Introduction to Amplifiers

Course No: E02-029

Credit: 2 PDH

Jeffrey Cwalinski, P.E.

Continuing Education and Development, Inc.

P: (877) 322-5800
[email protected]

www.cedengineering.com
 Introduction to Amplifiers – E02-029

This course was adapted from the NAVEDTRA “Chapter 1:

Amplifiers”, Publication No. NAVEDTRA 14180, Module 8, which
is in the public domain.
Introduction to Amplifiers – E02-029

1
 Introduction to Amplifiers – E02-029

Perhaps the concept of the relationship of amplifier-amplification-amplitude will be clearer if you

consider a parallel situation (an analogy). A magnifying glass is a magnifier. As such, it provides
magnification which is an increase in the magnitude (size) of an object. This relationship of magnifier-
magnification-magnitude is the same as the relationship of amplifier-amplification-amplitude. The
analogy is true in one other aspect as well. The magnifier does not change the object that is being
magnified; it is only the image that is larger, not the object itself. With the amplifier, the output signal
differs in amplitude from the input signal, but the input signal still exists unchanged. So, the object (input
signal) and the magnifier (amplifier) control the image (output signal).

An amplifier can be defined as a device that enables an input signal to control an output signal. The
output signal will have some (or all) of the characteristics of the input signal but will generally be larger
than the input signal in terms of voltage, current, or power.

USES OF AMPLIFICATION

Most electronic devices use amplifiers to provide various amounts of signal amplification. Since
most signals are originally too small to control or drive the desired device, some amplification is needed.

For example, the audio signal taken from a record is too small to drive a speaker, so amplification is
needed. The signal will be amplified several times between the needle of the record player and the
speaker. Each time the signal is amplified it is said to go through a STAGE of amplification. The audio
amplifier shown connected between the turntable and speaker system in figure 1- 1 contains several stages
of amplification.

TURNTABLE

AMPLIFIER

SPEAKER

Figure 1-1.—Amplifier as used with turntable and speaker.

Notice the triangle used in figure 1-1 to represent the amplifier. This triangle is the standard block
diagram symbol for an amplifier .

Another example of the use of an amplifier is shown in figure 1-2 . In a radio receiver, the signal
picked up by the antenna is too weak (small) to be used as it is. This signal must be amplified before it is
sent to the detector. (The detector separates the audio signal from the frequency that was sent by the
transmitter. The way in which this is done will be discussed later in this training series.)

2
 Introduction to Amplifiers – E02-029

ANTENNA
DETECTOR
(SEPARATES AUDIO FROM
RADIO FREQUENCY)

AMPLIFIER
(RADIO FREQUENCY)

AMPLIFIER
(AUDIO FREQUENCY) SPEAKER

Figure 1-2.-Amplifiers as used in radio receiver.

The audio signal from the detector will then be amplified to make it large enough to drive the
speaker of the radio.

Almost every electronic device contains at least one stage of amplification, so you will be seeing
amplifiers in many devices that you work on. Amplifiers will also be used in most of the NEE TS modules
that follow this one.

Q-1. What is amplification?

Q-2. Does an amplifier actually change an input signal? Why or why not?
Q-3. Why do electronic devices use amplifiers?

CLASSIFICATION OF AMPLIFIERS

Most electronic devices use at least one amplifier, but there are many types of amplifiers. This
module will not try to describe all the different types of amplifiers. You will be shown the general
principles of amplifiers and some typical amplifier circuits.

Most amplifiers can be classified in two ways. The first classification is by their function. This
means they are basically voltage amplifiers or power amplifiers. The second classification is by their
frequency response. In other words what frequencies are they designed to amplify?

If you describe an amplifier by these two classifications (function and frequency response) you will
have a good working description of the amplifier. You may not know what the exact circuitry is, but you
will know what the amplifier does and the frequencies that it is designed to handle.

