NATIONAL AND STRATEGIC STUDIES

CONTENTS
PAGE

UNIT 1 NATIONAL AND STRATEGIC STUDIES –ZIMBABWEAN HISTORY 1-11

UNIT 2 THE EUROPEAN COLONISATION OF ZIMBABWE

UNIT 3 ZIMBABWE HERITAGE

UNIT 4 CIVIC RESPONSIBILITY

UNIT 5 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL PROBLEMS FACED BY ZIMBABWE SINCE 1980

UNIT 6 LEGAL AND PARLIAMENTARY AFFAIRS

UNIT 7 DEMOCRACY AND GOVERNANCE

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UNIT 8 THE CONSTITUTION OF ZIMBAMBWE

UNIT 9 REGIONAL AND INTRNATIONAL RELATIONS

UNIT 10 DIPLOMACY

UNIT 11 INTERNATIONAL CAPITAL AND IMPERIALISM.

UNIT 12 DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES

UNIT 13 REGIONALISM

UNIT 14 NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS(NGOs)

UNIT 15 THE MEDIA

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 NATIONAL AND STRATEGIC STUDIES

UNIT 1

1.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit the student should be able to:

• Define National and Strategic Studies
• Compare and contrast the democracy in the pre-colonial states and the democracy in the West.
• Examine the level of civilization of the pre-colonial states in the following areas:
i) Medicine
ii) Governance
iii) Democracy
iv) Culture
v) Technology

1.2 INTRODUCTION.

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1.2.1 NASS- The background
There is no educational system that is silent on the values that are accepted and cherished by that society.
Education is about values in other word behaviour change in all the domains of education that is the
psychomotor, the cognitive and the affective. A skilled artisan or accountant with no sense of his position in
society at the family level or at work or society in general is a social misfit and a drain to national wealth
because of the need to either hospitalise him because he has AIDS or incarcerate him because he is a criminal
and a danger to that society. A strong sense of belonging or identity, responsibility and accountability are the
things that can be defined as patriotism. Economic giants today and in the past are and were the most patriotic.
In Zimbabwe today the sense of belonging has eluded both young and old and this is due to selfishness, greed
and the collapse of the extended family due to western values. A culture of greed or a mafia and mercenary
attitude pervades all sectors of society in the banking, retailing, manufacturing and civil service. The need to
change attitudes and the need to inculcate correct values is not only urgent but imperative now and in the
future.

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 1.2.2 NASS -Definition
NASS can be defined as civic education designed to make all Zimbabweans who go through
tertiary institutions become responsible citizens who are patriotic and can therefore be
mobilised to participate in national development. Civic education is typical of
and in all educational systems and is not unique to Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe was the odd case in
that it did not have this kind of emphasis in its education as much as Zimbabwe was the
odd case in relation to National Service.
1.2.3 NASS-Purpose
NASS therefore is about positively changing or enhancing the attitudes of participants with
respect to their national identity and with respect to translating the political gains of the Second
Chimurenga into economic gains in the Third and Fourth Chimurenga.
1.3 ZIMBABWEAN HISTORY…
Zimbabwe has a beginning in the distant past as witnessed and testified by the Zimbabwe ruins as well as in the
recent past as embodied in the ethos of the Second Chimurenga war. The second chimurenga in essence establishes
our ‘enduring political tradition” and ethos. Standing on a hill allows one to see as far behind as he is able to see as
far ahead. Mathematically expressed this would be, “one is able to see as far ahead proportional to the distance
he/she is able to see as far backward.’ History is therefor relevant not only for today’s events and policies, but
allows us to shape our future and avoid the pitfalls of yester -year.

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1.3.1 PRE COLONIAL HISTORY
1.3.1.2 The GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE
• State was most powerful before the 14th century i.e. 1500.
• It was called a state because it could raise an army and force the payment of tribute and was involved in
international relations.
• The state was built by a group of people and they were basically the shona people and who had much
wealth in the form of livestock.
• The Shona built the stone capital commonly called Great Zimbabwe which became the centre of social,
religious, economic and political life..
• The king was termed “Mambo”. The name of Great Zimbabwe means “house of stones” that is “Dzimba
Dzemabwe”. Similar “dzimba dzemabwe” were built across the country for chiefs on rulers who were
loyal to the “mambo” at Great Zimbabwe.
1.3.1.2.1 Historical evidence
• Historians have used the oral traditions to try to explain the history of the Great Zimbabwe state. However,
there is little that we normally get from the oral traditions because the Shonas have no written records.
• Documentary evidence written during the Mutapa state by the Portuguese and records found in Arab writings
have an account on the Changamire and Mutapa states.

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 1.3.1.2.2Archaeological Evidence
• Archaeology in the form of clothing found at the Great Zimbabwe and some of the evidence including bones,
copper and iron tools.
• These have been used by historians to show the social economic and political activities of the people at Great
Zimbabwe.
• The structure at the ruins consist of 2 complexes “the Acropolis”or temple area and the external enclosure
which consisted of a large number of stone buildings.
• Excavations in the external enclosure yielded stone, glass, bead, and brassware,
• Sea shells, iron ware, iron axes and hoes.
• Local goods included ivory, gold, beads, soapstones, chisels etc.
1.3.1.2.3 Social and Political Organisation
• By 1200 a ruling class had emerged which was strong enough to organize almost the whole population to build
a high surrounding wall made of granite blocks.
• The Great Zimbabwe rulers exercised power a number of chiefdoms who paid tribute to the mambo at great
Zimbabwe.
• Other chiefdoms may have been independent but connected through marriage and trade.
• The ruling class controlled trade.

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1.3.1.2.4Purpose of the stone structure
1) Security
2) Religion
3) Prestige monument.
4) Occupy slave labour
1.3.1.2.5 Causes for the Decline or Collapse of the State
• The state had become overpopulated leading to a shortage of resources.
• There was increased emigration
• Shortage of resources i.e. salt
• Civil wars
• Declining soil fertility
• Some dispute that Nyatsimba Mutota left Great Zimbabwe because he had failed to succeed and left and formed
the Mutapa state..
1,3.1.3.THE MUTAPA STATE
• The founder of the Mutapa state was Nyatsimba Mutota who left Zimbabwe in search of salt or after a
succession dispute according to oral history. Mutota went to the Zambezi Valley where he defeated some weak
communities who were already settled there such as the Tavara or the Dzivaguru people. Mutota As a result
earned the title ‘ Munhu-mutapa’ a praise name which means Lord of Conquering.

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 • Before the succession dispute, King Chibatamatosi, Mutota’s father had ordered Mutota to find salt.
• Initially the king had sent his servant Nyakatondo who had returned with salt and reported on the abundance of
elephants in the area.
• Prince Mutota traveled north leading a large army. He built his capital a “Zimbabwe” on the slope of Chikato
hill near the Utete River.
• Part of this Zimbabwe remains to this day at the bottom of the escapement north of Guruve.
• Mutota formed an alliance with the Tavara High Priest, Dzivaguru. Upon the death of Mutota, his son,
Nyanhenhwe Matope took over and co-ruled with his half sister Nyamhita who occupied the district of Handa
hence she is often referred to as Nyamhita Nehanda. The two ruled the Mutapa Empire stretching from the
Anngwa and Manyame Rivers, north to the Zambezi and west to the Musengezi and Mukumbura Rivers.
1.3.1.3.1The Mutapa Language eschatology and customs
• The people had the same shona language, customs and culture similar to the peoples of the Great Zimbabwe
state. The term “Shona” was not used until the 19 th century. The Ndebele people described the Karanga ie.
Mutapa language and area of control as “entshona langa” which means a place where the sun sets or a place to
the west.
• Nowadays the term Shona is representative of a number of related dialects (in Zimbabwe) one of which is
Karanga.

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• They believed in a god whom they called ‘mwari’ who is claimed to have spoken through the spirits of the
ancestors and they listened carefully to spirit mediums i.e. the Mhondoros.
• Religious ceremonies were held to honour the spirit mediums where music dancing and feasting occurred
(Bira). The senior spirit mediums were Dzivaguru in the north east, Nehanda in the central and Chaminuka in
the west.
• At the cultural level the society was closely knit with the family being the nucleus of society as well as being the foundation of the
nation. The basis of this arrangement was a high degree of morality with crime, starvation, delinquency, prostitution, divorce and
almost all known present day social ills being unknown. The law was highly developed to deal with cultural issues and less
defined in terms of commerce. Criminals even murderers were rehabilitated with the law seeking to reconcile the injured and the
culprit and compensate the victim or his relatives in the case of murder. When a person was murdered life had to be paid with life
and invariably a young woman from the murderers’ family had to be given to the victim’s family. Inevitably, this created a bond
between the two considering that at birth or death there are things that no one could or can do except the relatives of a woman.
This is in stark contrast to equivalent European law which was and remains punitive and divisive.
1,3.1.3.2 The Mutapa Economy
The state existed for almost 500 years in one form or the other. During its peak it was the heart of a powerful
empire which controlled the Zambezi River trade route and received taxes from foreigners. Not only was the
economy based on trade and taxation, tribute was also part of their economy. The people of the Mutapa provided a
variety of goods for trade. Trade made the Mutapa ruling class wealthy and the state became strong.
• The people paid tribute to the Mutapa tax collectors and elephant hunters paid tribute in the form of tusks.

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 • The Mutapa encouraged the gold miners to do the dangerous mine work in return the miners had to sell the gold
to the Mutapa.
• He taxed all imports and exports, every trader paid tribute, every visitor gifts, people brought disputes and
complains to the Mutapa and paid fees for his judgement.
1. 3.1.3.3 The Mutapa Political Structures
• They had many advisors and ministers to govern the state.
• Some of the emperors’ wives were also officials, greeting visitors and handling their business and as members
of his royal court they became very powerful.
• Munhumutapa, his wives and officials wore expensive jewellery and clothes made from cotton and silk. Most
people wore skin aprons.
• A large army was maintained which traveled long distances, patrolling and collecting taxes and cattle and
brought new communities into the empire.
1. 3.1.3.4 The Portuguese Factor In The Mutapa State.
• When Matope died, succession disputes arose. In 1494 Chikuyo Chisamarengu became king and was the first
to receive a Portuguese visitor named Fernandes who brought rice, cloth and guns as gifts.
• The acquisition of more guns increased Mutapa’s power such that he was in a position to assist his ally
Makombe of Barwe to take control of Manyika.

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• In 1530 Neshangwe became the new king after Chisamarengu had died. He took over Mbire province earning
the praise name Munembire.
• He introduced the old custom of chiefs sending their ambassador to rekindle fires at the king’s palace.
• In 1550 Chivero Nyasoro succeeded Neshangwe and after him Nzou or Ntemba an unmarried youth, took over
and ruled with his mother Chiuya.
• Negomo and his mother Chiuya received a Catholic priest Father Goncalo da’ Silveira who wanted to convert
them to Christianity. Muslim traders at the king’s court (vamwenyi) did not like this and plotted to kill Da’
Silveira. They subsequently strangled him and dumped him in a pond.
• Goncalo’s death angered the Portuguese and when they sent an army to revenge his death, it was defeated.
• In 1607 Gatsi Rusere asked the Portuguese’s for assistance to fight his rival for the leadership and in return
they were given mines.
• The people of Mutapa refused to tell them where the mines were because of earlier experience with Portuguese
Prazeros(land/ prazo holders)(this is where the name purazi comes from) who took their land.
• More Portuguese arrived and forced them to work in the fields. The Portuguese formed private armies and
became wild and lawless.

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1.3.1.3.5 The Decline or Collapse of the Mutapa State
• The decline was precipitated by the Portuguese private armies and this led the Mutapa Nyambo Kapararidze to
try to expel them.
• He was unsuccessful in this and was overpowered and in his place a puppet Mamvura Mhande was installed.
• After Kapararidze, the Portuguese chose other Munhumutapas who would obey them.
• An 18th century Munhumutapa moved his people to Mozambique where new chiefs were appointed to restore
order.
• Chioko was the last ruler to use the title Munhumutapa. He led a revolt against the Portuguese but was however
crashed in 1817 and so ended the legacy of the Mutapa state.
1.3.1.4 THE ROZVI STATE
• The state arose from plundered wealth by the Rozvi under Changamire Dombo (1634) believed to having been
a powerful ruler. He was very wealthy and claimed that his father was a mwari and his mother a virgin. The
Rozvi capital was at Thabazikamambo near Bulawayo.
• By 1680 he was at his peak and his state was spread between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers and even into
areas like Mozambique e.g. Sena.
• The Rozvi Changamire received tribute from smaller chiefs.
• By 1830 – 1860 the state existed in name only.
1.3.1.4 .1 Decline and Collapse Of the State

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 Collapse of the Rozvi state was as a result of Mfecane ‘or time of trouble” caused by Nguni tribes who had fled
from Tshaka or broken away from the Zulu state in present day Natal
Zwangendaba crossed the Limpopo with his group and fought the Rozvi ruler Chirisamhuru.
• The state was further weakened when Kololo Sebitwane in 1836 fought and defeated the Rozvi. Mzilikazi
turned west into Gaza and then north with his group and finished the remnants of the Rozvi state between 1837
– 1840.
1.3.1.5 THE NDEBELE STATE
The Founder of the State was Mzilikazi son of, Matshobane and grandson of Zwide. Mzilikazi joined Tshaka
under Zwide. He was a chief of a small clan called Khumalo. He suspected Zwide of the death of his father
Matshobane.
• Mzilikazi was sent to recover cattle and he did not surrender the cattle to Tshaka and fled north.
• He left Natal in 1821/ 1822 with 300 men. The name Ndebele was given as a nickname by Tswanas and means
people of long shields. Mzilikazi increased his side through conquering and incorporating weak tribes such as
the Tswana and Suthuland some people voluntarily joined Mzilikazi. He was defeated by the Boers at
Enthumbane in the Transvaal. The Ndebele crossed the Limpopo River in 1837 – 1846 and settled at Inyati
near Matopo hills.
• They easily routed the weakened Rozvi and brought adjacent Shona areas under their control. They conquered
Shonas such as the Kalanga and Venda.

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1.3.1.5.1 Political Structures
• King was pre-eminent in the Ndebele state. Mzilikazi was the supreme commander of the army, highest judge
with power over life and death. He was a religious leader who presided over important religious ceremonies
such as Incxwala.
• King however didn’t rule alone but with two advisory counsels, the Mphakati and Izinkulu indicating that king
was not a dictator.
• The Mphakati was made up of original Khumalo chiefs i.e. those who had left Natal and knew Zulu military
tactics.
• These made the most important decisions although they could be vetoed by the king.
• The Izinkulu was made up of other chiefs especially those who were incorporated in the Ndebele state..
1.3.1.5 .2The Ndebele Economy.
Many European historians misunderstood or deliberately distorted the bases of Ndebele economy. They argued
that the Ndebele were nomads and therefore had lots of time for raiding the Shona. This was not entirely true. The
following were the basis of Ndebele economy:
• Herding –This was the most important economic activity owing to the fact that Ndeng initially were not
permanently established in Matebeleland. The Ndeng kept large heads of cattle, sheep and goats.
• They acquired some of the cattle along the way while others were obtained through the conquered Rozvi and
others were received in the form of tribute from the Shona while others were obtained through raiding.

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• Agriculture- the Ndebele had fields in which they grew crops such as millet, sorghum, water melons etc.
• Agriculture was however, not very popular with the Ndebele because of climatic conditions.
• Hunting and gathering - Hunting was very popular in the Ndebele state. Their kills ranged from large animals
e.g. elephants and buffaloes to small species e.g. buck and rodents. Men usually hunted while women
concentrated on gathering.
• They gathered wild fruits, grass seed and insects. Gathering was important in the Ndebele state as far as it
supplemented organised agriculture.
• Trade - They traded internally i.e. amongst themselves and externally with the Shona
• The Ndebele traded their cattle and gold for grain, corn, cloth, iron, jewellery, beads etc
• Mining - The Ndebele occasionally carried out some mining activities to a limited extent. They traded gold with
the Portuguese. Mining was done mostly in winter- after harvest when people didn’t have much work in the
field.
• Tribute - in the form of cattle, grain and to a certain extent women from those tribes under their control
• Raids/plunder - They raided the unsubdued Shona tribes for cattle, women, young men and grain.
• However, it should be realized that the Ndebele didn’t always raid the Shona. Only those who lived near
Ndebele settlements were raided occasionally such as the Shona in the Masvingo, Mberengwa, Gweru and
Kwekwe areas.

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1.3.1.5 .3 Ndebele- Shona relations
1.3.1.5 .3.1 The myths and realities.
• Many European historians wrote that the Ndebele always raided the Shona and that the Shona were on the verge
of extinction when settler colonialists came to Zimbabwe. They used this as an excuse to influence the British
government to colonize this country and the missionaries used this argument more than the ordinary settlers.
• The reason why missionaries encouraged the British government to occupy and destroy the Ndebele Kingdom
was because they had failed to convert a single Ndebele man.
• The truth of the matter is that there was co-existence between the Shona and the Ndebele had the occasional
raid as a common feature of this relationship.
• In the early stages of the Ndebele settlement i.e. between 1840 – 1870 the Ndebele were pre-occupied with their
own security, internal problems such that they could not always fight the Shona.
• It is also true that some Shona people never experienced Ndebele raids up to 1890 especially those Shona
people living north of Harare and Manicaland.
• Those Shona chiefs who refused to pay tribute e.g. Chief Chivi or Bere were major targets for raids. Ndebele
raids did not interfere with the economy of those Shona chiefs who paid tribute and moreover some Shona
chiefs aided the Ndebele and some stole or raided the Ndebele to recover stolen cattle.
• The Ndebele actually encouraged good relations and there was some level of inter-marriage.

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• The Ndebele adopted the Shona deity “mwari”/umlimu’ and followed the Shona traditions of ancestral
worship..
• The state was divided into 3 distinct social groups based on history namely:

a) Abezanzi
These were the superior class which occupied most important positions. They formed the aristocratic ruling class.
These were the original Khumalo who had left Natal and constituted about 15% of Ndebele population ie. The
Hadebes, Khumalos, Mkwananzi.

b) Enhla

These were 2nd most important groups in the Ndebele state. They were Sotho and Tswana who joined the Ndebele
on their way to Zimbabwe. They occupied important military positions in the Ndeng state and they constituted
about 25% of Ndebele population.

c) Amahole

These were the least important in the Ndebele state. They were made up of the Kalanga and other Shona
speaking people who were conquered and absorbed by the Ndebele and made up 60% of Ndebele population.

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However, the hole who proved themselves in battle also occupied important military posts in the Ndebele
economy. Due to continued inter-marriage most of these groups lost their identities ie the Moyos, Sibandas,
Ncubes, Gumbos.

1.3.1.5 .3.2 ACTIVITIES

• Define National and Strategic Studies
• Compare and contrast the democracy in the pre-colonial states and the democracy in the West.
• Examine the level of civilization of the pre-colonial states in the following areas:
vi) Medicine
vii) Governance
viii) Democracy
ix) Culture
x) Technology

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 UNIT 2

THE EUROPEAN COLONISATION OF ZIMBABWE

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of the unit the student should be able to:

• Discuss the major causes of slavery and its effects

• Analyse the major deliberations of the Berlin Conference of 1884-5

• Discuss the causes and effects of colonization of Zimbabwe

• Examine the colonisatioin process of Zimbabwe by Europe

• Analyse the causes and effects of Anglo-Ndebele War , the1st Chimurenga War and 2nd Chimurenga.

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• White settlement in the region was established as early as the 1650s at the Cape in South Africa. This was a re-
supply post for fresh water and food for the East India trade. The Dutch settlers at the Cape were soon
displaced by the British and pushed north. The discovery of gold on the Rand and diamonds led to the
continued jostling for control between the British and Dutch settlers for the good part of the two centuries from
1700 through 1800. Hunters and missionaries who were the trail blazzers for British colonisation spread the
rumor that there was a bigger Rand in the area occupied by the Ndendele across the Limpopo.

• Cecil John Rhodes who came to South Africa because of ill health joined his brother at the Kimberly diamond
fields, became rich, and directed his attention to the rumors of an “el dorado” or city of gold to the north.

• Rhodes was an imperialist at heart. His aim was to bring under British Control all African territory from South
Africa to Egypt.

• Rhodes believed in British superiority and thought that it was a British responsibility to civilize Africa the so-
called Dark Continent.

• Other imperialists were also interested in Zimbabwe namely; the Boers from the short lived Transvaal Republic,
Germans from South West Africa and especially the Portuguese.

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2.1 The Grobler Treaty

• In1887 the Transvaal government sent its representative Piet Grobler to negotiate a friendship treaty with
Lobengula assuming he was the ruler of all the territories north of the Limpopo. The agreement - known as the
Grobler treaty provided for a Boer Representative to be resident at Bulawayo and Lobengula would assist
the Boers ( in the face of British threats) if required to do so.

• In response to the treaty, Rhodes influenced the British government to send a representative to Bulawayo to
negotiate a counter treaty.

2.2 The Moffat Treaty

• John Smith Moffat representing the British government negotiated and signed the treaty in February 1888.
According to this agreement Lobengula was to cancel the Grobler Treaty. He would also not enter into any
agreement with any European power without the consent of Britain.

• The Moffat Treaty was supposed to be a treaty of friendship between Lobengula and the British government but
in fact was the first step in the collapse and subjugation of the Ndeng state.

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2.3 The Rudd Concession

• Agreed and signed in October 1888, it led to the occupation of Zimbabwe by the white settlers through the
British South African company. Rhodes had formed this commercial company to spear head the occupation of
this country.

• The Rudd Concession was entered into between Charles Rudd representing Rhodes and Lobengula. The Rudd
delegation consisted of three people namely;

Charles Rudd

Rhodes’ old friend since their days at Oxford University. He was therefore an embodiment of Rhodes’ self
interest.

Rotchford Maguire

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 Was a lawyer and his expertise in the legal language was going to be useful in tricking
Lobengula.

1. Francis Thompson

He was nicknamed “Matebele” because he was fluent in Nguni languages including Ndebele. He had a perfect
knowledge of Ndeng custom. His presence was therefore meant to influence Lobengula to sign the agreement.
Rhodes was careful in the selection of the Rudd team.

Lobengula didn’t want to meet this delegation let alone sign the agreement, the evidence is that:

1) It took the delegation about 6 weeks to meet Lobengula.

2) The delegation bribed Lobengula’s most trusted senior, Induna Lotshe, who influenced Lobengula to sign
the agreement and for that role Lotshe was executed together with his family.

3) Lobengula was influenced by several whitemen he trusted such as Moffat who misled or lied to him that the
Rudd delegation represented the queen.

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 4) Because of both internal and external influence, Lobengula signed the Rudd Concession in October 1888,
the terms of which were;:

a) Lobengula was to receive:

• Monthly pension of 100 pounds sterling per month.

• 1000 enfield riffles and 100 000 rounds of ammunition.

• A gunboat to be placed on the Zambezi valley to guard against Portuguese invasion.

b) Lobengula was to grant Rhodes;

• -Granted Rhodes and the BSAC exclusive rights over all minerals and precious metals in Mashonaland and
Matebeleland.

• Not more than 10 white men would enter the country.

• They would dig only one hole.

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• They would surrender all their weapons to Lobengula and actually become his people.

2.4 The Royal Charter

• Armed with the Rudd agreement Rhodes had to have the political protection of the British government. Rhodes
therefor sought and got this protection through The Royal Charter, granted in October 1889. The document in
effect declared that the Rudd concession had effectively made the territories of Lobengula British territories
under the administration of the British South Africa Company (BSAC) and by that virtue restricted Boer and
Portuguese expansion. Some German hunters advised Lobengula on what was meant by the document and he
tried in vain to repudiate it.

• He sent two of his Indunas to the queen accompanied by E A Mount and Charles Helm to inform her that he
was no longer interested in the Rudd Concession. The indunas were deliberately delayed and the repudiation
was too late.

• To reverse the Rudd agreement, Lobengula granted Edward Lippert a German businessman a concession for a
period of 100 years to mine in Zimbabwe.

• Rhodes bought the Lippert Concession and made his position even more powerful.

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2.5 The Pioneer Column

• Rhodes’s next step was to organize a group of men who were going to form the first t settlers in Zimbabwe.

• The group was called The Pioneers made up of 200 settler volunteers and chosen from thousands of applicants
from all over Europe and South Africa.

• Supported by 500 troops, the group was promised 2 000 acres and five gold claims each. The Botswana
protectorate provided 800 African labourers.

