UNDERSTANDING THE SELF MIDTERMS REVIEWER

LESSON 1: The Self from the Perspective of Socrates (470-399 BCE)

Philosophy  One of the Big Three Philosophers
(Socrates, Plato, Aristotle)
Athens, Ancient Greek – the birthplace of  Mentor of Plato
Philosophy in approximately 600 BCE.  Stone Mason with a sharp mind.
 Great debater
Philo – love  Angered sophist who brought him to
trial where he was finally sentenced to
Sophia – wisdom death.
 Sophist-people skilled in discussion
The Greeks in search for knowledge came and debate.
up with answers that are both cognitive and  Sophists – the first teachers of the
scientific in nature (Price, 2000). West.

Idea of Permanence: The Socratic/Dialectic Method:

 Pro Permanence “I cannot teach anybody anything, I can only
- According to Parmenides, everything make them think.”
in existence is permanent and - Socrates
unchangeable. Something exist
because it is permanent.  This method involves the search for
the correct/proper definition of a
 Pro Changeability thing.
- Everything flows, “you can never  He did not lecture, instead ask
step on the same river twice.” questions and engage people in a
- Heraclitus discussion.
- “You cannot step on the same river  Using this method, the questioner
even once.” should:
- Cratulus - Be skilled in detecting
 Who am I? misconceptions.
 Why am I here? - Revealing misconceptions by
 What do I want out of life? asking the right questions.
 The goal is to bring the person closer
- Early philosopher searched for the to final understanding.
explanation into how the world
works through mathematics, Socrates’s View of Human Nature:
heavenly bodies, and atoms. “The unexamined life is not worth living.”
- Another group sought to understand - Socrates
the nature of human beings.
 He believed that his mission in life was
to seek the highest knowledge and
convince others who are willing to
seek this knowledge with him.

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 Socratic Method allowed him to  Forms are ageless and therefore are
question people’s beliefs and ideas, eternal.
exposing their misconceptions and get  Forms are unchanging and therefore
them to touch their souls permanent.
 Touching of the soul = get in touch  Forms are unmoving and indivisible.
with true self.
 He was named by the Cracle of Delphi Plato’s Dualism:
as the “Wisest of all Man”  The Realm of Shadows – is composed
 Most important knowledge: of changing, “sensible” things which
 How to live right and how to make are lesser entities and therefore
their soul good. imperfect and flawed.
 Real understanding comes from within  The Realm of Forms – is composed of
the person. eternal things which are permanent
 The aim of Socratic Method is to make and perfect. It is the source of reality
people think, seek, and ask again and and true knowledge.
again.
 Reach inside the self to the one’s Plato’s View of Human Nature:
deepest nature.  Plato made use of Socratic Method
 He believed that knowledge lies within
a person’s soul.
Plato (428-348 BCE)  Considered human beings as
 Real name is Aristocles “microcosms” of the universal
 Born in Athens to one of Greece’s macrocosms.
aristocratic families.  Humans have immortal rational soul,
 Nicknamed “Plato” because of his which Plato believed is created in the
physical built which means wide broad. image of the divine.
 Left Athens for 12 years after the death
of Socrates. 3 Components of Soul:
 Established “The Academy” 1. The Reason – is rational and is the
 Mentor of Aristotle motivation for the goodness and truth.
 Both Socrates and Plato believed that 2. The Spirited – in non-rational and is
Philosophy is more than analyses but the will or the drive toward action. This
rather a way of life. part of the soul is initially neutral but
 Plato wrote more than 20 Dialogues can be influenced/pull in two
with Socrates as protagonist in most of directions.
them. 3. The Appetites – are irrational and lean
towards the desire for the pleasures of
Theory of Forms: the body.
 Refers to what are real
 Not encountered with the senses Reason seek the true goal of man ----- to see
 Can only be grasped intellectually things in their true manner.