VOLTAGE AMPLIFIERS AND POWER AMPLIFIERS

All amplifiers are current-control devices. The input signal to an amplifier controls the current output
of the amplifier. The connections of the amplifying device (electron tube, transistor, magnetic amplifier,

3
 Introduction to Amplifiers – E02-029

etc.) and the circuitry of the amplifier determine the classification. Amplifiers are classified as voltage or
power amplifiers.
A VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER is an amplifier in which the output signal voltage is larger than the input
signal voltage. In other words, a voltage amplifier amplifies the voltage of the input signal.
A POWER AMPLIFIER is an amplifier in which the output signal power is greater than the input
signal power. In other words, a power amplifier amplifies the power of the input signal. Most power
amplifiers are used as the final amplifier (stage of amplification) and control (or drive) the output device.
The output device could be a speaker, an indicating device, an antenna, or the heads on a tape recorder.
Whatever the device, the power to make it work (or drive it) comes from the final stage of amplification
which is a power amplifier.
Figure 1-3 shows a simple block diagram of a voltage amplifier with its input and output signals and
a power amplifier with its input and output signals. Notice that in view (A) the output signal voltage is
larger than the input signal voltage. Since the current values for the input and output signals are not
shown, you cannot tell if there is a power gain in addition to the voltage gain.

I�......_· �Q........,..U--r------1[>>--�o--+u-----r--O---v�
T

INPU T SIGNAL OUTPUT SIGNAL

200 mV PEAK-TO-PEAK 4 V PEAK-TO-PEAK

Figure 1-3A.-Block diagram of voltage and power amplifiers.

INPUT SIGNAL OUTPUT SIGNAL

10 V PEAK-TO-PEAK 5 V PEAK-TO-PEAK
100 mA (1 W OF PO\/\tER) 2 A (10 W OF PO\/\£R)

Figure 1-3B.-Block diagram of voltage and power amplifiers.

In view (B) of the figure the output signal voltage is less than the input signal voltage. As a voltage
amplifier, this circuit has a gain of less than 1. The output power, however, is greater than the input
power. Therefore, this circuit is a power amplifier.
The classification of an amplifier as a voltage or power amplifier is made by comparing the
characteristics of the input and output signals. If the output signal is larger in voltage amplitude than the
input signal, the amplifier is a voltage amplifier. If there is no voltage gain, but the output power is greater
than the input power, the amplifier is a power amplifier.

4
 Introduction to Amplifiers – E02-029

FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF AMPLIFIERS

In addition to being classified by function, amplifiers are classified by frequency response. The
frequency response of an amplifier refers to the band of frequencies or frequency range that the amplifier
was designed to amplify.

You may wonder why the frequency response is important. Why doesn't an amplifier designed to
amplify a signal of 1000 Hz work just as well at 1000 MHz? The answer is that the components of the
amplifier respond differently at different frequencies. The amplifying device (electron tube, transistor,
magnetic amplifier, etc.) itself will have frequency limitations and respond in different ways as the
frequency changes. Capacitors and inductors in the circuit will change their reactance as the frequency
changes. Even the slight amounts of capacitance and inductance between the circuit wiring and other
components (interelectrode capacitance and self-inductance) can become significant at high frequencies.
Since the response of components varies with the frequency, the components of an amplifier are selected
to amplify a certain range or band of frequencies.

NOTE: For explanations of interelectrode capacitance and self-inductance see NEETS Modules 2-
Introduction to Alternating Current and Transformers; 6-Introduction to Electronic Emission, Tubes,
and Power Supplies; and 7-Introduction to Solid-State Devices and Power Supplies.
The three broad categories of frequency response for amplifiers are AUDIO AMPLIFIER, RF
AMPLIFIER, and VIDEO AMPLIFIER.

An audio amplifier is designed to amplify frequencies between 15 Hz and 20 kHz. Any amplifier that
is designed for this entire band of frequencies or any band of frequencies contained in the audio range is
considered to be an audio amplifier.

In the term rf amplifier, the "rf' stands for radio frequency. These amplifiers are designed to amplify
frequencies between 10 kHz and 100,000 MHz. A single amplifier will not amplify the entire rf range, but
any amplifier whose frequency band is included in the rf range is considered an rf amplifier.

A video amplifier is an amplifier designed to amplify a band of frequencies from 10 Hz to 6 MHz.