• Fredrick Selous guided the settler group because of his knowledge of the country as a hunter. The group
crossed Into Zimbabwe in March 1890 and built fort Tuli. The column turned east avoiding the Ndeng state
and established Fort Victoria (Masvingo) On 17 August 1890 the Column reached Fort Charter (Chivhu). From
Charter the column reached Harare on 12 September 1890, raised the British flag the Union jack and, and
called Harare Salisbury in honour of British Prime Minister at that time. This marked the completion of the
occupation of the land.

• Leander Star Jameson, Rhodes’ personal friend was appointed the first governor of Mashonaland.

2.6 The Anglo - Ndebele war and the Occupation of Matebeleland.

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The members of Pioneer Column were largely disappointed with the amount of gold they got in Mashonalnad.

• They thought that Matebeleland was a little closer to South Africa so a second Rand could be found in
Matebeleland.

• The white settlers also admired the big cattle found in Matebeleland and the attractive land (rich grazing lands).
They even believed that Lobengula’s capital was built on top of a gold mountain.

• It should be borne in mind that the occupation of Matebeleland was inevitable and unavoidable. It was to
complete the occupation of Zimbabwe and, as the BSAC was bankrupt, it needed gold; hence Matebeleland
was their own way out of that big problem.

• To do so the BSAC had to destroy the powerful and landed Ndebele state and Leander Star Jameson needed an
excuse in order to attack the Ndebele state. He created conflicts to justify war between whites and Ndebele.

2.7 Precursors to the war

1. The Boundary Line

• According to Jameson, Mashonaland was not part of Matebeleland.

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• Jameson drew up his own boundary line to separate Mashonaland from Matebeleland. He then restricted
Lobengula’s rule to Matebeleland.

• Lobengula never acknowledged the division of Mashonaland and Matebeleland.

• He claimed the whole country as his and to make matters worse, the boundary line kept on shifting towards his
capital thus reducing his area of influence.

2.8 The war - 1893

While Rhodes and BSAC were busy establishing themselves in Mashonaland the Ndeng were trying to avoid any
conflicts with the whites. Since the settlers were interested in Matebeleland, Rhodes and his people were busy
finding ways of attacking the Ndeng The whites admired the Ndeng’s rich grazing lands and suspected gold
deposits.

Causes of the War of 1893

1. The Victoria Incident

• Whites employed the Shona people but the Ndebele still regarded later as their subjects.

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• In June 1893 some of the Shona people led by headman Gomala stole 500 metres of telegraph wire.

• They were ordered to pay cattle as fine. They paid this fine using cattle that belonged to Lobengula and which
they had had stolen.

• Lobengula claimed the cattle to be his and they were returned to him.

• Soon after this event another Shona by the name of Bere is alleged to have to have stolen cattle belonging to
Lobengula.

• Lobengula sent an impi to punish the Shona chief and his people. As a result Shona servants on European farms
were killed and some fled to Fort Victoria for protection.

• The Ndebele Indunas, Manyao and Uumgandani pursued the Shona people who sought refuge in Victoria.

• The indunas demanded that the Shona be handed over but Lendy, the magistrate of Fort Victoria refused and the
Ndeng were ordered to vacate Fort Victoria.

• Lendy followed and caught up with Umgandani’s party and killed all of them and in response Lobengula
mobilized 6000 soldiers.

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• The Victoria Incident triggered the war but the issue at stake was that the white farmers believed that there
were rich gold deposits in Matebelaland and had long planned on how to get there

They also saw the grazing land and good cattle herds of the Ndebele as a recipe for prosperity even if they were
to find no gold.

The powerful independent Ndebele state was seen as preventing white settlers from getting enough labour for
their mines and farms.

2.9 Preparation for war

• By September 1893 Jameson had organized a force of over 1000 well armed white settlers aided by
missionaries from South Africa.

• Jameson promised each of them 2400 hectares of land and 20 gold claims each if the Ndeng were defeated.

2.10 The Battles

• The white armies left Salisbury and Fort Victoria in October 1893 and moved south west towards Matopo ready
for a show down with the Ndeng.

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• In a battle, that took place along the Shangani and Mbembesi Rivers, the Ndebele impi was heavily defeated.

• On 3 November after just a month of bloody fighting the invading forces entered the Ndeng capital, Bulawayo
and Lobengula set fire to the city and fled north where he vanished without trace to date.

• The 1893 war marked the complete conquest of Zimbabwe and an end to Ndendele Supremacy.

2.11 CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY.Slavery is the highest level of degrading another human being. Slavery is
as ancient as human existence. The practice was pronounced under the Roman Empire and at that time it also
assumed its commercial undertones. This practice was perfected by the former Roman colonies in Europe when
they enslaved Africa. Never in the History of mankind were such atrocities, insensitivity, and cruelty and
inhumanity perpetrated by human beings upon other human beings. Slavery was the crudest method of exploiting
other human beings and in its wake came colonisation which by definition is slavery with a humane face. The
latter like slavery leads to the exploitation of other man by other man by other means other than brute force.

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It is not possible under The United Nations Charter for a nation to unilaterally attack or annex the territory of
another state and where this has happened of late as when Iraq attacked Kuwait the UN unanimously agreed
to reverse the annexture through force of arms. To colonize another state is therefor the highest form of state
irresponsibility. The USA under false claims of existence of weapons of mass destruction attacked Iraq in
2003 and there was a global outcry against the war. Colonization nevertheless took place many centuries
before the UN came into existence but that does make colonization any less a crime against humanity.
Colonisation was perpetrated by the very nations that were vociferously opposed to the Iraq Kuwait invasion
and yet many serious human rights violations were perpetrated by the colonial powers in this process. In
Tasmania Australia, the aborigines on the island were wiped out to the last man by British settlers. The
Spanish conquistadors demolished whole empires and civilizations in the Americas.

2.12 SLAVERY

1. The discovery of gold and silver and agricultural potential in South America or in the Americas created the need
for disciplined workforce.

2. Inability of the local or native Red-Indian population to withstand organized disciplined labour.

3. Existence of disciplined agricultural and industrial culture in Africa.

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4. Indigenous or Red-Indian inability to withstand European diseases e.g. small pox, syphilis, gonorrhea etc.

5. The existence of a greedy and guliable or naïve chieftainship in Africa which captured and sold its own kith and
kin for a bottle of fire water that is gin.

• Commercial activity therefore contributed much to the consolidation of slavery. The trade in Europe did not
provide sufficient profit because of the problem of exchange values. But the trade with unindustrialized
countries in Africa and America was more profitable because of the use values.

• This system of trade was a system of robbery based on plunder, piracy and slavery and colonial conquest.

• To consolidate accumulation or profit in England, the joint stock company was devised and several of this new
economic tool were formed, e.g. the Adventurous Russia company and the Africa company. According to
Nassau, a well known academic of the time, the objectives of the Africa company were, “…to kidnap or
purchase and work to death the natives of Africa without mercy.” The Eastland Company had the monopoly
and right to trade with the European hinterland. The Levan Company in which Queen Elizabeth 1 was a major
shareholder became the East Indian Company.

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• The Fuggers Company in Germany was first a merchant company and later became a bank and financed all
Germany wars of the period.

• The Fuggers Company in return for financing war was paid through the form of trading concessions, colonial
land and through revenue from colonial mines.

• As contact with Latin America or South America increased, the company turned to Africa for cheap labour.

• It was the nearest continent with a population used to organize labour which was also disciplined in many
respects. The Uterecht Treaty of 1713 gave English Merchants the right to supply South America with 5 000
slaves every year and a special company was formed to supply these slaves.

• Most of the gold and products from the plantations from South America ended up in British towns.

• The continued enslavement of African peoples between 1646 and 1680 resulted in 70 000 slaves being taken to
South America. However, only 46 000 survived the translocation. The slave trade was part of the triangular
trade between Europe, Africa and South America .This trade was very profitable to the European companies
and the African Royal company which was the slave company paid a dividend of 300% despite loss of half the
“goods/cargo” that’s despite the death of more than half the slaves en route to the Americas.

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• There is therefore a co relation between Europe’s expansion/development and slave labour from Africa. The
methods used by the companies especially British firms, was to capture other countries’ export markets
through colonisation, protectionism and unequal exchange.

• Europe therefore did not undertake its industrial Revolution without the plunder, the enslavement and the
destruction of the native people of Africa.

2.13 COLONIALISM

• Colonialism was a product of European merchants or European commerce. The former (the merchants) later
supported and financed the political institutions or their governments in their wars of conquest and colonisation
and they also participated in policy making. Colonisation therefore was therefor an economic necessity. The
reasons or causes of Africa’s colonisation were or are:

a) Facilitated protection of monopoly markets of each European trading nation.

b) Allowed easy access to tropical markets.

c) Allowed access to natural resources essential for industrial activities.

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d) Allowed expansion and creation of new markets which had no balance of trade problems.

e) Colonization facilitated the unimpeded imposition of the religious super structure and beliefs of the colonizers
on the colonized peoples.

f) For glory and imperial prestige.

• African slavery had existed in Europe from about the 16 th century but the need to exploit the wealth of South
America saw slavery reaching a climax in the 18 th century. Slavery however, came to an end when it stopped
serving the purposes and interests of European commerce.

• The dynamics of European production and exchange changed and no longer required slave labour. Britain
banned slavery in 1807. Slavery however, continued or even grew after this banning. In 1833 slavery was
internationally banned but it did not die until a 100 years later and to the shame of Africa still lingers on in
places like the Sudan.

• Slavery was not abolished because Europe had repented of its weakedness but because commerce could not
benefit as much from this evil practice.

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• Once slavery was abolished, it was replaced with colonization.

• The commercial revolution in the 16th century expanded trade beyond Europe and this created a conservative
class of merchants and landlords. Commercial merchants were a class which could not fully satisfy their
accumulation potential in Europe so they turned to foreign markets.

• Primitive accumulation in Europe, that is, getting rich through violence and other dishonest means, was
extended and practiced in foreign lands through colonization.

• The merchants and conquerors destroyed several civilizations in Africa e.g. the Ashanti kingdom and the Aztec
Civilization in Central America.

• Earlier, five crusades had been wedged or undertaken in the Middle East and this almost destroyed the Arab
civilization. The crusades were less about religion and more about plunder and theft and robbery. The amount
of wealth stolen in this manner although substantial could not last long and the result was to exploit the mines
and the agricultural potential in Africa and in South America.

• In South America where more gold and silver than in Africa existed, the mines could not be exploited using
local labour so they resorted to stealing people from Africa.

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• This form of exploitation eventually gave way to paid labour as a more profitable way of accumulating wealth.

• Development or industrialization in Europe is therefore directly linked to both colonialism and slavery.

2.14 THE BERLIN CONFERENCE 1884 – 1885

• Before the Berlin conference in 1884 commercial contact had long existed between Europe and Africa and in
trying to protect their commercial interest, Europeans had fought many wars and for almost a 100 years
between 1700 and 1800 Europe was at war with each other because of commercial or economic interests. With
the growth of England and France as the major military powers, the wars became less and less However, when
German became a powerful nation towards the end of the 19 th Century, the following scenario developed in
Europe;.

• The possibilities of renewed conflict became real.

• The British passed The Navigation and Frauds Act, The Navigation and Staple acts etc. with a view to
monopolising trade with the so called ‘new world’ and ‘the dark continent.’

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• Portugal fearing wars between Europe and Britain suggested or requested Otto Von Bismark, the Germany
chancellor, to convene a conference for all interested parties with trading or commercial interests with Africa.
This led to the infamous Berlin conference. The objectives of the conference were:

1. To lay down the rules for the partition and exploitation of Africa.

2 .To prevent war by so partitioning Africa.

2.15 Summary of Contents of the agreement at the Berlin Conference;

1. Freedom of navigation on all major rivers in Africa.

2. Colonization or establishment of protectorates to be entered into voluntarily between European powers and
African Chiefs.

3. A colony to be recognized only where there was visible occupation and evidence of a written protectorate
agreement.

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2.16 PARTIES TO THE BERLIN CONFERENCE

2. 1. German ,Belgium ,England, France, Italy ,Portugal

2.17 Contents Of Protectorate Agreements between European Powers and African Chiefs/Kings.

1. Parties to the agreement- a). African chief and, b). a European commercial company.

2. Subjugation or surrender of title to land.

3. The location of the land, its size and general description.

4. Surrender of all political, judicial and military power.

5. Creation of a monopoly trade area.

6. Duration of agreement i.e. infinity or forever and ever.

7. Rewards for the chiefs and the people, alleged or claimed improvement of their lives through European
civilization.

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8. Surrender of all rights to minerals and other resources.

2.18 RESULTS OF THE BERLIN CONFERENCE

1. Led to the scramble for Africa by European powers (nations) through commercial companies or by commercial
companies.

2. The establishment of concessions which were unfair and never explained to the African chiefs.

3. Resistance or rejection of the concessions by African chiefs when they understood the implications of the
agreement.

4. Use of force by European powers to break resistance and to fully colonise Africa.

2.19 THE EFFECTS OF COLONIZATION

1. Balance of trade dis-equilibra i.e. negative trade relations between Africa and European countries during and
after colonialism through a new form of relationship called Neo-colonialism.

2. Exploitation and depletion of Africa’s natural resources without benefit to Africa.

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3. Underdevelopment of Africa since there was no technology transfer to facilitate industrialisation (investment
was only in infrastructure to enable exploitation of resources).

4. Cultural decimation/destruction.

5. Dependency on European economies.

6. Loss of individual and national identity by Africans during and after colonialism

7. Super enrichment and development of Europe and their extensions in America and Australia.

2.20 Reasons for the colonisation of Africa.

1. Abundance of natural resources e.g. minerals, rubber, elephants (ivory).

2. Fertile soils and ideal climate in Southern Africa and Kenya..

3. Africa was the source of many major rivers.

4. Existence of a money economy in Africa.

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5. Possibility of establishing colonies and monopoly markets.

6. Little to no meaningful resistance

2.21 CONSOLIDATION OF SETTLER COLONIALISM IN ZIMBABWE

2.21.1 Early Settler Administration.

• With the Ndebele state in ruins and the Shona state machinery crumbling in the face of superior settler
firepower, the BSAC proceeded apace to consolidate its grip on the country. The Transvaal Boer state however
posed a great challenge to Rhodes’ plans In 1895, Jameson withdrew most of the company’s armed personnel
into the Transvaal to fight the Boers but was crushed and the scenario for the Native rebellion in Zimbabwe
developed

2.21.2 THE FIRST CHIMURENGA.

2.21.2.1 Causes of the War
• The land Issue

The reserve system or translocation of native Zimbabweans to infertile dry inhospitable holding areas was
introduced.

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In 1894 the first reserves were set up in Shangani and Gwaai.

After the defeat of the Ndebele, the settlers seized their 6 000 acres displacing many natives and those displaced
became fulltime labourers or squatters.

The settlers started ill treating the Ndebele like they were doing the Shona.

• .FORCED LABOUR

The British South African company introduced hut tax to force the Africans to go to work and in order to raise
revenue.

Livestock was seized to force men to go to work for the settler.

To solve their labour problems, the company introduced forced labour. The chiefs were instructed to recruit able
bodied men and hand them over to the BSAC as labourers- “chibharo”. The Shona and Ndebele so enslaved ran
away into the hills to escape.

The presence of white settlements contrary to the agreements entered into.

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Again this did not please the Ndeng who wanted to claim their ancestral land back as in the reserves there was
food shortage and starvation at times.

• CATTLE

Soon after the defeat of the Ndeng in the Anglo Ndebele war, the whites confiscated the Ndeng cattle numbering
about 250 000.

This drastically reduced the Ndeng herd and the Ndeng wanted their cattle back as it was a sign of prestige.

• TAXATION

This was imposed on the Ndeng for a dual purpose

i) It was indirectly made to force the Ndeng to work in order to pay tax.

ii) It was meant to increase the company income.

• Abuse of Ndebele women by Native Shona policeman.

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In order to stop this abuse, the Ndebele had to fight the whitemen and the employment of their former vassals the
Shona as policemen did not please the Ndebele as they were now told what to do by these Shona policeman.

• NATURAL DISASTERS

It was at that time that natural disasters occurred. These included drought, rinderpest a cattle disease and locusts.
Africans gave these natural disasters a religious interpretation; they argued that the presence of the whites had
angered their ancestors hence these natural disasters and they then found it necessary to drive away the whites in
an effort to bring the natural disasters to an end.

• THE ROLE OF SPIRIT MEDIUM

These were very instrumental in bringing about a concented effort to drive away the white man and they used a
variety of methods. They passed information on the progress made in the preparations for war. Some prophesied
that the fighters would be protected by their ancestors. They also provided medicine which they claimed made the
fighters’ bullet proof.

• They gave general encouragement to everybody and in some cases they threatened death to all those who
showed no interest.

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2.21.2.2 RESULTS

• Africans were defeated because of the inferior weapons that they used which included spears, shields, bow and
arrows against the whitemen’s machine guns, cannons and 7 pounders.

• Disunity and dis-organization among the Africans also led to this defeat as some collaborated with the whites.

• Leaders and spirit mediums were captured and killed thereby leaving the Africans direction less and leaderless.

• Africans lost faith in their spirit mediums in particular and in their religion in general leading to many Africans
being converted to Christianity. However, although the Africans were defeated, their efforts need to be
recognised. It was the first time that they had fought a common enemy as a united people.

• It was also important in that it laid the foundation for future wars of resistance that is the 2nd Chimurenga etc.

• Notable heroes and heroines of the First Chimurenga were people like Nehanda, Kaguvi, General Magwegwe
and Mkwati of the Ndebele army, Chief Chingaira, Mashonganyika, Muzambi, Maremba, Zvidembo,
Mazhindu, Manyongori, Gunduza, Mvenuri and Gutu.

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2.21.3 Repressive Settler Legislation which dispossessed and dehumanized Native Zimbabweans

Almost two hundred whites lost their lives during the first Chimurenga war and many thousands of Africans died
in battle and in the reprisals that followed up to and during 1898. To secure their position the settlers enacted many
pieces of legislation that effectively proscribed or limited African economic, cultural and political freedoms.

The Native Reserve Order In Council: 1898.

Effectively removed all native chiefs who were anti- settlers and replaced them with puppet settler administrators.
The act also created reserves or cantonments in dry inhospitable areas.

The Hut Tax: 1903.

Enacted to raise revenue for settlers and to force black men to go and work for the white man.

The Dog Tax and Land Bank acts: 1912.

The land bank act provide d new white settler farmers with free tillage for five years and the same period as grace
before commencing to repay loans from the state owned Land bank.

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The European Produce Act: 1917.

Discriminated against natives in so far as agricultural production was concerned with respect to quantities they
could market or the prices they could fetch.

The Morris Carter Commission:1925.

Divided the whole country into agro-zones based on rainfall patterns from the highest rainfall region 1 to the
lowest rainfall region 5. Natives were trans- located to regions 4 and 5.

The Land Apportionment Act: 1930.

In 1930 whites who numbered 50 000 were allocated 49 000 000 acres of prime land while blacks who numbered
1 000 000 were allocated 28 000 000 acres of the worst land in regions 4 and five. The translocation of blacks was
accompanied with untold violence and starvation and malnutrition became endemic. More government officials
were employed country wide and effect while rule and these included native commissioners and police man. A

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land policy after 1905 was affected which started to impoverish ty blacks and to keep them politically ineffective.
Africans were also excluded from government through strict qualifications e.g.. The right to vote was given to
males over 21 days with an annual income of 50 000 pounds or with property worth 75 pounds. The Land
Apportionment Act of 1930 confirmed and legalised the displacement of Africans that had been ongoing earlier.

Up until 1906, ninety percent of Southern Rhodesia’s agricultural produce came from black farmers and many
whites did not like this state of affairs. As a result, the Rhodesia Native Labour Bureau (RNLB) stopped blacks
from competing with whites and between 1908 and 1915, 1.5 million acres of the best land was taken from blacks
and given to whites. New boundaries were created to exclude fertile high rainfall areas from newly created
reserves. The latter were located in semi arid areas. Blacks in regions 1, 2 and 3 were made to pay higher grazing
fees and taxes. Since many could not pay they were removed and settled in reserves which were situated far away
from markets and rail and tarred motor roads. By the 1920s, 65% of the black population had been forced into
reserves. This led to cycle of poverty among Africans which persists up to today -2004.

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The Maize Control Act:1935.

The act protected white farmers from black competition in maize production. 2 grades of maize were made, A
grade for whites and B grade for blacks. A grade fetched a higher price while B fetched a lower price. Whites also
paid less for maize they bought from blacks.

The Cattle Levy Act:1934.

• Whites paid less on the market for cattle bought from blacks.

• The government paid more to whites for their cattle.

• This system impoverished the blacks who were loosing out through this fraudulent commercial arrangement. As
the blacks became poorer in the reserves they migrated or translocated to towns.

Industrial Conciliation Act:1934.

• Blacks were denied the right to join trade unions.

• Higher paying jobs were reserved for whites that are skilled and semi-skilled job.

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• The act was latter amended to allow natives to become nurses and teachers.

Racial Discrimination Act:1934.

⇒ The act barred social inter-action between the races for an example it was an offence for a white to share a toilet
with a black man or to mix in schools, hospitals, or hotels even cemeteries.

The Land Husbandry Act: 1951.

⇒ The act barred any African family from owning more than five herd of cattle or eight acres of land in the
communal lands.

The Tribal Trust Land Act:1965.

⇒ The act segregated the ownership of land between white areas and black areas. Natives could only occupy land
in communal lands without holding title to it. In Towns natives could only lease property and no black man
could own a house in town until after 1980.

The Land Tenure Act:1969.

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⇒ The act divided the land on racial lines and designated the best 45 000 000 acres as European land and shared
among the 250 000 whites and the worst 45 000 000acres was designated as native land to be shared by the 5
000 000 blacks.

⇒ The act also barred the races from encroaching in the other race’s land.

• PASS LAWS

• All black males were required to carry a pass or identity paper which any white man or police officer of any
race could demand at anytime anywhere. This restricted black freedom of movement from place to place.

2.21.4 AFRICAN REACTION TO REPRESSIVE AND RACIST LEGISLATION

After the collapse of traditional resistance in 1898 Zimbabwe was ruled by the British through the BSAC. Africans
were speedily brought under control and since company rule was increasingly becoming inadequate and incapable
of running the country, the British gave the settlers two options to either join South Africa or to establish
responsible self government. In a referendum in 1923 the settlers chose the latter. The more the settler regime
became repressive the more the African spirit of resistance blazed. Early resistance took crude forms such as

54
jamming of factory machines or refusing to work on farms and in mines. More refined resistance took the form of
strikes and joining trade unions.

• Between the 1st. and 2nd. World wars the vehicle for political agitation among blacks were the trade unions. The
African Railway Workers Union and the Reformed Commercial and Industrial Workers Union were the first
and most effective and they also were non tribal.

• Bulawayo the industrial city of the nation at the time saw more political activity originating and directed from
that quarter. In 1945 the ARWU called a strike that paralyzed the whole network from Mutare to Ndola in
Zambia’s copper belt.

• In 1948 a general strike paralyzed all industrial and commercial activity in all cities in the country.

• The white settlers connived to create the federation of the Rhodesias and Nyasaland (Southern and Northern
Rhodesia, ie Zimbabwe, Zambia and Malawi)and by the early 1950s this absorbed the attention of the natives
since there were many false promises associated with the creation of the federation. The federation was
eventually created in 1953 and its major features were the following;

• Polarization – all major manufacturing activity was concentrated in Southern Rhodesia..

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• The communications infrastructure tended to serve and favour Southern Rhodesia with the Federation railways
and airlines being headquartered in Southern Rhodesia

• The University and all other institutions of higher learning were in Southern Rhodesia.

• The settler colonialists embarked on a process of ethnic cleansing designed to rid Southern Rhodesia of all its
native blacks and Trans locating them in Northern Rhodesia and replacing them with what were perceived as
docile migrant laborers from Zambia and Malawi.

• White settlers established permanent homes in Southern Rhodesia dashing any hopes of early self determination
for all the members of the federation as long as the federation existed.

• 1955 The city National Youth league was formed and it was a purely workers movement operating in the urban
areas.

• Church leaders also sympathized with their black congregations’ political aspirations. Some churches criticized
the settlers in their sermons and hymns. However there were many racists church leaders who used religion or
Christianity to subdue and indoctrinate their black congregations to accept a subservient role. These racist

56
 apologists were happy to continue with the policies of segregation in church, politics and the economy and the
result was a proliferation of many independent African churches.