Characteristics of Forms:

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Plato believed that people are intrinsically  Christianity’s influence dominated the
good. Sometimes, however, judgements are Western thought after the fall of the
made in ignorance and Plato equates Hellenistic-Roman eras.
ignorance with evil. (Price, 2000).  Christian Philosophers during medieval
Plato’s Theory of Love and Becoming: era are also Theologians.
Allegory of the Cave – what people see in  Concern is God and man’s relationship
the cave are only shadows which they with God.
believed are real things and represents  Believed that man should rely on God’s
knowledge. commands and his judgements of what
 Only forms are real constitutes good and evil.
 Plato and other Greek Philosophers
Once the people get out of the cave and see man as basically good and
into the light, what they will see are the becomes evil through ignorance of
forms which is the real knowledge is. what is good.
 In knowing the truth, the person must  Christianity sees mans as sinners who
become the truth. – Theory of Being. reject/go against a loving God’s
 To know is to be. command.
 The more a person knows, the more he  Christian Philosophy become so
is, and the better he is. powerful that the church ordered
Plato’s Academy in Athens closed.
Each individual has in his immortal soul a  Christian Philosophers held faith
perfect set of Forms that he can recall which supreme over reason and logic. A
constitutes true knowledge. question is raised then as to whatever
reason and logic could/should be used
To recall/remember the Form = to know the to understand truths (Price, 2000).
truth and become just and wise.
St. Agustine (354-436 BCE)
How to get out of the Cave into the World  From Hippo, Africa
of Forms?  Initially rejected Christianity for it
 Love is the way by which a person can seemed to him then that Christianity
move from a state of imperfect could not provide him answers to
knowledge and ignorance to a state of questions that interested him.
perfection and true knowledge.  Wanted to know about moral evil and
 Love paves the way for all beings to why it existed in people, his personal
ascend to higher stages of self- desire for sensual pleasures and
realization and perfection. questions about all sufferings in the
 Love is the way of knowing and world.
realizing the truth.
St. Augustine’s View of Human Nature:
1. God as the source of all reality and
St. Agustine of Hippo (354-436 BCE) truth.

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 Man is capable of knowing Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

external truths (discovered  Father of Modern Philosophy
through mystical experience)  One of the rationalist philosophers in
 God – one eternal truth Europe.
 Without God as the source of all
truth, man could never Rationalist – group of philosophers who
understand eternal truths. considered truth as a universal concept and
 Those who know most about God reason is superior to and independent of
will come closest to understanding sensory experience. They are impressed by
the true nature of the world. the scientific method and mathematics that
2. The Sinfulness of Man. they aimed to apply it in their philosophy.
 The cause of sin or evil is an act of  Introduced the Cartesian Method and
man’s freewill. invented analytic geometry.
 Evil does not lives in God’s  Is there anything I can know with
creation but rather in man. certainty? (method)
 Moral goodness can only be  In his search for an answer to his
achieved through the grace of questions, he had three dreams. This
God. dream instructed him to construct a
system of knowledge using just the
The Role of Love powers of human reason.
 Man searches for happiness.
 Real happiness can only be found in Descartes’ System:
God.  Through Mathematics, he discovered
 For God is love and he created man for that human mind has two powers:
them to also love. 1. Intuition – the ability to
 Problems arise because of the objects apprehend direction of certain
humans choose to love. truths.
 Disordered love results when man 2. Deduction – the power to
loves the wrong things. discover what is known by
progressing in an orderly way
1. Love of physical objects leads to sin of from what is already known.
greed. Truths are arrived using a step-
2. Love for other people is not lasting and by-step process.
excessive love for them is a sin of  Descartes believed that reasoning
jealousy. could produce absolute truths about
3. Love for self leads to sin of pride. nature, existence, morality and God.
4. Love for God is the supreme virtue and  Priori – truths that can be discovered.
only through loving God can man find  Ideas discovered this way does not rely
real happiness. on some experiences because they are
 All things are worthy of love but innate in human mind.
they must be loved properly.  Philosophy should progress from
simple to complex ideas.