Because this is such a wide band of frequencies, these amplifiers are sometimes called WIDE-BAND
AMPLIFIERS. While a video amplifier will amplify a very wide band of frequencies, it does not have the
gain of narrower-band amplifiers. It also requires a great many more components than a narrow-band
amplifier to enable it to amplify a wide range of frequencies.

Q-4. In what two ways are amplifiers classified?

Q-5. What type of amplifier would be used to drive the speaker system of a record player?

Q-6. What type of amplifier would be used to amplify the signal from a radio antenna?

TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERS

A transistor amplifier is a current-control device. The current in the base of the transistor (which is
dependent on the emitter-base bias) controls the current in the collector. A vacuum-tube amplifier is also
a current-control device. The grid bias controls the plate current. These facts are expanded upon in
NEETS Module 6, Introduction to Electronic Emission, Tubes and Power Supplies, and Module 7,
Introduction to Solid-State Devices and Power Supplies.

5
 Introduction to Amplifiers – E02-029

You might hear that a vacuum tube is a voltage-operated device (since the grid does not need to draw
current) while the transistor is a current-operated device. You might agree with this statement, but both
the vacuum tube and the transistor are still current-control devices. The whole secret to understanding
amplifiers is to remember that fact. Current control is the name of the game. Once current is controlled
you can use it to give you a voltage gain or a power gain.
This chapter will use transistor amplifiers to present the concepts and principles of amp lifiers. These
concepts apply to vacuum-tube amplifiers and, in most cases, magnetic amp lifiers as well as transistor
amplifiers. If you wish to study the vacuum-tube equivalent circuits of the transistor circuits presented, an
excellent source is the EIMB, NAVSEA 0967-LP-000-0120, Electronics Circuits.
The first amplifier concept that is discussed is the "class of operation" of an amplifier.
AMPLIFIER CLASSES OF OPERATION

The class of operation of an amplifier is determined by the amount of time (in relation to the input
signal) that current flows in the output circuit. This is a function of the operating point of the amplifying
device. The operating point of the amplifying device is determined by the bias applied to the device.
There are four classes of operation for an amplifier. These are: A, AB, B and C. Each class of operation
has certain uses and characteristics. No one class of operation is "better" than any other class. The
selection of the "best" class of operation is determined by the use of the amplifying circuit. The best class
of operation for a phonograph is not the best class for a radio transmitter.
Class A Operation

A simp le transistor amplifier that is operated class A is shown in figure 1-4. Since the output signal
is a 100% (or 360°) copy of the input signal, current in the output circuit must flow for 100% of the input
signal time. This is the definition of a class A amplifier. Amplifier current flows for 100% of the input
signal.

n
u
R1

OUT

�
IN

Figure 1-4.-A simple class A transistor amplifier.

The class A amplifier has the characteristics of good FIDELITY and low EFFICIENCY. Fidelity
means that the output signal is just like the input signal in all respects except amplitude. It has the same

6
 Introduction to Amplifiers – E02-029

shape and frequency. In some cases, there may be a phase difference between the input and output signal
(usually 180°), but the signals are still considered to be "good copies." If the output signal is not like the
input signal in shape or frequency, the signal is said to be DISTORTED. DISTORTION is any undesired
change in a signal from input to output.

The efficiency of an amplifier refers to the amount of power delivered to the output compared to the
power supplied to the circuit. Since every device takes power to operate, if the amplifier operates for 360°
of input signal, it uses more power than if it only operates for 180° of input signal. If the amplifier uses
more power, less power is available for the output signal and efficiency is lower. Since class A amplifiers
operate (have current flow) for 360° of input signal, they are low in efficiency. This low efficiency is
acceptable in class A amplifiers because they are used where efficiency is not as important as fidelity.

Class AB Operation

If the amplifying device is biased in such a way that current flows in the device for 51% - 99% of the
input signal, the amplifier is operating class AB. A simple class AB amplifier is shown in figure 1-5.

fl\J
R1
I
OUT

r'\..;
IN

Figure 1-5.-A simple class AB transistor amplifier.