• In 1957, September 12, the African National Congress (ANC) was formed and it was a merger between the old
ANC and the City Youth League led by Joshua Nkomo. It demanded majority rule.

• It co opted the rural peasantry and organized mass resistances against the Land Husbandry Act (1951) and it
urged the peasants not to cooperate with the government. Garfield Todd, the federation premier (1953-1957)
who was a liberal, argued for accommodation of African demands but the avowed racists in his cabinet called
for repression of all African political activity. As a result Todd was deposed in an internal coup for giving in to
black demands and David White head became premier and in 1959 e SR-ANC was banned and hundreds of
blacks thrown in jail.

• 1959 to 1965 saw a host of new repressive laws come into effect such as;

The Native Affairs Act 1959

The Unlawful Organizations Act 1959

The Preventive Detention Act 159

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 The Emergency Powers Act 1960

The law and Order Maintenance Act. 1960

⇒ Internal pressure on the settler government produced more and more repression and the nationalists resorted
to pressure Britain to reign in the settlers and to give independence to blacks but Britain refused.

⇒ January 1960 the National Democratic Party was formed and replaced the SR-ANC. Joshua Nkomo was elected
president and the leardership of the party consisted of Ndabaningi Sithole, Herbet Chitepo, Robert Mugabe,
Bernard Chidzero, George Silunduka, Jaison Moyo, Leopold Takawira, Josiah Chinamano, Dumbutshena etc.

⇒ 1961 The NDP was banned and the same year ZAPU was formed in December.

⇒ 1962 December the Rhodesia Front was elected premier in Southern Rhodesia and the party represented the
hard core white racists determined to wipe out all resistance to colonialism and Winston Field was then premier.

⇒ 1962 September ZAPU was banned.

⇒ 1964 August ZANU was formed due to disillusionment with the politics of tolerance and accommodation and
the party was led by Ndabaningi Sithole.

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⇒ 1964 ZANU was banned and all prominent nationalists were either in prison or in exile.

⇒ 1964 saw the beginning of violent African resistance to colonialism with many acts of sabotage. Of note is the
action by self styled General Chedu who led 100 youths calling themselves the Zimbabwe Liberation army. The
same year ZANU recruited and trained the first armed resistance to colonialism and the Crocodile group drew
first blood when they attacked a police station and killed a white farmer in Chimanimani(Melsetter).

⇒ 1964 Ian Smith was elected premier of the settler government.

⇒ 1965 November 11th. Ian Smith’s Rhodesia Front made a Unilateral Declaration of Independence. This made
the country an illegal state and although Britain still claimed to be the legitimate ruler they failed to bring to
justice the settler regime. At about the same time the little island of Anquilla in the Pacific made a UDI and
Britain did not hesitate to reign in the rebels.

⇒ UDI led the nationalists to adopt armed resistance as the first option to gain self determination and the Smith
regime went on an all out campaign to stifle African aspirations and institutionalized arpertheid or racial
segregation as the system of governance and social and economic life. The same year a state of emergency was
declared. Such a declaration has the effect of suspending some or all civil liberties and allows the state to take

59
 extra judicial measures to deal with the crisis. What followed were many years of state terrorism and murder to
which the Africans responded by intensifying the armed resistance - the second Chimurenga war.

⇒ By 1963 the nationalist had secured external bases in independent African countries like Egypt, Tanzania and
Zambia to train their armed wings. Zanu’s armed wing became the ZImbabwe National Liberation Army
(ZANLA) and ZAPU’s armed wing became known as the Zimbabwe People’s Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA).
Training also took place outside Africa in places like Cuba, China, and Russia.

⇒ 1966 at Chinhoyi the first externally trained ZANLA combatants clashed with the security forces and all seven
members of the group were killed.

⇒ 1967 August ZIPRA in alliance with the South African National Congress’s armed wing Umkhonto Wesizwe
deployed four groups of 20 combatants each group. The majority of combatants were killed in and around
Wankie district. Rhodesia airforce began to violate Zambian airspace and another larger group was deployed by
the alliance and again was decimated.

⇒ The South African government in response sent troops into Rhodesia and the Smith government passed the Law
and order maintenance amendment bill – 7 September 1967. The law provided for a death sentence on any one
caught with arms of war

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⇒ Late 1969/early 1970 the Front for the liberation of Mocambique fighting the Portuguees in Mocabmique
formed an alliance with ZANLA and with more experience they provided training and logistical support which
proved invaluable and led to the opening of the eastern front. Mass mobilisation became the preferred tool of
the armed resistance and met with great success. Rhodesia and Portugal began joint operations in 1968.

⇒ 1972 December ZANLA scored success with the attack at Alterna farm Centenary.

⇒ 1974 April in a coup in Portugal General Sipinoza deposed the premier Salazaar and brought immediate
independence to Mocambique, Angola and Guinea Bissau.

⇒ 1974 John Vorster South Africa’s Boer premier initiated Détente a policy of accommodation designed to
neutralize the armed struggle by promoting internal reactionary African nationalists in Zimbabwe. This stalled
and almost derailed the armed struggle especially with the death /assassination of Herbet Chitepo on 18 March
1975 in Zambia.

⇒ Chitepo became the chairman of Dare rechimurenga an organisation formed after the banning and jailing of the
nationalist leaders in 1964 and his task was to prosecute the war while the leadership was in prison..

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⇒ 1972/1973 in response to guerrilla offensive the keeps or cantonments were introduced in all war fronts to
deprive the fighters food and other support.

⇒ 1974 Internal rivalry and dissent rock both ZIPRA and ZANLA and the OAU force the two to combine their
armed efforts.

⇒ 1975 December ZANLA AND ZIPRA form the Zimbabwe people’s army (ZIPA) and armed resistance
gathered momentum in early 1976 as ZANLA intensified operations in Gaza, Tete and Manica provinces or
fronts or regions according to ZIPRA terminology.

⇒ 1976 In bombing raids on camps in Mocambique, Rhodesians killed many refugees and guerillas at Chimoio
and Nyadzonya in Mocambique and Freedom camp Mulungushi, and Chifombo in Zambia.

⇒ March 1978 the so called Internal Settlement was reached between anti war and reactionary black groups in
Rhodesia.

⇒ April 1979 the ANC’s Bishop Muzorewa was elected prime minister in sham elections and temporarily the
Zimbabwe Rhodesia hybrid state existed and it was not recognized by any state except South Africa. It was

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 during this period that some of the most gruesome murders were perpetrated against refugees and the armed
resistance with the authority and concurrence of Bishop Abel Muzorewa’s government.

⇒ South Africa unable to meet the human and economic cost of the war in Rhodesia pressured Smith for a
negotiated solution.

⇒ 1979 October the British under international pressure convened the Lancaster house talks. The parties to the
talks were the British government, the Patriotic Front(ZANU and ZAPU) and the internal group Muzorewas
ANC and Smith’s Rhodesia front. The talks could not reconcile the demands of the parties especially on land
but both groups hoped against hope that they would win and be able to maintain their claims and positions from
a legialised position.

⇒ 1980 March l in internationally supervised elections Muzorewa failed to win a single seat in parliament , Smith
only got his reserved 20 whitemen’s seats, ZANU(PF) swept the board with 79 seats and ZAPU(PF) got 20
seats from all of Matebeleland and ZANU –Ndonga got one seat..

⇒ Independence saw many unrepentant whites emigrating to New-Zealand Australia Britain etc. where they
continue to reminisce nostalgically about the war and how Britain sold them out.

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⇒ 1980 April 18 Zimbabwe became an independent state with Robert Mugabe as premier. The new prime minister
offered Josshua Nkomo the titular head of state position but he declined to accept although several ministries
were headed by his other fellow ZAPU colleagues.

⇒ 1980 massive arms caches belonging to ZIPRA and which were suppose to have been surrendered to the state
are discovered and ZAPUs properties with caches are confiscated by the state. Disturbances of a tribal nature
erupt in Bulawayo in Entumbanen and some people are killed and the army is sent in to reign in rogue ZIPRA
elements and some these flee to the bush

⇒ 1982 Former ZPRA elements with clear support from the Arpetheid regime in South Africa begin a campaign
of sabotage, murder and destabilisation in Matebeleland and the Midlands and such names as Gwesela, Ndevu
eziqamula inkomicho became household names for their notoriety. Hoods, Conjwayo and other South African
saboteurs and agents provocateurs are apprehended in Zimbabwe. South Africa unleashes a war of
destabilization of all frontline states with rebel movements RENAMO in Mocambique and UNITA in Angola
wrecking havoc to the economies of all Front line states..

⇒ 1982 In response to the rebellion by some ex ZIPRA elements the Fifth brigade is deployed in Matebeleland
and the Midlands and development stalls in the affected areas as hundreds of Shona civilians perish at the hands
of dissidents and thousands of Ndebele civilians loose their lives in reprisals by the Fifth Brigade.

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⇒ 1987 December 22 after protracted negotiations spearheaded by Zimbabwe’s first non executive president Mr.
Canaan Banana, a unity agreement is signed between ZANU PF and ZAPU PF. A new party ZANU PF is
created and Joshua Nkomo became a co vice president with Simon Muzenda. All dissident to be incorporated
into society and no charges to be preferred against them and similarly no charges to be preferred against any
member of the Fifth Brigade.

⇒ 1980 saw the end of all formal or legal racial segregation but this evil and immoral practice continued and exists
unabated to date. The new government made strides to correct the colonial evils in the following areas;

1. Universal free primary and secondary education.

2. Free medical and health care

3. Policy of reconciliation towards the former settler colonialists to which they have to date
spurned.

4. Land distribution under the willing seller willing buyer basis.

5. Integrate and demobilize the belligerents

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 6. Indeginisation- enabling the native Africans to own and control business.

7. Expanding trade with the region and the world at large

⇒ 1991 A foreign driven Economic structural programme from the IMF and World Bank was adopted. The
programme required Zimbabwe to liberalize trade, which is allow free movement of goods from outside, restrict
or cut expenditure, and devalue or allow the local currency to float.

⇒ 1998 due to ESAP food rioting took place in the major towns due to the negative effects of ESAP.

⇒ 1998 August the Zimbabwe Defense Forces are deployed to the DRC to help the beleaguered Kabila regime.

⇒ 1998 November Nearing the end of the restrictive 20 year non compulsory acquisition of land close in the
Lancaster agreement, a Land Donor Conference is organised and many foreign donors pledge to assist
Zimbabwe but not a cent is remitted.

⇒ 1999 The labour Union leadership breaks ranks with government and threatens to form a political party under
the leadership of Morgan Tsvangirai and in September the same year this actual happens in the form of the
Movement for Democratic change...

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⇒ War veterans receive lump and monthly gratuities and in the build up to the 2000 elections The labour
leardership cum opposition party slides more and more to the right and is seen supporting settler colonial
interests in land commerce and industry and receives massive monetary and moral support from the same
quarter. This alliance also receives massive external assistance from foreign interests like the USA and UK
governments directly or indirectly through such organisations as the Westminister Foundation etc.

⇒ February 2000 a new draft constitution is taken to the people in a referendum and labour, the opposition
together with civic organisations mobilise the electorate to reject it because allegedly it confers too much power
on the president but really because of the ‘no compensation for land compulsorily acquired for settlement
“clause in the constitution.

⇒ 2000 February realising the near success of the landed white class in derailing the land redistribution by using
political parties they funded and helped to found, Veterans of Zimbabwe’s 2 nd. Cimurenga and landless
peasants occupied white owned farms and forced government to make appropriate legislation to fast track land
distribution – The Land Acquisition Act 2000.

⇒ 200 June in parliamentary elections the new party almost upset the ruling ZANU(PF) party and wins 57 seats to
63 for ZANU PF.

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⇒ 2000/2001 the opposition near success gives impetus to Britain to ostracize the Mugabe regime and begins to
talk about regime and forces its friends to impose sanctions on Zimbabwe to ruin the economy in order to make
the electorate vote him out of power. Inflation rises steadily and local white employers on the whole do
everything to arm twist the electorate to vote Mugabe out of power.

⇒ 2002 Presidential elections are won by the ZANU PF candidate and the MDC refuses to concede defeat or to
recognize the new government and goes to court to challenge the election results and alleges intimidation vote
rigging etc.

⇒ 2003 the nation is in a political stalemate with threaten invasion from Britain and America and court challenges
to the presidency continuing and the opposition top leadership is arrested and taken to court for trying to
assassinate the president.

⇒ 2004 The 2003 scenario continues but inflation begins to fall and a general optimistic expectation pervades the
nation as preparation and campaigning for the 2005 gubernatorial elections get underway.

2.22 The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland(15 Dec 1953- 31 Dec 1963)

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The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was the product of the general election of December 15, 1953 and
was the first election to the legislative assembly of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, which had been
formed a few months before. The election saw a landslide victory for the Federal Party under Godfrey Huggins
who had been Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia for the past 20 years.
Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, also called Central African Federation, political unit created in 1953 and
ended on Dec. 31, 1963, that embraced the British settler-dominated colony of Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) and
the territories of Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) and Nyasaland (Malawi), which were under the control of the British
Colonial Office.
From the 1920s white European settlers in the Rhodesias had sought some form of amalgamation to counter the
overwhelming numerical superiority of black Africans, but this had been blocked by a British Colonial Office that
was sensitive to profound African opposition.
2.22.1 The Idea Of Federation 1953 to 1963
The term federation means loose coalition of nations or organizations where by each nation report to its central
leader whilst returning its otonomy/independence.
The idea of forming a federation of Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland was discussed as early
as 1915.

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There were two main advantages for the federation, one was economic and the other one was political.
1. economically the federation would give the BSAC control over a large mineral producing area.
2. the whites in Southern Rhodesia would benefit from cheap labour extracted from the three nations.
3. politically the whites in the three nations would increase their armament, both by recruiting fighting men
and capitalizing on the weapons from the three nations.
4. the federation would also improve the settler security against enemies.

5. the principal aim for the establishment of federation was to fight the Afrikaners in South Africa who had just
won the elections and were very powerful, but their relationship with the whites was not always good.
6. another reason for federation was social, namely that the whites just wanted to control the blacks in all the
three nations.
2.22.2 Steps Towards The Establishment Of The Federation.
• In 1929 the Hilton Young Commission was appointed to look into the federation question in East and
Central Africa.

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• The commission recommended against the union of the three nations.

• It baesd its argument on the Devonshire Memorandum of 1923, which has said that African interest
were to be put first.
• It also recommended no self-government of the settlers in Kenya and Tanzania would be
recommended.
• This principle was therefore applied by the Hilton Young Commission to Northern Rhodesia who felt
that the whites population in this country was so small that it could not make a federation viable.
• In 1938 the Bledisloe Commission was again appointed to look into the issue.
• Again the Commission objected the idea on the grounds that the racial policies in the Southern
Rhodesia were harmful to blacks.
• In 1951 the conservative party in Britain won the election.
• This party supported the idea of federation.
• White politicians in Northern and Southern Rhodesia began to campaign for the idea of federation.

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 • They openly explained that their nrelationship to the black was like that of horse and the horserides.
• Inspite of all these objections the federation was imposed on blacks in 1953
2.22.3 Federation Years 1953 to 1963
• The Federation was created in 1953 comprised of Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland.
• There was a total of 310 000 whites in all the three nations, and 8 500 000 Africans. The Federal Parliament
had 35 seats but 29 belonged to the whites and only 6 were for the blacks.
• The Federation however did not benefit Zambia and Malawi, it only benefited Zimbabwe.
• 100 000 pounds generated from the Zambians Copper Mine was spent in Southern Rhodesia in building
institutions like the University of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, later on called the University of Zimbabwe.
• Furthermore, the powerstations at Kariba was built on the Zimbabwean side.
• Northern Rhodesia and the Nyasaland provided ready markets for finished goods.
• In Zambia , Harry Nkumbula and Kenneth Kaunda fought tirelessly against the federation.

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 • In Malawi it was the effort of Kamuzu Hastings Banda who also fought against federation.

• In Southern Rhodesia people like Joshua Nkomo who formed the ANC in 1957 led the people in the fight
against federation.

2.22.4 The 1961 constitutional proposals

• A new constitution was harmed out in Southern Rhodesia in 1961.

• According to the constitution the electorate was divided into two, the A and B rolls.
• Roll A would elect 50 of the 65 members of the partiam whilst roll B would elect only the remaining 15.
• To qualify for roll A one had to have the following:
1. An income of at least 792 pounds per year.
2. fixed property valued at 1650 pounds.

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To qualify for roll B one had to have the following:
1. income of 264 pounds per year or ownership of fixed property valued at 495 pounds
A minister of religion or headmen with 20 or more followers automatically qualifies into the B roll. However
three votes on the B roll were equivalent to one vote in the A roll.
• Joshua nkomo and Ndabaningi Sithole had attended the conference in 1961 and they had surprisingly
agreed to these terms.
• The federation broke on December 31, 1963 and Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland went on to attend
independency the following year.
• When the federation ended Southern Rhodesia benefited in 3 ways:
i) all the military was taken by Southern Rhodesia
ii) university of Rhodesia and Nyasaland became the University of Rhodesia now University of
Zimbabwe.

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iii) The Kariba powerstation was now controlled by Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) although it also
applied to Zambia.

2.23 ACTIVITIES
• Discuss the major causes of slavery and its effects

• Analyse the major deliberations of the Berlin Conference of 1884-

• Discuss the causes and effects of colonization of Zimbabwe

• Show how the repressive colonial legislation proletarianised and pauperized the blacks during
the colonial era
• Examine the colonisatioin process of Zimbabwe by Europe
• Analyse the causes and effects of Anglo-Ndebele War, the1 st Chimurenga War and 2nd
Chimurenga

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 UNIT 3

ZIMBABWE HERITAGE

3.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of the unit the student should be able to:
• Discuss the following;
i)Political Heritage
ii)Cultural Heritage
iii)Economic Heritage
• Analyse the concept of ubuntu/ unhu in the contemporary society.

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The heritage of any nation is based on that nation’s enduring political tradition. In the USA, the national heritage
is a deep rooted political legacy born out of the war and rebellion against Great Britain and this is embodied in the
term REPUBLICANISM. The French, who are fiercely proud of their heritage, have the French revolution which
climaxed in the storming of the Bastille palace and the slaughter of the nobility as their national heritage. Similarly,
the young nation of Zimbabwe has the ethos of the second Chimurenga as the national and enduring political
tradition. The second chimurenga ethos embodies political, cultural as well as economic principles which define
and continue to sustain us as a nation. To destroy any nation, all one has to do is undermine that nation’s heritage
hence the continuing psychological war by the enemies of Zimbabwe to distort and demonize not only the second
chimurenga war but those who participated in that war and especially the heroic leaders of that struggle.

A heritage can be defined as an enduring legacy, a definitive event, achievement, tradition or theory to which the
peoples of a specific nation rally around, and have emotional attachments and for which they are prepared to
defend and to go to war if threatened or violated.

3.2 SOCIAL and CULTURAL HERITAGE

Culture in Zimbawe reflects the major ethnic and tribal groups in the society The demographic statistics show that
the people of Shona extraction constitute about ninety percent of the population with the Ndebele at 2.5%, Tonga,
Venda, Kalanga, Cewa Nambia, Shangaan and other smaller groups constituting about 7%. The white population

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has dwindled to less than o.1% of the population. Inspite of their small number the Ndebele influence on culture is
fairly strong not only on the smaller groups but has rubbed on to the Shona tribes adjacent to them. The reverse is
also quite true. Culture is dynamic. As a result it is a correct generalization that there is such a thing as African
culture in Zimbabwe as opposed to European culture. There are at most only variations in customs among the
various African groups in Zimbabwean society but the customs are either the same or closely resemble each other.
Zimbabwean African culture has the following major elements;

- Nuclear or extended family

- Recognition and respect for age, parents and authority.

- Respect for hard and honest work.

- Acceptance of good morals in terms of dress, sex, and marriage.

There has however been a strong negative influence due to the mass media on the African culture in Zimbabwe.
Television radio and the print media have done much harm in undermining the superior African culture by
encouraging foreign tastes and habits in terms of diet, dress, the family, marriage, sex and the extended family. The
first culprit has been the African family with divorce (unknown and unthinkable in pure African culture) wrecking
many families. Disease due to sex before marriage and prostitution has grown to pandemic levels especially AIDS

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related ailments. The white mans’ consumption or spending patterns have also spread among young Zimbabweans
and they are finding the extended family unbearable. Greed and exclusiveness are the hallmarks of the white mans’
culture and this is spreading fast among urbanized Africans. Unlike the white person in Zimbabwe, the African
does not have sufficient expendable cash and as a result debt and unfulfilled desires and wants are making the
lives of many Zimbaweans miserable.

African culture remains the superior culture in that it keeps society and the nation cemented. Moreover such social
ills as prostitution, pandemics, street kids, crime and political opportunism (kutengesa nyika) because of greed
would be non existent. All these ills are a result of lack of self respect and lack of personal identity due to wanting
to be a white person eg. Michael Jackson who straightens his nose or an African woman who wears false hair
extensions to look like a Caucasian or preferring to speak in a foreign language and not vernacular..

The legacies we have as Africans in terms of diet are also unchalengable in that traditional diet consisting of small
grains legumes and African fruits, vegetables and nuts naturally prevent such diseases as obesity/kusimba - a
common feature of most urbanized woman and the major cause of high blood pressure, hypertension, osteoporosis
and infertility.

In medicine, traditional herbs and a good diet remain undoubtedly the panacea for a long healthy life and the
solution to such problems as AIDS more so than condoms.

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Marriage and the family are the economic base of any society and nation. Premarital sex, divorce and sex for
money and perversions such as lesbianism homosexuality, drug taking including alcohol directly attack and
undermine the family and as such society. A multiplicity of sexual partners before marriage will always lead one to
either multiple sex partners in marriage or lack of satisfaction with one partner in marriage.

In religion opinions vary but the facts remain. In African culture the fundamentals of Christianity are firmly
embedded. Respect for age, parents and authority, good morals that is no fornication or adultery no perversion that
is no homosexuality, taking care of the needy etc. are biblical positions that remain unchangeable. In short the
white mans’ culture is not only incompatible with Christianity, it is in fact the antithesis and a direct attack on
everything Godly, that is , it is devilish.. The problem between African religion and Christianity is not lack of
morals in African religion, but methods of accessing God or worship. Indeed this writer is convinced there is lots
of superstition with respect to methods of worship in African religion in as much as most main line and emerging
Christian churches are thoroughly paginated. It is only right and good therefore to promote and maintain our
morally superior culture while adopting correct Christian methods of worship.

Our religious inheritance will therefor remain for all time our good cultural values or morals.

The values of any society therefor serve to define that society’s identity. History has much been distorted by
painting the African culture as irreligious to the extent that it is almost the accepted value among most young

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Zimbaweans to be immoral because a White Christian has an immoral value or practice for an example walking
naked or partial naked in public despite the fact that this violates Christian principles. The Black person should
there for not use the Whiteman’s values, or morals or immorals as the case may be as the reference point for good
or bad values but should use traditional practice as the point of departure and compare that with biblical principles
which remain unchanging Our values as Africans clearly identify and portray us as a people who shun immorality
graft corruption and laziness. We respect family and authority and hard work. We believe in God and we have no
room for atheism in our culture.

The second chimurenga also defines our political and economic values. At the economic level the legacy of the
second chimurenga and our heritage from that event is that the resources that are God given belong to
Zimbabweans irrespective of race or creed or tribe. Thus the land as resource number one belongs to all
Zimbabweans. White Zimbabweans with very negligible exceptions believe that land and all ill gotten gains from
the international crime of colonialism and accompanying ethnic cleansing and segregation are legitimately and
exclusively the property of those former criminals. Whites do not want to share our land with us. We have said we
will equitably share our land with whites and that remains and will always remain the Zimbabwean African’s
morally right and correct position. Any so called Zimbabwean therefore of any race who departs from this position
is not only a threat to the interests of the Nation, but is in effect and in essence declaring that the second
chimurenga was not won and lost, that is, won by the Africans in Zimbabawe through much blood and joy, and lost
by settler colonialists through by much blood and tears. It amounts to a declaration of war.