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Descartes’ View of the Human Nature: experienced to discover

II think, therefore I am relationships that may exists
 To doubt is to think between them.
 A thinker is a thing that doubts,
understands, affirms, denies, wills, Tabula Rosa
refuses, imagines and feels (Price, 1. Ideas are not innate but rather the
2000). mind at birth is a blank slate.
 The cognitive aspect of human nature 2. Ideas can also be the result of the
is his basis of existence of the self. reflection which demonstrate the
power of thinking and violation or will.
3. Simple ideas are repeated and
The Mind-Body Problem: compared to become complex ideas.
 Descartes considered the soul/mind as Locke’s View on Human Nature:
a substance that is separate from the  Morals, religious, and political values
body. come from sense experiences.
 All bodily prosses are mechanical  Mental acts are acts that produce the
 The body is like a machine that is greatest possible good.
controlled by will and aided by the  Knowing what is good does not
body. necessarily mean that people will
always do what is good.
 Morality – choosing or willing the
John Locke (1632-1704) good.
 Born in Wrington, England
 Son of a Puritan Lawyer Three Laws According to Locke:
 Interested in politics and was a 1. Law of Opinion – where actions that
defender of the parliamentary system. are praiseworthy are called Virtue and
 Published a book on the scope and those are not called Vice.
limits of the human mind at the age of 2. Civil Law – where right actions are
57. enforced by people with authority (ex.
 The book played a significant role in Courts, Police)
the new era of thought as 3. Divine Law – set by God on the actions
“Enlightenment” of man. The true law for human
 Interested in the workings of the behavior, it eternally true and the one
human mind, particularly the law that man should always follow.
acquisition of knowledge.
 Believed that knowledge results from
ideas produced a Posteriori or by the David Hume (1711-1776)
objects that were experienced.  Born in Edinburgh, Scotland
 The process involves two forms:  Lost his faith during the time that he
1. Sensation – objects were was enrolled at the University of
experienced through the senses. Edinburgh.
2. Reflection – by which the mind
looks at the objects that were

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 Became cynical about almost  According to Hume, the idea of cause

everything except philosophy and and effect arise only when people
general learning. experience certain relations between
 After reading the philosophy of Locke, objects thus it cannot be a basis for
he never again entertained any belief knowledge.
in Religion (Price, 2000).
 Credited for giving empiricism its clear Hume’s View of Human Nature:
formulation.  Hume called soul “the self”
 He is known as the Founder of  He concluded that man does really
Empiricism. have an idea of so called “self”
 Relied on scientific method at the because ideas rely on sense
beginning of this philosophy. impressions and people have no sense
 Discovered the limitations of the mind impression of self.
and his optimism turned into  The self is a product of the
Skepticism. imagination.
 Skepticism – an attitude of doubting  He also stated that there are no such
the truth of something. things as personal identity behind
 Empiricism – the process of gaining perceptions and feelings that come
knowledge through experience. and go.
However, it is relied on scientific  There is no permanent/unchanging
method. self (Moore and Bruder, 2002).

The Human Mind:

 2 Types of Perceptions: Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
1. Impression – are immediate  Lived all his life in the town of
sensations of external reality. Konigsberg in East Prussia (presently
These are more vivid than the Western Russia)
ideas it produces.  Deeply spiritual
2. Ideas – are recollections of these  Rousseau made him realized and
impressions. enabled him to formulate his
 Impressions and ideas make up the philosophical ideas.
content of human mind.  Stated that it was the philosophical of
- Begins with impressions, without David Hume that awakened and
impressions there will be no form motivated him to be the Founder of
of complex ideas. German Idealism.
 Wrote 3 books:
According to Hume, words are meaningful if - Critique of Pure Reason
and only if they can be traced to - Critique of Practical Reason
impressions and ideas that copy - Critique of Judgment
impressions (Moore and Bruder, 2002).
Kant’s View of the Mind:
The Principle of Cause and Effect:  Argued that the mind is not a passive
receiver of sense experience but rather

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actively participates in knowing the Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