Notice that the output signal is distorted. The output signal no longer has the same shape as the input
signal. The portion of the output signal that appears to be cut off is caused by the lack of current through
the transistor. When the emitter becomes positive enough, the transistor cannot conduct because the base­
to-emitter junction is no longer forward biased. Any further increase in input signal will not cause an
increase in output signal voltage.

Class AB amplifiers have better efficiency and poorer fidelity than class A amplifiers. They are used
when the output signal need not be a complete reproduction of the input signal, but both positive and
negative portions of the input signal must be available at the output.

Class AB amplifiers are usually defined as amplifiers operating between class A and class B because
class A amplifiers operate on 100% of input signal and class B amplifiers (discussed next) operate on
50% of the input signal. Any amplifier operating between these two limits is operating class AB.

7
 Introduction to Amplifiers – E02-029

Class B Operation

As was stated above, a class B amplifier operates for 50% of the input signal. A simple class B
amplifier is shown in fi gure 1-6.

0J
IN

Figure 1-6.-A simple class B transistor amplifier.

In the circuit shown in figure 1-6, the base-emitter bias will not allow the transistor to conduct
whenever the input signal becomes positive. Therefore, only the negative portion of the input signal is
reproduced in the output signal. You may wonder why a class B amplifier would be used instead of a
simp le rectifier if only half the input signal is desired in the output. The answer to this is that the rectifier
does not amp lify. The output signal of a rectifier cannot be higher in amplitude than the input signal. The
class B amp lifier not only reproduces half the input signal, but amplifies it as well.

Class B amplifiers are twice as efficient as class A amplifiers since the amplifying device only
conducts (and uses power) for half of the input signal. A class B amplifier is used in cases where exactly
50% of the input signal must be amplified. If less than 50% of the input signal is needed, a class C
amplifier is used.

Class C Operation

Figure 1-7 shows a simple class C amplifier. Notice that only a small portion of the input signal is
present in the output signal. Since the transistor does not conduct except during a small portion of the
input signal, this is the most efficient amplifier. It also has the worst fidelity. The output signal bears very
little resemblance to the input signal.

8
 Introduction to Amplifiers – E02-029

+
Vee-=-
I V

IN

Figure 1-7.-A simple class C transistor amplifier.

Class C amplifiers are used where the output signal need only be present during part of one-half of
the input signal. Any amplifier that operates on less than 50% of the input signal is operated class C.

Q-7. What determines the class of operation of an amplifier?

Q-8. What are the four classes of operation of a transistor amplifier?

Q-9. Ifthe output of a circuit needs to be a complete representation of one-halfof the input signal,
what class of operation is indicated?

Q-10. Why is class C operation more efficient than class A operation?

Q-11. What class of operation has the highest fidelity?

AMPLIFIER COUPLING

Earlier in this module it was stated that almost every electronic device contains at least one stage of
amplification. Many devices contain several stages of amplification and therefore several amplifiers.
Stages of amplification are added when a single stage will not provide the required amount of
amplification. For example, if a single stage of amplification will provide a maximum gain of 100 and the
desired gain from the device is 1000, two stages of amplification will be required. The two stages might
have gains of 10 and 100, 20 and 50, or 25 and 40. (The overall gain is the product of the individual
stages-IO x 100 = 20 x 50 = 25 x 40 = 1000.)

Figure 1-8 shows the effect of adding stages of amplification. As stages of amplification are added,
the signal increases and the final output (from the speaker) is increased.

9
 Introduction to Amplifiers – E02-029

�r�cCJ ii)JJ)) Sl'El!CER

Figure 1-8.-Adding stages of amplification.

Whether an amplifier is one of a series in a device or a single stage connected between two other
devices (top view, figure 1-8), there must be some way for the signal to enter and leave the amplifier. The
process of transferring energy between circuits is known as COUPLING. There are various ways of
coupling signals into and out of amplifier circuits. The following is a description of some of the more
common methods of amplifier coupling.