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Through hard work and self- sustaining economic policies, Zimbabweans with land firmly in their hands, can
engage other nations at the economic level and benefit from the comparative advantages we have in terms of
skilled disciplined labour, good climate, an abundance of minerals and varied flora and fauna - domestic and wild.
Economic activity therefor should benefit Zimbabweans first and foremost and this should happen through an
internal driven economic programme and not one that is externally driven. Political liberation simply relates to
universal common suffrage being available to all citizens. This was gained fully at Lancaster as manifested in the
result of the 1980 elections and subsequent elections whether presidential or gubernatorial. Such a gain is hollow
and empty and absolutely useless if it is not used to bring about economic emancipation. Political emancipation
there for leads to and of necessity must lead to economic emancipation. This has eluded not only Africa but most
of the former colonies through the practice of neo colonialism by the former colonizers and the USA and most of
the developed world. The war for economic emancipation is the last war and it is the most difficult war in that it is
now being fought at the psychological level through global media houses and the agency of corrupted local
comprador/reactionary/collaborator journalists who raise and imagine and publish false notions of the freedoms of
expression assembly and association. This leads to people as it were shooting themselves in the foot because they
through a corrupted democracy – one in which the voters’ perceptions have been warped in favour of their
colonisers - vote into power those who perpetrate their economic subjugation. The battle for perceptions is an
unfair war, and it is most cruel and criminal because of the open aggression through demands made on former
colonies under the guise of human rights.

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At the political level the second chimurengas’ heritage is that as a people we are sovereign and can determine our
own destiny without outside interference and through democratic processes designed to safeguard our hard won
independence. (See governance under legal and parliamentary affairs.)

3.3 Ubuntu\Unhu\Moral Values-The African Values Perspective

3.3 .1 CONCEPT OF “UBUNTU”
• Mbigi and Maree (1995:p7), define Ubuntu as the sense of solidarity or brotherhood which arises among
people within marginalized or disadvantaged groups .
• It is not unique to African people, but can also be found elsewhere.
• It is the foundation of communal African livelihood.
• It expresses our “interconnectedness, our common humanity and responsibility to each other that deeply
flows from our deeply felt connection” (Nussbaum 2003;2).
• It brings to the fore images of supportiveness, co-operation and communism (Koster 1996:111).
• Nussbaum (2003:2) views it as the capacity in African culture to express companion, reciprocity, dignity,
harmony and humanity in the interest of building and maintaining community with justice and mutual
caring. “Personhood is the central theme of Ubuntu.
• It is based on the Zulu proverb”Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu,” meaning a person is a person through other
people.

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• This Ubuntu affirms the humanity of one person being directly related to next person’s humanity.
• Archbishop Tutu (199:34-35) characterises a person with Ubuntu as “ one who is open and available to
others, affirming, does not feel threatened that others are able and good, for he\ she has a proper self
assurance that he or she belongs in a greater whole is diminished when others are humiliated, when others
are tortured or treated as if they were less than who they are from the foregoing, it is clear that ubuntu is
characterised by human dignity, respect, interdependence, compassion, solidarity and taking care of your
own.
• Tambalusi and Kayuni(2005:147-161) presuppose that there is no reason for one to grab other’s property,
get forced gifts from fellow human beings in whatever form. In this view, there is no justification for
extortion, demanding bribes or extortion for service delivery areas in Zimbabwe.

• In view of the above , prostitution; immoral dress such as miniskirts, tight fitting clothing; murder; rape;
robbery; burglary, drug abuse; alcoholism; abusive language; lack of respect of senior citizens; corruption;
dishonesty, gay movement(homosexuality and lesbianism), among others, are all characteristics of lack of
ubuntu.

• The point in this case is that as Zimbabweans we must cherish our ubuntu principles
in our social, political, economic, and professional settings or lives for the good of our
country

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 • Lack of ubuntu can be observed in most Government departments such as the police, mining, city councils,
immigration, among others, where corruption, mismanagement or any other form of malpractices such as
demanding bribes and extortion are rampant.

• From another view point, Mandela (1994) captures the essence of ubuntu in the following quotation; “I am
not truly free if I am taking away someone’s freedom or rights just as truly when my freedom is taken
away .” The point in this case is that as Zimbabweans we must cherish our ubuntu
principles in our social, political, economic, and professional settings or lives

3.3.2 Ubuntu and Leadership

• As Zimbabwean citizens, we are leaders in various capacities such as at family, group, community,
occupational and national levels and we are expected to be role models in terms of our moral
values(ubuntu/unhu)
• Leadership is the process of directing and influencing the task related activities of group members (Stoner et
al, 1995: 470).
• Leaders use powers and influence to get the activities effectively performed by followers.

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• Whereas power is defined as the ability to exert influence, that is to change attitudes or behaviour of
individuals or groups; influence refers to any actions or examples of behaviour that cause a change in
attitude or behaviour of another person or group.

• It must, therefore, be pointed out that leadership is about values.

• According to James McGregor Burns (cited in Stoner et al, 1995: 470), the leader who ignores the moral
components of leadership may well go down in history as a worse.
• Thus, moral leadership concerns values and requires that followers be given enough knowledge of
alternatives to make intelligent choices when it comes time to respond to a leader’s proposal to lead.

• As noted by ethicist Michael Josephson (quoted in Stoner et al, 1995:470), followers or employees do not
learn ethics from people who sermonize or moralise or try to preach to them about ethics, but learn ethics
from the people whom they admire and respect, who have power over them and those are the right people or
teachers of ethics.
• It is, therefore, important to reinforce ideals if they are sincere.

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• It is also very important for leaders and role models, whether they be sports figures, politicians / rulers or
Senior Government Officials to make positive statements of ethics, if they say (Stoner et al 1995: 470). If
leaders are not hypocritical, they can account for their actions.

• The ideas articulated in this case by Stoner et al (1995), squarely matches the concept of “Ubuntu in(Zulu/
Ndebele and Unhu in Shona)” Ubuntu refers to love for God, love for one another, and bringing to
ourselves and the rest of the world music, sport, arts and other forms of expression which bring out
the best of the human spirit and connects people across the boundaries of material life
(Rukuni,2007:450). Given the poor service delivery and corruption which characterize various sectors of
Zimbabwe, what ethics/values or Ubuntu/Unhu do some of our fellow citizens portray to the society?
• Van der Colff (2003) points out that Ubuntu calls for leadership which espouses the

values of leadership legitimacy, communal enterprise and value sharing. She argues
that these values are vital for establishing an enabling culture and a set of skills and
competencies valued in most leadership situations.
• Historically, African leadership is based on participation, responsibility and spiritual
authority. According to Lessen and Nussbaum (1996), African leadership calls for

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 transparency, accountability and legitimacy. On the contrary; Van der Colff (2003)
contends that leadership legitimacy can only be promoted by being role models for
their followers through their actions and sticking to values and goals. Thus leaders
must be of integrity before expecting the same for followers.
• Furthermore, a leader with Ubuntu values must create an enabling environment for
their followers. He / She must be fair, helpful and considerate and support followers in
their legitimate requests..
• Karsten and IIIa( 2005) highlight that Ubuntu decision making is characterised by
consultation, communal participation and open conversation. Evidently, Ubuntu
leadership entails a critical discourse since voices of all participants in organisations or
groups are involved and emphasis is on consensus building.

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• This is strikingly similar to indigenous African political systems whose story telling,
inclusive decision making and participatory community meetings were key. Coercive
powers were generally not used to achieve a common goal. Rather, consensus was
the means. “Majority of opinion did not count; unanimity was the rule (Ayittey
1991:100). As a result, communal meetings were not largely characterised by
haggling and debate but a search for deeper comprehension of issues and a
spontaneous emergency of solutions.

• The key issue here is the “value system” that guides and controls behaviour.
According to Tambulasi and Kayuni (2005 147 – 160), some African public officers
perceive the concept of Ubuntu to be all encompassing and its pursuance is viewed as
an empowerment to pay less attention to western derived principles of democracy
and good governance. In view of this, would the mixed-bag of western value systems
and African value systems help Zimbabwean citizen achieve the desired results or
outcomes in social ,economic and political life? The question is “can African feet

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 divorce Western shoes?” This follows Richard Tammbulasi and Happy Kayuni (2005)’s
quest for reality about Unbuntu/Unhu,/Butho.

3.4 Economic Heritage

National resources.

Zimbawe is endowed with many natural resources which in certain instances places the nation on the strategic
resources map of the world.

Land

Zinbabwe’s land mass is about - million square miles and has a very conducive climate being neither too hot nor
too cold and has an average rainfall of about 1500 ml.

Minerals

Zimbabwe has the following minerals; chrome, iron, coal, gold, copper, tin, emeralds. Diamonds, platinum nickel.

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Our Chrome, platinum, nickel and coal reserves are of global strategic importance because they are ranked in the
top five in terms of quantity and quality. Unfortunately control of these minerals is still in foreign hands and as a
nation we also are not yet adding value to them.

Wild life

The three major game parks in Zimbabwe are second to the combined Kenyan and Tanzanian wild life population
of the Serengeti game park. The big five wild game –elephant, buffalo, giraffe, lion and rhino are more abundant in
our game parks than in any other park in the world..

People

With a population of about 14 000 000 people Zimabwe is still sparsely populated considering that our land mass
can sustain seventy million people with optimal economic utilization. The plus about this population is its literacy
levels –about 87% and its varied skills base from which even the most advanced nations are tapping into. Through
many tricks especially after the 2000 parliamentary elections, the Western countries have not rested in trying to
spark a civil war in Zimbabwe which they will use as a pretext to directly interfere in the politics of this nation.
Thatchell the infamous homosexual has been quoted as saying that he is not only organizing but sponsoring a
group consisting of personnel in Zimbabwes’ armed forces and in the diaspora to militarily bring about an end to

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the Mugabe regime in Zimbabwe. The West Minister Foundation And even much earlier the Heritage Foundation
a USA right wing organization are trying and had tried to use opposition parties in Zimbabwe to engage the
Zimbabwean armed forces . On the whole the people of this nation have refused to be used in this very destructive
and dangerous way and have democratically expressed their wishes at the polls. The people of this nation save
those who pipe and beat the drum of this nation’s enemies remain resolutely united in the face of an unprecedented
onslaught from Europe and the USA. .

3.5 NATIONAL SYMBOLS.

The National Anthem

Born and inspired by the war of liberation, the national anthem is as it were the rallying point of the nation.
Authored by Professor Mutsvairo, it describes and narrates in a few words our origins, history, beliefs and
aspirations.

The National Flag

The national flag represents state wood and together with the court of arms they are the official and visible tokens
of the state and its authority and existence. The flag is also a product of the war of liberation. The red star
represents our socialist ideals and the Zimbabwe bird proudly points back to our distant origins and prowess as a

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people and nation in antiquity among the great civilizations of the world. The white background on which the
above two are superimposed represents our desire for peace and tranquility within and without. The red stripes
symbolize the blood of the heroes who died liberating the country, yellow our mineral resources, green our flora
and fauna and black the indigenous African natives of this nation. It is incumbent upon every Zimbabwean and any
foreigner on our soil to acknowledge our statehood by standing at attention when the flag is lowered where ever
and what ever one is doing. Standing at attention is not a religious act as some over zealous and misguided so
called Christians think. Kneeling or bowing down in reverence is a religious act reserved for God that is why
Shadrech and his other two friends were thrown in a furnace. Nowhere in Christian writing is standing erect an act
of worship or homage. It would be only right and fair to refuse to kneel to the flag for every Christian. It is only
right and fair for every Christian to stand erect in recognition not homage of those who rule them.

The Great Zimbabwe monument.

Located near Masvingo town , it represents unparalleled architectural design and construction and stands as a direct
insult to those who have ridiculed Africans of possessing no scientific psychological make up or achievements or
capability. It was used as a palace and a temple by the kings of the great Zimbabwe period and latter dynasties.

The Victoria Falls.

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A natural geological formation from years of erosion, the feature has few rivals if any and has water plunging a
hundred meters forming thunder and mist from which its more appropriate Tonga names is derived from –mosi a-
tunya the smoke that thunders. It is the nation’s prime tourist resort attraction.

3.6 Activities
• Discuss the following;
i)Political Heritage
ii)Cultural Heritage
iii)Economic Heritage

• Critically analyse the concept of ubuntu/ unhu in the contemporary society

UNIT 4

CIVIC RESPONSIBILITIES

4.1OBJECTIVES

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By the end of the unit students should be able to:

• Define civic responsibility and patriotism.

• Explain and apply civic responsibility activities in the real world.

4.2Disasters

As technology has advanced so has disasters or accidents associated with it and at the same time what appears
to be natural disasters have also increased. Management of these disasters has become a major science and the
role of each citizen in disasters has become an imperative. Major disasters can be listed as,

-disease pandemics eg. AIDS, SARS and Ebola

-Floods as a result of unusually high rainfall due to industrialization or broken dam walls

-Drought due to changing weather patterns as a result of industrialization.

-Accidents at the work place e.g. airplane crashes, gas leaks, nuclear contamination,etc

-Earthquakes.

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⇒ Disease management is first and foremost an individual responsibility. Correct dietary and sexual habits are
the first front line. Each individual is a national resource and eating junk food or recklessly imbibing in
drugs or alcohol destroys that line as much as taking irresponsible and immoral sexual behavior like sex
before marriage or infidelity within marriage. With infectious diseases, each individual should take note and
report any suspected infections and quarantine self or the affected victim.

⇒ Floods, earthquakes and workplace disasters require the nation to rally behind those affected by donating
food and clothes and shelter. It is also necessary to avoid flood and quake prone areas and to take heed to
quake or flood warning.

⇒ Industrial accidents are a manmade problem which require social responsibility to minimize the risks. There
is no such thing as safe technology. The issue at stake is risk minimization and management.

⇒ Droughts have always been there before the white man’s agriculture and especially exotic crops such as
maize. Despite droughts, Africa was not found unpopulated as a result. A banana plant does not grow in
Gokwe as naturally as it does in Rusitu valley in as much as maize thrives in Peru but is prone to drought in
Zimbawe. Maize is a stock feed that grows well in its homeland in South America but is prone to drought in
Zimbabwe. On the other hand small grains thrive in Zimbabwe and are highly nutritious for humans. The
paradigm shift in our dietary habits will go a long way towards national food self sufficiency because

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 eventually sooner rather than latter even irrigated crops will fail when there is no flow in the dams. There is
no other credible long lasting solution to drought at the family or national level than reverting to the small
grains.

⇒ :In defense of the Nation

⇒ All stable nations thrive on patriotism. Patriotism relates to each citizen’s ability to identify with his nation
by being able to distinguish between party political issues and national issues. Sovereignty, land and
defending the nation are not party political issues but national issues to which every real Zimbabwean must
stand up in defense.

4.3 Patriotism

• Defending the nation physically and in armed combat when called upon to do so by the authorities in power
or individually when the situation so demands like in the case of unilateral superpower attack.

• Defending the nation through positive publicity. The nation’s greatest and most potent enemy today is the
one amongst us who agrees to spread falsehoods about the nation’s politics and economy. Other than the

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 dissident menace, Zimbabwe has been the most peaceful nation at par with countries like Botswana and
Namibia.

• Supporting the nation through correct tax payments

• Practice environmentally friendly practices e.g. avoiding littering, pollution etc.

• Preserve the national asset that is oneself by avoiding graft, crime, corruption, greed and harmful behavior
such as premarital sex, drug abuse etc..

• Respect and tolerate other races, tribes, religions opinions and beliefs.

• Cherish unity in diversity among the various stake holders in spite of differences in approaches.

4.4 ACTIVITIES

• Define civic responsibility and patriotism.

• Explain and apply civic responsibility activities in the real world

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 UNIT 5

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL PROLEMS FACED BY ZIMBABWE SINCE 1980

5.1Objectives

By the end of the unit students should be able to:

• Discuss the problems faced by the government at and after independence

• Explain how the government solved the problems that it faced at and after independence

5.2 ECONOMIC PROBLEMS

• Need to develop rural areas to stop rural-urban drift and to correct a hundred years of colonial rule.

• Redirect economic priorities to serve the whole population rather than a small white section of the population.

• Bring health. Education, and shelter to all Zimbabweans.

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• Recurring drought - 1983, 1992, 1997, 2002 as it negatively affects the national economy and agricultural
production.

• Deal with unfavourable terms of trade.

• Stop the shrinking in the economy and reverse growing unemployment.

• Resolve inflation and the Devaluation of the Zimbabwean dollar against major international currencies

• Gradual increase in prices of basic commodities due to speculation and profiteering.

• Falling commodity prices in the international market.

• Dis investment due to a more vigorous indegenisaion economic approach.

• Political interference in the nation’s politics through the sponsoring and creation of opposition parties with a
foreign agenda..

• The brain drain

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• Corruption

• Decline in moral values leading to AIDS

5.3 HOW THE GOVERNMENT HAS SOLVED THESE PROBLEMS

• Drought in Zimbabwe has been partly alleviated by importing grain from abroad and construction of dams and
also creating grain strategic reserves seeds packs given to peasants to help them recover from droughts. Of
major importance has been the redistribution of land and reducing pressure in the congested rural areas and
settling people in areas with fertile soils and high rainfall.

• The Ministry of Employment Creation and indegenisation have gone some way in creating employment.

• Externally originated and driven economic policies have been abandoned in favour of home grown solutions

• Profiteering and speculation which fueled inflation have been checked gradually restoring sanity to the financial
sector.

• ESAP has been abandoned by the government and attention has been redirected to the East Asian economies to
encourage investment and cooperation.

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• SADC and COMESA Union trade arrangements have been adopted to encourage an increase in international
trade.

• However, Zimbabwe has not managed to solve all problems.

• Cost sharing in Education and Health have been instituted to alleviate spiraling costs..

• Indigenisation, affirmative action, creation of SEDCO, the Land bank land redistribution etc have all gone a
long way towards alleviating the unemployment problem.

• A new monetary policy together with an anticorruption drive has seen inflation decreasing slowly but gradually.

• Reawakening of the peoples’ moral values and their culture as a solution to decreasing and ultimately wiping
out STDs and AIDS infection.

5.4 Activities

• Discuss the problems faced by the government at and after independence

• Explain how the government has solved the problems that it faced at and after independence

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 UNIT 6

LEGAL AND PARLIAMENTARY AFFAIRS

6.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit the student should be able to:

o Define Law and state its origins and purpose
o Discuss pre-colonial legal systems and compare them to modern law.
o Explain the concept of Law enforcement justice and public order.
o Discuss the Constitutional provisions of Zimbabwe
o Analyse the rights and freedoms as enshrined in the constitution

6.1 LAW
6.1.1 Definition
Can be generally defined as;

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a) ‘rules of behavior enforced by society’
b) “a body of established norms for the good governance of society’
Austin defines law as,
c) “ a command set, either directly or circuitously, by a sovereign individual and /or body, to a member
or members of some independent political society in which his authority is supreme”.
Salmond defines law as,
d) “ consisting of principles which are recognized and enforced by the courts in the administration of
justice.”
Vinshisky (a one time attorney general in Russia in the ninetieth century) defines law as;
e) “rules and regulations put in place by those in power in order to protect their interests.”
The major elements in Austin’s definition are:
1) “ the command of a sovereign’. This suggests use of force and the right to command.
2) The definition is deficient in that it lacks such ethical elements as justice, consistence and uniform
application. In this present day and age law is looked at as the balance and union between might and
rightness or justice and legitimacy. The definition also excludes the law enforcement aspect – the
courts.
Salmond, an English judge emphasizes the aspect of “principle” and “recognition’ and in typical English
legal tradition leaves room and gives a free hand to the judge to determine what is a recognized principle

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 and what is not. Moreover, this definition does not deal with the element of legitimacy assuming that
English political authority is right and legitimate always and everywhere and in one statement legitimating
such evils as colonialism or wars of conquest.
A principle can be defined as “ something that can be applied over a large range of cases resembling one
another in their most essential features” and the result or outcome is invariably the same.

Vinshisky ‘s definition is more behavioral in approach and scope and explains the origins; purposes and
justification of such laws as the Hut tax the Land apportionment act and the Land Tenure act in pre-
independent Zimbabwe. It also explains the current laws being made to reverse the very same laws e.g. the
Land acquisition Act, POSA and AIPPA. Everywhere even in Britain law is not made in pursuit of that
elusive thing called justice but for the protection of the interests of those in power. To a large extent this is a
Marxist definition and is precise in so far as it is realistic and not idealistic. No law is just per se’. All law is
premised on maintaining the status quo and the advantages - political and economic- of those in authority or
of the ruling class.

6.1.2 Purpose of Law;

• Realistically the purpose of law is to protect the interests of those making the law.

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 • Idealistically the purpose of law is to bring about law and order, predictability, stability and
peace.

6.1.3 The nature of law

Man is a social animal. The term ‘society’ or community suggests norms or behavioral patterns in the
society. Behavior patterns become social customs with the passage of time, usage, and acceptance. Social
customs attract social sanctions if and when violated e.g. Labeling such as uri nzenza or ostracism etc.
Social custom evolves into legal custom once they are enforced and accepted in the law courts e.g.. van
Breda and Others vs. Jacobs.

6.1.4 Natural law or lex Naturalis and the origins of law.

Natural law can be viewed broadly as a product of the biblical principle ‘ do unto others as you would want
them to do unto you’. Evolutionists suppose that man had to escape from a state of nature that is lawless
society. In such a society each member of society does as he pleases and is a law to himself and does not
value nor does he respect the welfare of others. Thomas Hobbes views law as an authoritarian command,

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 which should be legitimated by its consistence or compliance to natural law that is one gives as much as he
is willing to receive. One enjoys unchallenged enjoyment of staying in his house because he in turn does not
threaten the undisturbed enjoyment of other people’s homes.
Statute law or legislation is just law if only it is an extension of natural law. Lawmakers are therefore bound
by natural law and it flows naturally from right reason. Natural law is seen as the moral basis and norm for
legislators and governments. The state is thus a product of men or members of society contracting to appoint
a single body or will to bear or represent all of them. Members of society therefore enter into a social
contract, which is characterized by a mutual transfer of rights. Lex naturalis proscribes man from doing
that which is destructive of his life or taking away the means of preserving his life. Man in a state of nature
has the right to everything and is governed by his own reason and can do anything to anyone to further his
interests. Thus man should be willing if and when others are willing and in so far as his security and peace
are assured as he sees it, waive his right to every thing and be satisfied with as much liberty against others as
s he receives from others. Every member of society should therefore surrender as much in terms of rights as
the other person is prepared or willing to surrender. This alludes to the entering of a social contract by people
whose desire is to escape from a state of nature. All modern law is presumed to be based on natural law.

6.1.5 The origins of law /Sources of law

• Persuasive sources of law

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These are references, which the law courts resort to in order to tilt the balance for or against a
decision or controversial point of law. These are; a) social custom, b). Legal literature by jurists,
c) Judicial precedent specifically Obiter Dicta or that part of a judges decision in a novel case
which are side statements and not the actual principle.

• Binding sources of law

These are references, which are followed in determining what is legal, or are not. It consists of legal
principles in the following forms;
a) Legal custom; Social custom that can be enforced in the law courts
b) Judicial precedent/common law; the legal principles established each time a new case or
situation comes before a judge. It is based on ratio decided, that is the legal basis on which a
decision is reached.
c) Legislation; this refers to law made by the legislature or parliament and is termed statutory law
or acts of parliament. Parliament delegates its authority to make law to such bodies as
municipalities and the law they make is termed delegated legislation that is, statutory
instruments or by laws. Where there is a conflict between the various laws, the statutory law
position takes precedence and nullifies any other position.

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6.1.6 Principles / characteristics of legislated law
All law, to be valid, should be seen to possess the following elements;
i) Doctrine of impartiality;
a) Equality -there should be seen to be equality in the application of law among citizens.
b) Uniformity - there should be spatial uniformity in the application of law.
c) Just application- law should be seen to be morally right.

ii) Authority;
a) Separation of powers – the legislature, judiciary and the executive should be separated to ensure
counterbalancing and counterchecking the exercise of the powers of state.
b) Doctrine of ultra and intra virus- all law should be made within the confines of the law i.e. in
consistence to/with the constitution.
iii) Certainty;
– The law should not be retroactive or ex-post-factor

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6.1.7 Divisions/classification of law

LAW

National Law International Law

Criminal Law
Private International
Admin Law Law
Public International
Constitutional Law Law
Law of treaties

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 Civil Private Law
Law of sea
Commercial Law
Company Law

Family Law
Industrial Law

Labour Law
National law is the body of rules and regulations that govern the behavior of citizens of and within a specific
country and it is further subdivided into three specializations. These three distinctions are not based on the type of
act/omission but on the legal action that follow.