objects it experiences.  Austrian Neurologists
 Stated that, instead of the mind  Still considered to be one of the
conforming the world, it is the external pioneering figures in the field of
world that conforms to the mind. psychology.
 Combined Rationalism and Empiricism  His Psychodynamic Theory has
and defined knowledge as a result of characteristics of philosophical
human understanding applied to sense thought.
experience.  Freud’s then revolutionary ideas of the
probable factors that determine the
Kant’s View of Human Nature and the Self: human behavior pave the way for
 Sensory impressions imply a unit of the science to investigate the workings of
self without which there would be no the unconscious mind.
knowledge of experience.  Repressed thoughts and memories
 When the self sees an objects, it tends have enough psychic energy to impose
to remember its characteristics and its control on the person’s
applies on it, the forms of the time and consciousness.
space.  Kept hidden and unexpressed that
 The self must exist or there could be repressed memories resurface and are
no memory or knowledge. manifested as some sort of
psychopathology.
Transcendental Appreciation:  Hysteria – Freud made use of methods
 The experience of the self and its unity like free association and dream
with objects. analysis.
 Transcendental is used because people
do not experience the self directly but Structures of the Mind:
as a unit of all impressions that are  Freud’s Three Levels of Mind
organized by the mind through 1. The Conscious Mind
perceptions. 2. The Preconscious Mind
 Kant concluded that all objects of 3. The Unconscious Mind
knowledge, which includes the self, are
phenomenal. That true nature of Psychodynamic Theory – workings of the
things is altogether unknown and mind or one’s mental life impacts strongly
unknowable (Price, 2000). on the body resulting in either emotional
 Kant stated that the Kingdom of Man is stability or psychological dysfunctions.
within man.
 God is manifested in people’s lives Topography of the Mind:
therefore it is man’s duty to move
towards perfection.
 People should see duty as the divine
command.

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 The tip of the iceberg represents with his ego already in conflict. Men
conscious awareness which then lives his life balancing the forces
characterizes the person as he deals of life and death opposing forces that
with the external world. make mere existence a challenge.
 The person’s observable behavior, is
further controlled by unconscious/
subconscious mind. Gilbert Ryle (1900-1976)
 Subconscious serves as repository of  An English philosopher whose ideas
past experiences, repressed memories, contradicted Cartesian Dualism.
fantasies, and urges.  In his book entitled “The Concept of
Mind” Ryle argues that dualism
Id – the structure that is primarily based involves category mistakes and is a
on the pleasure principle. It demands philosophical nonsense (Ryle, 1949).
immediate satisfaction and is not hindered  How is a non-material mental
by societal expectations. substance known as the mind can
influence a physical material body.
Ego – the structure that is based on the  Many philosophical problems were
reality principle. This structure mediates caused by the wrong use of language.
between the impulses of the Id and  The categorical mistake in Cartesian
restraints of the superego. Dualism was applying properties to a
non-material thing that are logically
Superego – the last structure to develop and grammatically appropriate only for
and is primarily dependent on learning the a category of material things.
difference between right and wrong.  Stigmatized the mind as the “Ghost in
Morality of actions is largely dependent on the Machine”
childhood upbringing particularly on
rewards and punishments. Ryle’s View of Human Nature and
Knowledge
Beyond the Pleasure Principle:  Freewill was invented to answer the
 Two Kinds of Instincts: question of whether the action
1. Eros – life instinct, the energy of deserves praise or blame.
eros is called Libido and includes  Agrees with Kant who stated that
urges necessary for individual freewill assumes that man’s actions
and species survival like thirst, must be moral for it to be free.
and sex.
2. Thanatos – death instinct, man’s Two Types of Knowledge:
behavior directed towards 1. Knowing-that – refers to knowing
destruction in the form of facts/information, considered as
aggression and violence. empty intellectualism.
 Freud’s psychoanalysis sees man as a 2. Knowing-how – using facts in the
product of his past lodged within his performance of some skill or technical
subconscious. Man’s behavior by his abilities.
pleasure-seeking life instinct and his
destructive death is said to be born
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 A person may acquire a great bulk neuroscience is responsible for man’s