Direct Coupling

The method of coupling that uses the least number of circuit elements and that is, perhaps, the easiest
to understand is direct coupling. In direct coupling the output of one stage is connected directly to the
input of the following stage. Figure 1-9 shows two direct-coupled transistor amplifiers.

10
 Introduction to Amplifiers – E02-029

13V
7V Q2
OUTPUT

R1

Q1 R2 R3
1.
INPUT

.1
6V 10V 15V

Figure 1-9.-Direct-coupled transistor amplifiers.

Notice that the output (collector) of Q1 is c01mected directly to the input (base) of Q2. The network
ofR4, R5, and R6 is a voltage divider used to provide the bias and operating voltages for Ql and Q2. The
entire circuit provides two stages of amplification.

Direct coupling provides a good frequency response since no frequency-sensitive components

(inductors and capacitors) are used. The frequency response of a circuit using direct coupling is affected
only by the amplifying device itself.

Direct coupling has several disadvantages, however. The major problem is the power supply
requirements for direct-coupled amplifiers. Each succeeding stage requires a higher voltage. The load and
voltage divider resistors use a large amount of power and the biasing can become very complicated. In
addition, it is difficult to match the impedance from stage to stage with direct coupling. (Impedance
matching is covered a little later in this chapter.)

The direct-coupled amplifier is not very efficient and the losses increase as the number of stages
increase. Because of the disadvantages, direct coupling is not used very often.

RC Coupling

The most commonly used coupling in amplifiers is RC coupling. An RC-coupling network is shown
in figure 1-10.

11
 Introduction to Amplifiers – E02-029

r --
e1
I OUTPUT

01 I
R2 j �
R1
-
INPUT

.1 I I
-
IL +Vee
__ - - _J

Figure 1-10.-RC-coupled transistor amplifier.

The network ofRl, R2, and Cl enclosed in the dashed lines of the figure is the coupling network.
You may notice that the circuitry for Q1 and Q2 is incomplete. That is intentional so that you can
concentrate on the coupling network.

Rl acts as a load resistor for Ql (the first stage) and develops the output signal of that stage. Do you
remember how a capacitor reacts to ac and de? The capacitor, Cl, "blocks" the de ofQl's collector, but
"passes" the ac output signal. R2 develops this passed, or coupled, signal as the input signal to Q2 (the
second stage). This arrangement allows the coupling of the signal while it isolates the biasing of each
stage. This solves many of the problems associated with direct coupling.

RC coupling does have a few disadvantages. The resistors use de power and so the amplifier has low
efficiency. The capacitor tends to limit the low-frequency response of the amplifier and the amplifying
device itself limits the high-frequency response. For audio amplifiers this is usually not a problem;
techniques for overcoming these frequency limitations will be covered later in this module.

Before you move on to the next type of coupling, consider the capacitor in the RC coupling. You
probably remember that capacitive reactance (X e) is determined by the following formula:

X - 1
C - 2nfC

This explains why the low frequencies are limited by the capacitor. As frequency decreases, Xe
increases. This causes more of the signal to be "lost" in the capacitor.

The formula for Xe also shows that the value of capacitance (C) should be relatively high so that
capacitive reactance (Xe) can be kept as low as possible. So, when a capacitor is used as a coupling
element, the capacitance should be relatively high so that it will couple the entire signal well and not
reduce or distort the signal.

Impedance Coupling

Impedance coupling is very similar to RC coupling. The difference is the use of an impedance device
(a coil) to replace the load resistor of the first stage.

12
 Introduction to Amplifiers – E02-029

Figure 1-11 shows an imp edance-coupling network between two stages ofamp lification. L1 is the
load for Ql and develops the output signal ofthe first stage. Since the d.c. resistance ofa coil is low, the
efficiency ofthe amplifier stage is increased. The amount ofsignal developed in the output of the stage
depends on the inductive reactance ofLl. Remember the formula for inductive reactance:

01
r
e1
'
L1
R1
- -
�

I
INPUT

j_
-
--
IL +Vee
__ - - _J
I

Figure 1-11.-Impedance-coupled transistor amplifier.

