplete.
Ć These are related to III B i.e., group 3
Ć The last shell contains two electrons. Penultimate shell may contain eight or nine electrons
and pre-penultimate shell contains more than 18 upto 32 electrons.
Ć Their outermost electronic configuration is similar to f-block element i.e., (n-2)f1ă14 (n-1)s2
(n-1)p 6 (n-1)d 0-1 ns2
Elements of the seventh period after atomic number 93 (i.e. actinides are synthetic elements
and are called transuramium elements.
We can further divide the elements into three classes based on their positions in periodic table.

Me t a ls

This is the largest class of the elements. This includes elements belonging to IA, IIA, IB to VIIIB
(i.e., all transition and inner-transition elements) and some elements of groups IIIA to VA lying
near the bottom of the table. The metals are characterised by their nature of readily giving up
the electron apart from shinning lustre. The oxides of metals are basic in nature.

PERIODIC TABLE & PROPERTIES

 MARKS 11

N on - me
mett a l s

These do not give up electron, in fact like to take up the electron to form negative ion. These
include 10 elements lying to the right side of the table. They are C, N, O, F (2nd period), P, S,
Cl (3rd period), Se, Br (4th period) and I (5th period). The oxides of non-metals are acidic in
nature.

Metal loid

You are very easily observed that metallic character has decreased when one moves to the right
of the table across a row. It is observed that some elements lying at the border of metallic and
non-metallic behavior, exhibit both the metallic and non-metallic character, these are called as
metalloids. These include 8 elements namely; B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, Po and At. The oxides of
metalloids are generally amphoteric in nature.
Note : The elements in group VIII A do not behave like metals, nor do they behave like non-
metals. So they are classified separately as Noble Gases. Also the element Hydrogen (H) is
different from any other element and can not be easily classified into a particular group (however
it is placed along with the Alkali Metals, though it does not exhibit metallic character).

Pe r i od
odii c P ro pe
perr t i es

From the discussion of the periodic table, it is evident that those properties which depend upon
the electronic configuration of an atom will vary periodically with atomic number. On the other
hand, those properties which depend upon the total number of electrons will show no such
variations. Some of the common properties which depend upon electronic configuration are :

Va l e n c y

It is defined as combining capacity of an element. It can also be defined in terms of valence

electrons (electrons in the outermost shells). The valency is equal to number of valence electrons
(or equal to 8 minus the number of valence electrons).
For representative elements, in general, valency of elements belonging to a chemical family i.e.,
in a group is constant. It is known from its general electronic configuration. To illustrate, for
group I A (Alkali metals), valency is 1 (ns1), for II A (Alkaline earth metals), it is 2 (ns2) and for
group III A, it is 3 (ns2 np1 ).
For transition elements, no general trend is observed in the valency of elements. The reason is
that those elements have variable valencies due to availability of vacant d-subshells in them.
Similar is the case with inner-transition elements (f-block elements) i.e., no general trend is
observed due to variable valency.

PERIODIC TABLE & PROPERTIES

12 MARKS
Ef fec tive Nu
Nuccle ar C
Chhar ge

Between the outer most valence electrons and the nucleus of an atom, there exists finite number
of shells containing electrons. Due to the presence of these intervening electrons, the valence
electrons are unable to experience the attractive pull of the actual number of protons in the
nucleus. These intervening electrons act as shield between the valence electrons and protons in
the nucleus. Thus, the presence of intervening (shielding) electrons reduces the electrostatic
attraction between the proton in the nucleus and the valence electrons because intervening
electrons repel the valence electrons. The concept of effective nuclear charge allows us to account
for the effects of shielding on periodic properties.
For example, let us consider a helium atom, which has ground state electron configuration as 1s2.
Helium has two protons in the nucleus which gives it a charge of +2 but the full attractive force
of this charge on the two 1s electrons is partially nullified by electronăelectron repulsion.
Consequently, the 1s electrons shield each other from the nucleus.
The effective nuclear charge (Zeff ) is the charge felt bythe valence electron. Zeff is
given by Zeff = Z ă 
where Z is the actual nuclear charge (atomic number of the element) and  is the shielding
(screening) constant. The shielding constant is greater than zero but smaller than Z and depends
on the number of intervening electrons and their type of subshell.
To illustrate shielding effect, let us remove both the electrons from a helium atom, one by one.
It would take 2370 kJ of energy to remove the first electron from 1 mole of He atoms and 5250
kJ of energy to remove the remaining electron from 1 mole of He+ ions. The removal of second
electrons takes much more energy than the removal of first electron because in He+ ion, only one
electron is present and there would be no shielding and the electron experiences the full effect
of +2 nuclear charge.
For atoms with three or more electrons, the electrons in a given shell are shielded by electrons
in the same shell and electrons in the inner shells but not by electrons in outer shells. For
example, in lithium atom (electron configuration 1s22s 1), the 2s electron is shielded by the two 1s
electrons but 1s electrons are not shielded by 2s electron. In addition, the electrons of the inner
shell shield the electrons of outer shell, more effectively than the electrons of the same inner shell.
There are some simple rules for estimating the degree to which electrons in the various types of
orbitals shield other electrons from the nucleus & hence for estimating the Zeff experienced by
other electrons.
1. After writing the full electron configuration it in the following groupings and order. Group
ns and np orbitals together while all other type of orbitals are grouped separated. For
example,
(1s) (2s, 2p) (3s, 3p) (3d) (4s, 4p) (4d) (4f) (5s, 5p)....
2. Electrons to the right of the group of electrons in question contribute nothing to the shielding
of that group of electrons.

PERIODIC TABLE & PROPERTIES

 MARKS 13

3. All other electrons in the same group as the electron in question shield that electron to an
extent of 0.35 unit of nuclear charge each.
4. If the electron in question is an s or p electron : (a) All electrons with principal quantum
number one less than the electron in question shield it to an extent of 0.85 unit of nuclear
charge each (b) All electrons with principal quantum number two or more less than the
electron in question shield it completely i.e., to an extent of 1 unit.
5. If the electron in question is a d or f electron : All electrons to the left of the group of the
electron in question shield the ÂdÊ or ÂfÊ electron completely (to an extent of 1 unit). This is
due to poor penetration effect of ÂdÊ or ÂfÊ electron.
6. Sum the shielding constants from steps 2ă5 and subtract them from the actual nuclear
charge (Z) of the atom in question to obtain the Z eff felt by the electron in question.