of knowledge but without the thoughts, feelings, and behavior.
ability to use it to solve some  “There isn’t a special thing called the
practical problems to make his life mind. The mind is just the brain.”
easier, this bulk of knowledge is - Patricia Churchland
deemed to be worthless.
 Knowing involves an ability and Churchland’s View of Human Nature:
not just an intellect.  Contentions that are forwarded by
neurophilosophy resulted from cases
where individuals’ deviant thoughts,
Patricia and Paul Churchland feelings, and actions stemmed from
 Neurology – deals with the study of anomalies/aberrations in the brain’s
the nervous system, its structure, anatomy and physiology.
physiology, and aberrations.  It seems that what and who the person
 Modern scientific inquiry investigates is, how he makes decision, controls
the application of neurology to age-old impulses and how he sees himself is
problems in philosophy, one of which largely determined by his nervous,
is the mind-problem. hormones and overall genetic make-
 Neurophilosophy – coined by Patricia up.
Churchland who together with  These data provide information on
husband Paul (Canadian Philosopher), how normal brain functioning
sought to guide philosophy with facilitates accepted social behavior and
scientific inquiry. how a compromised brain gives rise to
 Philosophy of Neuroscience – the aberrant behavior patterns.
study of the philosophy of the mind.
The Philosophy of Science, Human Nature is complicated:
Neuroscience and Psychology. It aims  Despite research findings,
to explore the relevance of neurophilosophy states that self is real,
neuroscientific experiments/ studies to that it is a tool that helps the person
the philosophy of mind. tune-in to the realities of the brain and
extant reality.
Issue of Mind-Brain:  It can malfunction
 Even if neuroscience found that there  Man is a work of art, constantly
is no casual between the brain and the evolving and at the same time molded
mind, the mind would still be by experiences of the world.
associated with the brain.
 Patricia Churchland (born July 16,
1943) a Canadian-American Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908-1961)
philosopher. Known for her claim that  French phenomenological philosopher
man’s brain is responsible for the whose thoughts were greatly
identity known as the self. influenced by Edmund Husserl and
 The biochemical properties of the Martin Heidegger.
brain according to this philosophy of

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 Wrote books on perception, art and  Made use of the concept of the body
political thought. schema, which focus on the
 At the center of his philosophy, is the relationship between self-experience
emphasis placed on the human body and the experience of other people.
as the primary site of knowing the
world.
LESSON 2: The Self from the Perspective of
Merleau-Ponty View of Human Nature and Sociology
the Self:
 Developed the concept of body- What is Sociology?
subject and contented that  Sociology – is one of the disciplines in
perceptions occur existentially. the social sciences which aims to
 The consciousness, the world and the discover the ways by which the social
human body are all interconnected as surrounding or environment influences
they mutually perceived the world. people’s thoughts, feelings, and
Knowledge is perceived through the behavior.
body with all its sensory functions
which take place in the here and now.
 The world and the self are emergent George Herbet Mead
phenomena in the ongoing process of  He graduated and taught grade school
man’s becoming. at Oberlin College. In 1887, he enrolled
at Harvard University, where his main
The Phenomenology of Perception (1945): interests were philosophy and
 Described the nature of man’s psychology.
perceptual contract with the world.  He wrote and published many articles
 Phenomenology provides a direct and book review but did not publish
description of human experience while many books. It was his students who
perception forms the background of put together his numerous writings
the experience which serves to guide and edited them for publication.
man’s conscious actions.
 He stated that consciousness is a Mead’ Social Self:
process that includes sensing as well as  Social Behaviorism is the approach
interpreting/reasoning. that George Mead used to describe the
 Man cannot separate himself from his power of environment in shaping
perception of the world. human behavior.
 The world is a field of perception and  He described the self as a dimension of
human consciousness assigns meaning personality that is made of the
to the world. individual’s self-awareness and self-
 Objects may be seen from various image.
perspectives.  According to Mead, the self cannot be
 Marleau-Ponty has been known as the separated from the society. He
“Philosopher of the Body”. explained through set of stages the
person undergoes development.

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sees/considers other people in the

1. The Preparatory Stage course of his actions. Through the
 Mead believed that a self-did not generalized other, the person
exist at birth. Instead, the self realizes that people in society have
develops over time. Its cultural norms beliefs and values
development is dependent on which are incorporated into each
social interaction and social self.
experience.
 At this stage, children’s behavior is Mead’s Theory of the Self:
based on imitation.  Based on the stages, Mead presented
2. The Play Stage his theory of the self.
 At this stage, skills at knowing and  “The self is not present at birth but
understanding the symbols of begins as a central character in a
communication is important for child’s world. Children see themselves
this constitutes the basis for as the center of the universe and is
socialization. having a difficulty in understanding
 The children starts to see to role others. As these children grow and
play and pretend to be other mature, there is a change in the self.
people. They begin to see other people and is
 The play stage is significant in the now concerned about people’s
development of the self. It is at reaction.”
this stage where the child widen
his perspective and realizes that The I and Me:
he is not alone and that there are  George Mead explained that the
others around him whose person’s capacity to see the self
presence he has to consider. through others implies that the self if
3. The Game Stage composed of two parts, the I and the
 Mead gave a specific age for this Me self.
stage. Here are the child is about 1. I self – when a person initiates or
eight or nine years of age and now performs a social action, the self-
does more than just role take. functions as a subject.
 The child begins to consider 2. Me self – when a person takes
several tasks and various the role of the other, the self-
relationship simultaneously. functions as an object.
 Through the learnings that were  It should be remembered that the
gained is stage two, the child now formation of the self is not the end of
begins to see not only his own the process of socialization.
perspective but at the same time  Socialization continues for as long as
the perspective of others around the person is alive. The self may
him. change based on life circumstances
 Mead used the term “generalized that have strong impact on it.
other” to explain the behavior of
the person when he