The formula shows that for inductive reactance to be large, either inductance or frequency or both
must be high. Therefore, load inductors should have relatively large amounts ofinductance and are most
effective at high frequencies. This explains why imp edance coupling is usually not used for audio
amplifiers.

The rest ofthe coupling network (Cl and Rl) functions just as their counterparts (Cl and R2) in the
RC-coupling network. Cl couples the signal between stages while blocking the d.c. and Rl develops the
input signal to the second stage (Q2).

Transformer Coupling

Figure 1-12 shows a transformer-coupling network between two stages ofamplification. The
transformer action ofTl couples the signal from the first stage to the second stage. In figure 1-12, the
primary ofTl acts as the load for the first stage (Ql) and the secondary ofTl acts as the developing
impedance for the second stage (Q2). No capacitor is needed because transformer action couples the
signal between the primary and secondary ofT1.

13
 Introduction to Amplifiers – E02-029

r
I
T1
-.I
I I

I
I I
I I
I I
I
I- _J

Figure 1-12.-Transformer-coupled transistor amplifier.

The inductors that make up the primary and secondary of the transformer have very little de
resistance, so the efficiency of the amplifiers is very high. Transformer coupling is very often used for the
final output (between the final amplifier stage and the output device) because of the impedance-matching
qualities of the transformer. The frequency response of transformer-coupled amplifiers is limited by the
inductive reactance of the transformer just as it was limited in impedance coupling.

Q-12. What is the purpose of an amplifier-coupling network?

Q-13. What are four methods of coupling amplifier stages?
Q-14. What is the most common form of coupling?
Q-15. What type coupling is usually used to couple the output from a power amplifier?
Q-16. What type coupling would be most useful for an audio amplifier between the first and second
stages?
Q-17. What type of coupling is most effective at high .frequencies?
IMPEDANCE CONSIDERATIONS FOR AMPLIFIERS

It has been mentioned that efficiency and impedance are important in amplifiers. The reasons for this
may not be too clear. You have been shown that any amplifier is a current-control device. Now there are
two other principles you should try to keep in mind. First, there is no such thing as "something for
nothing" in electronics. That means every time you do something to a signal it costs something. It might
mean a loss in fidelity to get high power. Some other compromise might also be made when a circuit is
designed. Regardless of the compromise, every stage will require and use power. This brings up the
second principle-do things as efficiently as possible. The improvement and design of electronic circuits is
an attempt to do things as cheaply as possible, in terms of power, when all the other requirements
(fidelity, power output, frequency range, etc.) have been met.

This brings us to efficiency. The most efficient device is the one that does the job with the least loss
of power. One of the largest losses of power is caused by impedance differences between the output of
one circuit and the input of the next circuit. Perhaps the best way to think of an impedance difference
(mismatch) between circuits is to think of different-sized water pipes. If you try to connect a one-inch
water pipe to a two-inch water pipe without an adapter you will lose water. You must use an adapter. A

14
 Introduction to Amplifiers – E02-029

imp edance-matching device is like that adapter. It allows the connection of two devices with different
imp edances without the loss of power.

Figure 1-13 shows two circuits connected together. Circuit number 1 can be considered as an a.c.
source (Es) whose output imp edance is represented by a resistor (Rl). It can be considered as an a.c.
source because the output signal is an a.c. voltage and comes from circuit number 1 through the output
imp edance. The input imp edance of circuit number 2 is represented by a resistor in series with the source.
The resistance is shown as variable to show what will happen as the input impedance of circuit number 2
is changed.

-
CIRCUIT NO. 1 CIRCUIT NO. 2
OUTPUT
IMPEDANCE
1 kn
_j_ ...1..

R2 I ER2 PR1 PR2

100 n 9 mA 900mV 82.6mW 8.3mW

200 n 8.3mA 1 .67 V 69.4mW 13.9 mW

soon 6.7mA 3.33V 44.4mW 22.2mW

1k n 5 mA 5V 25mW 25mW

2k n 3.3mA 6.67V 11.1 mW 22.2 mW

5k n 1.7 mA 8.33V 2.7mW 13.9 mW

10k n .9mA 9.09V .9mW 8.3mW

Figure 1-13.-Effect of impedance matching in the coupling of two circuits.