At omic Radi us

Electron clouds do not have sharp edges but when atoms are packed together in solids, their
centres are found at definite distances from one another.
For atoms, which link together, to form an extensive threeădimensional network, atomic
radius is oneăhalf the distance between the nuclei in two neighbouring atoms. This is
called metallic or crystal radius.

For elements which exist as simple diatomic molecules, the atomic radius is oneăhalf
the distance between the nuclei of the two atoms in a particular molecule. This is
called covalent radius.

In case of mono atomic gases (like noble gases), the atomic radius is oneăhalf of the
distance between the nuclei of two atoms at some distance. This is called van der
Waals radius.

PERIODIC TABLE & PROPERTIES

14 MARKS

Thus, r covalent < rmetallic < r van der Waals

Let us see the variation of atomic radius in a period. For example, consider the second period
elements from Li to F. On moving from left to right, we can see that the number of electrons in
the inner shell (1s2 ) remains constant while the nuclear charge increase. The electrons that are
added to counter balance the increasing nuclear charge are ineffective in shielding one another.
Consequently, the effective nuclear charge increases steadily while the principal quantum number
remains constant (n = 2). For example, the outer 2s electron in lithium is shielded from the
nucleus (which has 3 protons) by the two 1s electrons. Each 1s electron shields the 2s electron
by 0.85 units, so net shielding by two 1s electrons is 1.7 (). Thus, the effective nuclear charge
of Li is 1.3. The electron configuration of Be is 1s 22s2 . One 2s electron shields other 2s electron
by 0.35 unit while each 1s electron shields 2s electron by 0.85. So, the Zeff for Be would be 4ă
[(2 ï 0.85) + 0.35] = 1.95. Similarly, the Zeff for B would be 5ă[(2 ï 0.85)] = 2.6. Thus, it is evident
that the effective nuclear charge increases, so progressively the outermost electrons are held more
strongly by the nucleus and thus the atomic radius decreases from Li to F.
Now, let us observe the trend of atomic radius in a group. For the alkali metals in group IA (Li,
Na, K, Rb, Cs & Fr), the outermost electron resides in the ns orbital. In moving from Li to Na,
the increasing principal quantum number n, which superseeds the effect of increasing Zeff. So,
thus the size of the metal atoms increase from Li to Na and so on. Thus, atomic radius increases
on moving from top to bottom in a group.

I onic R ad iu s

Ionic radius is the radius of a cation or an anion. When a neutral atom is observed to an
ion, these would be change in size, as the Zeff will change but the number of protons in nucleus
remains same.
If the atom forms an anions, its size (or radius) increases, since the nuclear charge remains the
same but the repulsion resulting from the additional electron(s) enlarges the domain of the
electron cloud. On the other hand, if one or more electrons are removed from an atom, it reduces
the electronăelectron repulsion but the nuclear charge remains the same, so the electron cloud
shrinks and the cation is smaller than the atom. When a lithium atom reacts with a fluorine
atom to form a LiF unit, the changes in size are very peculiar. Out of Li and F, Li is bigger
in size. When lithium changes to Li+, its size decreases and when F changes to Fă, its size
increases. In LiF, Li+ is smaller than Fă (Note that Li+ is smaller than F atom and F ă is smaller
than Li atom).

PERIODIC TABLE & PROPERTIES

 MARKS 15

Li F + ă
F
Li
The variation of ionic radii in a period and a group is same as that of atomic radii. Thus, ionic
radius decreases in a period while it increases in a group.
For ions derived from elements in different groups, a size comparison is meaningful only if the
ions are isoelectronic. If we examine isoelectronic ions, the cations are smaller than anions. Let
us compare the radius of Na+ ion and Fă ion. Both ions have same number of electrons (10), but
Na (Z = 11) has more protons than F (Z = 9). Thus, Zeff of Na + is more than that of F ă, so Na +
ion is smaller in size than Fă ion. Similarly, for the three isoelectronic ions of third period, Al3+,
Mg2+ and Na+, they all have the same number of electrons (10) but their number of protons are
13, 12 and 11 respectively. Thus, the electron cloud in Al3+ is pulled inward more than that in
Mg2+ and Mg2+ would be smaller than Na +. Thus in general in an isoelectronic cation series, the
radii of tripositive ions are smaller than those of dipositive ions, which in turn are smaller than
unipositive ions. Similarly, in isoelectronic anions series, the radius increases as we go from
uninegative ion to dinegative ion and so on.

Exa mp
mplle 2

Compare the size of Cl, Clă and Fe++ ion.

Solution :

Z 17
ratio for Cl =  1.00
e 17

17
Cl ă =  0.944
18

26
Fe++ =  1.08
24

Cl ă > Cl > Fe++

Ex
Exaa mp
mplle 3
The radii of Ar is greater than the radii of chlorine.
Solution :
In chlorine, the radii means the atomic or covalent radii which is actually half the intermolecular
distance between 2 atoms whereas in Argon the radii means the Vanderwaals radii as Argon is
not a diatomic molecule. Vanderwaals radii is actually half the distance between adjacent molecule.
So VanderwaalÊs radii being larger than atomic radii, Argon, has got a larger radii than chlorine.
PERIODIC TABLE & PROPERTIES
 16 MARKS
I onis a ti o n Ene rg y

Ć Ionisation energy (IE), sometimes also called ionisation potential (IP), of an element
is defined as the amount of energy required to remove an electron from an isolated gaseous

IE   M
atom of that element resulting in the formation of positive ion. M( g )   g   e
Ć (IE) is thus a direct measure of the ease with which an atom can change into cation. The
smaller the ionisation energy, the easier it is for the neutral atom to change into a positive
ion.
Ć (IE)1, (IE) 2, (IE)3 ... are respectively first, second, third,... ionisation energies required to
remove first, second, third, ... electron from the isolated gaseous atoms.