Criminal law is where criminal proceedings are instituted against a person for committing a crime that is an act or
omission that attracts sanctions – fines or imprisonment or both. The parties in criminal proceedings are; the State
vs. the defendant or the accused. The outcome is guilty or not guilty.

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Civil law is where civil proceedings are instituted or where an individual sues another individual in a legal suite.
The parties in civil proceedings are the plaintiff or complainant (the one suing) and the defendant (the one being
sued). The result of or sentence of the proceedings is commission of a wrong or no commission. The sentence can
be damages, compensation, restitution or performance.

Administrative law is the law that relates to the operations and functions of formal institutions in so far as their
relations with the state and their employees is concerned.

International law is the law that regulates relations between states and is based on conventions, custom, treaties and
bi-lateral and multilateral agreements. It differs from national law in that where as national law has a law-enforcing
agency to back it in the form of the army and police and prisons, international law has none of these law-enforcing
agencies and relies on the goodwill of states, which in many instances is lacking. International law can be private
international law or public international law. The former deals with disputes between citizens of two different
countries and these are mostly trade disputes. Public international law is the law that relates to disputes between
states and these are normally issues relating to boundaries, war, or natural resources access. International law is
the law that governs the behavior of states and to a growing extent the behavior of nationals within states e.g. War
crimes, crimes against humanity and terrorism.

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6.1.8 Substantive and adjectival law
This classifications cut across all the above categories.
Adjectival law can be defined as the law that relates to the enforcement of rights and duties liberties and
powers specifically the law of procedure and evidence for an example civil and criminal pleadings. In civil
procedure the plaintiff’s claim is termed the declaration and the defendant’s response is termed a traverse
(countercheck quarrelsome according to Dickens).

Substantive law is that law that lays down the peoples’ rights, duties, liberties and powers e.g. the constitution
or an act of parliament.

6.1.9 The Constitution

Most nations have a written constitution as the supreme law of the country. The United kingdom stands out
as the odd case that has no one clear document written and termed a constitution. The UK has precedent,
custom as well as separate pieces of documents that all add up to what may be interpreted as a constitution.
A constitution is the body of rules and regulations that sets out the authority of those in power or and the
extent and limits of the exercise of executive power. It also sets out the rights and duties of the citizen. These
two aspects are contained in the doctrine of the separation of powers and the doctrine of intra-vires and ultra-
vires.

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6.2.11THE LANCASTER AGREEMENT OF 1979

After fighting a successful protracted war of liberation, The First Chimurenga war, the settler colonialists
and Britain succumbed to the reality of defeat and had to negotiate for peace and unlike the previous
occasions where peace talks were unsuccessful, it was imperative that a solution had to be found to the war
of liberation in Zimbabwe if the settler community and British interests were to be safeguarded. The
Frontline states were also a major factor in the search for peace at the conference in that there were clear
signs of war weariness on their part. This scenario was ideal for the settlers in that there was every chance of
as they saw it of getting into power I they or their stages the DNC were to get into power. The major
problems provisions of the agreement were as follows:

2.2 The Separation of Powers

The state has three arms whose functions are separate and these are;
Government/Executive
Judiciary
Legislature

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The State is that intangible aspect of every nation that can be defined as the authority and identity conferred by a people within a
country to themselves and for which there is a force in the form of an army to defend that authority. A state does not change or
vanish unless territory is annexed by another state through conquest or agreement or the population becomes non existent and the
territory becomes uninhabited that is terra nullius. Sovereignty is therefore not conferred on a nation but it is claimed by each
individual nation people and asserted through the exercise of executive powers and the ability to enter into diplomatic intercourse
with other nations.
Whereas a nation is the peoples within a geographical entity called a country whose aspirations, interests
shall so decide the shaping of their destiny, a country is a geographical space marked by natural or man-
made boundaries.

6.1.10 The doctrine of separation of powers.

The three arms of state are supposed to act as checks and balances on each other so that there is no abuse of
power by anyone aspect or arm of state. This ensures that the judiciary is impartial and does not make any
law. The legislature is the supreme law making body and has no restricted competency and can change or
amend the constitution.
6.1.10.1 Ultra-vires and intra-vires doctrine
Parliament can only make law that does not violate provisions of the constitution and the executive or
government must exercise its authority as provided for in the constitution. When the executive or

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 parliament acts within their powers they are acting intra-vires when they act outside their powers as
provided for by or in the constitution, they are acting ultra vires and there is therefore no rule of law.
When parliament makes law they act intra-vires the constitution there is therefore the rule of law. Any
influence by foreign or illegitimate forces in relation to constitutional uses, were national interests are
concerned; the wish of the state thru the national force (people) shall take precedents in the interests of
sovereignty.

6.1.11Public order
Public order refers to a situation in the nation when every individual is able to exercise his/her
constitutional rights without infringing or interfering with the rights of others or endangering state
security and national sovereignty by championing blatantly clear foreign interests that seek to reverse
the gains of independence and self rule and by so doing compromising state national sovereignty.
Democracy is therefore a qualified and subjective term that does not give license to any individual or
group or political party the right to exploit situational hurdles in the history of Zimbabwe to
compromise national sovereignty and the ethos of the preservation of freedom. If and when that
happens, the custodian of the nation, the army and every patriotic Zimbabwean, should by all means
available, defend the nation and democratic rights can and should be suspended until such a time as
these are compatible with our historical aspirations. Public order therefore entails the capability of

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 self-censorship with respect to the exercise of individual constitutional rights especially the rights of
expression, speech, assembly and association. In the latter case, the constitution cannot be read to
mean that belonging or associating with a subversive organization or unpatriotic party or ill
association whose interests are to destabilize peace, order and security is a right guaranteed by the
constitution.
6.1.12 ACTIVITIES
o Define Law and state its origins and purpose
o Discuss pre-colonial legal systems and compare them to modern law.
o Explain the concept of Law enforcement justice and public order.
o Analyse the provisions of the Constitution of Zimbabwe

UNIT 7
Democracy and Governance.

7.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit the student should be able to:

• Compare Western Democracy to pre-colonial governance system inclusivity, exclusivity

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• Trace and discuss major issues at all elections held in Zimbabwe.
• SADC election guidelines
• Discuss - Zimbabwe’s electoral system and authority

INTRODUCTION

Democracy as a system of governance is of Greek origin. Its main tenet was its attempt to bring about
an inclusive rather than an exclusive form of governance that is typical of the monarch or king. A
monarch has its merits and demerits and so does democracy.
The traditional Zimbabwean system of governance while having its shortcomings was nevertheless
superior to both the former aristocratic European system of governance and the present form of
democracy as championed by the West especially The U.S.A. and its lackey the U.K. Demo means
people and cracy means rule. Democracy means people rule. Democracy as a system of governance is
not established through elections only. In the traditional Shona system of governance “ushe hwaive
madzoro” first and foremost, that is there was no permanent ruling class or family as in the present
American and European systems where the super rich and well connected and acceptable few in terms
of race and ideology qualify to rule that is the rich Anglo Saxons. (Jews, Chinese, Hispanics and

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 especially blacks are excluded from the presidency on no other grounds other than that that they are
from these minority groups.
Secondly, the community was always represented at large in the kings “dare” and this system of
inclusion permeated the whole structure from top to bottom and it was reflected in the family
governance where the family was not run by the father tyrannically but involved and to a large extent
today does involve the mother the children who have come of age and the check and balance of the
extended family “vana tete nana babamunini”.
7.2 WHAT IS GOVERNANCE?
The term “governance” refers to the process of decision-making and the ways in which
decisions are implemented (or not). In any given system, the executive ( government) is
the major actor, but others like the Judiciary and the Legislature can influence the process.
Non-state actors, such as religious or tribal leaders, civil society, major landowners, trade
unions, financial institutions, and community based groups can play important roles. The
following characterise a good system of governance:
• Participatory—encouraging wide citizen participation
in decision-making;
• Consensus-orientated—attempting to reach decisions
based on widespread agreement;

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• Transparent—being open to scrutiny in decision making
processes;
• Responsive—listening and responding to the needs
of its citizens;
• effective and efficient—providing basic services; and
• equitable and inclusive—not excluding sectors of
the population, especially those that are more
vulnerable or marginalised.
There are many multi- and bilateral institutions that are concerned with promoting what
they have termed “good governance” in post conflict and developing countries. Each of
these institutions defines good governance slightly differently and has developed its own
indicators by which it measures and evaluates progress toward good governance. The
World Bank, for instance, has identified six indicators of good governance “to help
countries identify areas of weakness so that capacity building and assistance strategies are
more effective.” The
indicators are:
• voice and accountability;
• political stability and lack of violence;

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• government effectiveness;
• regulatory quality;
• rule of law; and
• control of corruption.
Democracy and Governance
Political leaders’ visions they promote and the systems and values they bring to governing
a country play a pivotal role in fostering peace and development, promoting oppression or
the resurgence of conflict. Since so much is at stake, during peace negotiations there is
often great competition for power and the prospect of controlling a government. For
countries that have little or no experience with democratic governance, the challenges are
immense. But the post conflict environment does provide an opportunity for countries to
create new structures of government and systems of “good governance.” In situations
where the international community has taken on state-building, its institutions assume
some responsibility for issues related to democracy and governance. It is also a time of
opportunity for women. In particular, Zimbabwe has been effective at using quotas and
reserved seats to “ensure the presence and participation of women in justice, governance,
private sector and civil society .For example; we have a lady Vice President, Mrs Joice
Mujuru. International actors consider “good governance” to be a key for building

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sustainable peace and long-term development. Progress toward good governance is
increasingly used as a requisite for the provision of aid. Despite the variations in definitions
and indicators of good governance, most institutions agree that good governance typically
includes efforts at democratization and decentralisation, the introduction of free and fair
elections, participatory politics, the creation of an independent civil society,
guarantee of a free and independent press and respect for the rule of law. Each of
these topics, among others, is discussed below.

7.3 WHAT ARE THE KEY COMPONENTS

OF “GOOD GOVERNANCE”?
In countries involved in peace processes, questions relating to governance often consume a
significant portion of the discussions; typically demands for democratisation, including
elections and timeframes for transition, are addressed. Other related elements include
discussions surrounding the nature of political
participation, electoral systems, issues of transparency and separation of powers, as
discussed below.

7.4 DEMOCRACY

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Democracy is a system of government in which power is vested in the people (the
population) and exercised through representatives chosen in free and
fair elections. But a democracy does not just mean that “the majority rules.” A democracy
also includes and protects the human rights of minorities and respects multiple or “plural”
views and opinions. In a democracy people have rights as citizens, but they also have
responsibilities to participate in the
governance system. There are many versions of democracies around the
world (e.g. electoral, consultative) and ongoing debates about the extent to which “one
size fits all” with regard to democracy. The process a country
goes through in attempting to become more democratic is referred to as
democratisation. In order for a country to be truly democratic, all of its
citizens—men and women—must be empowered to participate fully in the governance
process (as citizens, voters, advocates, civil servants, judges,
elected officials, etc.).

7.5 FREE AND FAIR ELECTIONS

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An election is the procedure by which citizens of a country choose their representatives and
leaders and assign authority. Elections must be held regularly so that elected officials
remain accountable to the
population; if they do not uphold their responsibilities to the electorate, they can be voted
out of office in the next election. Elections must be
held within a period of time that is prescribed in the constitution, or fundamental law. For
an election to be truly democratic, it must be:
• universal—All citizens of a country must have the right to vote and to be elected, without
discrimination based on sex, race, language, religion or political affiliation. In Zimbabwe as
elsewhere in the world there is no discrimination in voting processes.
• equal—The value of each vote must be the same.
• secret—The balloting must be private so that citizens can participate without being
afraid; only the voter must know for whom she or he votes.
• direct—The voters must be able to choose their own leaders without an intermediary.
• wide choice—The voters must have the opportunity to choose from among several
available candidates.

7.6 DECENTRALISATION

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An increasingly important component of democratisation in many parts of the world is
decentralisation. Decentralisation is the process of transferring authority and
responsibility from the central government to provincial and local levels. Countries pursue
decentralisation for a variety of reasons, including a desire to make the government more
receptive and accountable to the needs of its population and/or to respond to pressure
from donors to “downsize” central government budgets. Decentralisation is based upon the
notion that
various levels of the government have different expertise and abilities to address problems.
For example, national defence and monetary policy are clearly best set at the national
level, but policies concerning schools, local police protection and some public services are
often better determined at the local level with community input. Critics of decentralisation,
however, charge that it weakens parts of the state that, for the sake of peace building and
human security, need to be strengthened. There are three types of decentralisation:
political, administrative and fiscal. Political decentralization involves the election of local-
level leaders. Administrative decentralisation occurs when some of the government’s
decision-making is managed at the local level. And fiscal decentralisation refers to the
national government sharing budgetary responsibility for collecting revenues and making

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expenditures with local government representatives. Decentralisation processes often
include local-level
elections.

7.7 PARTICIPATORY POLITICS AND POLITICAL PARTIES

The concept of “participatory politics” refers to the involvement of all citizens in politics
and policymaking. This requires a relationship between the government and society in
which the participation of citizens and a plurality of views are
encouraged. This can be supported by strengthening political parties; encouraging the
participation of marginalised groups, such as women and youth; and by strengthening civil
society (described below). The right to convene and articulate political views is a key
principle of good governance and democratisation. Political parties are one of the
cornerstones of a democratic political system. Parties are critical because they provide a
structure for
political participation for people with similar beliefs and interests. By joining together,
individuals, who would otherwise not be influential, can make their
voices heard in the political process through their support of a political party. Political
parties also provide leaders with a space in which to learn the

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skills needed for governing a society. A democracy must have more than one major, viable
party so that a single group does not dominate the government
and voters have a choice. This principle is called multipartyism. Membership in political
parties must be voluntary. It can be difficult for women to achieve leadership positions
within political parties and to be selected as candidates because, in many countries, parties
operate or govern themselves without written party rules or transparent procedures. Such
lack of openness allows patronage systems and “old boys’ networks” to flourish, effectively
excluding women from decision-making positions and candidate lists. In some countries,
political parties have adopted internal quotas for women’s participation to ensure that
they always put forward a certain number of women’s candidates. In Zimbabwe as in
Argentina, Botswana and France, among others, all political parties encourage participation
of women in politics. For example, the political parties in Zimbabwe have Women’s Leagues
in their structures and both the major political parties in Zimbabwe have ladies as their
Vice Presidents. An important advocacy strategy for women is to work with political parties
to make sure that the party platform, the formal declaration of the principles and positions
that the party supports, describes its positions on issues important to women.

7.8 ACTIVITIES

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 • Compare Western Democracy to pre-colonial governance system inclusivity, exclusivity
• Trace and discuss major issues at all elections held in Zimbabwe.
• SADC election guidelines
• Discuss - Zimbabwe’s electoral system and authority

UNIT 8

The Constitution of Zimbabwe

8.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit the student should be able to:
• Discuss The Lancaster House Agreement
• State the major provisions of the Lancaster Agreement
• Explain the provisions of the Constitution of Zimbabwe in relation to :
- Republican Destiny and National Political and Economic Sovereignty
- Citizenship
- Declaration of Rights and Freedoms of Individuals

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 - Constitutional amendments
- Elections – parliamentary gubernatorial, presidential and local government

The constitution is the supreme law in Zimbabwe. No law is above the constitution of the republic of
Zimbabwe in determining what is legal and what is illegal in Zimbabwe. This law (constitution) is
drawn and revised to protect and safeguard the interests of the citizens of this country. Some
countries especially the European nations and the U.S.A. want to introduce laws that they term
international norms or laws acceptable in international law.

This is in a way an attempt to change the laws of other countries in such a way as to have their
interests protected. The majority of these laws are designed to protect subversive or perverted
elements within other societies or nations for an example perverts (Gays and lesbians) or puppet
political and economic groups within smaller nations for an example secessionist and tribal minorities.

8.2 The constitutional Provisions

• Republican Destiny
The constitution of Zimbabwe begins with the declaration that Zimbabwe is a sovereign state and so
shall decide its destiny. The republican destiny is outlined in conjunction with national interests as

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represented by the public seal which shall be kept by the president as the head of state and whose
authority protects national interests and aspirations.
• Citizenship

- Can be by birth, except if the parents have diplomatic immunity, are not citizens, or the parents
are enemy aliens or an illegal residents
- Can be by descent that is he is born outside the country but his parents are or were Zimbabwean
citizens.
- Can be by registration that is by application to the minister of Home affairs.
Dual citizenship.

No person having other citizenship can be a Zimbabwean citizen unless he/she renounces that other
citizenship. In many precedents law tends to favour descent than any other citizenship status on
enjoyment of privileges.

• Declaration of rights
Every citizen irrespective of color race religion etc. is entitled to the basic and fundamental rights of
the individual provided that when enjoying such rights or freedoms he/she does not infringe on the

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 peaceable enjoyment of the rights of others or does not endanger the public interest that is state
security and public order. Such freedoms are as follows:
a) The right to life except where the state is duly carrying out a death sentence, or where there is need to
defend property or in repelling violence, or effecting lawful arrest or preventing someone from
escaping from lawful custody, or in suppressing a riot, insurrection and unlawful gathering, or in
preventing the commission of a crime or if the cause of death is a lawful act of war.
b) Right to Personal liberty
Such a right can be exercised by any citizen excerpt where; the person is sentenced to a prison term by
a court of law for a criminal offence or for contempt of a court of law or in a civil suit or where a
parent or guardian so requests the court for the welfare or education of an individual between 21 and
23 years old or in order to prevent the spread of a disease or if the person is of an unsound mind, is a
drug addict an alcoholic or is an illegal immigrant or subject of an extradition process.
Any person so detained is entitled to legal representation and should be charged within a reasonable
period and where a person is unlawful detained the detainee is entitled to compensation from that
person or authority detaining him/her.

c) Protection from slavery and forced labour

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 Excerpt where such labour is in compliance with a court sentence or is necessary for hygiene and the
maintenance of the places of lawful detention or is a requirement by a parent for purposes of parental
discipline or labour required by virtue of belonging to a uniformed service or required of any citizen
during an emergency.

d) Protection from inhuman treatment;

Such as torture or other degrading punishment. Where as reasonable force or corporal punishment is
acceptable in effecting an arrest or for a parent or anyone in loco parentis over a person eighteen years
and below and under his custody.

e) Protection From deprivation of property

Every Zimbabwean citizen shall not be compulsorily deprived of his/her property

or right therein excerpt;
When legally required by law in the case of land for the utilization of such land for purposes of
agricultural settlement or other use or for land reorganization such as forestry and game parks or for

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 purposes of relocation of persons affected in the former cases, or for purposes of public defense,
public order and safety, morality, health, town and country planning, or for any other public
good.Where such land is thus acquired it will be done according to the law in force at that time
allowing for reasonable notice and fair compensation.

f) PROTECTION from arbitrary search and entry of the person or his property Except where the person
so searching is parent, or for purposes of the defense and security of the state, public health, morality
or town and country planning or in the enforcement of the law where there are reasonable grounds of
suspicion of the existence of a crime.

g) Provision to secure protection of the law

All citizens are entitled to the protection of the law. Where a person is charged with a criminal
offence that person should; be brought before an independent and impartial court within reasonable
time, is innocent until proved otherwise, is entitled to legal representation and to defend and cross
examine witnesses and no person is guilty of an offense post facto.

h) Protection of freedom of conscience

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 Every citizen except for minors or with his/her own consent has a right to freedom
of thought, religion (belonging or changing), freedom to individually or severally in
public or private to propagate/ manifest his/her religion through worship teaching
practice and observance. No person attending an educational institution shall be
compelled to receive religious instruction contrary to his/ her religion, unless in the interest
of group discipline.
Any community is entitled to provide religious instruction to its members at its educational
institutions. Provisions on guardianship powers may limit freedom of conscience.

i) Protection of freedom of expression

Every citizen save for minors or with one’s own consent is entitled to hold his her own opinions on
any issue and receive and impart such opinions or information without interference Excerpt where,
The law makes provisions for the sake of the defense of the nation, public safety and order, economic
interests of the state, public morality and public health to;
Protect reputations privacy, and rights of others, Maintain confidentiality, protect parliament, the
courts and tribunals, and regulate technical aspects of telecommunications and the electronic media
and preventing any unlawful communication. Freedom of expression is exercised within the
parameters of justification, fair comment and qualified or absolute privilege.

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 J) Protection of freedom of assembly and association

With the excerption of minors or through his own consent every citizen is
entitled to assemble and associate and belong to or not to be compelled to assemble or
associate with any group, political party, union for purposes of protecting and propagating
his/her interests. Excerpt where the law makes provisions for the sake of
public order, safety morality, health, security and defense and the regulation of companies or other
business enterprises. The associations whose interests are known to
comprise security and order shall be diffused under the prohibition from
commitment of crime.

k) Protection from discrimination on the grounds of;

Race, religion, ethnicity, gender, political affiliation, place of origin tribe, etc. No law or practice
shall be deemed lawful if it violates this provision excerpt in the cases of adoption, marriage divorce,
burial devolution of property or any matter pertaining to personal law or relating to immigration
status, qualifications for purposes of employment not relating to any of the above.

l) Enforcement of rights

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 Where an individual feels that his her rights are violated the said person shall appeal to the supreme
court which alone has the prerogative to hear and deliberate on all matters relating to the constitutional
provisions on the fundamental freedoms.

• The Executive
Executive Powers and Authority
The Executive Authority of the Inclusive Government shall vest in, and be shared
among the President, the Prime Minister and the Cabinet, as provided for in the
Constitution and legislation.
The President of the Republic shall exercise executive authority subject to the
Constitution and the law.
The Prime Minister of the Republic shall exercise executive authority
subject to the Constitution and the law.
The Cabinet of the Republic shall exercise executive authority subject to the
Constitution and the law.

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 In the exercise of executive authority, the President, Vice Presidents, the Prime
Minister, the Deputy Prime Ministers, Ministers and Deputy Ministers must have
regard to the principles and spirit underlying the formation of the Inclusive
Government and accordingly act in a manner that seeks to promote cohesion both inside
and outside government.
• The Cabinet
(a) shall have the responsibility to evaluate and adopt all government policies
and the consequential programmes;
(b) shall, subject to approval by Parliament, allocate the financial resources for
the implementation of such policies and programmes;
(c) shall have the responsibility to prepare and present to Parliament, all such
legislation and other instruments as may be necessary to implement the policies and
programmes of the National Executive;
(d) shall, except where the Constitution requires ratification by
Parliament, or action by the President, approve all international agreements;

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 (e) shall ensure that the state organs, including the Ministries and
Departments, have sufficient financial and other resources and appropriate operational
capacity to carry out their functions effectively; and
(f) shall take decisions by consensus, and take collective responsibility for all
Cabinet decisions, including those originally initiated individually by any member of
Cabinet.
(g) The President and the Prime Minister will agree on the allocation of
Ministries between them for the purpose of day-to-day supervision.
• The President
(a) chairs Cabinet;
(b) exercises executive authority;
(c) shall exercise his/her powers subject to the provisions of the Constitution;
(d) can, subject to the Constitution, declare war and make peace;

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 (e) can, subject to the Constitution, proclaim and terminate martial law;
(f) confers honours and precedence, on the advice of Cabinet;
(g) grants pardons, respites, substitutes less severe punishment and
suspends or remits sentences, on the advice of Cabinet;
(h) chairs the National Security Council;
(i) formally appoints the Vice Presidents;
(j) shall, pursuant to this Agreement, appoint the Prime Minister pending
the enactment of the Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment no.19 as agreed by the
Parties;
(k) formally appoints Deputy Prime Ministers, Ministers and Deputy Ministers
in accordance with this agreement;
(l) after consultation with the Vice Presidents, the Prime Minister and the
Deputy Prime Ministers, allocates Ministerial portfolios in accordance with this
Agreement;

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 (m) accredits, receives and recognizes diplomatic agents and consular officers;
(n) appoints independent Constitutional Commissions in terms of the
Constitution;
(o) appoints service/executive Commissions in terms of the Constitution and in
consultation with the Prime Minister;
(p) in consultation with the Prime Minister, makes key appointments the
President is required to make under and in terms of the Constitution or any Act of
Parliament;
(q) may, acting in consultation with the Prime Minister, dissolve Parliament;
(r) must be kept fully informed by the Prime Minister on the general conduct of
the government business and;
(s) shall be furnished with such information as he/she may request in respect
of any particular matter relating to the government, and may advise the Prime Minister and
Cabinet in this regard.