The chart below the circuit shows the effect of a change in the input impedance of circuit number 2
(R2) on current (I), signal voltage developed at the input of circuit number 2 (ER2), the power at the output
of circuit number 1 (PR,), and the power at the input to circuit number 2 (PR2 ).

Two important facts are brought out in this chart. First, the power at the input to circuit number 2 is
greatest when the impedances are equal (matched). The power is also equal at the output of circuit
number 1 and the input of circuit number 2 when the impedance is matched. The second fact is that the
largest voltage signal is developed at the input to circuit number 2 when its input impedance is much
larger than the output impedance of circuit number 1. However, the power at the input of circuit number 2

15
 Introduction to Amplifiers – E02-029

is very low under these conditions. So you must decide what conditions you want in coupling two circuits
together and select the components appropriately.

Two important points to remember about imp edance matching are as follows. (1) Maximum power
transfer requires matched impedance. (2) To get maximum voltage at the input of a circuit requires an
intentional imp edance mismatch with the circuit that is providing the input signal.

Impedance Characteristics of Amplifier Configurations

Now that you have seen the importance of impedance matching the stages in an electronic device,
you may wonder what impedance characteristics an amplifier has. The input and output imp edances of a
transistor amp lifier depend upon the configuration of the transistor. In Module 7, Introduction to
Solid-State Devices and Power Supplies, you were introduced to the three transistor configurations; the
common emitter, the common base, and the common collector. Examples of these configurations and
their impedance characteristics are shown in figure 1-14.

MEDIUM OUTPUT
�Ok.I?. • 50kS?.
MEDIUMltiPUTZ
500 S?.- 1500$?. E--
--:l
-l-
I---_............

J.
COMMON EMITIER
-=. Vee HIGH OUTPUTZ
250kS?. • 550kS?.

LOW ltiPUTZ
E--
-l-
�OS?.· �OS?.

--:l-----
-l-
i
COMMON BA$E
HIGHlti,F-UTZ
2kS?. • 550kS?.

--:)1----........... LOW OUTPUTZ

50 S?.- 1500.I?.

-l-

COMMON COLLECTOR
Figure 1-14.-Transistor amplifier configurations and their impedance characteristics.

NOTE: Only approximate impedance values are shown. This is because the exact impedance values
will vary from circuit to circuit. The impedance of any particular circuit depends upon the device
(transistor) and the other circuit components. The value of impedance can be computed by dividing the
signal voltage by the signal current. Therefore:

16
 Introduction to Amplifiers – E02-029

Input Signal Impedance =

Input Sig1al Voltage

Input Sig1al Current

and

Output Signal Impedance =

Output Sign al Voltage

Output Sign al Current

The common-emitter configuration provides a medium input imp edance and a medium output
impedance. The common-base configuration provides a low input impedance and a high output
impedance. The common-collector configuration provides a high input impedance and a low output
impedance. The common-collector configuration is often used to provide impedance matching between a
high output impedance and a low input impedance.

If the amplifier stage is transformer coupled, the turns ratio of the transformer can be selected to
provide impedance matching. In NEETS Module 2, Introduction to Alternating Current and
Transformers, you were shown the relationship between the turns ratio and the impedance ratio in a
transformer. The relationship is expressed in the following formula:

Where:

Np= Number of turns in the primary

Ns = Number of turns in the secondary
Zp = Impedance of the primary
Zs = Impedance of the secondary

As you can see, impedance matching between stages can be accomplished by a combination of the
amplifier configuration and the components used in the amplifier circuit.

Q-18. What impedance relationship between the output of one circuit and the input of another circuit
will provide the maximum power transfer?
Q-19. If maximum current is desired at the input to a circuit, should the input impedance of that circuit
be lower than, equal to, or higher than the output impedance of the previous stage?
Q-20. What are the input- and output-impedance characteristics of the three transistor configurations?
Q-21. What transistor circuit configuration should be used to match a high output impedance to a low
input impedance?
Q-22. What type of coupling is most useful for impedance matching?

17