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Charles Horton Cooley order to create preferred appearances

 Was an American sociologist who and satisfy particular people, often
made use of sociopsychological called as Impression Management.
approach to understanding how  In Goffman’s observation in people, he
societies work. He earned his sees similarities of real social
doctorate at the University of Michigan interactions to a theatrical
and taught at the same university as a presentation.
sociology professor.  It was also Goffman who used the
 His written work, Human Nature and phrase face-work that is usually
the Social Order, discussed the observed in situations where face-
formation of the self through saving measures are resorted to in
interaction. maintenance of a proper image of the
self in frustrating or embarrassing
Looking-glass Self Theory: situations.
 Cooley stated that people learn who
they are through their social
interaction with other people. LESSON 3: The Self from the Perspective of
 The view of the self if also significantly Anthropology
influenced by the impression and
perception of others. What is Anthropology?
 Cooley believed that the process of
developing the self has three phases: Anthropology – is a field of the social
1. People imagine how they sciences that focuses on the study of man.
present themselves to others. This does not pertain only to one aspect of
2. People imagine how others man.
evaluate them.
3. People develop some sort of The Fields of Anthropology:
feeling about themselves as a 1. Archaeology – the focus is the past and
result of those impressions. how may it have contributed to the
present ways on how people conduct
their daily lives.
Erving Goffman  Archaeological data suggests that in
 Was a Canadian Sociologist known for many places around the world, the
his role in the development of Modern specie, homo sapiens did not
American Sociology. become extinct because of their
 One of his popular works was the ability to think, use tools or learn
“Presentation of the Self in Everyday from experience.
Life.”  These discoveries of archaeologists
made people realize the most
Dramaturgical Approach: important aspect of human nature
 Goffman observed that people in their is survival.
social interactions learned to slant  All around the world, people have
their presentation of themselves in struggled to survive and up to the
present, human behavior, according
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to School of Functionalism, - Is the contention that

continue to adapt in order to culture has a strong impact
survive. on how the individual views
himself.
2. Biological Anthropology – biological  Cultural Diversities
anthropologists focus on how the - Are manifested in different ways
human body adapts to the different and different levels of depth.
earth environments.  Things that need to consider in
 They also do comparative studies on Culture:
human beings both death and the 1. Symbols – are the words,
living and other primates. gestures, pictures or objects
 Human beings at present still share that have a recognized/
the same biological strength and accepted meaning in particular
vulnerabilities. culture.
2. Heroes – are persons from the
3. Linguistics Anthropology – human past or present who have the
survival is primarily linked to their ability characteristics that are
to communicate. important in a culture.
 The brain comes equipped with 3. Rituals – are activities
specialized areas specifically for the participated in by group of
purpose of communication. people for the fulfilment of
 Language identifies as group of desired objectives and are
people. considered to be socially
 Linguistic Anthropologists also essential.
studies how language and modes of  Social
communication change over time.  Religious
 In the contemporary society, other 4. Values – are considered to be
forms of languages have evolved the core of every culture are
which represent the subculture of a unconscious and can neither be
particular group. discussed nor be directly
 Language adapts to the existing observed but can only be
conditions of the society. inferred from the way people
act and react to circumstances
4. Culture Anthropology – culture is and situations.
diverse as a group people’s way of life.
 Cultural Anthropologists are
interested in knowing what makes
one group’s manner of living
particular to that group and forms
an essential part of the member’s
personal and social identity.
 Theory of Cultural Determinism

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