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 • The Prime Minister
(a) chairs the Council of Ministers and is the Deputy Chairperson of Cabinet;
(b) exercises executive authority;
(c) shall oversee the formulation of government policies by the Cabinet;
(d) shall ensure that the policies so formulated ar€ implemented by the entirety of
government;
(e)shall ensure that the Ministers develop appropriate implementation plans to give effect
to the policies decided by Cabinet: in this regard, the Ministers will report to the Prime Minister on
all issues relating to the implementation of such policies and plans;
(f)shall ensure that the legislation necessary to enable the government to carry out its
functions is in place: in this regard, he/she shall have the" responsibility to discharge the functions
of the Leader of Government Business in Parliament;
(g) shall be a member of the National Security Council;

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 (h) may be assigned such additional functions as are necessary further to enhance the work
of the Inclusive Government;
(i) shall, to ensure the effective execution of these tasks, be assisted by Deputy Prime
Ministers; and
(j) shall report regularly to the President and Parliament.
• Council of Ministers
To ensure that the Prime Minister properly discharges his responsibility to oversee the
implementation of the work of government, there shall be a Council of Ministers consisting
of all the Cabinet Ministers, chaired by the Prime Minister, whose functions shall be:
(a) to assess the implementation of Cabinet decisions;
(b) to assist the Prime Minister to attend to matters of coordination in the government;
(c) to enable the Prime Minister to receive briefings from the CabinetCommittees;
(d) to make progress reports to Cabinet on matters of implementation of Cabinet decisions;

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 (e) to receive and consider reports from the Committee responsible for the periodic review
mechanism; and
(f) to make progress reports to Cabinet on matters related to the periodic review mechanism.
• Composition of the Executive
(1) There shall be a President, which Office shall continue to be occupied by President
Robert Gabriel Mugabe.
(2) There shall be two (2) Vice Presidents, who will be nominated by the President and/or Zanu
PF.
(3) There shall be a Prime Minister, which Office shall be occupied by Mr Morgan Tsvangirai.
(4) There shall be two (2) Deputy Prime Ministers, one (1) from MDC-T and one (1) from the
MDC-M.
(5) There shall be thirty-one (31) Ministers, with fifteen (15) nominated by Zanu PF, thirteen
(13) by MDC-T and three (3) by MDC-M. Of the 31 Ministers, three (3) one each

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 appointed shall become members of the House of Assembly and shall have the right to sit,
speak and debate in Parliament, but shall not be entitled to vote.
(6) There shall be fifteen (15) Deputy Ministers, with (eight) 8 nominated by Zanu PF, six (6) by
MDC-T and one (1) by MDC-M.
(7) Ministers and Deputy Ministers may be relieved of their duties only after consultation
among the leaders of all the political parties participating in the Inclusive Government.
• Senate
(a) The President shall, in his discretion, appoint five (5) persons to the existing positions of
Presidential senatorial appointments.
(b) There shall be created an additional nine (9) appointed senatorial posts, which shall be
filled by persons appointed by the President, of whom, 3 will be nominated by Zanu PF, 3 by
MDC-T and 3 by MDC-M.
• Filling of vacancies

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 a) In the event of any vacancy arising in respect of council and cabinet posts such vacancies
shall be filled by a nominee of the Party which held that position prior to the vacancy arising.
The executive arm of the state consists of the Head of State ,the president, the Vice presidents,the
Prime Minister, the Deputy Prime Ministers, the Cabinet, the ministries or/and the civil service, the
Security agencies that is, the Zimbabwe Defense Forces, the Zimbabwe Republic Police, The Prison
Service, and the Central Intelligence Service.

a) The President
i) Is the head of state, is the executive head of government, and is the commander in chief of the
Defense Forces. Is the Pre- eminent person in the Nation.
ii) Qualification.
Should be a citizen of Zimbabwe by birth, or descent, should be forty years and above, is
ordinarily resident in Zimbabwe.
(NB. To be read into the constitution although the document is silent is that the presidential
aspirant should espouse and uphold the aspirations of the nation, derived from assertions
leading to the war of liberation in the preservation of freedom, independence and national
interests uphold Zimbabwe’s ENDURING POLITICAL TRADITION as represented by the
values of the War of liberation.) Should hold no criminal record.

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iii) Election.
Is an elected by voter on the common roll and within ninety days before the expiry of the
presidential term and in the case of death, incapacity or impeachment the Vice president shall
act as president for ninety days during which period fresh elections should be held.
iv) Tenure (duration in office)
Shall be in office for six years and until the next person elected take office
v) Removal from office
- Can leave office through resignation by letter to the speaker of parliament.
- Can leave office on parliamentary recommendation following a request of not less than a
third of members of parliament alleging willful violation of the constitution, or incapacity
to carry his duties/functions or gross misconduct and when two thirds or more of
members support the motion to impeach the president.
vi) Functions of the President.
a) Has and exercises all executive authority of the state that is the
government of the country or the enforcement of law, the defense of the nation translation of
political policy into government programs and their implementation by the civil service.
b) To uphold the constitution
c) To exercise the prerogatives of head of state that is: -

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  Enter into treaties and international agreements.
 Proclaim and terminate martial law
 To declare war and make peace.
 To confer honors and precedence
 Appoint and accredit diplomats
d) To act on advice of the cabinet excerpt on: -
 Matters relating to dissolution of parliament
 Appointment and removal of governors
 Duties of the Vice presidents or any other person appointed by the president.
e) To exercise the prerogative of mercy that is: -
 Grant pardon to felons
 Declare a stay of execution of a felon
 Vary/substitute prison terms
 Suspend or remit a sentence
 Declare public emergencies
 Which shall be approved by parliament within fourteen days failing which the
declaration becomes void.

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 The declaration lasts for a specified period or for a period not exceeding six months subject to
any extension of such a period by the president. The effect of such a declaration is to allow the
direction of funds to that emergency and where necessary the suspension of civil liberties.
• The Public service
The constitution provides that a public service be established for the administration of the
country. This consists of all the ministries and other institutions through which government
implements its programs.
Members of the Public service are appointed on merit and have security of tenure, are not
political appointees and at most are not expected to engage in active politics.

The affairs of the Public service are managed by a commission, which consists of a chairperson
and not less than two and no not more than seven members. The president appoints the
members.
• The Attorney General
Is the principal legal adviser to government, holds a public office but is not a part of the public
service.
The president appoints him after consultations with the judicial services commission. Only
persons suitable for appointment as judges are qualified to be A.Gs. The A.G. is an ex-officio

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 member of the cabinet and his main functions are to institute criminal proceedings, and to
prosecute or defend an appeal from all criminal proceedings.
• The Police Force
The police force is provided for in the constitution with the specific task of preserving the
internal security in the country and the maintenance of law and order.

A police commissioner appointed by the president heads the

ZRP.A Police commission headed by a chairperson who is the Chairperson of the
Public service commission manages the affairs of the Police
force.
• The Zimbabwe Defence forces
To defend the territorial integrity of the nation, the constitution provides for the establishment
of an army consisting of an Air force, and an Army – ground troops and any other
specializations deemed necessary for the defence of the nation and provided for through an act
of parliament. The commander in chief of the defence forces shall be the President.
The affairs of the army are managed by the defence forces commission consisting of a
chairperson (the Public service chairperson) and not less than two and no more than seven other
members.
• The Prison service

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 Tasked with the responsibility of protecting society from criminals by incarcerating them
and rehabilitating and reintegrating them into society.The prison service is headed by a Prison
service commissioner and the affairs of the service are managed by a Prison service
commission headed a chairperson (the head of the public service commission) and
between two and seven other members.

• The Intelligence service

Provided for by the constitution as part of the office the President with the specific task of providing, through
conventional and unconventional means, information of any type necessary for the protection of the nation’s
economic, political, social or cultural and other interests. A Director General appointed by the President heads
the service.

• The Ombudsman

Holds public office but is not a member of the public service. He is tasked with the
responsibility of receiving any complaint from members of the public on the function or
lack of it of member of the civil service.
• The Comptroller and Auditor General

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 Holds a public office but is not a member of the Public service. His/her main functions
are to examine or audit at least once a year all ministries or persons or institutions entrusted with
the receipt or the use of public funds, that is, monies from the consolidated revenue
fund. (C.R.F). The president appoints him after consulting the Public service commission.

The C.R.F.

All monies collected for and on behalf of government as taxes, fees, fines, profit etc. are
deposited into the CRF and used or withdrawn from that account as allocated funds under
respective ministerial budgets excerpt where the authority is allowed to retain the monies so
collected and for use to defray their expenses as provided for through an act of parliament.
The allocation shall be made through the Budget process in Parliament as votes to Ministries
and government departments.

• THE LEGISLATURE
Parliament has the supreme authority to make law in and for Zimbabwe. No law made elsewhere is binding
or legal unless Government accedes to or ratifies such law through parliament. International law or other
legal protocols are binding only if and when parliament ratifies such directly or through an act of parliament.

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 Parliament can delegate it authority to make law to other bodies such as local government authorities or
parastatals.

The law making process in parliament

The process of making law in parliament is open to any member of society. Most of the law ,however,
comes in the form of bills or proposals from concerned ministries and not as private members’ bills. The
stages in the law making process are as follows;
3.1.1 Proposals- anyone can make law proposals.
3.1.2 Expert/legal input- relevant ministry or and Attorney general’s office.
3.1.3 Presentation to the Cabinet Legal Committee
3.1.4 Presentation to the Government Gazette for publication to get public input
3.1.5 First reading – notification in parliament; no responses from MPs.
3.1.6 Second reading- responses from MPs.
3.1.7 Committee stage
3.1.8 Report stage – responses and inputs from MPs.
3.1.9 Third reading – responses from MPs and voting for or against the bill.
3.1.10Presentation to the Senate
3.1.11 Presidential assent

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 3.1.12 Presentation to the Government Gazette(for promulgation).
At each stage of the readings, reference is made to the Parliamentary Legal Committee, which shall
consider inputs from MPs from a legal point of view and produce adverse or non-adverse reports
where necessary.
• Composition consists of: -
- The President
- One hundred fifty members of parliament elected appointed and nominated as follows;
- 120 elected by voters on the common roll and representing 120 constituencies
- 8 provincial governors appointed by the president
- 10 chiefs elected according to the electoral law
- 12 members appointed by the president.
• Non-voting members of parliament
- The president
- Vice presidents and ministers if not members of parliament and the AG.
- The Speaker and Deputy Speaker
The speaker is the presiding officer whose function is to facilitate the process of legislation by
ensuring that debate and voting and al other procedures related to legislation are conducted in the
manner prescribed by the standing rules of the house. The speaker is elected from persons who have

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 been members of parliament before and his tenure of office lasts a full parliamentary term unless
he/she resigns or becomes a minister or vice president while his/her term has not expired
Or becomes an MP.

Administrative staff of parliament

- Secretary to Parliament
Appointed by the committee on standing rules and orders and is the pre-eminent administrative officer
of parliament. Holds a public office but is not in the public service.
- Clerk to parliament

He is the chief administrative officer and holds a public office and supervises all other
supporting staff like clerks, stenographers accountants etc.

- Sergeant at Arms
He holds a public office and is a member of the police force and ensures that order is enforced in the
legislative assembly.

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Parliamentary Legal committee
The committee consisting of not less than three and is appointed by the parliamentary committee on standing
rules and orders at the beginning of each parliamentary term. The members of the committee shall in the
majority be legally qualified.

The functions of the committee: -

- Examine every bill other than constitutional bills
- Examine every statutory instrument.

Tenure of Members of Parliament

Shall last the full term of parliament or until parliament is dissolved
Membership shall also laps: -
- If member dies before dissolution of parliament
- On resignation by letter to the speaker
- Is absent for twenty one consecutive sittings/days in one session of parliament
- Ceases to be a member of his political party
- Becomes speaker or president or provincial governor or assumes any public office.
- Is placed under a curator bonis
- Is mentally or physically unfit

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 - Is incarcerated for more than six months

Parliamentary privilege and immunity

These are fixed through an act of parliament but broadly no member of parliament is criminally or civilly liable
in any act or utterance while performing his/her parliamentary functions.

• Legislative function of MPs

By/through bills passed by parliament and assented to by the president within twenty-one days of being
passed by parliament
A bill becomes law if MPs present vote with a simple majority provided that members present a re a quorum
that is not less than twenty-five.

Constitutional amendment
Parliament has the power to amend change or repeal the constitution through an affirmative vote of not less
than two thirds of members of parliament.

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Parliamentary elections
Elections are held not more than four months after a dissolution of parliament or as by election in the event
that a seat becomes vacant. For elections to be held the following shall be done as provided for in the
constitution.
a) By election: conducted in the event of the death or resignation of a member of parliament.
b) General election: conducted at prescribed times as laid out in the supreme law of the country
• Commissions

Delimitation commission
- Is appointed by the president
- Consists of a chairman – chief justice or other judge of the supreme or high court and three other
members
- Functions for five years.
- Functions shall be to determine the boundaries of the -constituencies taking cognisance of such
features as geography, ethnicity and communication etc.

Electoral Supervisory commission

- Appointed by the president

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- Consists of a chairman and four other members –two appointed by the president after consulting
the judiciary service commission and two after consulting the speaker.
- Functions are to supervise voter registration, and conduct/run elections.
- Consider proposed bill or other law relating to elections.

The constitution also provides for the formation of the Public Service Commission, the Judiciary
Commission, and the Police Commission etc.Contemporary issues and New dimension in law
a) Rule of law – upholding of the law in a scenario where no one is above the law
b) Prerogative – discretional prerogatives have made law to be applied based on certain trivial relative
issues
c) Political willpower – those in power or those wielding the axe make the most decisions and tailor-make
law to protect their interests
d) Human rights – the emergence and definition of human rights has led to commitment of crime and
subsequent ignorance of the rule of law even when certain behaviours become immoral e.g. the gays and
lesbian case
e) Christian balance – as Christian values shape most legal frameworks, the same have been used in
negotiations although in many cases equality is not achieved in Christian balances. The ‘coveter’ and the
converted are two different entities.

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8.3 ACTIVITIES
• Discuss The Lancaster House Agreement
• State the major provisions of the Lancaster Agreement
• Explain the provisions of the Constitution of Zimbabwe in relation to :
- Republican Destiny and National Political and Economic Sovereignty
- Citizenship
- Declaration of Rights and Freedoms of Individuals
- Constitutional amendments
- Elections – parliamentary gubernatorial, presidential and local government

UNIT 9

Regional and International Relations

9.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit the student should be able to:

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 o Define International Relations
o Explain the three Cs of International relations – Conflict, Co-operation and Competition
o Explain the Multi-polar, Bi-polar global power balances
o Critique International law, the community of nations and identify and explain the types and functions
of diplomatic missions.
9.2 Definitions;
- International relations; The interaction of nation -states
- Nation; The people within a country
- Country; Geographical territory in which a specific people live in
- State; the permanent power or authority which is sovereign and represented by the arms of state, that is,
government, judiciary and the legislature and which is normally embodied in the constitution as the right of a
group of people to self-determination.
- Government; the arm of state which is tasked with ruling or exercising the executive powers of the state that is, representing the
nation at international fora, defending and keeping law and order in the nation, implementing political, economic, and social policy of
the ruling political party. Government is formed by the winner at general elections and therefore comes and goes where as the state is
permanent except where the country is annexed, secedes or the people become extinct.
9.3 The practice of International relations

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 9.3.1 Society
People within a nation are a society or societies of people. To become a nation therefore the people should have
similar political aspirations or interests. The term “society” supposes the existence of common norms or
behavioural patterns within that society. Such norms determine relations among the members of the society in
terms of political structures or governance; this determines in turn distribution of resources. Political structure
presupposes a hierarchy and hence classes within society. Classes in turn infer inequalities among the people. In
international relations instead of people forming the society or community we have nations being the members of
the international society or community and hence the existence also of norms or political behaviour, international
political hierarchy and classes, distribution of resources by the international ruling class and hence the existence of
international inequalities. This will be dealt with in full under international capital below.

9.3.2.International Society.
The international society as we know it today is a recent development in the world’s history. Vast empires,
fiefdoms or localized chiefdoms have always been the general picture of politics at the global level. Sovereign
nation – states appear on the global scene about five hundred years ago and evolve and only become the norm in
the 16th. century as principles that govern their conduct take a definitive shape. Before the development of rules
that govern relations between areas or regions or states, relations between different political entities were
characterized by internecine warfare. It was more a state of nature or survival of the fittest. With the advent of

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Christianity and its growth, war and its limitation, conduct and justification became necessary and the notion of the
just war was developed. In his work, “The Summa Theologica,” St. Thomas Aquinas argued the case for a just war
as consisting of;-It had to have the backing of the king
- The reason or cause for going to war had to be just
- Those to be attacked had to be guilty of some grave evil
- The attackers had to have the right intention – to promote good or the avoidance or prevention of
evil
Many unfair wars and untold evil were perpetrated under the guise of the just war and by about 1490 Honore
Bonet stated “ soldiers were the flail of God who by his permission make wars upon sinners and sin and make
havoc among them in this world as the devils of hell do in the next”. Not surprising therefore that at about that
time the Aztec civilization was destroyed by Spanish conquistadors and Africa and many parts of the world seen as
containing sinners were subjected to the most cruel and inhuman plunder and decimation by the European powers.
In the same vein Gorge Bush’s “axis of evil” position hundreds of years latter fits squarely in the Aquinian
doctrine. Bush argues that the war on Iraq - weapons of mass destruction aside - was a just war because that nation
is evil. Who defines evil and by what standard is evil determined? As a result of this doctrine in international
relations it was not possible to develop or for there to evolve rules that could govern relations between states.
Similarly, because of a reversion to the same old position by the Bush administration, the whole fabric of
international law is strained to breaking point. “Evil” is a value laden term which is highly subjective.Being a

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 fundamentalist Moslem is interpreted as being evil by Bush and his company whether one is a suicide bomber or
not and no law therefore can restrict regime change in any nation perceived to be evil. Such international
behaviour not only drags the world backwards but also creates a very dangerous environment in which every
nation and individual takes unilateral action to redress grievances and institutionalise suicidal tendencies and
solutions even at state level like in the case of North Korea. In 1654, in his treatise, “De Jure Belli et pacis”, Hugo
Grotius”, a Dutch jurist wrote principles that were supposed to govern warfare and this became the basis for our
modern international law.

9.3.3 Approaches in the study of international relations

The study of relations between nations is a recent and evolving science. The main approaches are as follows;

A: Traditional Approaches
1.The classical approach
2.The Idealist approach
3.The Realist and or Rational approach
B: Modern approaches
1.The Strategic approach

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 2.The billiard ball approach
3.The Cobweb approach
C: The Behavioural approach
1.The global approach or model
2.The regional approach or model
9.3.3.1 The Traditional Approaches
• .The Classical approach;
The proponents of this approach are to a large extent social contract theorists. Thomas Hobbes sees the state, as
arising out of the need to escape from a state of nature where there is anarchy and life is insecure, short, nasty and
brutal. A state of nature presupposes the non-existence of society and therefore the non-existence of law. In such a
lawless state everyone does as he pleases and those with more clout survive. In other words the law of the jungle
that is “might is right” and “survival of the fittest” rules supreme. In another sense this approach is also evolutionist
or Darwinian. It infers natural selection that favours the stronger species’ survival and continuity. To escape from
this state of nature at the national or state level people had to agree to surrender some of their rights to each other
and appoint a sovereign authority as guarantor and arbitrator for and in this social contract. The same arrangement
could be said to hold true within the community of nations or the global society. However as nation states
developed in Europe a state of nature more or less developed in that these states resorted to war wily nily on the
basis of each state’s prerogative of national sovereignty to wage war. All wars were therefore justifiable. Jean

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Jacques Rousseau and others saw relations among states as possessing potential for peace as long as members of a
society were willing to enter a clear contract. The Machiavellian argument was closely echoed by Immanuel Kant
and Carl von Clausewittz in his book “On War,” argues that power is at the heart of interstate relations in that each
state seeks to increase its power at the expense of other states. Alliances, wars and the arms race were the result of
this argument and Europe was plunged into the First World War.

• The Idealist Approach.

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The First World War shocked non-belligerents as well as the belligerents in so far the toll in human and material
loss were concerned. This led people to treat peace as something they should deliberately seek and sought to
engineer global society in such a way as to not only create peacefully conditions but also prevent war. This
approach was thus normative prescriptive and pro active. Woodrow Wilson the USA president at the time and
others thus pursued this logic and it resulted in the creation of the LEAGUE OF NATIONS in 1918. The USA
refused to join the league in spite of championing it. Through covenants or a body of rules collective security it
was thought could thus be assured in the community of nations. This body of thinking or ideology failed to
bring about peaceful coexistence among states and soon after the formation of the League of Nations after 1927
Italy and Germany went on the warpath and soon after the world was in another global war. Idealism sought to
affect the thinking of global society but this proved to be a futile exercise.

The Realist or Rational approach.

Between the two world wars thinking on international relations shifted from idealism to rationalism or realism.
This means people began to look at the actual practice of relations among states and sought to explain their
behavior rather than to change their behavior. In a way this approach was a throw back to the classical approach.
Hans Morgen Thau a major proponent of this approach argued that power and self-interest were at the heart of state
behavior. To legitimate pursuit of power and self-interest nations cake iced and disguised their otherwise
questionable and illegitimate behavior moral hyperbole and legalistic arguments. This fits squarely in the George

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 Bush Jr.s’ conduct of the war in Iraq. Saddam was said to be evil but that had never been justification for war in
modern society. To legalize action against Sadam, the latter had to possess weapons of mass destruction and that
became the legal basis for war. Having e failed to provide the evidence of WMDs Bush back tracked to the moral
position, that is, Sadam is evil anyway. War thus is not only inevitable, but also desirable in certain instances and
the issue at stake is not its prevention or avoidance, but its control to achieve desired outcomes. This approach is
thus to a large extent descriptive.
9.3.3.2 The Modern Approaches
• The billiard ball model.
This model builds on the realist approach in that it recognizes states as individual entities which when and if one
entity or ball picks motion naturally on contact with others produces motion in other balls or states. The internal
dynamics of each entity or ball are seen having no effect on the relative position of the entities.
• The Cob web model
John Burton sees international relations as existing within a complex web or matrix in which each state is linked to
the other directly and indirectly and where motion in or between components impacts on the rest. This approach is
very close to reality in that the operations of global commerce and industry is such that events in any state
immediately impacts on events in all or in other states. More over cyberspace and efficient transport
communications is threatening to produce a global super culture.
• The Strategic Approach

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 The proponents of this approach believed and believe in power politics. They strategize or scheme situations in the
global arena that best suit the pursuit of their self-interests. Former USA secretary of state Henry Kissinger Herman
Khan and others emphasized the use of mathematical models and games theories policy options ranging from total
surrender graduated severity warfare to total annihilation. Policy options according to the strategists are rationally
made on the basis of comparisons of outcomes. The probability of a favorable outcome was seen as the deciding
factor in the action of any state. Deterrence through such policies as mutual assured destruction (MAD) became
major policy positions of the USA as a result of this approach.
9.3.3.3 The Behavioral Approach
This approach makes a methodological departure from previous approaches and denounces the strategic approach
as war mongering immoral and a threat to world peace and security. Behaviouralists incorporate all social sciences
techniques and conclude that the danger to peaceful co-existence may result from unintentional war due to
misinformation or miscalculation or both. There is an element of correct prognosis in the approach considering the
furor over the role of intelligence over Iraq in assessing the nature and extant of threat posed by Saddam Hussein.
The war in Viet Nam and Iraq are classical examples of miscalculation and misinformation.
• The global approach
Some behaviouralists believe that the best way forward is a centralized one-world government with the nation state
disappearing.
• The Non-global Approach.

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 In this model it is envisaged that authority should be decentralized and the state dispensed with and authority
devolved to lower tier structures below the present state level or tier.
9.3.3.4 The Subject matter or issues in International relations
All the above approaches look at relations between nations in one or more of the following areas;
Conflict
Cooperation
Competition
These are termed the three Cs of international relations. At each moment in time all nations are relating to each
other in so far as one or all of the three aspects are concerned.

Conflict
Conflict is the most pronounced element in that the state system is almost synonymous with war. World history is
the story of when and with whom nations have fought from time immemorial to date.

Cooperation
When states are not fighting each other they are cooperating in maintaining peace and in dealing with the
challenges and problems that mankind faces for example diseases such as AIDS or disasters such as earth quakes.
Cooperation is highly visible and pronounced even among nations that appear to have no love lost between them in
that the UN and many other world fora provide an avenue for all nations to cooperate in one way or another.