 IE1
M( g )   M   g   e

 IE2
M+ (g )   M2  g   e

IE 3
M2+ (g )   M3   g   e 

Thus, second ionisation energy, (IE)2, causes ionisation of M+ (g) to form M2+ (g) and third
ionisation energy, (IE) 3 causes ionisation of M2+ (g) to form M 3+ (g) and so on...
Ć (IE)3 is also called first ionisation energy of M 2+ (g) and second ionisation energy of M + (g).
(IE)2 is also called first ionisation energy of M+ (g).
Ć If an electron has been removed from an atom, it becomes increasingly difficult
to remove the second and subsequent electrons from the resulting positively
charged ions on account of electrostatic attraction. This is due to the fact that
after the removal of an electron, the number of electrons decreases while the
nuclear charge remains the same. Consequently, the remaining electrons are
held more tightly by the nucleus and it becomes difficult to remove second
electron. Similarly it is further difficult to remove electron from M2+ (g). Thus
(IE)1 < (IE)2 < (IE)3 < ...

Fac tor s Infl uenc i ng I on

oniis a tion Ene r gy

(IE) variation in a period and group may or may not be regular and can be influenced by
(1) Size of the Atom
In a small atom, the electrons are tightly held, while in a larger atom, the electrons are less

k Ze2
strongly held, the Coulombic force of attraction F being F 
r2

PERIODIC TABLE & PROPERTIES

 MARKS 17

where Ze is charge on nucleus, e the electronic charge, r the atomic size and k the constant.
Thus, the ionisation energy decreases as the size of the atom increases.

(2) Nuclear Charge

As given above, the force of attraction between the nucleus and the outermost electron increases
with increase in nuclear charge. Greater the nuclear charge, greater the energy required to pull
the electron from the atom. Here (IE) increases with increase in nuclear charge.

(3) Shielding Effect

The electrons in the inner-shells act as a screen or shield between the nucleus and the electron
in the outermost-shell. This is called shielding or screening effect. The larger the number of
electrons in the inner-shells, greater is the screening effect and smaller the force of attraction and
thus (IE) decreases.

These electrons shield the outer

electrons from the nucleus

This electron does not feel the full effect

of the positive charge of the nucleus

Shielding is most effective whenever there is a full shell (or shells) of electrons between the
outermost electron and the nucleus, as in case of noble gases (group VIII A). Hence, there is a
sharp decrease in (IE) going from noble gas to alkali metals as given below :

He  LI Ne  Na Ar  K

IE 2372 520 2081 513 1521 419
(kJ molă1)

The shielding is not so important across a period as it is down a group. One reason is that an
electron in, say, a px orbital has little shielding effect on an electron in a py or pz orbital (px, py
and pz are mutually at right angles to one another hence as shielding). s-orbitals are spherically
symmetrical, hence filling of 1s or 2s will experience shielding effect.

PERIODIC TABLE & PROPERTIES

 18 MARKS
(4) Penetration Effect
The ionisation energy also depends on the type of electron which is removed. s, p, d and f-
electrons have orbitals with different shape. An s-electron penetrates nearer to the nucleus, and
is therefore more tightly held than a d-electron, and a d electron is more tightly held than an f-
electron. Other factors being equal, ionisation energies are in the order s > p > d > f. Thus, the
increase in (IE) is not quite smooth on moving from left to right in the periodic table. (IE)1 of
group 13 (III A) elements (where a p-electron is being removed) is actuall less than adjacent
group 2 (II A) (where an s-electron is being removed).

increasing nuclear charge

Increase wins over shielding
in shielding
wins over Min Max
increasing
nuclear IE increases
charge across a period
IE decreases
down a group

Min

(5) Electronic Configuration

If an atom has fully-filled or half-filled orbitals, its (IE) is higher than expected normally from
its position in the periodic table.

He2
highly stable due to
complete valence
1s2 shell hence
maximum (IE) in
Ne10 their respective periods.

1s2 2s2 2p6

N stable half-filled
p-orbitals
P
ns2 np3

Variation of (IE) in a Group

On moving down a group :
(i) nuclear charge increases
(ii) Z* (effective nuclear charge) due to screening is almost constant.

PERIODIC TABLE & PROPERTIES

 MARKS 19

(iii) number of shells increases, hence atomic size increases.

(iv) there is increase in the number of inner electrons which shield the valence electrons from
the nucleus.
Thus, force of attraction between electrons and nucleus decreases and tendency to remove the
valence electron increases. Hence (IE) decreases on moving down the group. Variations of (IE)1
of alkali metals (group I) and boron family (group 13) are given in Fig. 9.6.
In general the first ionisation energy decreases in a regular way on descending the main groups.
A departure from this trend occurs in group 13 (boron family), where the expected decrease occurs

B
(IE )1 Tl
Al Ga
Li Na In
K
Rb Cs
Z
Variation of (IE)1 of groups 1 ( ) and 13 (o),
(not according to scale)

between B and A1, but the values for the remaining elements Ga, In and TI do not continue the
trend and are irregular. Ga with completely filled 3d-orbitals (no 3d in Al) decreases screening
thus Ga is smaller in size than it would otherwise be

(IE) (IE) 1
in kJ molă1
Group 1 Group 13

Li 520 B 801

Na 496 Al 577 decrease

K 419 Ga 579 constant

Rb 403 In 558 decrease

Cs 376 T1 589 increase

decrease

As expected the first ionisation energies decrease down the groups in case of the main group
elements in the periodic table. But in case of transition elements opposite trends are observed.
Thus, (I E)1 of the corresponding elements of 3d and 4d-series are almost similar but these an
smaller than the (IE)1 of the 5d-series elements. Certainly, the higher values of ionisation energies
of the 5d-transition elements are consistent with the relatively small size of then atoms.

