Class -XI

Atomic structure Notes

Rutherford's Model

Rutherford in 1911, performed some scattering experiments in which he bombarded

thin foils of metals like gold, silver, platinum or copper with a beam of fast moving
a-particles. The thin gold foil had a circular fluorescent zinc sulphide screen around
it. Whenever a-particles struck the screen, a tiny flash of light was produced at that
point.

From these experiments, he made the following observations:

1. Most of the α-particles pass without any deviation.

2. Few particles deviate with small angle.
3. Rare particles retrace its path or show deflection greater than 90°.
On the basis of these observation, he proposed a model.

1. Atom is of spherical shape having size of order 10–10 meters.

2. Whole mass is concentrated in centre called nucleus having size of order 10–
15 meters.
3. Electron revolves around the nucleus in circular path like planets revolve
around sun.

Limitation : This model could not explain stability of atom. According to Maxwell's
classic theory, an accelerated charged particle liberates energy. So, during
revolution, it must radiate energy and by following the spiral path it should comes
on nucleus.

Atomic number

It is equal to the number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom. Atomic number
is designated by the letter ‘Z’. In case of neutral atom atomic number is equal to the
number of protons and even equal to the number of electrons in atom.

Z = Number of protons (p) = Number of electrons (e)

Mass number

It is equal to the sum of the positively charged protons (p) and electrically neutral
neutrons (n). Mass number of an atom is designated by the letter ‘A’.

Mass number (A) = Number of protons (p or Z) + Number of neutrons (n)

Note : The atom of an element X having mass number (A) and atomic number (Z)
may be represented by a symbol ZXA.

Isotopes

Atoms with identical atomic number but different atomic mass number are known
as Isotopes. Isotopes of Hydrogen 1H1, 1H2 and 1H3

Isobars

Isobars are the atom with the same mass number but different atomic number, for
example 6C14 and 7N14
Electromagnetic Waves Theory

This theory was put forward by James Clark Maxwell in 1864. Electromagnetic
Waves are the waves which are produced by varying electric field and magnetic field
which are perpendicular to each other in the direction perpendicular to both of them.

The main points of this theory are as follows:

1. The energy is emitted from any source continuously in the form of radiations
and is called the radiant energy.

2. The radiations consist of electric and magnetic fields oscillating perpendicular

to each other and both perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the
radiation.

3. The radiations possess wave character and travel with the velocity of light 3
x 108 m/sec.

4. These waves do not require any material medium for propagation. For
example, rays from the sun reach us through space which is a non-material
medium.

Characteristics of a Wave

Wavelength (λ) : It is the distance between two consecutive crests or troughs and is
denoted by λ.
Frequency (v) : It is the number of waves passing through a given point in one
second. The unit frequency is hertz or cycle per second.

Wave number : It is the number of waves in a unit cycle. wave number v =1/λ

Velocity : Velocity of a wave is defined as the linear distance travelled by the wave
in one second. It is represented by c and is expressed in m/sec.

Amplitude : Amplitude of a wave is the height of the crest or the depth of the
through. It is represented by V and is expressed in the units of length.

Black Body Radiations

Black-body is an ideal body which emits and absorbs radiations of all frequencies.
The radiation emitted by these bodies is called black-body radiation.

At a given temperature, the intensity and frequency of the emitted radiation depends
is temperature. At a given temperature, the intensity of radiation emitted increases
with decrease of wavelength.

Photoelectric Effect

When light of a suitable frequency is allowed to incident on a metal, ejection of

electrons take place. This phenomenon is known as photo electric effect.
Observations in Photoelectric Effect

1. Only photons of light of certain minimum frequency called threshold

frequency (v0) can cause the photoelectric effect. The value of v0 is different
for different metals.

2. The kinetic energy of the electrons which are emitted is directly proportional
to the frequency of the striking photons and is quite independent of their
intensity.

3. The number of electrons that are ejected per second from the metal surface
depends upon the intensity of the striking photons or radiations and not upon
their frequency.

Explanation of Photoelectric Effect

Einstein in (1905) was able to give an explanation of the different points of the
photoelectric effect using Planck’s quantum theory as under:

1. Photoelectrons are ejected only when the incident light has a certain minimum
frequency (threshold frequency v0).

2. If the frequency of the incident light (v) is more than the threshold frequency
(v0), the excess energy (hv–hv0) is imparted to the electron as kinetic energy.

3. On increasing the intensity of light, more electrons are ejected but the energies
of the electrons are not altered.

K.E. of the ejected electron.

Planck's Theory

According to this theory, energy cannot be absorbed or released continuously but it

is emitted or released in the form of small packets called quanta. In case of light this
quanta is known as photon. This photon travels with speed of light. Energy of the
photon is directly proportional to frequency.

h is Planck's constant, value is 6.62 × 10–34 Js

Bohr’s Model

Niels Bohr in 1913, proposed a new model of atom on the basis of Planck’s
Quantum Theory. The main points of this model are as follows:

1. Atom is of spherical shape having size (of order 10–10 metre).

2. Whole mass is concentrated in centre called nucleus (having order of size 10 –

15
metre).

3. Electron revolves around nucleus only in limited circular path and he assumed
that electron does not radiate energy during its revolution in permitted paths.

4. Only those orbits are allowed whose orbit angular momentum is integral
multiple of

5. When electron absorbs energy, it jumps to higher orbit and when it comes
back, it radiates energy. This postulate explain spectra.

Achievements of Bohr’s Theory

1. Bohr’s theory has explained the stability of an atom.

 2. Bohr’s theory has helped in calculating the energy of electron in hydrogen
atom and one electron species.

3. Bohr’s theory has explained the atomic spectrum of hydrogen atom.

Limitations of Bohr’s Model

1. The theory could not explain the atomic spectra of the atoms containing more
than one electron or multielectron atoms.

2. Bohr's theory failed to explain the fine structure of the spectral lines.

3. Bohr’s theory could not offer any satisfactory explanation of Zeeman effect
and Stark effect.

4. Bohr’s theory failed to explain the ability of atoms to form molecule formed
by chemical bonds.

5. It was not in accordance with the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.

Spectra

The most compelling evidence for the quantization of energy comes from
spectroscopy. Spectrum word is taken from Latin word which means appearance.
The record of the intensity transmitted or scattered by a molecule as a function of
frequency or wavelength is called its spectrum.

Cosmic rays < gamma rays < x rays < ultraviolet rays < visible rays < infra red <
micro waves < radio waves
Line Spectrum of Hydrogen Atom

When electric discharge is passed through hydrogen gas enclosed in discharge tube
under low pressure and the emitted light is analysed by a spectroscope, the spectrum
consists of a large number of lines which are grouped into different series. The
complete spectrum is known as hydrogen spectrum.

On the basis of experimental observations, Johannes Rydberg noted that all series of
lines in the hydrogen spectrum could be described by the following expression:

R = Rydberg constant

R = 109678 cm–1
Zeeman Effect

When spectral line (source) is placed in magnetic field, spectral lines split up into
sublines. This is known as zeeman effect.

Stark Effect

If splitting of spectral lines take place in electric field, then it is known as stark effect.