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 Competition
Competition among or between nations exists in the form of normal trade or commerce and can manifest itself in
the form of alliances and treaties.

9.3.3.5 The global power Balance.

9.3.3.5.1 Power blocs
International relations are therefore about competition, conflict or cooperation among states. The three Cs produce
a global political picture, which is either dominated by one super power or a group of states that become a super
power bloc or a scenario where power is evenly distributed between two or more blocs or centres. When the
Roman empire of the Caesers came into being by about 160 BC there was no power on earth strong enough to
challenge its hegemony for almost six hundred years up to about 530 AD. Global Power was concentrated in that
one super state and it was a uni-polar global power arrangement. When pagan Rome collapsed the world stage was
again dominated by Papal power the so called Holy Roman Empire for almost 1300 years up to 1789. Papal power
was however effectively challenged by Frances’ Napoleon Bonarparte and from that time to the end of the second
world war power concentration was widely dispersed among European and Asian nations and no one state or group
of states had monopoly over global power. This was a multi polar global power balance. With the end of the
Second World War the world was split between two power blocs with the Soviet Union leading the eastern or
Warsaw Pact bloc or what is wrongly termed by the west the communist bloc and the USA leading the NATO or

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western bloc nations. After decolonisation of most African and Asian nations from about 1947 the former colonies
formed so-called non- aligned nations. Global politics never the less remained polarised between the two major
blocs and up until the collapse of the War Saw Pact bloc by about 1985. During that period the world was in a
nuclear stand off between the two major powers where each bloc had sufficient nuclear weapons to annihilate the
whole world. The periods’ relations are characterised by what is termed the cold war. The cold war was in fact a
very live and hot war in which the two major blocs sponsored opposing groups in civil wars in countries termed the
Non Aligned nations. The period was marked by bloody wars in Vietnam, Nicaragua, Angola, Mozambique and
many other nations in Africa and South America. The politics of the period were based on the philosophy and
ideology of the Strategic school of thought who argued that nuclear deterrence that is; “having so many nuclear
bombs and an unstoppable delivery system which would render an attack by any one of the two opposing sides
simple suicide because the other side would retaliate in an equally overwhelming response and bring about a
mutually assured destruction (MAD)”. To weaken the other side, the 1970s and early 1980s were marked by a
runaway arms race as the two blocs tried to gain the upper hand. The arms race proved too expensive for the Soviet
Union and following the introduction of the Glasnost policy by Michael Gorbachev the Soviet President then, the
whole War Saw pact military and economic system collapsed and the USA emerged as the unchallenged global
superpower from the 1990s onwards. Global power politics has thus become uni-polar and the USA has assumed
the role of global policeman or and corrector of all rogue states so called. Other terminology has also begun to be
used in global politics for an example “rogue state” meaning a nation that is ultra nationalistic and refuses to kow

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 tow to USA bullying, “regime change” meaning the forcible removal from power of state leaders who are not
supportive of American policies, “axis of evil” referring to those countries opposed to American style of
governance. The period also saw a marked increase in unilateral action by the USA outsides the mechanism of
recognised international fora such as the UN.
9.3.3.5.2 International Terrorism
The period of USA unilateralism has seen a marked increase in terrorism. Terrorism can be defined as
indiscriminate acts of violence against soft targets for an example non-military installations and un armed civilians.
The USA has declared war on global terror but this terror in the first place appears to have been prompted by
USA partiality in dealing with global problems like in the handling of the Palestinian issue or dealing with
undemocratic as if dealing with democratic states for an example Uganda under Museveni a non democratically
elected government while making lots of fuss about lack of democracy in Libya and more blatantly parochial the
alleged lack of democracy in Zimbabwe. In any case there is no international that makes it mandatory for any state
to adopt American style democracy. The latter is not holy writ nor is it fool proof neither fair nor just. Terrorism
is bound to grow as the USA leaves groups and individuals with no other options in redressing their grievances.
Terrorism has become the preferred tool of many marginalized groups as they desperately seek for justice in the
resolution of their grievances. Global power balances are important in that it is within the framework of this
arrangement that state inter action takes place. As shown above, the multilateral power structure between 1800 and
1945 produced or created a very unsafe world and led to two catastrophic wars. The bipolar global power balance

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 between 1945 and 1985 and the resultant rivalry and arms race of that period saw many developing countries
falling victim to the politics of the day. After 1985 increasing USA unilateralism has bred a new global scourge
called terror. The USA has itself become a terror to many states small and big if they dare assert their nationalism
hence the growth in terrorism. Terrorism is inherently evil and un acceptable as much as the bellicose attitudes by
stronger states that drive weaker groups to resort to terror tactics.

9.4 International Law.

All states are members of the global community, which has codes of conduct or behaviour expectations for its
members. These behaviour expectations arise out of custom or agreements. There is there for such a thing as
international law. (NB. See International Law in Module 2. Legal and Parliamentary affairs.) The major deficiency
in international law has been its lack of a force back up mechanism that is an army or police force. Of late there has
been attempts to make international more meaningful by extending its jurisdiction to individual and to the actions
of states as it relates to its citizens.

9.4.1 Jurisdiction of international law.

In its current mould international law affects those countries that are signatories to conventions and agree to be
bound by the provisions of such agreements. The signatories are also left with the option to accept the conclusions
of the International Court Of Justice or simply to ignore them. The ICJ was formed in 1945 as an organ of the UN

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and is based at The Hague in the Netherlands. The disputes that are taken to the courts are mutually agreed upon
and relate to trade or boundary disputes between states. The action of states against other states is a hardly ever the
subject matter of international Law. Criminal acts by individuals or states have traditionally fallen outside the
scope and jurisdiction of international law. Increasingly however there is a trend toward making international law
more encompassing by the introduction of crimes that can be defined as acts against humanity e.g. genocide. This
has led to the establishment of many international Tribunals like the Nuremberg war crimes tribunal set up to try
NAZI Germany war criminal after WW2. Other special international tribunals have also been set to deal the
Balkans crisis and the Rwanda genocide of 1991. The UN has also set up as of 2003 the International Criminal
Court and many countries have ratified the treaty. The USA however has refused to ratify the agreement and has
gone on a bullying campaign coercing small nations to agree not to send USA nationals to the court. In the
meantime The USA is making a lot of noise about sending Charles Taylor to the Special War crimes Tribunal in
Sierra Leone.

9.5 Activities
o Define International Relations
o Explain the three Cs of International relations – Conflict, Co-operation and Competition
o Explain the Multi-polar, Bi-polar global power balances

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 o Critique International law, the community of nations and identify and explain the types and functions
of diplomatic mission

UNIT 10

DIPLOMACY
10.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit the student should be able to:
• Define democracy
• Discuss the foreign policy of Zimbabwe after independence
• Apply the following in the context of Zimbabwe:
i) Core interests
ii) Objective interests
iii) Subjective interests

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 Discuss the types and various functions of the diplomatic missions and their immunity.
Diplomacy can be defined as “ the application of intelligence and tact to the conduct of official relations between
the governments of independent states.” Formal contact between nations in the global community takes place
through the medium of diplomacy and the interaction of diplomats. Diplomats are the emissaries or
representatives of their governments in other countries and are the direct contact between different
governments. The ministries of foreign affairs in all states have the responsibility for the deployment of
diplomats and the carrying out of the foreign policy of each respective country.
10.2 Foreign policy
Foreign policy is the position of each government on various issues on world affairs.Foreign policy is determined
by each state’s National Interest. The National interest can be defined as the common interests of all the
citizens of a nation. The national interest arises from the values and aspirations and history of a nation and
these are at variance with the national interests of other nations because of the competitive nature of inter state
relations. Foreign policy objectives relate to power or sovereignty, profit and prestige. These objectives can be
classified as: a) Core interests, b) Objective interests, and c) Subjective interests.

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 Core interests

These are goals for which most people are willing to pay the ultimate sacrifice and relate to self preservation as a
nation and revolve round defending the nation and the perpetuation of a particular social cultural and economic
way of life.

• Objective interests
These are permanent interests of the state irrespective of institutional changes within the state that is even when governments come and
go objective interests remain unchanged. In Zimbabwe this may be related to our sovereignty or the right to access land by the natives
of this country.
• Subjective interests.
To determine whether an issue is a national interest in this instance will depend upon the values and subjective
assessment of those making a decision and the issue at stake does not relate to self-preservation or perpetuation as
a state. Example would be the decision on whether Zimbabwe remains a member of the Commonwealth or not. It
is around the interests of a state that diplomacy is conducted. This suggests or presupposes therefore that all
diplomats are conversant with the interests of the state that they represent and will be defending and promoting.

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10.3 Zimbabwean Foreign Policy
During the hey day of Soviet and American rivalry Zimbabwe’s foreign policy was unequivocally non-aligned.
This does not amount to saying Zimbabwe was a neutral state. Zimbabwe, guided by its policy of non-alignment
has from independence sought to establish close relations with states pursuing a socialist ideology. This approach
allowed Zimbabwe to articulate its national interests from a firm ideological base.
• Objective Interests in Zimbabwe’s Foreign Policy
- Preservation of national sovereignty. In pursuit of the same quit the Common wealth and believes in the
democratic right without interference from outside to self-determination.
- Being an equal and active partner in regional and international fora. Is a member of SADC, COMESA, AU and
the UN.
- A strong Pan Africanism arising from the continent’s history of slavery, colonialism neo colonialism and the
war against these three evil crimes against humanity. In pursuit of the same fought against banditry and imperial
de- stabilization in Mozambique against RENAMO and in the DRC against imperial sponsored regime change
of the Kabila administration through Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi.

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 • Core Interests
- That the native Zimbabwean has an inalienable right to land to own it and to share it equally with other
Zimbabweans of all races without discrimination.
• Subjective Interests
- To determine the most suitable international economic relations.

10.4 The origins of diplomacy

Diplomacy is as old as human society. In Shona culture a wise saying states that “nhume/mutumwa haana mbonje”
This statement also underlies one of the major elements of diplomacy namely the inviolability of the diplomatic
person and his possessions. Diplomacy was thus well established in early European states as well as in all the pre-
colonial Zimbabwean states. In Europe diplomacy almost suffered a fatal blow during the so-called Holy Roman
Empire. These were the dark ages of human civilization.
It was only in the fourteenth century that transient diplomacy is replaced with permanent embassies or missions as
city-states take root in Italy. By the seventeenth century diplomacy is governed by disjointed rules in Europe and
the disputes that arose over diplomatic precedence and protocol were such that war was always narrowly averted.
In 1815 The Congress of Vienna and the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818 formalised diplomatic rules and
procedure. It was only in 1961 that eighty-one states at the Vienna Conference on Diplomatic Intercourse And

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 Immunities that The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations was ratified. The document covers all aspects of
diplomatic activity in terms of types of missions’ functions and immunities and privileges of diplomatic personnel
10.4 Setting up diplomatic relations and missions
Diplomatic relations are established through mutual consent. It is assumed that all diplomats posted are acceptable
to the receiving state and the host state issues a document called the agre’ment to indicate their acceptance of the
proposed head of mission. The latter document can be withheld without explanation. The head of mission to be
becomes official after the presentation of credentials at the ceremony where he meets the head of state of the host
county and presents his letter of credence.
10.5 Types of diplomatic missions and representation
Diplomatic representation is divided into three groups namely:
- Ambassadors and Ministers; these present credentials to the hosting head of state
- Charge’d’ affaires present credentials to the minister of foreign affairs of the host state.
- Former British colonies’ heads of mission are termed High commissioners and heads of mission between non-
former British colonies are termed ambassadors extraordinary and plenipotentiary.
10.6 Privileges and immunities of diplomats
All accredited diplomats are immune from criminal and civil jurisdiction in the host state and exempt from all
taxation. Diplomats are subject to the host state’s laws where they enter into private business. Action incompatible
with the status of the diplomats may lead the host state to request their removal.

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 Diplomatic missions are immune from searches and any other intrusive acts by the host state.
10.7 Functions of diplomatic missions.
The major activities of diplomatic missions can be classified as a) non substantive and substantive routine work
and b) non routine work.
10.7.1 Non-Substantive routine functions
Attending social and ceremonial functions in the host state e.g. receptions or cocktail parties, luncheons honour
giving ceremonies, parades etc.
NB. The following are sometimes treated as consular functions; Registration of births deaths marriages of citizens
from their country residing in the host state issuing, validating and replacing passports. Dealing with extradition
cases and looking after the interests of citizens from their country in the host state.
(Consular issues proper are not diplomatic functions although these may be carried out in the diplomatic
premises. These include, the processing and issuing of visas, certificates e.g. certificate of origin and the
facilitation of any other commercial activities. )
10.7.2 Substantive Routine work
This work relates mostly to reporting and intelligence gathering. Intelligence gathering is not an official or
declared function of diplomatic missions but they are never the less used extensively as cover for these nefarious
activities. Where the host state observes abnormally high and audacious levels of espionage they demand the
immediate withdrawal of such personnel and this normally prompts retaliatory action. Reporting is normally on

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 economic, political, military and social issues. In certain instances it might be necessary to engage specialized
diplomats called Attaches’ in the areas of information military and economic affairs.
10.7.3 Non-Routine Functions
This function relates to negotiating. This relates to the transmission of messages and attending to direct talks at
various levels with the authorities of the host state.

10.8 Activities
• Define democracy
• Discuss the foreign policy of Zimbabwe after independence
• Apply the following in the context of Zimbabwe:
i) core interests
ii) objective interests
iii) subjective interests
Discuss the types and various functions of the diplomatic missions and their immunity.

UNIT 11

INTERNATIONAL CAPITAL AND IMPERIALISM.

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 11.0 Objectives
By the end of this unit students should be able to:
• Define international capital and imperialism
• Discuss the elements of imperialism
• Discuss the various stages in the development of international capital
11.1 Introduction.
The current stage in global politics and relations is characterized by a high level of dominance relations between
the weak and the powerful states. Such domination has been the major feature in relations between sates and within
states since time immemorial and arises out of the structured nature of society national or global. The term society
suggests classes and classes suggest inequalities in the distribution of resources in that society. Inequalities also
suggest contradictions and contradictions suggest motion that is politics. Thus it can be argued from the outset that
the major characteristic of global relations has been the phenomenon of imperialism.
The study of class formation in societies is termed historical materialism. On the other hand the study of motion
that results from class contradictions is termed dialectical materialism. “It is the study of society in their essentially
contradictory movement.”
Class contradictions arise out of the inequalities or unfair sharing of the resources within society or exploitation.
This sharing is what can be termed political economy. Political economy of any society therefore reveals the extent

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 and level of exploitation in that society and the level of dynamics or contradictions in that society. Historical and
dialectical materialism and political economy there for are the tools that can best be used to analyze the past and
present stage in global relations.
Each stage in the evolution of production and exchange has a specific class structure, which determines relations in
the society.
11.2 Stages in the development of Capital
Imperialism can be defined as, “the general tendency of states or groups within states to exploit other states or
groups through relations brought about by force or other subtle means and to the detriment of the exploited group
and the advantage of the dominant group or state.” Such exploitation becomes manifestly visible through exchange
and production relationships.
Production and exchange have over time evolved through various stages and at each stage the major feature has
been the existence of dominance relationships that is an exploited class and an exploiting class. At each stage
imperialism can be seen to be mutating or changing until it reaches its present and highest stage as International or
Global Capital. The stages through which capital has evolved are as follows;
1. the Hunter gatherer or communal stage
2. Feudalism
3. Mercantile capital
4. Competitive capital

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5. Monopoly capital
6. Finance capital
Capital can be loosely defined as wealth in the form of land, finance or technology depending on the stage of
development of that society which at most is either scarce or monopolized by a small group within a particular
society.While Capital and its monopolization can be traced to the Feudal mode of production or stage, it can be
seen that its nonexistence in the first mode of production namely the hunter-gatherer stage, was due to the class
nature of that society.

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11.2.1 DEVELOPMENT OF CAPITAL IN EUROPE

MODE OF CLASS STRUCTURE CONTRADICTIONS POLITICAL ECONOMY

PRODUCTION DIALECTICS
1. Non-existent Class contradictions Free for all economic
Hunter Gather (4000 BC – Non-existent Survival of specialisation hunting and
1500 BC) the fittest in a state of gathering No ownership
native gave rise to the
need for society
2. 1. Aristocracy Exploitation of slave Aristocracy owned means
Slave Society (1500 BC to 2. Soldier e.t.c labour leading to of production land and
500 AD) 3. Slaves and latter rebellion against the workers-slaves non paid
colonii ruling elite
3. 1. Aristocratic Exploitation of serfs led Barter trade Natural
Feudalism (500 AD to soldiers elite to friction between serfs economy. Extraction of
1700AD) 2. Serfs=half slave and landlords surplus through free labour
half worker and rent in kind=produce
3. Clergy and latter money. Land
owned by landlords
4. 1. Aristocracy Workers=Craftsmen Monopolisation of markets
Mercantile Capital (1700 2. Merchants exploitation by by merchants. Surplus

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to 1800) 3. Clergy Merchants and landlords. value extracted through
4. Craftsman Concentration of capital under paid worker and high
5. Labourer/worker and formation of joint profit mark up on goods at
stock company led to home and abroad. Means
globalisation of trade and of production owned by
slavery and colonialism merchants and land
owners=land + money
5. 1. Industrialist David Hume, Adam Free trade based on
Competitive Capital 1800 2. Worker Smith against merchant international division of
to 1900 3. Peasant/leman monopoly of capital and labour. Exploitation of
markets. Industrialists + workers by industry.
bankers exploit workers Monopoly of machines
and bankers=former money and land
merchants exploit
industrialists
6. Monopoly Capital 1900 1. Bankers Worker’s labour under Extraction of surplus value
to 1945 2. Industrialists valued leading to acute through lending is paying
3. Workers concentration of capital for workers needs not for
4. Peasants value of labour. Monopoly
ownership of capital-land,
money and machines

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7. Finance Capital 1945 to 1. Finance institutions Buyers determine prices Selling of Money Export of
present 2. Borrowers Money Monopoly
ownership
Of Capital by banks

During the hunter-gatherer mode of production there was no society and no classes. Extraction of surplus value or
exploitation of one class by another class was not possible. The situation was a free for all and this made life
difficult on a state of nature. With the development of Roman slave society classes developed as well as conflicts
as well. The landowners had slaves who resented being owned and forced to work. The colonii or freed former
slaves and peasants were also exploited by the landowners who made them pay rent in kind or in cash. These
conflicts eventually led to the collapse of the system and it was replaced by Feudalism. Feudalism as a mode of
production was based on a highly stratified society where extraction of surplus value by those who owned and
monopolised the means of production was for long sustained through force. The serfs or landless peasants were
made to work and pay part of their produce to the landlords who owned all the land. The major features of all
successive modes of production develop at this stage except the global element, which exists in the last stage or
mode of production. It is this global aspect namely the extraction of surplus value or exploitation from other
countries through the exportation or selling of finance capital that imperialism reaches its highest and most
developed stage.

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11.3 Major elements of imperialism
The features that exist in all modes of production except the hunter gather modes are as follows: -
1. Class formation or Societal stratification. This is along the lines of
a) those who own and monopolise the means of production and,
b) those who are exploited or from whom surplus value is extracted.
2. Class Antagonism or Conflict due to exploitation.
3. Collapse of the previous mode of production due to contradiction and;

4. Emergence of another mode of production with different classes and different contradictions but
with exploitation or surplus value extraction being the ever-unchanging feature.
The current phase or mode of production that is the finance capital mode, is globalised in that those who own and
monopolise the means of production, have been able to mortgage all economic activity in their home countries and
abroad to money that these financial institutions lend locally in export abroad. The result in the global economy
has been there for marked by:

a) Concentration/monopolisation of capital in global or multilateral financial institutions.

b) Formation of a class of super rich money owners who extract surplus value or exploit the world economy
through interest on money loaned through such banks as the IMF the World Bank etc.

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 c) International division of labour. This has led to other countries being pushed into being producers of raw
materials while others have become producers of manufactured goods. Producers of raw materials as a
global class have contradictions with those who monopolise finance capital and those who buy their raw
materials at cheap prices determined by the buyer who then manufactures goods to sell to producers of raw
materials. This is exploitation of man by man at its highest level and is no different from exploitation by
force under slavery or colonialism hence the term neo-colonialism to describe the economic and political
relations between producers of finished goods the develop0ed countries and producers of raw materials
under developed countries or the third world.
11.4 International Economic Relations
The Second Word War marks the beginning point of the present global economic arrangement. The idealism of
the immediate post world war two period led to massive government led initiatives to bring the shattered economy
of the world back to its feet. By 1979 however this role of government in economic activity was under attack and
has to a large extent been abandoned altogether. The social welfare state has become a thing of the past and a new
ideology emphasising the role of the market in determining all economic as well as social and political decisions
has been adopted.In the current economic thinking, cooperation’s or business have total freedom and collective
bargaining and trade unionism and the consumer and citizen in general have found themselves at the receiving end
of the new international economic order. This new international economic order had by the middle 1990s assumed
a new form and characteristic namely globalisation.The IMF World Bank and oil Breton Woods financial

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institutions were formed for the specific purpose of preventing future conflicts by dealing or removing those
economic and social issues that had led and that might lead to new war. The mandate of these financial institutions
was to provide lending for reconstruction and for short-term balance of payment support. These institutions after
1979 have increasingly taken over individual governments, economic policies and intervene in national policy will
beyond the scope of their mandate. The post 1945 period saw a massive realignment of global economic relations
with Europe being mortgaged to the U.S.A. under the Marshall Plan which saw infusion of capital into Europe
from the U.S.A. and newly created Breton Woods financial institutions. The U.S.A. insisted on decolonisation as
a condition of giving financial support to Europe and declared the end to empire. Thus the U.S.A. gained the
empires that Europe lost through decolonisation as it gained unprecedented control of former colonies through new
economic relations specifically the supply of manufactured goods and the provision of finance capital. Debt
becomes the primary form of survival technique for all former colonies and the supply of new materials from
former colonies was accelerated in order to raise money to pay off the debt. By the end of the 1970s the so called
debt crisis had developed with a new economic global structure which split the world into producers of raw
materials and importers of finance capital and finished goods and producers of finished goods and exporters of
finance capital. This relationship was marked or characterised by a high level injustice in the form of unequal
exchange.The former colonies in America, Africa and Asia were selling raw materials with little value added to
them at prices set by the buyer that is the developed countries. The latter sell manufactured goods to the

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developing countries at high profit margins and over and above this drain of resources from the south servicing the
loans obtained from the north compounds or increases the flow of resources to the south.

Debt servicing, cheap raw

materials. Imports of finished NORTH
goods and services
Loans And
SOUTH Good Service

The flow of wealth from the South to the North through debt servicing and unequal exchange is further increased
with the insistence on structural adjustment programmes in the south by the so called donor community that is
western governments and the Breton Woods financial institutions or the North. The catch word on economic
structures adjustment programmes forced on the South are similar to the free market economic policies instituted
on the domestic economics of the North which resulted in nett gains for the super rich and nett loss for the average
worker. Average income in the 1980s of the top 10% of American families increased by 16%, “the top 5%
increased by 23%, the top 1% got 50%. The bottom 10% of Americans lost 15% during the same period.” The
same policies during the same period applied to global policies saw an increase in nett flows of income to the

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North and a decrease in income to the South with the result that IMF policies have led to increased poverty in the
South. These policies are what can be termed globalisation and are hinged upon: -
a) free trade in goods and services between countries through the
removal of trade barriers.
b) free circulation of capital
c) freedom and protection of investments
d) reduction of government expenditure and government interference in the economy.
e) privatisation of parastatals
These points have become the conditionalities for receiving or disbursement
of aid by the North. The result in all instances was that the forced
privatisation saw corporations in the North buying up all privatised
companies in the South so privatised.
Closely related to these policies has been the creation of the UN – World
Trade Organisation (UN – WTO) in 1995. The liberalisation of world trade
under the current requirements is reducing developing countries to
primitive economies as industries close under pressure from unregulated
competition from the North. The North in the meantime is not removing trade restrictions, which remain in the
form of quarters or strict health requirements in agricultural products. Moreover subsidies maintained by

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 both the U.S.A. and Europe on agricultural production is seeing many countries in the South collapsing
economically.
11.5 International Division Of Labour
The global economic arrangement between the South and North has structural linkages, which perpetuate the
inequalities that exist in global economic relations. The North or developed economies can thus be termed the
centre of global economic activity and the South or developing countries the periphery of economic activity at the
international level. These relations can be diagrammatically represented as follows: -

Centre

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 Periphery Periphery
Periphery Centre

Centre Centre Disharmony of

interests
Periphery Centre Periphery

Harmony of interests
between periphery centre
and centre is the centre.