PERIODIC TABLE & PROPERTIES

 20 MARKS
Va ria tion o
off ((IIE) in a P
Peer iod

On moving across a period, the atomic size decreases and nuclear charge increases and therefore
the force of attraction exerted by the nucleus on the electron in outer most shell increases. Hence

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Z
1.3 1.95 2.6 3.25 3.9 4.55 5.2 5.85
Z*
n
rn
F
(IE)
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Na Z-atomic number,
Z *-effective nuclear charge due to screening
K n- orbits, rn-radius
Rb
Cs (IE) ă ionisation energy
Fr increases in the given direction
constant

Variation of (IE) in a group and period

(IE) increases along a period from left to right. Fig. above explains general variation of (IE)
in a group and period. Fig. below shows the pattern of the ionisation energies of the elements H
to Ca.

2500
He
Ne
lonisation energy (kJ/mol)

2000
2p3 F
Ar
1500
2s 2 N Cl
H C O P S
1000 Mg
Be B Ca
Li Si
500
2p1 Na Al
K
0 5 10 15 20
Atomic number
Variation of IE with atomic number showing
apparent anomalies of b and O, and Al and S

Ć There are two bumps, or dips, around beryllium/boron and nitrogen/oxygen. The dip from
beryllium to boron occurs because the extra electron of boron enters a 2p-orbital and this
electron will feel the effects of the shielding by the pair of electrons in 2s-orbital. The
shielding has the effect of lowering of (IE). The increase from boron to carbon reflects the
increased nuclear charge of carbon. Also, because the two 2p-electrons of carbon are in
different orbitals, they have little shielding effect on one another. A similar state of affairs
accounts for the rise from carbon to nitrogen.

PERIODIC TABLE & PROPERTIES

 MARKS 21

Ć The dip from nitrogen to oxygen is a different matter. Compared to nitrogen, the oxygen
atomÊs extra electron must go into a 2p-orbital that already has one electron in it. Putting
two electrons into the same orbital brings about repulsion between them. For this reason it
is easier to remove an electron from 2p-orbital in oxygen containing two electrons than it
is from a similar orbital in nitrogen containing only one electron. This effect overweights the
effect of nuclear charge from nitrogen to oxygen.
Ć From oxygen to neon, the increase in ionisation energy reflects the increase in nuclear
charge. In a general trend there will be peaks for noble gases for the values of (IE).
Ć metals have relatively low IE compared to nonmetals.
Ć The IE, of the metalloids generally fall between those of metals and nonmetals. The difference
in IE suggests why metals always form cations and non-metals from anions.
Ć It is relatively easy to remove an electron from a partially filled valence shell, where Zeff is
lower but it is relatively difficult to remove an electron from an atom or ion that has a filled
valence shell, when Z eff is higher. In other words, there is a large amount of stability
associated with filled s and p-sub-shells (a noble gas electron configuration), which corresponds
to having eight electrons (an octet) in the valence shell of an atom or ion. Thus,
sodium ([Ne]3s1) loses one electron easily
magnesium (Ne] 3s2) loses only two electrons easily,
aluminium [Ne]3s2 3p1 loses only three electrons easily, and so on
8 electron is valence shells

Na(1s 22s22p 63s2) = Na + (1s2 2s22p6 ) + eă

Exa mp
mplle 4

Two atoms have the electronic configurations (EC) 1s2 2s2 2p6 and 1s 2, 2s2 2p6 3s1. (IE)1 of
one is 2080 kJ molă1 and that of the other is 497 kJ mol ă1. Match each (IE) 1, with one of the
given (EC). Justify your choice.
Solution :
Element (EC)
A 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6
1s2 2s2 2p 6
stable inert gas E.C. and removal of
electron requires higher energy

–2 2 6 3
B 1s 2s 2p 3s

1s2 2s2 2p 6 3s1

has unpaired electron, removal of

electron requires lower energy

Thus (IE)1 of A is 2080 kJ mol ă1 and that of B is 496 kJ molă1.

PERIODIC TABLE & PROPERTIES
 22 MARKS
Exa mp
mplle 5

Arrange the elements Se, Cl and S in increasing order of ionisation energy.

Solution :
Ionisation energy generally increases from left to right across a two of the periodic table and
decreases from top to bottom down a group.
(IE) increases
S16 Cl 17
(IE)
decrease
Se34

Thus, (IE) of Cl > S

and (IE) of Se < S
Thus, the order is : Se < S < Cl.

Ex
Exaa mp
mplle 6

Which has the larger fifth ionisation energy, Ge or As ?

Solution :

Group
Ge (32) : [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p2 IVA
2 10 3
As (33) : [Ar] 4s 3d 4p VA

As their positions in the periodic table indicate, the group IVA element Ge has four valence-shell
electrons and thus four relatively low ionisation energies, whereas the group VA element. As has
five valence-shell electrons and five low ionisation energies. Ge thus has larger fifth ionisation
energy than As.

Ex
Exaa mp
mplle 7

Magnesium has the first and second ionisation potential 7.646 and 15.035 eV respectively.
What is the amount of energy required to convert all the magnesium atoms present in 24
mg to magnesium vapours.
Solution :

Mg(g) + IE1  Mg+ (g) + eă 1E1 = 7.646 eV

Mg+ (g) + IE 2  Mg++ (g) + eă IE2 = 15.035 eV

PERIODIC TABLE & PROPERTIES

 MARKS 23

So, for the reaction Mg(g)  Mg++ (g) + 2e ă , energy required

= 7.646 eV + 15.035 eV = 22.681 eV

= 22.681 ï 96.49 kJ molă1
= 2188.489 kJ mol ă1
24 mg of magnesium = 1 ï 10ă3 moles of magnesium
 Total energy required = 2188.489 ï 10ă3 = 2.188 kJ

Ele ct r on Aff i nity

Electron affinity is the energy change that occurs when an electron is accepted by an
isolated atom in the gaseous state to form an anion.

X(g) + eă  Xă (g)

The sign of electron affinity is opposite to that used for ionization energy. A positive electron
affinity signifies that energy is liberated when an electron is added to an atom. To clarify this
apparent paradox, let us consider the process in which a gaseous fluorine atom accepts an
electron.

F(g) + eă  Fă (g);  H = ă 328 kJ/mole

The sign of the enthalpy change indicates that this is an exothermic process. However, the
electron affinity of fluorine is assigned a value of + 328 kJ/mole. Thus we can think of electron
affinity as the energy that must be supplied to remove an electron from a negative ion. For the
removal of an electron from a fluoride ion, we have

Fă (g) ă
 F (g) + e ;  H = + 328 kJ/mole

Do remember two unique features of electron affinity as

(i) The electron affinity of an element is equal to the enthalpy change that accompanies the
ionization process of its anion and
(ii) a large positive electron affinity means that the negative ion is very stable (i.e. atom has
a great tendency to accept an electron), just as a high ionization energy of an atom means
that the atom is very stable.

Fact or
orss Af
Afffe ct ing th
thee M
Maagnit ud
udee of El
Elee ct ron Af
Afffinit y

(i) Atomic size : in general electron affinity value decreases with the increasing atomic radius.

1
Electron affinity 
Atomic size

PERIODIC TABLE & PROPERTIES

24 MARKS
(ii) Effective nuclear charge : Electron affinity value of the element increase as the effective
nuclear charge on the nucleus increases.
Electron affinity  Effective nuclear charge (Zeff )
(iii) Screening or shielding effect : Electron affinity value of the elements decreases with the
increasing shielding or screening effect. The shielding effect between the outer electrons and
the nucleus increases as the number of electrons increases in the inner shells.

1
Electron affinity 
Shielding effect

(iv) Stability of half filled and completely filled orbitals : The stability of half filled and
completely filled degenerate orbitals of a sub shell is comparatively more, so it is difficult to
add electron in such orbitals and lesser energy is released on addition of electrons hence the
electron affinity value will decrease.

Per iodi
diccity in Ele ctr on Aff inity

(i) In general electron affinity value increases in moving from left to right in a period because
effective nuclear change increases.
(ii) In a group moving from top to bottom the electron affinity value of elements decreases
because the atomic size increases.

Va
Varria tion o
off ((E
EA) in a P
Peeri od

Ć On moving across a period, the atomic size decreases and hence the force of attraction
exerted by the nucleus on the electrons increases. Consequently, the atom has a greater
tendency to attract additional electron, i.e., its electron affinity increases.
Ć Also (EA) values of metals are low while those of non-metals are high.
Ć Halogens have high electron affinities. This is due to their strong tendency to gain an
additional electron to change into the stable ns2 np6 configuration.

Va
Varria tion o
off ((EA
EA
EA)) iin
n a G
Grr oup

On moving down a group, the atomic size increases and, therefore, the effective nuclear attraction
decreases and thus, electron affinity decreases.
Ć The fact that fluorine has a less negative electron affinity than chlorine seems to
be due to the relatively greater effectiveness of 2p-electrons in the small F atom
to repel the additional electron entering the atom than do 3p-electrons in the
larger Cl atom.
Ć The results have been represented in Fig.

PERIODIC TABLE & PROPERTIES

 MARKS 25

300
Be Mg
200 Ca

Electron affinity (kJ/mol)

100 Ne Ar
He
N
0 B Al
P
Li Na K
ă100 H
CO Si
ă200 S

ă300
F
Cl
ă400
0 5 10 15 20 25
Atomic number
A plot of electron affinity versus atomic number for the first 20 elements. The general
horizontal trend is that electron affinities become more negative (more energy is
released as an extra electron is added) from group IA (1) through group VIIA (17)
for a given period. Exceptions occur at the IIA (2) and VA (15) elements.

Exa mp
mplle 8

Why does nitrogen have a less favourable (more positive) electron-affinity than its neighbours
on either side, C and O ?
Solution :
Electron configurations of these elements are :

1 1 0
C6 : 1s2 2s 2 2 px 2 py 2 pz

N7 : 1s2 2s2 2p1x 2p1y 2p1z

2 1 0
O8 : 1s2 2s2 2p x 2p y 2pz

Carbon has only two electrons in its 2 p-subshell and can readily accept another in its vacant 2pz-
orbital. Nitrogen, however, has a half-filled 2p-subshell and the additional electron must pair up
in a 2p-orbital, when it feels a repulsion from the electron already present.
Thus the electron affinity of nitrogen is less favourable than that of carbon. Oxygen also must
add an electron to an orbital that already has one electron, but the additional stabilising effect
of increased effective nuclear charge (Z eff), across the periodic table counteracts the effect of
electron repulsion, resulting in a more favourable electron-affinity for O than for N.

PERIODIC TABLE & PROPERTIES

 26 MARKS
Ele ct rone
negga t ivit y (EN)

Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an element to attract electrons to

itself.

X(g) + eă  X ă (g)

In a molecule, tendency of the atom to attract bonding pair towards itself is its electronegativity.
B is said to be more electronegative than A if it pulls bonding pair towards itself.

 
(A)  B   A · B 

Va
Varria tion of ((E
EN) in a Group

Ć On moving down the group

· Z increases but Zeff. almost remains constant.
· number of shells (n) increases
· r n (atomic radius) increases,

 k Ze2 

· force of attraction  F   between added electron and nucleus decreases,
 rn2 

Therefore, (EN) decreases moving down the group.

Element Z Zeff n rn F (EN)

F 9 max max
Cl 17
Br 35
I 53
constant max max

Va
Varria tion of ((E
EN) in a Per iod

Ć While moving across a period left to right

· Z, Zeff. increases,
· n number of shells remains constant,
— r n decreases

 Z e2 

· F  k  increases
 rn2 

PERIODIC TABLE & PROPERTIES

 MARKS 27

Hence, (EN) increases along a period.

Li Be B C N O F Ne
Z, Zeff
constant
n
max (except for Ne)
rn
max
F
max
EN

Ć Flourine is the most electronegative element in the periodic table.