11.6 Centre Periphery Relations

The centre has those who own and run the economy and the governments. They also have a periphery that is the
workers and the unemployed. The same can be said of both. The centre in the centre has to have harmony of

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interests with the centre in the periphery because both these groups are the beneficiaries in the world economic
arrangement. The peripheries in both divisions have disharmony of interests with the centres because they are the
victims of the system. This relationship demonstrates why it is difficult for the developing countries to get out of
their current position because of the collaboration between their political leadership with the leadership in the
North. It also explains why the North seeks to influence the selection of leaders in the South and talk about regime
change when they fail to control the electoral processes the South.

11.7 Activities
• Discuss the elements of imperialism
• Discuss the various stages in the development of international capital
• Finance capital has done more harm than good how accurate is this assessment of policies of the
WORLD BANK and IMF

UNIT 12
Development Strategies

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12.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit students should be able to:
o Discuss the development strategies that can be used by nations for economic development and
growth
o Explain how developing nations can make use of appropriate technology to tap their resources for
economic development and growth

In a world where there are structural linkages between the North and South that thrive on the allocation of unequal
roles based on historically and political derived positions development in the South is only a myth.
It is not possible to envisage a situation where the North will allow economic conditions in the South to develop to
such a level or extent or to undermine the supply of their raw material resources or the continued existence of
markets for their goods. Development has remained elusive in the South especially as long as the North subverts
or influences the political process in the South. Development refers to a situation where the majority of the people
have sufficient levels of literacy, access to education, food, shelter and health care. Bustling metropolis are not
proof of development. Highly segmented society where a few people enjoy privileged economic advantages while
the rest of the population languish in squalor and poverty in illiteracy and in slums with no access to health care are
clear examples of endemic under development. This scenario is true for many of Zimbabwe’s neighbours and
especially when one compares the health education and infrastructure in the region. Structural dependence

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 linkages, which create, sustain and perpetuate the existence of dual economics, are short-term gains that will in the
long term create catastrophic situations. Development approaches have to be long term in nature and have to take
cognisance of the realities in which nations exist as members of the global community. It has already been
demonstrated that former colonies are structurally dependent and linked to the former colonies through new forms
of linkages, which prohibit development in this neo-colonial relationship.The problem countries like Zimbabwe
face is dependence which perpetuates the traditional role and position of supplier of raw materials with the result of
creating a dual economy – an affluent metropolis and a poor peasantry. Development therefore can be viewed from
the following angles.

12.2 Interdependence
“This is inevitable in this heterogeneous planet: resources, including fertile land, fresh water, deposits of minerals
and sources of energy are dispersed unevenly over its surface. In simpler times, populations were concentrated
mainly in areas of plentiful resources and especially those propitious for the growing of food. Such societies could
therefore become more or less self-sufficient and international trade gradually developed mainly to provide exotic
products, which were initially, luxuries but which little by little improved the general material standard of life.
With the impact of technological development, a vastly greater range of materials was required. The present
industrialized economies, which arose as a consequence of the industrial revolution, were initially based on local
deposits of coal and iron ore. but, as these economies became more sophisticated, their industries called for a wide

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variety of materials, many of which had to be imported from distant lands and this had many consequences
including colonization. Interdependence,then,became an important reality but was seldom recognize
politically.Little by little, within this system human skills and knowledge(especially those of science and
technology) became the most important of all national resources and we have now reached a situation in which
successful and innovative economies can be created”
12.3 Self Reliance
“Interdependence appears, therefore, to have become a central feature of the contemporary world. However,
it is inevitable that the most powerful of the nations are the most capable of exploiting it to their own
advantage; at least as the’re short-term vision seems to indicate. Such a situation tends to make the rich
richer and the poor relatively poorer, increasing disharmony, which must in the end imperil the rich as well
as the poor. For the establishment of a stable world order, therefore, interdependence has to be
complemented by self-reliance, which means, essentially, the capacity to manage interdependence. Without
such a capacity, interdependence can only mean dependence on the part of the many, a continuing economic
and technological colonialism, or just plain poverty.There are many ingredients within the concept of self-
reliance. It is necessary for instance to have a stable and intelligent government, with partners who may be
well trained and able to command skills in negotiation with partners who may be stronger. Likewise it is
necessary to attain a national competence in science and technology to provide a sound basis for
industrialization and to ensure that imported technologies are well chosen, intelligently assimilated and assist

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 in providing the skills which will make possible indigenous innovations and development. It necessitates
also a good level of education and training as well as the acquisition of management capacities. Self-
reliance is thus a very different concept from that of self-sufficiency; it entails the building up of a capacity,
both institutional and in terms of human skills which enables a country to manage its resources and affairs
effectively so as to benefit to the maximum from interdependence, rather than to be its passive victim”.

12.4ACTIVITIES
o Discuss the development strategies that can be used by nations for economic development and
growth
o Explain how developing nations can make use of appropriate technology to tap their resources for
economic development and growth

UNIT 13
Regionalism

13.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit the student should be able to:
o Outline the logic and development of regionalism.

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 o Outline the composition purpose, and functions of major regional organisations (SADC, COMESA,
PTA, ECOWAS, AU, EU, ASEAN, NAFTA).
o Critically analyse the purpose role, structure and functions of the United Nations and trace its origins
successes and failures.
o Assess the functions and structure of the major UN agencies – UNESCO, UNHCR, WHO, UNDP,
UNICEF
o Evaluate the role played by governmental aid agencies – Usaid, Norad, Cida, Sida etc.

13.2 Introduction
Economic and Political integration among Third World countries is normally on a regional or sub-regional basis.
Before taking the merits and demerits of such integration it is necessary to define first what we mean or what is
meant by “region” and “integration”. The term region will be defined first and integration will be defined latter.
By region is meant:

- “an area of contiguous countries defined usually by geography or by a common cultural heritage, shared
political philosophy or mutual economic interest”.
- Such integration can be seen as falling under: -

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 i) “Multifunctional geographically comprehensive organisations such as the Organisation of American
States (O.A.S), the Organisation of Africa’s Unity (O.AU) and the League of Arab States (LAS).
ii) Cooperative or integration-oriented and geographically limited (sub-regional) organisations such as
the European Economic Community (EEC) and the Economic Community for West African States
(ECOWAS).
iii) Technical or otherwise narrowly functional organisations such as the Colombo plan for economic
cooperative development.
iv) Economic Commissioners falling under the United Nations such as the Economic Commission for
Africa (ECA). Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA), Economic Commission for
Western Asia (ECWA), and the Economic Commission for South Asia and the Pacific (ECSAP).
To these can be added in a sub global sense of regional integration regional bodies such as the British Common
Wealth, the Organisation of the Conference of Islamic States and Africa-Caribbean and Pacific group that falls
under the Lome Conventions 1 and 11. These organisations usually double as loose association with political as
well as economic undertones. It is possible to make further extensions to include the ideological divide, which
form the End-West confrontation, but a broad assumption will be made that developing countries do not fall under
these groupings. The North-South dialogue can also be seen as being trans regional.
The logic behind regionalism therefore is economics of scale in production and trade at the economic level and
shared cultural and social values at the political level. The formation of regional organisation is therefore a logical

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imperative and answer to the common problems facing mankind. When the UN was formed article 52(1) of the
Charter provided that:
“Nothing on the present Charter precludes the existence of regional arrangements or agencies for dealing with such
matters relating to the maintenance of international peace and security as are appropriate for regional action
provided that such arrangements or agencies and their activities are consistent with the purposes and principles of
the United Nations”
Student Exercise
Using the following table fill in the necessary information on or about the following regional organisations, SADC,
COMESA, ECOWAS, AU, SACU, EU.

NAME OF YEAR OF PURPOSE OF MEMBERSHIP

ORGANISATIO FORMATION ORGANISATIO
N N

13.3 Public International Organisation

Public International Organisation refers to multilateral institutions formed by states for the purposes of facilitating
inter stake cooperation in economic political social and cultural issues. These organisations arise out of the need to

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regulate intercourse In relations between states. The consul and diplomatic mission were the first examples of
formal institutions in relations between states. The existence of problems, which could not be dealt with by or
through the diplomatic mission, gave rise to the development of the international conference consisting of
representatives from various states. The conference of Vienna (1815), The Paris conference of 1919 etc were ad-
hoc conferences of this nature, which discussed each unique problem as it arose. Associations and unions had
developed by the nineteenth century to replace the mechanism of the conferences. These unions and associations
were either private or public international organisations such as the International Law Association and the
Universal Postal Union respectively. After World War 2 the idealism of the period resulted in the formation of the
League of Nations, which became the precursor to the United Nations. International Organisations can be
classified according to function as follows: -
a) Administrative organisations e.g. international Postal Union.
b) Political Organisation e.g. the UN.
c) Judicial Organisations e.g. the International court of justice.
Or classified according to extent or geographical space as follows: -
a) Global
b) Regional

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13.4 Structure of the UN

General Assembly Secretariat Security Council

U.N.O Disarmament
Commission
UNWTO
Committees
UNILO Committee of
Expects
ICAO
Committee No. 1
Political & Security IBRD Military Staff

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 Committee
IFC
Special Political
Committee IDA
Ad Hoc Bodies
IMF
Committee No. 2
Economic & Financial FAO International
Atomic Agency
UNESCO
Committee No. 3
Social Humanitarian WHO

UPU
Committee No. 4
Trusteeship Council ITU

WMO

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 Committee No. 5
Administrative & WIPO
Budgetary
UNIDO

Legal Committee No. 6 IFA

The UNWTO was formed in 1995 as the successor organisation to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT) the objective to enable states to agree among themselves to reduce and remove or eliminate restrictions on
trade. Of all UN organs the WTO has been cited as the most negative in its operations for an example: -
1. Undermines democracy in the developing World.
2. Perpetuates underdevelopment by exposing weak economies to unfair competition.
3. WTO regulates and promotes World trade through rules that undermine commerce and industry in the
developing nations etc.

13.5 ACTIVITIES

• Write in full the abbreviated names of the UN organs

• Critically analyse the purpose role, structure and functions of the United Nations and trace its origins
successes and failures.

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 • Assess the functions and structure of the major UN agencies – UNESCO, UNHCR, WHO, UNDP,
UNICEF
• Evaluate the role played by governmental aid agencies – Usaid, Norad, Cida, Sida etc.

UNIT 14

NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS(NGOs)
14.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit the student should be able to:
o Identify major NGOs in Zimbabwe and State their functions, purposes and their relationships with the
host Government.
o Critically analyse the role of NGOs ass lobby groups in home countries and as front organisations in
host countries.
o Assess the effect of NGOs and their contribution in development; cultural imperialism and the
dependency syndrome.
Non-governmental organisations have become a major feature in international relations for two reasons: -
a) They are used directly and indirectly by their home states as front organisations.

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 b) Impact of their activities can be far reaching.

NGOs are formal organisations formed by private individuals for the specific purpose of articulating concerns,
raising awareness and lobbying governments for legislative or other political action and soliciting for
resources.NGOs can be classified according to their area of concern or operations namely: -
a) Developmental NGOs
b) Advocacy NGOs
c) Relief NGOs
Developmental NGOs are involved in raising resources human or material for use in alleviating poverty or
suffering.
Advocacy NGOs raise awareness in an existing problem and lobby governments to take specific action to deal with
that type of problems. Relief NGOs solicit for financial and material resources for use where natural disasters and
earthquakes occur.

14.2 The Impact of NGOs’ Activity in Zimbabwe

Developmental NGOs have contributed substantially in the construction of infrastructure in the rural areas in
Zimbabwe. Plan International has together with the ministry of local government been putting up shallow and
deep wells. Other organisations have been involved in the provision of equipment, construction of clinics and

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dams. The work of these organisations while laudable in the short term has produced and fostered a culture of
dependence among Zimbabweans. People who receive these handouts have no sense of ownership of the items
donated and are not only reckless in the use of donated equipment but abandon such equipment sooner rather than
latter. Most wells have been abandoned in the rural areas because the pumps have broken and no one has bothered
to repair them.
Advocacy NGOs have been the most prolific in Zimbabwe.These organisations have raised awareness on such
issues as women’s rights, the girl child, human rights democracy and many other areas. These organisations have
produced less positive contribution than the other organisations. It is also these organisations that have been used
by western governments to subvert and undermine the democratic process in Zimbabwe. These organisation have
been highly disruptive of African or local culture assuming western or foreign values to be superior over local
culture.

Relief NGOs provide assistance such as food during droughts in Zimbabwe; such assistance while it averts
starvation in the short term has been extremely detrimental in long-term food security in the country. Instead of
coming up with solutions to recurring drought, people in Zimbabwe look for external assistance. Adopting wrong
grains for food worsens drought effects. Local small grains like sorghum and millet have been safe food security
reserves in the past but the use of an exotic and foreign grain like maize not suited to our climate has produced a

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crisis in food security. The overall picture or effect is that NGOs have contributed more negatively than positively
to Zimbabwe’s welfare.
Front organisations are organisations that are used as cover for some other purposes or activity. These front
organisations have been used to subvert the political process in Zimbabwe. The Zimbabwe Democracy Trust is
sponsored by white Rhodesians to create an environment that undermines black interests and gains. MISA –Media
Institute for Southern Africa promotes, funds and where necessary encourages the creation of media that is friendly
to western interests. One of MISA’s subsidiaries, the Southern African Media Development Fund has been active
in promoting media hostile to the Zimbabwe government. The U.S. Agency for International Aid, of a USA,
government department, funds more than fifteen NGOs in Zimbabwe with the specific objective of undermining
the Zimbabwe government. The US Aid subsidiary Office of Transition Initiatives is funding a hostile and
subversive radio station SW radio advocating political uprising in Zimbabwe. The Communication Assistance
Foundation of the Netherlands reportedly seeks to “influence policy formulation” in Zimbabwe and supports
activities of the “Zimbabwe Civil Society”, that is, groups seeking to overthrow the Zimbabwean government. The
Westminster Foundation, a United Kingdom organisation has been active in supporting all activities aimed at
undermining the Zimbabwean government.

14.3 ACTIVITIES

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 o Identify major NGOs in Zimbabwe and State their functions, purposes and their relationships with the
host Government.
o Critically analyse the role of NGOs ass lobby groups in home countries and as front organisations in
host countries.
o Assess the effect of NGOs and their contribution in development; cultural imperialism and the
dependency syndrome.

UNIT 15

THE MEDIA
15.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit the student should be able to:
• Define Media and explain its role and functions

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 • Critically analyse the following :
• Freedom of Expression
• Freedom of Association within the context of Media Freedom
• Discuss and explain self censorship of the media and compare the behaviour of Zimbabwe’s media to that of
other countries
• Assess the role of the foreign media in shaping perceptions and influencing political processes in modern
politics
• Define the term “perceptions” and critically relate it to the adage “the battle is not lost on the battlefield but
in the mind”.
• Discuss and analyse the role of the media in modern welfare and trade.
• Media definition, roles and functions
15.2 Definition
Media can be defined as a channel through which one communicates. Mass media refers to the channel through
which one or a group of people communicates to a large audience. It can be print, electronic or digital.
15.3 Roles
It plays 3 primary roles i.e entertains, educates and informs.
15.4 Functions

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The media have become one of the central elements of modern societies with some theorists calling it the
FOURTH ESTATE or fourth arm of the state, whose primarily function is to be a watchdog.The media is the major
ideological apparatus of any state. Nation states use the media to maintain peace, order, national values, heritage
as well as the sovereignty and territorial integrity.

State

Ideological state apparatus Repressive State Apparatus

Media police
Education army

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 Religion state security

The Rambai Makashinga jingle for instance successfully entrenched the spirit of resilience in the hearts and minds
of the ordinary Zimbabweans suffering from the negative effects of successive droughts and sanctions on the
economy.

15.5 The media and Identity

Identity: is simply our understanding of who we are. An individual may have multiple identities & at times it leads
to an identity crisis. By belonging to various communities one can have multiple identities e.g. (A Dynamos
Supporter, can be a Christian, a Polytechnic Student, a Ndebele.) However, every nation has to promote its own
uniqueness and cultural diversity from other nationalities and cultures. Nonetheless, the greatest threat to such
cultural preservation is the work of media products (cultural products) that transcend national and geographic
boundaries to cultivate western cultures to locals in what has come to be known as cultural
imperialism.Noteworthy is the glamorization of homosexuality in the entertainment media with countries like
Zimbabwe against such practices labeled as Abusers of Human Rights. Hence, in the best interests of the
preservation of local culture & identity, nations should fight against the global media influence which is
increasingly defining the world for us. Radio channels on short- wave frequency (which has the widest reach) such

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as Channel Africa & Voice of Zimbabwe try to counter that influence and promote an Afro centric ideology and
give the true African view.

15.6 The Media: nation & nationalism

Nation- is a political community sharing cultural background and aspirations. The era of national galas promoted a
national togetherness and the use of national colors (eg Zimbabwe Independence Silver Jubilee T-shirts & flags) in
supporting national causes even in sports, promotes nationalism. A more localized programming creates a national
ideology against foreign ones (eg the 75% local content policy in Zimbabwe, with some Moslem states totally
disregarding any foreign media content).

15.7 Freedom of Expression and self sensorship

Journalists the world over clamor for media freedom, as they claim it is one of the basic requirements in any
independent nation-state. The current Zimbabwean constitution guarantees the freedom of Expression in section 20
(5). However, journalists have more often than not abused their freedom of expression, leading to jeopardization of
state security at times and in other instances disturbing of peace and creating public despondency through the
writing of alarmist stories.Understanding that media messages have economic, political, social, and aesthetic
purposes (e.g., to make money, to gain power or authority over others, to present ideas about how people should
think or behave, to experiment with different kinds of symbolic forms or ideas) help us to understand why all

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governments provide relative and never absolute freedom as this will inevitably lead to anarchy. The Oxford
Concise dictionary 10th edition defines anarchy as the state of disorder due to lack of government control).The
media has influence on society as a whole (e.g., influence in shaping various governmental, social, and cultural
norms; influence on the democratic process; influence on beliefs, lifestyles, and understanding of relationships and
culture; how it shapes viewer's perceptions of reality; the various consequences in society of ideas and images in
media)The media has the ability to influence social and cultural issues (e.g., creating or promoting causes: U.N.
military action, election of political parties; use of media to achieve governmental, societal, and cultural goals)This
is the reason why the Zimbabwean government enacted laws which makes it a criminal offense to publish
falsehoods, write anything that creates public alarm and despondence or anything prejudicial to the state, president
or his office. The government of Zimbabwe also recently allowed for the self censorship of journalists through
their self appointed regulatory board known as the Voluntary Media Council. It is however essential to note that
the media framework cannot work in an unregulated fraternity.

15.8 Freedom of Association within the context of Media Freedom

The right to freedom of assembly and association in Zimbabwe is guaranteed under Article 21 ofthe Constitution of
Zimbabwe. Commenting on this provision and Article 20 on freedom of expression, in re Munhumeso &Ors, the
Supreme Court of Zimbabwe emphasized that:

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 "the importance attaching to the exercise of the right to freedom of expression and assembly must never be
underestimated. They lie at the foundation of a democratic society and are one of the basic conditions for its
progress and for the development of every man.”These two essential provisions i.e freedom of expression and
assembly have to be well monitored and governed by the state in the best interests of public safety and public order
to an extent which is reasonably justifiable in a democratic society.In Zimbabwe just like in Britain, any
organization that intends to gather for whatever reason has to seek police clearing for the maintenance of peace,
order and tranquility.
15.9 Comparing the behavior of Zimbabwean media to that of other countries
United States has the largest number of media organizations in the world however the media is owned and
controlled by a few individuals. This makes the media environment in the US to be plural (many newspapers & tv
stations) but definitely not diverse(as all the media organizations are singing from the same hymnbook).
Researchers at Sonoma State University in the US looked up the names of the 155 people who served on the boards
of directors of the eleven media companies that dominated the U.S. media market.
Who are these 155 media elites-directors of the largest combined media news systems in the world? They include
men like: Frank Carlucci, who sits on the board of directors of Westinghouse (CBS), and was former deputy
director of the CIA and later Secretary of Defense under President Bush. This doesn’t come as a surprise that the
Bush administration like any other government in the world desires to effectively control the media so that it

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perpetrates its ideologies and policies.The U.S. media has lost its diversity and its ability to present different points
of view. Instead, there is homogeneity of news stories and the major media tend to look alike.
The media in the U.S. has created, to use Neil Postman's words, the "best entertained, least informed society in the
world." Americans are ignorant about international affairs and alienated from their own social issues.

15.10 Assess the role of the foreign media in shaping perceptions and influencing political processes in
modern politics The ever widening reach of the global media has created a relatively unified international view of
the world. According to the Agenda Setting theory, “the media may not be successful much of the time in telling
people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about.” Bernard C Cohen
(1963).The seemingly plural global media has formed a cartel that owns newspapers, magazines, book publishers,
motion picture studios, radio and TV stations globally. Time Warner, Walt Disney, News Corporation, Viacom and
Bertelsmann control almost all global media of influence and they are also under one controlling hand, hence all
the news and entertainment enjoyed the world over come from one controlling stake.
Realizing the power of the media in controlling the thinking of man, imperialists have hijacked and manipulated
the global media from its educative, informative and entertaining role to being the major apparatus in the creation
and perpetuation of the Anglo-American hegemony agenda globally. It therefore doesn’t come as a surprise that a
successful land reform program may be called “chaotic”, an economy under sanctions named “mismanaged and in

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meltdown”, a homegrown legislation called “draconian”, by almost if not all of these media houses who are
perpetrating an ideology of their paymasters (He who pays the piper calls the tune).
Through their ill gotten wealth (slavery & colonialism, and other neo-colonial and imperialist injustices they continue to commit) the
imperialists promote their capitalist system as the only hope for ailing developing economies so that through their set financial
institutions (IMF, World Bank) they continue to exploit the rich human and natural resources of African economies. Frantz Fanon
noted that “the last battle of the colonised against the coloniser will often be the fight of the colonised against each other”. The
words are very linked to the Zimbabwean scenario and relates to what other sections of the Zimbabwean media community are doing
to destroy Zimbabwe in the name of freedom of the media. For example, the private media, which are usually anti-establishment, refer
to the sanctions that have led to the economic downturn and suffering of the ordinary Zimbabweans as targeted and claim they are not
affecting trade in the country. However, the public media in Zimbabwe has always maintained that sanctions in Africa in general and
Zimbabwe in particular hurt masses not the government in power because there is no middle class like in countries of Europe who can
effect regime change.
15.11 The role of the media in modern welfare and trade.
The building and maintenance of public support is essential in modern warfare due to the increasing politicization
of warfare, where losses and gains are measured in political rather than military terms. And if progress cannot be
demonstrated during a war, then by default one is assumed to be losing. Thus, the adage “the battle is not lost on
the battlefield but in the mind,” is very true.This explains why the American war against terror is glamorized in
Western media though it has led to the indiscriminate killing thousands of innocent civilians which include
defenseless women and children in countries like Afghanistan and Iraq. War on Terror has been interpreted as an
assault on democracy and freedom by Islamic fundamentalists and has been heavily criticized for the death of

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innocent souls the world over though it is positively portrayed in the media. The media onslaught against
Zimbabwean policies is part of the Anglo American warfare strategy that involves the control of the minds of
people and the media support of any of their policies though they may lead to untold suffering to other people. The
third world Pan- African states, like other developed states also use their indigenous media to counter the global
media positive coverage of Anglo-American policies. With the growth of global media, the third world countries
are creating less of their culture and buying more of it from the media, hence the continued loss of African culture.
Thus, Africans in general, and Zimbabweans in particular should work together in the fight against western ideals
which are proclaimed in foreign media.

15.12 ACTIVITIES

o Define Media and explain its role and functions

o Critically analyse the following :
o Freedom of Expression
o Freedom of Association within the context of Media Freedom
o Discuss and explain self censorship of the media and compare the behaviour of Zimbabwe’s media to
that of other countries

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o Assess the role of the foreign media in shaping perceptions and influencing political processes in
modern politics
o Define the term “perceptions” and critically relate it to the adage “the battle is not lost on the
battlefield but in the mind”.
o Discuss and analyse the role of the media in modern welfare and trade.

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KWEKWE POLYTECHNIC PRODUCTION 2011

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