Fig. represents variation of electronegativity of elements with atomic number. In this :
the strongest non-metals, the halogens, appear at the peaks;
the alkali metals mark the troughs. This is largely a result of new shell of electrons
starting with noble gases which have zero values of electronegativities.

(EN)
F
4.0

3.5 O
Cl
3.0 N Br
S
2.5 C Se
H P As
2.0 B Si
Ga
Al Co Cu Ge
1.5 Be Mg Mn FeNi Zn
V
Sc Cr
1.0 Li Na Ti
K Ca
0.5 Rb
He Ne Ar Ar
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 3638

Fig. Electronegativities of the elements H(1) to Rb (37).

The (EN) of the noble gases have been set at zero

Ć the group 1 (IA) metals have their nuclei quite strongly shielded. Hence they show little
tendency to gain new electron.
the electronegativities of transition metals like their (IE), do not change greatly from one
another.

Di ag ona
nall R el a ti ons hi
hipp a nd El
Elee ct r oneg ati vi ty

Ć Moving one place to the right across period, the increased nuclear charge holds the electrons
more tightly to the atom. Moving down one place in a group, the extra shell of electrons

PERIODIC TABLE & PROPERTIES

28 MARKS
decreases the attraction of the nucleus for the outer electrons. A diagonal move means that
these effects tend to compensate for one another.

Ć The electronegativity increases as we go from Li to Be but it decreases as we move from Be

to Mg. As we move diagonally, these two effects partly cancel each other and there is no
marked change in electronegativity and thus Li and Mg have close values of electronegativities.
Because of this, Li and Mg show similarity in properties· a diagonal relationship (between
elements lying diagonally in periodic table).

Ć ElementsÊ pairs showing this relationship are :

Li·Mg, Be·Al, B·Si

(EN) increases
Along a diagonal there is both
(EN) decreases

increase and decrease in (EN)

values, each tends to cancel the
effects of other.

Pa ul ing ’s El ec t ro neg at i vi t y

This scale determines electronegativity of the element X w.r.t. hydrogen H

x  X   0.208 H  x

where (chi) represents electronegativity,  Hăx is the extra bond energy in kcal mol ă1.

and  x  E x  E H E x x

EHăx, E HăH and Exăx represent bond energy of H ă X, H ă H and X ă X bonds respectively.
Converting the equation to SI units

 x   H  0.1017  Hx

where Hăx is measured in kJ molă1 .

Ć H = 2.05 (and not zero) to avoid any negative value of the element.
Some other elements have following values of electronegativity based on PaulingÊs scale :

PERIODIC TABLE & PROPERTIES

 MARKS 29

H
2.1
Li Be B C N O F
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Na Cl
0.9 3.0
K Br
0.8 2.8
Rb I
0.8 2.5
Cs
0.7

Ć If two atoms have similar electronegativity, the bond between H and X will be predominantly
covalent.
Ć A large difference in electronegativity leads to a bond with a high degree of polar character,
and bond will be predominantly ionic.
Ć Ionic character of a bond varies with the difference in electronegativity as given in Fig. 9.11.
This is based on the ionic character; HI : 4%, HBr : 11%, HCl : 19% and HF : 45% which
are known from dipole moment measurements.

100

50

0
1 1.7 2
Electronegativity difference

Ć 50% ionic character is shown in the cases when electronegativity difference is about 1.7.
Thus,
(x ·  H) = 1.7 50% ionic
(x ·  H) > 1.7 predominantly ionic
(x ·  H) < 1.7 predominantly covalent

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30 MARKS
Mul lik e n-Jaf fe El ect rone
negg at iv ity

Electronegativity (EN) can be regarded as the average of the ionisation energy (IE) and the
electron affinity (EA) of an atom.

IE + EA
 EN 
2

If both (EA) and (IE) are determined in eV units then PaulingÊs electronegativity (EN) P is related
to MullikenÊs electronegativity (EN)M by the equation :
(EN)P = 0.336 [(EN)M ă 0.615]
Ć If (EA) and (IE) are in eV, then (EN) in eV is given by
0.187 (IE + EA) + 0.17
Ć MullikenÊs values were about 2.8 times larger than the PaulingÊs values.

Al
Alllr ed -R och ow ’s El ec t r one ga t i vi t y

Allred and Rochow defined electronegativity as the force exerted by the nucleus of an atom on
its valence electrons :

0.359Zeffective
 ENA R   0.744
r2

where Zeffective is the effective nuclear charge and r the covalent radius (in Å).

METALLI C NA
NATTURE
Metals have the tendency to form cations by loss of electrons and this property makes the
elements as electropositive elements or metals.

M(g)  M + (g) + eă

Ć The tendency of an element to lose electron is closely connected to the (IE) of the element.
The smaller the (IE) of an element, the greater will be its tendency to lose electrons
and thus greater will be its metallic character.
Ć Tendency to oxidise itself provides reducing property to the elements thus, smaller the (IE),
greater the metallic character, hence greater the reducing nature : (IE) increases moving
along a period left to right and decreases down the group, hence metallic and reducing
nature decrease along the period and increase down the group.
Nuclear Tendency to Reducing Meta llic
Cha rge Sheilding ma ke +ve ions power na ture

increases increases But the shielding increases increases increases

effect wins so 

PERIODIC TABLE & PROPERTIES

 MARKS 31

Nuclear charge increases

Shielding increases

But the nuclear charge wins so 

Tendency to form +ve ions decreases L to R

Reducing power decreases L to R

Metallic nature decreases L to R

Notice that the most reactive metals (the top of the activity series) are on the left of the periodic
table, whereas the least reactive metals (the bottom of the activity series) are in the transition
metal group closer to the right side of the table as shown in Fig. below

More active Less active

metals metals

Redox reactions are common for almost every element in the Periodic table except for the noble
gas element of group VIIIA (18). In general, metals act as reducing agents, and reactive non-
metals such as O 2 and the halogens act as oxidizing agents as given in Fig. below

Oxidizing
agents;
tend to
gain eă

Reducing agents;
tend to lose eă

Ex
Exaa mp
mplle 9

The formation of F(g )ă from F(g ) is exothermic whereas that of O2ă (g) from O 2(g) is endothermic.
Why ?
Solution :
When Fă is formed from F an eă is added to an electronegative, neutral atom and energy [E.A.]
is released by this process but even through Oă from O is energy releasing process, formation of
O2ă from O ă is highly energy consuming. So combined effect is O2ă formation from O is endothermic.

PERIODIC TABLE & PROPERTIES

 32 MARKS
Di a gon a l R el a t i o n shi p s

A diagonal relationship is a similarity in properties between diagonal neighbours in the main

groups of the periodic table. Because these properties lie in a diagonal pattern, it is not surprising
to find that the elements within a diagonal band show similar chemical properties. Diagonal
relationship helps in making predictions about the properties of elements and their compounds.
Diagonal relationship is exhibited by lithium & magnesium and beryllium & aluminium. For
example, lithium and magnesium react directly with nitrogen to form nitrides. Beryllium and
aluminium, both are amphoteric i.e., reacts with acids as well as bases.

Proper tie s of Oxi de

dess

Properties of the representative elements across a period can be compared by examining the
properties of their oxides. Let us see the difference in the behaviour of the oxides of third period
elements. Some elements in the third period (P, S and Cl) form several types of oxides but we will
consider those oxides in which the elements have the highest oxidation number. The oxides of the
elements of third period are Na2O, MgO, Al 2O3 , SiO2, P4 O 10, SO3 and Cl2 O7.
We know that oxygen has a tendency to form the oxide ion. This tendency is greatly favoured
when oxygen combines with metals having low ionization energies (like I and II A group elements
plus aluminium). Thus, Na2O, MgO and Al 2O3 are ionic compounds having extensive threeă
dimensional structures in which each cation is surrounded by a specific number of anions and vice
versa. As the ionization energies of the elements increase from left to right, so does the molecular
structure of the oxides that are formed. Silicon is a metalloid whose oxide (SiO2 ) has a giant
threeădimensional network, although no ions are present. The oxides of phosphorous, sulfur &
chlorine are molecular compounds composed of small discrete units.
Most oxides can be classified as acidic or basic depending on whether they produce acids or bases
when dissolved in water or react as acids or bases in certain processes. Some oxides are amphoteric,
which mean they display both acidic and basic properties. The first two oxides of the third period
(Na2 O & MgO) are basic oxides. For example, Na2 O reacts with water to form the base (NaOH).

Na 2O + H 2O  2NaOH

MgO is quite insoluble in H2O but it reacts with acids showing its basic nature.

MgO + 2HCl  MgCl2 + H 2O

Al 2O3 is even less soluble in H 2 O than MgO, it also does not react with water but it shows basic
properties by reacting with acids.

Al2 O3 + 6HCl  2AlCl3 + 3H 2O

It also exhibits acidic properties by reacting with bases.

Al2O3 + 2NaOH + 3H2 O  2NaAl(OH) 4

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Thus, Al2O3 is classified as an amphoteric oxide because it has properties of both acids and bases.
Other amphoteric oxides are ZnO, BeO, Bi 2O3 etc. SiO 2 is insoluble and does not react with water.
It has acidic properties as it reacts with very concentrated bases.

SiO2 + 2NaOH  Na2SiO 3 + H2O

For this reason, concentrated aqueous, strong bases such as NaOH should not be stored in
glasswares, which are made of SiO2.
The remaining oxides are acidic. They react with water to form phosphoric acid (H3PO 4 ), sulfuric
acid (H2SO 4) and perchloric acid (HClO4).

P4O10 + 6H2O  4H3 PO4

SO3 + H2O  H2SO 4

Cl2O7 + H 2O  2HClO4

Thus the oxides of third period elements shows that as the metallic character of the elements
decreases from left to right across the period, their oxides changes from basic to amphoteric to
acidic. Metallic oxides are usually basic and most oxides of non-metals are acidic. The intermediate
properties of the oxides are exhibited by elements which are placed between metals and non-
metals. As the metallic character of the elements increases from top to bottom in a group of
representative elements, the basic character of oxides also increases from top to bottom. Thus,
Na2O is less basic than K2O, K2O is less basic than Rb2 O and so on.

Sc ree ning (shie lding) Eff ect

In d-block elements (transition elements), while writing electronic configuration of element, it is

seen that the new electrons are being added to the inner shell i.e. penultimate shell (3d after 4s,
4d after 5s & so on). This affects the nuclear attraction of the positive nucleus for the outer
electrons. As the differentiating electrons enters the inner shells, they tend to screen or shield the
outer shell electrons from the nucleus and hence offset the nuclear attractive force. This is famous
as screening or shielding effect. Due to this effect, the atomic size of transition elements (which
should have been decreasing across a period) remains nearly same or constant. The same is the
case with ionisation energy, electron affinity and other periodic properties when one moves across
a period.

Magne tic P r ope

perrt ies

In general, the magnetic properties of matter depends upon the atoms contained in them. The
magnetic behavior of an atom is the direct consequence of its electronic configuration. Any electron
in an atom has two types of motions. One is its motion about the nucleus and other its spin about
its own axis. A single electron spinning about its own axis generates a magnetic field. For two
electrons in an orbital, the spins are opposite and hence the fields cancel each other.

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 Consequently an atom which has a single electron in its orbital generates a magnetic field
while an orbital containing two electrons falls to do so. This type of magnetism is called as
paramagnetism. Any atom or ion or molecule that contains one or more unpaired electrons
will be paramagnetic. The substances that contain such type of atoms are weakly attracted
by the magnets.
Another kind of magnetism is diamagnetism. A diamagnetic substance when placed in an
external magnetic field, is weakly repelled in it. This arises due to orbital motion of electrons
about nucleus. It is a weak effect and is swamped out if the atom is paramagnetic.
 The strongest kind of magnetism is ferromagnetism. When a paramagnetic substance is
placed in a magnetic field, the field will align the unpaired spins & magnetise the substance.
If the substance keeps its magnetism after the field is removed, it is called as ferromagnetism.
It is much stronger than paramagnetism. The most important example of such types is iron
& others are cobalt & nickel.

Hy dr ati on A nd H ydra ti on Ene

nerrgy

Hydr a ti on energy i s th e enth a lpy c ha ng e tha t a c comp a nies when o ne m ole o f the ga seous
ion is dissolved in water. For example, reaction of the hydration of Li ion is shown as :

Li + (g) + nH2 O  [Li(H2O)n] +(aq); H = ă 806 kJ mol ă1

Extent of hydration (means the number of water molecules surrounding a given ion) depends on
the size and charge of the ion. If the size of the ion is small and its charge is greater, then there
would be greater attraction for water molecules, hence greater the extent of hydration and greater
the hydration energy. The total hydration energy of a salt (M+ X ă) is related as

 1   1 
    
Total hydration energy  r  r  
 M   X 

The first term in this expression defines the hydration energy due to cation and second term
defines the hydration energy due to anion.
Let us take LI+, Na+, K+ , Rb+ and Cs+ ions for comparison. The charge on all the ions is same
but the size increases from Li+ to Cs+. Thus the positive charge density increases from Li+ to Cs+
and hence Li+ ion would attract H2O molecules more strongly than Na+ and so on. Therefore,
hydration energy increases from Li+ to Cs+ ion while the size of the hydrated ion decreases from
Li+ ion to Cs+ ion and thus the ionic mobility decreases from Li+ to Cs+ ion.
In a period, on moving from left to right the hydration energy increases. You can very well see
this trend in the group of ions Na+, Mg2+ and Al3+.

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Hy d r i d e s

Hydrogen combines with a number of other elements (meta ls and non-metals) to form
compounds ca lled hydrides. The hydrides can be either ionic or covalent. The ionic hydrides
are formed by the elements of I A & II A group while other elements mostly form covalent
hydrides.
Covalent nature of hydrides increases across a period and decreases down the group while ionic
nature of hydrides decreases across a period and increases down the group.
Ionic hydrides are better reducing agent than covalent hydrides and reducing nature of hydrides
decreases across a period and increases down the group.

Ex
Exaa mp
mplle 1 0

Arrange the following compounds in the order of their decreasing stability if the electro
negative values of elements are as follows :
H = 2.1 F = 4, Cl = 3.0, Br = 2.8
I = 2.3, N = 3.0
HF, NCl3, HBr, HI, HCl
Solution :
Electronegativity difference for
HF = 4.0 ă 2.1 = 1.9
NCl3 = 3.0 ă 3.0 = 0.0
HBr = 2.8 ă 2.1 = 0.7
HI = 2.3 ă 2.1 = 0.2
HCl = 3.0 ă 2.1 = 0.9
So their order of their decreasing stability
HF > HCl > HBr > HI > NCl3
1.9 0.9 0.7 0.4 0.0

Ex
Exaa mp
mplle 1 1

Why are inert gases mono-atomic ?

Solution :
Inert gas have completely octet (ns2 , np6) and so do not form bonds.

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 36 MARKS
Some O ther pe
perriodic P rope
perrt ies

(i) Atomic Volume : Atomic volume increases in a group from top to bottom. The increase is
due to the increases in the number of energy shells.
In period from left to right, atomic volume varies cyclically, i.e., it decreases at first for some
elements, becomes minimum in the middle and then increases.
(ii) Density : The density of the elements in solid state varies periodically with their atomic
numbers. At first, the density increases gradually in a period and becomes maximum
somewhere for the central members and then start decreasing afterwards gradually.

Ex
Exaa mp
mplle 1 2

The sum of first and second ionization energies and those of third and fourth ionization
energies in (kJ molă1 ) of nickel and platinum are
(IE)1 + (IE) 2 (IE)3 + (IE) 4
Ni 2.49 8.80
Pt 2.66 6.70
Based on this information; write
(i) the most common oxidation states of Ni and Pt
(ii) Name of metal (Ni or Pt) which can more easily form compounds in its +4 oxidation
state.
Solution :
(i) Ni = +2, Pt = +4 since (IE)1 + (IE) 2 of Ni is less than its (IE)3 + (IE)4 and reverse is the case
in Pt.
(ii) Platinum forms more stable complexes in +4 state due to its higher stability than +2 state.

Ex
Exaa mp
mpll e 1 3

In alkali metal group which is the strongest reducing agent in aqueous solution and why ?
Solution :
Li is the strongest reducing agent. Since I.P. decreases down the group we would expect that Li
will have the lowest reducing power in that group. But since itÊs hydration energy is very high
and which in fact decreases down the group, Li will have highest reducing power.

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 MARKS 37

Exa mp
mplle 1 4

The first ionization energy of carbon atom is greater than that of boron atom, whereas
reverse is true for the second ionization energy. Explain.
Solution :
The electronic configurations of carbon and boron are as follows :

C : 1s2, 2s 2 2 p1x 2 p1y

1
B : 1s2, 2s2 2 px

Due to higher nuclear charge in carbon, the force of attraction towards valency electron is more
in carbon atom and hence the first ionization energy is greater than boron atom. After loss of one
electron, the mono-valent cations have the configurations as follows :
B+ : 1s2 , 2s2
1
C + : 1s 2, 2s2 2 px

The B+ configuration is stable one and hence the removal of electron is difficult in comparison to
C+. Hence, second ionization potential of boron is higher than carbon.

Ex
Exaa mp
mplle 1 5

Calculate the electronegativity of fluorine from the following data :

EHăH = 104.2 kcal molă1 , EFăF = 36.6 kcal molă1
EHăF = 134.6 kcal molă1, X H = 2.1
Solution :
Let the electronegativity of fluorine beXF .
Applying PaulingÊs equation
X F ă XH = 0.208[EHăF ă (E FăF ï EHăH)ó
]ó
In this equation, dissociation energies are taken in kcal mol ă1.
X F ă 2.1 = 0.208 [134.6 ă (104.2 ï 36.6)ó] ó
X F = 3.87

PERIODIC TABLE & PROPERTIES

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